1.welding

Chapter 1

Introduction to Types and Identification of Metal

Topics 1.0.0 Basic Metal Types

2.0.0 Basic Metal Identification

To hear audio, click on the box.

Overview In the Seabees, the Steelworker (SW) rating is recognized as the resident expert on the use of metal. SWs lay airfields, erect towers, assemble pontoon causeways, reinforce concrete, and erect buildings. They also use their expertise to fabricate all types of metal objects, repair metal items, and resurface worn machinery parts.

Steelworkers need to know the two basic types of metal and be able to provide initial identification. While they primarily work with the ferrous metals of iron and steel, they also need to be able to identify and become familiar with the nonferrous metals coming into more use each day.

In the civilian arena, the term Steelworker generally refers to those who make iron and steel in the many steel plants, while the term Ironworker refers to those in the construction industry who fabricate and build with iron and steel.

This chapter will present an introductory explanation of the basic types of metal and provide initial instruction on using simple tests to establish their identity. For a more in-depth presentation about the properties and uses of metal, refer to Steelworker Advanced.

Objectives When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

1. Identify the basic metal types.

2. Describe identification procedures associated with basic metals.

Prerequisites None

This course map shows all of the chapters in Steelworker Basic. The suggested training order begins at the bottom and proceeds up. Skill levels increase as you advance on the course map.

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Introduction to Reinforcing Steel

S T E E L W O R K E R

B A S I C

Introduction to Structural Steel

Pre-Engineered Structures:

Buildings, K-Spans, Towers and Antennas

Rigging

Wire rope

Fiber Line

Layout and Fabrication of Sheet-Metal and Fiberglass Duct

Welding Quality Control

Flux Core Arc Welding-FCAW

Gas-Metal Arc Welding-GMAW

Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding-GTAW

Shielded Metal Arc Welding-SMAW

Plasma Arc Cutting Operations

Soldering, Brazing, Braze Welding, Wearfacing

Gas Welding

Gas Cutting

Introduction to Welding

Basic Heat Treatment

Introduction to Types and Identification of Metal

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Review questions are included at the end of this chapter. Select the answer you choose. If the answer is correct, you will be taken to the next question. If the answer is incorrect, you will be taken to the area in the chapter where the information is for review. When you have completed your review, select anywhere in that area to return to the review question. Try to answer the question again.

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1.0.0 BASIC METAL TYPES Metals can initially be divided into two general classifications, and Steelworkers work with both: ferrous and nonferrous metals.

Ferrous metals are those composed primarily of iron (atomic symbol Fe) and iron alloys.

Nonferrous metals are those composed primarily of some element or elements other than iron, although nonferrous metals or alloys sometimes contain a small amount of iron as an alloying element or as an impurity.

1.1.0 Ferrous Metals Ferrous metals include all forms of iron and iron-base alloys, with small percentages of carbon (steel, for example), and/or other elements added to achieve desirable properties. Wrought iron, cast iron, carbon steels, alloy steels, and tool steels are just a few examples. Ferrous metals are typically magnetic.

1.1.1 Iron

Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red. Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is one of the main raw materials used to make steel. Ninety-eight percent of the mined iron ore is used to make steel.

Iron is produced by converting iron ore to pig iron using a blast furnace. Pig iron is the intermediate product of smelting iron ore with coke, usually with limestone as a flux. Pig iron has very high carbon content, typically 3.54.5%, which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as a material except for limited applications.

From pig iron, many other types of iron and steel are produced by the addition or deletion of carbon and alloys. The following briefly presents different types of iron and steel made from iron. Steelworker Advanced will present additional information about their properties.

Pig Iron comparatively weak and brittle with limited use. Approximately ninety percent is used to produce steel, although cast-iron pipe and some fittings and valves are manufactured from pig iron.

Wrought Iron made from pig iron with some slag mixed in during manufacture, it is almost pure iron. Wrought iron usage diminished with the increasing availability of mild steel in the late 19th century. Some items traditionally produced from wrought iron included rivets, nails, chains, railway couplings, water and steam pipes, nuts, bolts, handrails, and ornamental ironworks. Many products still described as wrought iron, such as guardrails and gates, are made of mild steel.

Cast Iron any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy. It tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. Cast irons have a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and automotive industry parts such as cylinder heads, cylinder blocks, and gearbox cases. A malleable cast iron is produced through a prolonged annealing process.

Ingot Iron a commercially pure iron (99.85% iron). It is easily formed, with properties practically the same as the lowest carbon steel. In iron, the carbon content is considered an impurity; in steel, the carbon content is considered an

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alloying element. The primary use for ingot iron is for galvanized and enameled sheet.

1.1.2 Steel

Of all the different metals and materials that Steelworkers use, steel and steel alloys are by far the most used and therefore the most important to study.

The development of the economical Bessemer process for manufacturing steel revolutionized the American iron industry. Figure 1-1 shows the container vessel used for the process.

With economical steel came skyscrapers, stronger and longer bridges, and railroad tracks that did not collapse.

Steel is manufactured from pig iron by decreasing the amount of carbon and other impurities and adding specific and controlled amounts of alloying elements during the molten stage to produce the desired composition.

Figure 1-1 Example of a Bessemer Converter.

The composition of a particular steel is determined by its application and the specifications developed by the following:

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

Carbon steel is a term applied to a broad range of steel that falls between the commercially pure ingot iron and the cast irons. This range of carbon steel may be classified into four groups:

Low-Carbon Steel tough and ductile, easily machined, formed, and welded, but does not respond to any form of heat-treating except case hardening.

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Medium-Carbon Steel strong and hard but cannot be welded or worked as easily as the low-carbon steels. They are used for crane hooks, axels, shafts, setscrews and so on.

High-Carbon Steel responds well to heat treatment and can be welded with special electrodes, but the process must include preheating and stress-relieving procedures to prevent cracks in the weld areas.

Very High-Carbon Steel similar to high-carbon, it responds well to heat treatment and can be welded with special electrodes, but the process must include preheating and stress-relieving procedures to prevent cracks in the weld areas. Both steels are used for dies, cutting tools, mill tools, railroad car wheels, chisels, knives, and so on.

High-strength steels are covered by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specifications.

Low-Alloy, High-Strength, Tempered Structural Steel special low carbon steel that contains specific, small amounts of alloying elements. Structural members made from these high-strength steels may have smaller cross-sectional areas than common structural steels and still have equal or greater strength. This type of steel is much tougher than low-carbon steels, so the shearing machines must have twice the capacity required for low-carbon steels.

Stainless steels are classified by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and classified into two general series:

Stainless Steel 200-300 series known as Austenitic [aw-stuh-nit-ik]. This type of steel is very tough and ductile in the as-welded condition; therefore, it is ideal for welding and requires no annealing under normal atmospheric conditions. The most widely used are the normally nonmagnetic chromium nickel steels.

Stainless Steel 400 series further subdivided according to their crystalline structure into two general groups:

o Ferritic [fer-rit-ik]. Chromium non-hardenable by heat treatment and normally used in the annealed or soft condition, they are magnetic and frequently used for decorative trim and equipment subjected to high pressures and temperatures.

o Martensitic [mahr-tn-zit-ik] Chromium readily hardened by heat treatment, they are magnetic and used where high strength, corrosion resistance, and ductility are required.

Alloy steels derive their properties primarily from the presence of some alloying element other than carbon, but alloy steels always contain traces of other elements as well. One or more of these elements may be added to the steel during the manufacturing process to produce the desired characteristics.

Alloy steels may be produced in structural sections, sheets, plates, and bars for use in the as-rolled condition, and these steels can obtain better physical properties than are possible with hot-rolled carbon steels.

These alloys are used in structures where the strength of material is especially important, for example in bridge members, railroad cars, dump bodies, dozer blades, and crane booms. The following list describes some of the common alloy steels:

Nickel Steels used in the manufacture of aircraft parts such as propellers and airframe support members.

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Chromium Steels used for the races and balls in antifriction bearings; highly resistant to corrosion and to scale.

Chrome Vanadium Steel used for crankshafts, gears, axles, and other items that require high strength; also used in the manufacture of high-quality hand tools such as wrenches and sockets.

Tungsten Steel expensive to produce, its use is largely restricted to the manufacture of drills, lathe tools, milling cutters, and similar cutting tools.

Molybdenum used in place of tungsten to make the cheaper grades of high-speed steel and in carbon molybdenum high-pressure tubing.

Manganese Steels use depends upon the properties desired:

o Small amounts produce strong, free-machining steels. o Larger amounts produce a somewhat brittle steel. o Still larger amounts produce a steel that is tough and very resistant to

wear after proper heat treatment.

1.2.0 Nonferrous Metals Nonferrous metals contain either no iron or only insignificant amounts used as an alloy, and are nonmagnetic. The following list will introduce you to some of the common nonferrous metals that SWs may encounter and/or work with. Additional information about their properties and usage is available in Steelworker Advanced.

Copper one of the most popular commercial metals; used with many alloys; frequently used to give a protective coating to sheets and rods and to make ball floats, containers, and soldering coppers.

True Brass an alloy of copper and zinc, sometimes with additional alloys for specific properties; sheets and strips are available in several grades.

Bronze a combination of 84% copper and 16% tin, and the best metal available before steel-making techniques were developed; the name bronze is currently applied to any copper-based alloy that looks like bronze.

Copper-Nickel Alloys nickel adds resistance to wear and corrosion; some alloys used for saltwater piping systems; other sheet forms used to construct small storage tanks and hot-water reservoirs.

Lead a heavy metal, but soft and malleable; surface is grayish in color, but after scratching or scraping it, the actual color of the metal appears white.

CAUTION When working with lead, take proper precautions! Lead dust, fumes, or vapors are highly poisonous!

Zinc used on iron or steel in the form of a protective coating called galvanizing.

Tin used as an important alloy adding resistance to corrosion.

Aluminum easy to work with; good appearance; light in weight; needs alloys added to increase strength.

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Duralumin one of the first strong structural aluminum alloys; now classified in the metal working industries as 2017-T; T indicates heat-treated.

Alclad a protective covering of a thin sheet of pure aluminum rolled onto the surface of an aluminum alloy during manufacture.

Monel an alloy in which nickel is the major element; harder and stronger than either nickel or copper; acceptable substitute for steel in systems where corrosion resistance is the primary concern

K-Monel developed for greater strength and hardness than Monel; comparable to heat-treated steel; used for instrument parts that must resist corrosion.

Inconel provides good resistance to corrosion and retains its strength at high-operating temperatures; often used in the exhaust systems of aircraft engines.

2.0.0 BASIC METAL IDENTIFICATION When you are selecting a metal to use in fabrication, to perform a mechanical repair, or even to determine if the metal is weldable, you must be able to identify its basic type.

A number of field identification methods can be used to identify a piece of metal. Some common methods are surface appearance, spark test, chip test, magnet test, and occasionally a hardness test.

2.1.0 Surface Appearance Sometimes you can identify a metal simply by its surface appearance. Table 1-1 indicates the surface colors of some of the more common metals.

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Table 1-1 Surface Appearance of Some Common Metals

Metal Color Color and Structure

Unfinished, unbroken surface Freshly filed surface Newly fractured surface

Aluminum Light gray White White: finely crystalline

Brass and Bronze Reddish-yellow, yellow-green, or brown

Reddish-yellow to yellowish-white

Red to yellow

Copper Reddish-brown to green Bright copper color Bright red

Iron, Cast-gray Dull gray Light silvery gray Dark gray: crystalline

Iron, Cast-white Dull gray Silvery white Silvery white: crystalline

Iron, Malleable Dull gray Light silvery gray Dark gray: finely crystalline

Iron, Wrought Light gray Light silvery gray Bright gray

Lead White to gray White Light gray: crystalline

Monel metals Dark gray Light gray Light gray

Nickel Dark gray Bright silvery white Off-white

Steel, Cast and Steel, Low-carbon

Dark gray Bright silvery gray Bright gray

Steel, High-carbon Dark gray Bright silvery gray Light gray

Steel, Stainless Dark gray Bright silvery gray Medium gray

As you can see by studying the table, a metals surface appearance can help you identify it, and if you are unsure, you can obtain further information by studying a fresh filing or a fresh fracture. If a surface examination does not provide you with enough information for a positive identification, it should give you enough information to place the metal into a class.

In addition to the color of the metal, distinctive marks left from manufacturing also help in determining the identity of the metal.

Cast iron and malleable iron usually show evidence of the sand mold.

Low-carbon steel often shows forging marks.

High-carbon steel shows either forging or rolling marks.

Inspecting the surface texture by feel may also provide another clue to its identity.

Stainless steel, in the unfinished state, is slightly rough.

Wrought iron, copper, brass, bronze, nickel, and Monel are smooth.

Lead is smooth but has a velvety appearance.

When visual clues from surface appearance, filings, fractures, manufacturing marks, or textural clues from the feel of the surfaces do not give enough information to allow positive identification, other tests become necessary.

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Some are complicated and require equipment Seabees do not usually have. However, the following are a few additional simple tests, which are reliable when done by a skilled person: spark test, chip test, magnetic tests, hardness test.

2.2.0 Spark Test You perform the spark test by holding a sample of the unidentified material against an abrasive wheel and visually inspecting the spark stream. This test is fast, economical, convenient, easily accomplished, and requires no special equipment.

As you become a more experienced Steelworker, you will be able to identify the sample metals with considerable accuracy. You can use this test to identify scrap-salvaged metal, which is particularly important when you are selecting material for cast iron or cast steel heat treatment.

When you hold a piece of iron or steel (ferrous metals) in contact with a high-speed abrasive wheel, small particles of the metal are torn loose so rapidly that they become red-hot. These small particles of metal fly away from the wheel, and glow as they follow a trajectory path called the carrier line, which is easily followed with the eye, especially when observed against a dark background.

The sparks (or lack of sparks) given off can help you identify the metal. Features you should look for include:

length of the spark stream

form of the sparks

color(s) of the sparks

Refer to Figure 1-2 through Figure 1-8 for illustrations of the various terms used in referring to the basic spark forms produced during spark testing.

Figure 1-3 Example of spark

testing term-SHAFT.

Figure 1-4 Example of

spark testing term-FORK.

Figure 1-2 Example of spark testing term-

STREAM.

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Steels that have the same carbon content but include different alloying elements are difficult to identify; the alloys have an effect on the carrier lines, the bursts themselves, or the forms of the characteristic bursts in the spark picture.

The alloying element may slow or accelerate the carbon spark, or make the carrier line lighter or darker in color. For example:

Molybdenum appears as a detached, orange-colored spearhead on the end of the carrier line.

Nickel appears to suppress the effect of the carbon burst; however, you can identify the nickel spark by tiny blocks of brilliant white light.

Silicon suppresses the carbon burst even more than nickel; the carrier line usually ends abruptly in a white flash of light.

You can perform spark testing with either a portable or a stationary grinder, but in either case, the outer rim speed of the wheel should be not less than 4,500 feet per minute with a clean, very hard, rather coarse abrasive wheel. Each point is necessary to produce a true spark

When you conduct a spark test, hold the metal on the abrasive wheel in a position that will allow the carrier line to cross your line of vision. By trial and error, you will soon find what pressure you need in order to get a stream of the proper length without reducing the speed of the grinder. In addition to reducing the grinders speed, excessive pressure

Figure 1-8 Example of spark testing term-BUD BREAK ARROW.


testing term-SPRIGS.


testing term-DASHES.


testing term-APPENDAGES.


against the wheel can increase the temperature of the spark stream, which in turn increases the temperature of the burst and gives the appearance of a higher carbon content than actually is present.

Use the following technique when making the test:

Watch a point about one third of the distance from the tail end of the spark stream.

Watch only those sparks that cross your line of vision and try to form a mental image of the individual spark.

Fix this spark image in your mind and then examine the whole spark picture.

An abrasive wheel on a grinder traveling at high speed requires respect, and you need to review some of the safety precautions associated with this tool (Figure 1-9).

Never use a cracked or out of balance wheel.

o Vibration can cause the wheel to shatter, and when an abrasive wheel shatters, it can be disastrous for personnel standing in line with the wheel.

Always check the wheel for secure mounting and cracks before using.

When you install a new wheel on a grinder, be sure it is the correct size and designated RPM.

o As you increase a wheels radius, the peripheral speed at the rim increases even though the rpms remain the same. Thus, if you use an oversized wheel, there is a distinct danger the peripheral speed can become so great that the consequent centrifugal force can cause the wheel to fly apart. Guards are placed on grinders as protection in case a wheel should shatter, but they cannot provide total protection.

Never use a grinder when the guards have been removed.

o When you turn the grinder on, stand to one side; this places you out of line with the wheels centrifugal force in case the wheel should burst.

Never overload a grinder or put sideways pressure against the wheel unless it is expressly built to withstand such use.

Always wear appropriate safety goggles or a face shield while using the grinder.

Ensure the work rest is adjusted to the minimum clearance for the wheel, and move the work across the entire face of the wheel.

o This helps eliminate grooving and minimizes the need for wheel dressing, thus prolonging the life of the wheel.

Figure 1-9 Example of a grinders OSHA-designated safety points.


Keep your fingers clear of the abrasive surface, and do not allow rags or clothing to become entangled in the wheel.

Do not wear gloves while using an abrasive wheel.

Never hold metal with tongs while grinding.

Never grind nonferrous metals on a wheel intended for ferrous metals.

o Misuse can clog the pores of the abrasive material with metal buildup, which in turn can cause the wheel to become unbalanced and fly apart.

Grinding wheels require frequent reconditioning.

Dressing is the term you use to describe the cleaning of the working face of an abrasive wheel.

Proper dressing breaks away dull abrasive grains, smoothes the surface, and removes grooves.

The wheel dresser shown in Figure 1-10 is used for dressing grinding wheels on bench and pedestal grinders.

Figure 1-10 Typical wheel dresser.

Refer now to Figure 1-11 through Figure 1-16 for examples of spark testing results for specific identified material.


Low-carbon steel

Spark stream is white.

Spark stream is about 70 inches long.

Volume is moderately large.

A few sparklers may occur at any place and are forked.

Figure 1-11 Example of low-carbon and cast steel spark stream.

High-carbon steel

Spark stream is white.


Volume is larger than low-carbon steel.

Sparklers are small and repeating.

Figure 1-12 Example of high-carbon spark stream.


Gray cast iron

Spark stream near the wheel is red.

Spark stream in the outer portion is straw colored.


Volume is rather small.

Sparklers are small and repeating.

Figure 1-13 Example of gray cast iron spark stream.

Monel and Nickel

Spark stream is orange.

Spark stream forms short wavy streaks.

Volume is small.

There are no sparklers.

Because of their similar spark pictures, you must use some other method to distinguish monel from nickel.

Figure 1-14 Example of monel and nickel spark streams.


Stainless steel

Spark stream next to the wheel is straw colored.

Spark stream at the end is white.


Volume is moderate with few sparklers.

Sparklers are forked.

Figure 1-15 Example of stainless steel spark stream.

Wrought iron

Spark stream next to the wheel is straw colored.

Spark stream at the end is brighter red.


Volume is large with few sparklers.

Sparklers are forked near the end of the stream.

Figure 1-16 Example of wrought iron spark stream.

One way to become proficient in identifying ferrous metals by spark testing is to practice by testing yourself in the blind. Gather an assortment of known metals for testing. Make individual samples so similar that size and shape will not reveal their identities. Number each sample and prepare a master list of correct names with corresponding numbers.

Then, without looking at the number on the sample, spark test it and call out its name to someone assigned to check your identification against the names and numbers on the list. Repeating this self-testing practice will give you some of the experience you need to become proficient in identifying individual samples.


2.3.0 Chip Test Another simple field test you can use to identify an unknown piece of metal is the chip test. You perform the chip test by removing a small amount of material from the test piece with a sharp, cold chisel. The material you remove can vary from small, broken fragments to a continuous strip. The chip may have smooth, sharp edges, may be coarse-grained or fine-grained, or may have saw-like edges.

The size of the chip is important in identifying the metal, as well as the ease with which you can accomplish the chipping. Refer to Table 1-2 for information to help you identify various metals by the chip test.

Table 1-2 Metal Identification by Chip Test

Metal Chip Characteristics

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

Smooth with saw tooth edges. A chip can be cut as a continuous strip.

Brass and Bronze Smooth with saw tooth edges. These metals are easily cut, but chips are more brittle than chips of copper. Continuous strip is not easily cut.

Copper Smooth with saw tooth edges where cut. Metal is easily cut as a continuous strip.

Iron, Cast-white Small brittle fragments. Chipped surfaces are not smooth.

Iron, Cast-gray About 1/8 inch in length. Metal is not easily chipped; therefore, chips break off and prevent smooth cut.

Iron, Malleable Vary from 1/4 to 3/8 inch in length (larger than chips from cast iron). Metal is tough and hard to chip.

Iron, Wrought Smooth edges. Metal is easily cut or chipped, and a chip can be made as a continuous strip.

Lead Any shape may be obtained because the metal is so soft that it can be cut with a knife.

Monel Smooth edges. Continuous strips can be cut. Metal chips easily.

Nickel Smooth edges. Continuous strips can be cut. Metal chips easily.

Steel, Cast and Steel, Low-carbon

Smooth edges. Metal is easily cut or chipped, and a chip can be taken off as a continuous strip.

Steel, High-carbon Show a fine-grain structure. Edges of chips are lighter in color than chips of low-carbon steel. Metal is hard, but can be chipped in a continuous strip.

2.4.0 Magnetic Test A magnet test is another method you can use to aid in a metals general identification. Remember: ferrous metals are iron-based alloys and normally magnetic; nonferrous metals are nonmagnetic. This test is not 100 percent accurate because some stainless steels are nonmagnetic, but it can aid in the first differentiation of most metals. When dealing with stainless steel, there is no substitute for experience.

2.5.0 Hardness Test Hardness is the property of a material to resist permanent indentation. One simple way to check for hardness in a piece of metal is to file a small portion of it. If it is soft enough to be machined with regular tooling, the file will cut it. If it is too hard to machine, the file


will not cut it. This method will indicate whether the material being tested is softer or harder than the file, but it will not tell exactly how soft or hard it is.

The file can also be used to determine the harder of two pieces of metal; the file will cut the softer metal faster and easier. The file method should be used only in situations when the exact hardness is not required. This test has the added advantage of needing very little in the way of time, equipment, and experience.

Because there are several methods of measuring exact hardness, the hardness of a material is always specified in terms of the particular test used to measure this property. Rockwell, Vickers, or Brinell are some of the methods of testing.

Of these tests, Rockwell is the one most frequently used, and requires a Rockwell hardness testing machine. The basic principle used in the Rockwell test is that a hard material can penetrate a softer one, and the amount of penetration is measured and compared to a scale.

For ferrous metals, usually harder than nonferrous metals, a diamond tip is used for depth penetration measurement and the hardness is indicated by a Rockwell C number. On nonferrous metals, which are softer, a metal ball is used for surface indentation measurement and the hardness is indicated by a Rockwell B number.

Consider lead and steel for an idea of the property of hardness. Lead can be scratched with a pointed wooden stick, but steel cannot because it is harder than lead.

You can get a more complete explanation of the various methods used to determine the hardness of a material from commercial books or books located in your base library.

Summary This chapter has introduced you to the basics of the different types of metals and the simple field and shop methods you can use to identify them. From here, you can begin to build on your experiences to become a seasoned Steelworker considered a resident expert on metals. Steelworker Advanced will provide additional, in-depth information about metal properties in their varied compositions and alloys, along with a discussion of additional uses.


Review Questions (Select the Correct Response)1. What term is used to describe the equivalent of the Steelworker rating in civilian

construction?

A. Steel erector B. Iron placer C. Steel fabricator D. Ironworker

2. A material must be primarily composed of _____ to be considered a ferrous

metal.

A. steel B. iron C. nickel D. copper

3. Ferrous metals are typically _____.

A. magnetic B. nonmagnetic C. copper colored D. alloy-free

4. Which type of iron is one of the main raw materials used to make steel?

A. Ingot B. Cast C. Pig D. Wrought

5. What characteristic of pig iron limits its use?

A. It is comparatively weak and brittle. B. It is difficult to remelt. C. It cannot be combined with other metals. D. It is used exclusively for manufacturing cast-iron pipe.

6. What material do Steelworkers use the most?

A. Steel B. Cast iron C. Copper D. Wrought iron


7. Cast iron is any iron containing greater than _____ alloy.

A. .5% B. 1% C. 1.5% D. 2%

8. What process is used to produce malleability in cast iron?

A. Remelting B. Annealing C. Plating D. Alloying

9. What group of steel is best suited for the manufacture of crane hooks and axles?

A. High carbon B. Medium carbon C. Mild carbon D. Low carbon

10. What groups specifications cover high-strength steels?

A. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) B. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

C. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) D. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

11. What groups specifications cover stainless steels?

A. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) B. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) C. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) D. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)

12. What stainless steel is normally nonmagnetic?

A. Martensitic-chromium of the 300 series B. Austenitic chromium-nickel of the 300 series C. Ferritic-austenite of the 400 series D. Ferritic-chromium of the 400 series

13. What common alloy steel is used to make high-quality hand tools?

A. Nickel steel B. Chromium steel C. Chrome Vanadium steel D. Tungsten steel


14. Which of the following metals is nonferrous?

A. Cast iron B. Carbon steel C. Aluminum D. Pig iron

15. What combination of elements in proper proportion make bronze?

A. Copper-Zinc B. Copper-Lead C. Copper-Aluminum D. Copper-Tin

16. What action does the letter T signify when used in conjunction with a numbering

system that classifies different aluminum alloys?

A. The metal has been heat-treated. B. The alloying elements have been tempered. C. The major alloying element has been tested. D. The metal has been covered with a tungsten-rolled cover.

17. What manufacturing marks can you look for when a metals color does not

provide positive identification?

A. Evidence of a sand mold B. Forging marks C. Rolling marks D. All of the above

18. When applying the spark test to a metal, you notice the spark stream has white

shafts and forks only. What does this condition indicate about the metal under test?

A. It is a high-carbon steel. B. It is a low-carbon steel. C. It is a nickel alloy. D. It is a molybdenum alloy.

19. What metal produces a spark stream about 25 inches long with small and

repeating sparklers of small volume that are initially red in color?

A. Nickel B. Stainless steel C. Grey cast iron D. Monel metal


20. Which of the following metals produces the shortest length spark stream?

A. High-carbon steel B. Low-carbon steel C. White cast iron D. Nickel

21. You perform the chip test by removing a small amount of material from the test

piece with a _____.

A. sharp, cold chisel B. drill press with inch bit C. hack saw D. cut-off saw

22. (True or False) You can depend on a magnetic test for 100% accuracy to

determine a ferrous metal.

A. True B. False


Trade Terms Introduced in this Chapter Annealing Subjecting (glass or metal) to a process of heating and

slow cooling in order to toughen and reduce brittleness.

Austenitic Consisting mainly of austenite, which is a nonmagnetic solid solution of ferric carbide, or carbon in iron used in making corrosion-resistant steel.

Bessemer process Named for Sir Henry Bessemer, an industrial process for the manufacture of steel from molten pig iron. The principle involved is that of oxidation of the impurities in the iron by the oxygen of air that is blown through the molten iron; the heat of oxidation raises the temperature of the mass and keeps it molten during operation.

Ferritic Consisting of the pure iron constituent of ferrous metals, as distinguished from the iron carbides.

Ferrous An adjective used to indicate the presence of iron. The word is derived from the Latin word ferrum ("iron"). Ferrous metals include steel and pig iron (with a carbon content of a few percent) and alloys of iron with other metals (such as stainless steel).

Ingot A material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing. Ingots require a second procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting or milling to produce a useful final product.

Malleable Capable of great deformation without breaking, when subject to compressive stress.

Martensitic Consisting of a solid solution of iron and up to one percent of carbon, the chief constituent of hardened carbon tool steels.

Nonferrous The term used to indicate metals other than iron and alloys that do not contain an appreciable amount of iron.


Additional Resources and References This chapter is intended to present thorough resources for task training. The following reference works are suggested for further study. This is optional material for continued education rather than for task training.

Althouse, Andrew D., Carl H. Turnquist, and William A. Bowditch, Modern Welding, Goodheart-Wilcox Co. Inc., 1970.

Giachino and Weeks, Welding Skills, American Technical Publishers Inc., 1985. Welding Theory and Application, TM 9-237, Department of the Army Technical Manual, Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington D.C., 1976.


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SW Basic Full Volume.pdfInstruction PageSW Basic CoverSW Basic CopyrightSW B Table of ContentsSW Basic Ch 1 Introduction to Types and Identification of MetalChapter 1Introduction to Types and Identification of MetalTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 BASIC METAL TYPES1.1.0 Ferrous Metals1.1.1 Iron1.1.2 Steel

1.2.0 Nonferrous Metals

2.0.0 BASIC METAL IDENTIFICATION2.1.0 Surface Appearance2.2.0 Spark Test2.3.0 Chip Test2.4.0 Magnetic Test2.5.0 Hardness Test

SummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in this ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 2 Basic Heat TreatmentChapter 2Basic Heat TreatmentTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 HEAT TREATMENT THEORY2.0.0 STAGES of HEAT TREATMENT2.1.0 Heating Stage2.2.0 Soaking Stage2.3.0 Cooling Stage

3.0.0 RECOGNIZING HEAT COLORS for STEEL4.0.0 TYPES of HEAT TREATMENT4.1.0 Annealing4.1.1 Ferrous Metal4.1.2 Nonferrous Metal

4.2.0 Normalizing4.3.0 Hardening4.3.1 Case Hardening4.3.1.1 Carburizing4.3.1.2 Cyaniding4.3.1.3 Nitriding4.3.2 Flame Hardening

4.4.0 Tempering

5.0.0 QUENCHING MEDIA5.1.0 Liquid Quenching5.1.1 Water5.1.2 Brine5.1.3 Oil5.1.4 Caustic Soda

5.2.0 Dry Quenching5.2.1 Air5.2.2 Solids


SW Basic Ch 3 Introduction to WeldingChapter 3Introduction to WeldingTopicsOverviewObjectivesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 WELDING PROCESSES1.1.0 Gas Welding1.1.1 OXYFUEL GAS Welding (OFW) ACETYLENE1.1.2 OXYFUEL GAS Welding (OFW) MAPPGAS

1.2.0 Arc Welding1.2.1 Common Arc Welding Processes1.2.1.1 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)1.2.1.2 Gas Shielded Arc Welding1.2.1.2.1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)1.2.1.2.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) 1.2.1.2.3 Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) 1.2.1.3 Resistance Spot Welding

2.0.0 WELDING TERMINOLOGY2.1.0 Filler Metals2.2.0 Fluxes2.3.0 Weld Joints2.4.0 Parts of Joints2.5.0 Types of Welds2.6.0 Parts of Welds

3.0.0 WELDED JOINT DESIGN3.1.0 Butt Joints3.2.0 Corner Joints3.3.0 Tee Joints3.4.0 Lap Joints3.5.0 Edge Joints

4.0.0 WELDING POSITIONS 5.0.0 EXPANSION and CONTRACTION5.1.0 Controlling Distortion5.1.1 Preparation and Fit-up5.1.2 Heat Input5.1.3 Preheat5.1.4 Number of Weld Passes5.1.5 Jigs and Fixtures5.1.6 Allow for Distortion

6.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURES6.1.0 American Welding Society6.2.0 American Society of Mechanical Engineers

7.0.0 DRAWINGS7.1.0 Reading Drawings7.1.1 Lines

7.1.2 Dimensions7.1.3 Notes7.1.4 Views7.1.5 Handling and Care

7.2.0 Welding Symbol7.2.1 Type of Weld (Weld Symbols)7.2.2 Dimensioning7.2.3 Supplementary7.2.4 Additional Information7.2.5 Multiple-Weld7.2.6 Application of Symbol

8.0.0 SAFETY8.1.0 Eye Protection8.2.0 Welding Helmet8.3.0 Protective Clothing8.4.0 Area Awareness

SummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in this ChapterCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 4 Gas CuttingChapter 4Gas CuttingTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 OXYGAS CUTTING EQUIPMENT1.1.0 Acetylene1.1.1 Hazards1.1.2 Cylinder Design

1.2.0 MAPP Gas1.2.1 Cylinder Design1.2.2 MAPP Characteristics1.2.3 Bulk MAPP Gas1.2.4 MAPP Gas Safety

1.3.0 Oxygen1.4.0 Regulators1.4.1 Single-Stage Regulators1.4.2 Double-Stage Regulators1.4.3 Problems and Safety

1.5.0 Hoses1.6.0 Cutting Torches1.6.1 Torch Body1.6.2 Cutting Torch Tips1.6.2.1 Acetylene Tip Maintenance1.6.2.2 MAPP Tip Maintenance

2.0.0 OXYGAS CUTTING OPERATIONS2.1.0 Equipment Setup2.1.1 Carburizing Flame2.1.2 Neutral Flame2.1.3 Oxidizing Flame

2.2.0 Cutting Mild-Carbon Steel2.2.1 Cutting Thin Steel2.2.2 Cutting Thick Steel

2.3.0 Cutting Cast Iron2.4.0 Gouging Mild Steel2.5.0 Beveling Mild Steel2.6.0 Electric Drive Cutting Torch Carriage2.7.0 Cutting and Beveling Pipe2.8.0 Piercing Holes2.9 0 Cutting Rivets2.10.0 Cutting Wire Rope2.11.0 Cutting on Containers

3.0.0 JUDGING CUTTING QUALITY3.1.0 Drag Lines3.2.0 Side Smoothness3.3.0 Top Edge Sharpness3.4.0 Slag Conditions

4.0.0 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS4.1.0 Backfire and Flashback4.2.0 Cylinders4.2.1 Identification of Cylinders4.2.1.1 Color Warnings4.2.1.2 Cylinder Color Bands4.2.1.3 Decals4.2.1.4 Shatterproof Cylinders4.2.1.5 Service Ownership4.2.2 Handling and Storing Gas Cylinders


SW Basic Ch 5 Gas WeldingChapter 5Gas WeldingTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 OXYGAS WELDING EQUIPMENT1.1.0 Welding Torches1.2.0 Filler Rods

2.0.0 OPERATION and MAINTENANCE of OXYGAS EQUIPMENT2.1.0 Operation 2.1.1 Selecting the Welding Torch Tip Size2.1.2 Equipment Setup2.1.3 Torch Lighting and Flame Adjustment

2.2.0 Maintaining the Equipment2.2.1 Torch Gas Leaks2.2.2 Welding Torch Tips2.2.3 Regulator Leaks

3.0.0 OXYGAS WELDING TECHNIQUES3.1.0 Forehand Welding3.2.0 Backhand Welding3.3.0 Multilayer Welding3.4.0 Joint Edge Preparation3.5.0 Ferrous Metals3.6.0 Nonferrous Metals3.6.1 Copper3.6.2 Copper-Zinc Alloy (Brasses)3.6.3 Copper-Silicon Alloy (Silicon Bronze)3.6.4 Copper-Nickel Alloy3.6.5 Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys3.6.6 Lead3.6.7 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys3.6.7.1 Melting Characteristics3.6.7.2 WELDING RODS3.6.7.3 Welding Fluxes3.6.7.4 Welding Preparation3.6.7.5 Welding Techniques

3.7.0 Welding Pipe

SummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in This ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 6 Soldering, Brazing, Braze Welding, WearfacingChapter 6Soldering, Brazing, Braze Welding, WearfacingTopicsOverviewObjectivesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 SOLDERING1.1.0 Equipment1.1.1 Sources of Heat1.1.1.1 Soldering Coppers1.1.1.1.1 Filing and Tinning Coppers1.1.1.1.2 Forging Soldering Coppers1.1.1.2 Electric Soldering Coppers1.1.1.3 Gas Torches1.1.2 Soft Solder1.1.2.1 Tin-Lead Solder1.1.2.2 Tin-Antimony-Lead Solder 1.1.2.3 Tin-Zinc Solder1.1.2.4 Tin-Antimony Solder1.1.2.5 Tin-Silver Solder1.1.2.6 Lead-Silver Solder1.1.3 Fluxes1.1.3.1 Noncorrosive Fluxes1.1.3.2 Corrosive Fluxes

1.2.0 Soldering Techniques1.2.1 Sweat Soldering1.2.2 Seam Soldering

1.3.0 Soldering Aluminum Alloys

2.0.0 BRAZING2.1.0 Equipment2.1.1 Heating Devices2.1.2 Filler Metals2.1.3 Fluxes

2.2.0 Joint Design2.2.1 Lap Joints2.2.2 Butt Joints2.2.3 Scarf Joints

2.3.0 Brazing Procedures2.3.1 Surface Preparation2.3.2 Work Support2.3.3 Fluxing2.3.4 Brazing2.3.5 Silver Brazing

3.0.0 BRAZE WELDING 3.1.0 EQUIPMENT3.1.1 Filler Metal3.1.2 Flux

3.2.0 Braze Welding Procedures

4.0.0 WEARFACING4.1.0 Wearfacing Materials4.1.1 Iron-Base Alloys4.1.2 Tungsten Carbide

4.2.0 Wearfacing Procedures4.2.1 Preheating4.2.2 Application


SW Basic Ch 7 Plasma Arc Cutting OperationsChapter 7Plasma Arc Cutting OperationsTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 PLASMA ARC CUTTING PROCESS 1.1.0 Description 1.2.0 Plasma vs. Oxy-Fuel Cutting

2.0.0 EQUIPMENT and CONSUMABLES 2.1.0 Equipment Requirements 2.1.1 Power Source 2.1.2 Rated Cutting Capacity 2.1.3 Cutting Speed

2.2.0 Consumables 2.2.1 Swirl Ring2.2.2 Electrode2.2.3 Tip 2.2.4 Retaining Cup2.2.5 Shields2.2.6 Consumables Used During Extended Cutting vs. Drag Cutting 2.2.7 Consumable Tips for Different Amperages 2.2.8 Replacing Consumables 2.2.9 Cutting Gases

2.3.0 Improving Consumable life

3.0.0 CUTTING and GOUGING OPERATING SEQUENCE 3.1.0 High Frequency Starts3.2.0 Contact Starts3.3.0 Pilot Arc Control Methods 3.4.0 Starting the Cut

4.0.0 PLASMA ARC GOUGING 5.0.0 QUALITIES of a PLASMA CUT 5.1.0 Kerf 5.2.0 Bevel Angle5.3.0 Drag Line5.4.0 Top Rounding5.5.0 Dross5.6.0 Six Steps to Good Cut Quality

6.0.0 SAFETY PROCEDURESSummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in this ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 8 Shielded Metal Arc WeldingChapter 8Shielded Metal Arc WeldingTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 INTRODUCTION to the PROCESS 1.1.0 Methods of Application 1.2.0 Advantages and Limitations

2.0.0 PRINCIPLES of OPERATION 2.1.0 Arc Systems 2.2.0 Electrical Terms2.3.0 Metal Transfer

3.0.0 EQUIPMENT for WELDING 3.1.0 Power Sources 3.1.1 Types of Current 3.1.2 Power Source Duty Cycle 3.1.3 Types of Power Sources 3.1.3.1 Generator and Alternator Welding Machines 3.1.3.2 Transformer Welding Machines 3.1.3.3 Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines 3.1.3.4 Three Phase Rectifier Welding Machines 3.1.3.5 Multiple Operator System 3.1.3.6 Inverter Power Sources 3.1.4 Selecting a Power Source

3.2.0 Controls 3.3.0 Electrode Holder 3.4.0 Welding Cables 3.5.0 Ground Clamps3.6.0 Accessories 3.7.0 Equipment Operation and Maintenance

4.0.0 COVERED ELECTRODES4.1.0 Classification 4.2.0 Sizing 4.3.0 Selection of Electrode Class 4.3.1 Base Metal Strength Properties4.3.2 Base Metal Composition4.3.3 Welding Position4.3.4 Welding Current4.3.5 Joint Design and Fit-Up4.3.6 Thickness and Shape of Base Metal4.3.7 Service Conditions and/or Specifications4.3.8 Production Efficiency and Job Condition

4.4.0 Selection of Electrode Size 4.5.0 Conformances and Approvals

5.0.0 WELDING APPLICATIONS5.1.0 Industries 5.1.1 Field Welded Storage Tanks 5.1.2 Pressure Vessels 5.1.3 Industrial Piping 5.1.4 Transmission Pipelines 5.1.5 Nuclear Power Plants 5.1.6 Structures 5.1.7 Ships 5.1.8 Transportation 5.1.9 Industrial Machinery 5.1.10 Heavy Equipment 5.1.11 Maintenance and Repair

5.2.0 Variations of the Process 5.3.0 Wearfacing5.3.1 Workpiece Preparation5.3.2 Preheating5.3.3 Techniques5.3.3.1 Bulldozer Blades5.3.3.2 Shovel teeth

5.4.0 Carbon-Arc Cutting5.4.1 Air Carbon-Arc Cutting5.4.2 Air Carbon-Arc Gouging5.4.3 Metal Electrode Arc Cutting

6.0.0 WELDING METALLURGY6.1.0 Properties of the Weld 6.1.1 Chemical Properties 6.1.2 Mechanical Properties 6.1.3 Microstructure

6.2.0 Metals Weldable 6.2.1 Steels 6.2.1.1 Mild Steels 6.2.1.2 Low Alloy Steels 6.2.1.3 Heat Treatable Steels 6.2.1.4 Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 6.2.1.5 Stainless & Higher Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 6.2.1.6 Free Machining Steels 6.2.2 Cast Irons 6.2.2.1 Gray Cast Iron 6.2.2.2 Nodular and Malleable Cast Irons 6.2.3 Copper and Copper Alloys 6.2.4 Nickel and Nickel Alloys

7.0.0 WELD AND JOINT DESIGN7.1.0 Strength 7.2.0 Position 7.3.0 Thickness 7.4.0 Accessibility 7.5.0 Weld Joint Designs7.6.0 Arc Welding Positions7.6.1 Flat-Position Welding7.6.2 Horizontal-Position Welding7.6.2.1 Electrode Movement7.6.2.2 Joint Type7.6.3 Vertical-Position Welding7.6.3.1 Current Settings and Electrode Movement7.6.3.2 Joint Type7.6.3.3 E-7018 Electrode Welding Technique7.6.4 Overhead-Position Welding7.6.4.1 Current Settings and Electrode Movement7.6.4.2 Type of Welds7.6.5 Pipe welding7.6.5.1 Pipe welding positions7.6.5.2 Pipe welding procedures7.6.5.3 Joint preparation and fit-up7.6.6 Tack welding7.6.7 Spacers7.6.8 Electrode selection7.6.9 Weather conditions

8.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE VARIABLES8.1.0 Fixed Variables 8.1.1 Electrode Type 8.1.2 Electrode Size 8.1.3 Current Type

8.2.0 Primary Variables 8.2.1 Welding Current 8.2.2 Travel Speed 8.2.3 Welding Voltage (Arc Length) 8.2.4 Starting the Arc8.2.4.1 Breaking the Arc8.2.4.2 Reestablishing the Arc8.2.4.3 Peening

8.3.0 Secondary Variables 8.3.1 Angles of the Electrode

9.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES10.0.0 PREWELD PREPARATIONS10.1.0 Preparing the Weld Joint 10.2.0 Fixturing and Positioning 10.3.0 Preheating

11.0.0 WELDING DEFECTS and PROBLEMS11.1.0 Discontinuities Caused by Welding Technique 11.1.1 Slag Inclusions11.1.2 Wagon Tracks11.1.3 Porosity11.1.4 Wormhole Porosity (Piping Porosity)11.1.5 Undercutting11.1.6 Lack of Fusion11.1.7 Overlapping11.1.8 Burn Through 11.1.9 Arc Strikes 11.1.10 Craters 11.1.11 Excessive Weld Spatter

11.2.0 Cracking 11.3.0 Other Problems 11.3.1 Arc Blow 11.3.2 Improper Moisture Content 11.3.3 Fingernailing

12.0.0 POSTWELD PROCEDURE12.1.0 Cleaning 12.2.0 Inspection and Testing 12.2.1 Welding Quality Control

12.3.0 Repairing of Welds 12.4.0 Postheating

13.0.0 WELDER TRAINING and QUALIFICATION13.1.0 Welder Training 13.1.1 Basic Shielded Metal Arc Welding 13.1.2 Advanced Shielded Metal Arc Welding 13.1.3 Shielded Metal Arc Pipe Welding

13.2.0 Welder Qualification

14.0.0 WELDING SAFETY14.1.0 Electrical Shock 14.2.0 Arc Radiation 14.3.0 Air Contamination 14.4.0 Fires and Explosions 14.5.0 Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards 14.6.0 Summary of Safety Precautions


SW Basic Ch 9 GasTungsten Arc WeldingChapter 9Gas Tungsten Arc WeldingTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 INTRODUCTION to the PROCESS 1.1.0 Methods of Application 1.2.0 Advantages and Limitations

2.0.0 PRINCIPLES of OPERATION 2.1.0 Arc Systems

3.0.0 EQUIPMENT for WELDING 3.1.0 Power Sources 3.1.1 Power Source Duty Cycle

3.2.0 Types of Welding Current3.2.1 Direct Current3.2.2 Pulsed Current3.2.3 Alternating Current3.2.4 High-Frequency Current

3.3.0 Types of Power Sources 3.3.1 Generator and Alternator Welding Machines 3.3.2 Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines 3.3.3 Inverter Power Sources 3.3.4 Transformer Welding Machines3.3.5 Square Wave Power Source

3.4.0 Controls 3.5.0 Welding Torches3.6.0 Gas Shielding System3.7.0 Welding Cables 3.8.0 Other Equipment3.8.1 Filler Wire Feeders3.8.2 Water Circulators3.8.3 Motion Devices

4.0.0 EQUIPMENT SETUP, ADJUSTMENT, and SHUTDOWN4.1.0 Equipment Setup4.2.0 Preparing the Electrode Tip4.3.0 Assembling the Torch4.4.0 Setting Up the Shielding Gas System4.5.0 Setting Up the Welding Parameters4.6.0 System Shutdown and Clean Up

5.0.0 ELECTRODES, SHIELDING GAS, and FILLER METAL5.1.0 Electrodes5.2.0 Shielding Gases5.2.1 Argon5.2.2 Helium5.2.3 Argon-Helium Mixtures5.2.4 Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures5.2.5 Nitrogen

5.3.0 Filler Metals5.3.1 Classification 5.3.2 Sizing

5.4.0 Selection of Filler Metal 5.5.0 Conformances

6.0.0 WELDING APPLICATIONS6.1.0 Industries 6.1.1 Industrial Piping 6.1.2 Nuclear Power Facilities 6.1.3 Ships 6.1.4 Aerospace6.1.5 Transportation6.1.6 Pressure Vessels, Boilers, and Heat Exchangers6.1.7 Maintenance and Repair6.1.8 Miscellaneous

6.2.0 Arc Spot Welding

7.0.0 WELDING METALLURGY7.1.0 Properties of the Weld 7.1.1 Chemical Properties 7.1.2 Mechanical Properties 7.1.3 Microstructure

7.2.0 Weldable Metals7.2.1 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys7.2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys 7.2.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys7.2.4 Nickel and Nickel Alloys 7.2.5 Steels 7.2.5.1 Plain Carbon and Low Alloy Steels 7.2.5.2 Cast Iron 7.2.5.3 Free Machining Steels 7.2.5.4 Stainless Steels 7.2.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys7.2.7 Other Metals

8.0.0 WELD JOINT DESIGN8.1.0 Types of Metal8.2.0 Strength 8.3.0 Position 8.4.0 Thickness 8.5.0 Accessibility 8.6.0 Consumable Inserts8.7.0 Weld Joint Designs8.8.0 Welding Positions8.8.1 Flat-Position Welding

9.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE VARIABLES9.1.0 Fixed Variables9.1.1 Type of Electrode9.1.2 Electrode Size 9.1.3 Type of Welding Current9.1.4 Type of Shielding Gas9.1.5 Electrode Taper Angle

9.2.0 Primary Variables 9.2.1 Welding Current 9.2.2 Travel Speed9.2.3 Welding Voltage (Arc Length)

9.3.0 Secondary Variables 9.3.1 Angles of the Electrode9.3.2 Electrode Extension

10.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES11.0.0 PREWELD PREPARATIONS11.1.0 Preparing the Weld Joint 11.2.0 Cleaning the Work Metal11.3.0 Electrode Tip Preparation11.4.0 Fixturing, Positioning, and Weld Backing 11.5.0 Preheating

12.0.0 WELDING DISCONTINUITIES and PROBLEMS12.1.0 Discontinuities Caused by Welding Technique 12.1.1 Tungsten Inclusions12.1.2 Oxide Inclusions12.1.3 Porosity12.1.4 Wormhole Porosity (Piping Porosity)12.1.5 Undercutting12.1.6 Incomplete Fusion12.1.7 Overlapping12.1.8 Melt-through 12.1.9 Arc Strikes 12.1.10 Craters

12.2.0 Cracking 12.3.0 Other Problems 12.3.1 Arc Blow 12.3.2 Inadequate Shielding12.3.3 Electrode Contamination

13.0.0 POSTWELD PROCEDURE13.1.0 Cleaning 13.2.0 Inspection and Testing 13.3.0 Repairing of Welds 13.4.0 Postheating

14.0.0 WELDER TRAINING and QUALIFICATION14.1.0 Basic Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 14.1.1 Mild Steel14.1.2 Stainless Steel14.1.3 Aluminum

14.2.0 Gas Tungsten Arc Pipe Welding 14.2.1 Course Introduction 14.2.2 Small Diameter Piping and Tubing 14.2.3 8-lnch Diameter Pipe


15.0.0 WELDING SAFETY15.1.0 Electrical Shock 15.2.0 Arc Radiation 15.3.0 Air Contamination 15.4.0 Compressed Gasses15.5.0 Fires and Explosions 15.6.0 Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards 15.7.0 Summary of Safety Precautions


SW Basic Ch 10 Gas Metal Arc WeldingChapter 10Gas Metal Arc WeldingTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 INTRODUCTION to the PROCESS 1.1.0 Methods of Application 1.2.0 Advantages and Limitations

2.0.0 PRINCIPLES of OPERATION 2.1.0 Arc Systems 2.2.0 Metal Transfer 2.2.1 Short Circuiting Transfer2.2.2 Globular Transfer2.2.3 Spray Transfer2.2.4 Pulsed Current Transfer

3.0.0 EQUIPMENT for WELDING 3.1.0 Power Sources 3.1.1 Power Source Duty Cycle 3.1.2 Types of Current 3.1.3 Types of Power Sources 3.1.3.1 Generator Welding Machines 3.1.3.2 Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines 3.1.3.3 Inverter Power Sources

3.2.0 Controls 3.3.0 Wire Feeders 3.4.0 Welding Guns3.4.1 Semiautomatic Guns3.4.2 Machine Welding Guns

3.5.0 Shielding Gas Equipment3.6.0 Welding Cables 3.7.0 Other Equipment3.7.1 Water Circulators3.7.2 Motion Devices3.7.3 Accessories

4.0.0 INSTALLATION, SETUP, and MAINTENANCE of EQUIPMENT4.1.0 Power Source Connections4.2.0 Gun Cable Assembly4.3.0 Wire Installation4.4.0 Gas Cylinder Installation4.5.0 Amperage and Voltage Settings4.6.0 Equipment Shutdown and Clean Up4.7.0 Burn Back4.8.0 Bird Nests

5.0.0 SHIELDING GAS and ELECTRODES5.1.0 Shielding Gases5.1.1 Argon5.1.2 Helium5.1.3 Carbon Dioxide5.1.4 Argon-Helium Mixtures5.1.5 Argon-Oxygen Mixtures5.1.6 Argon-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures5.1.7 Helium-Argon-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures5.1.8 Nitrogen

5.2.0 Shielding Gas Flow Rate5.3.0 Electrodes5.3.1 Classification 5.3.2 Sizing

5.4.0 Electrode Selection 5.5.0 Conformances and Approvals

6.0.0 WELDING APPLICATIONS6.1.0 Industries 6.1.1 Pressure Vessels 6.1.2 Industrial Piping 6.1.3 Transmission Pipelines 6.1.4 Nuclear Power Facilities 6.1.5 Structures 6.1.6 Ships 6.1.7 Railroads 6.1.8 Automotive 6.1.9 Aerospace6.1.10 Heavy Equipment

6.2.0 Variations of the Process 6.2.1 Arc Spot Welding6.2.2 Narrow Gap Welding

7.0.0 WELDING METALLURGY7.1.0 Properties of the Weld 7.1.1 Chemical and Physical Properties 7.1.2 Mechanical Properties 7.1.3 Microstructure

7.2.0 Metals Weldable 7.2.1 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys7.2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys 7.2.3 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys7.2.4 Nickel and Nickel Alloys 7.2.5 Steels 7.2.5.1 Low Carbon and Mild Steels 7.2.5.2 Low Alloy Steels 7.2.5.3 Heat Treatable Steels 7.2.5.4 Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 7.2.5.5 Free Machining Steels 7.2.5.6 Stainless Steels 7.2.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

8.0.0 WELD and JOINT DESIGN8.1.0 Strength 8.2.0 Position 8.3.0 Thickness 8.4.0 Accessibility 8.4.1 Backing Strips

8.5.0 Types of Metal8.6.0 Weld Joint Designs8.6.1 Welding Symbols

8.7.0 Welding Positions8.7.1 Flat-Position Welding

9.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE VARIABLES9.1.0 Fixed Variables9.1.1 Electrode Size 9.1.2 Type of Shielding Gas

9.2.0 Primary Variables 9.2.1 Starting the Arc 9.2.2 Welding Current 9.2.3 Welding Voltage (Arc Length) 9.2.4 Travel Speed

9.3.0 Secondary Variables 9.3.1 Electrode Extension9.3.2 Electrode Angles

10.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES11.0.0 PREWELD PREPARATIONS11.1.0 Preparing the Weld Joint 11.2.0 Cleaning the Work Metal11.3.0 Fixturing and Positioning 11.4.0 Preheating

12.0.0 WELDING DISCONTINUITIES and PROBLEMS12.1.0 Discontinuities Caused by Welding Technique 12.1.1 Inclusions12.1.2 Porosity12.1.3 Wormhole Porosity (Piping Porosity)12.1.4 Undercutting12.1.5 Incomplete Fusion12.1.6 Overlapping12.1.7 Melt-through 12.1.8 Whiskers12.1.9 Excessive Weld Spatter 12.1.10 Arc Strikes 12.1.11 Craters

12.2.0 Cracking 12.3.0 Other Problems 12.3.1 Arc Blow 12.3.2 Inadequate Shielding12.3.3 Clogged or Dirty Contact Tube12.3.4 Wire Feed Stoppages


14.0.0 WELDER TRAINING and QUALIFICATION14.1.0 Welder Training 14.1.1 Basic Gas Metal Arc Welding 14.1.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding Steel Pipe


15.0.0 WELDING SAFETY15.1.0 Electrical Shock 15.2.0 Arc Radiation 15.3.0 Air Contamination 15.4.0 Compressed Gasses15.5.0 Fires and Explosions 15.6.0 Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards 15.7.0 Summary of Safety Precautions

SummaryTrade Terms Introduced in this ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 11 Flux Cored Arc WeldingChapter 11Flux Cored Arc WeldingTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 INTRODUCTION to the PROCESS 1.1.0 Methods of Application 1.2.0 Advantages and Limitations

2.0.0 PRINCIPLES of OPERATION 2.1.0 Arc Systems 2.2.0 Metal Transfer

3.0.0 EQUIPMENT for WELDING 3.1.0 Power Sources 3.1.1 Power Source Duty Cycle 3.1.2 Types of Current 3.1.3 Types of Power Sources 3.1.3.1 Generator and Alternator Welding Machines 3.1.3.2 Transformer Welding Machines

3.2.0 Controls 3.3.0 Wire Feeders 3.3.1 Machine Welding Guns

3.4.0 Fume Extractors3.5.0 Shielding Gas Equipment 3.6.0 Welding Cables3.7.0 Other Equipment3.7.1 Water Circulators3.7.2 Motion Devices3.7.3 Accessories

4.0.0 EQUIPMENT SETUP, OPERATION, and SHUT DOWN4.1.0 Protective Clothing and Tools4.2.0 Obtaining Materials4.3.0 Set Up Equipment4.4.0 Adjust Equipment4.5.0 Perform the Weld4.6.0 Shut Down Equipment

5.0.0 SHIELDING GAS and ELECTRODES5.1.0 Shielding Gas5.1.1 Carbon Dioxide5.1.2 Argon-Carbon Dioxide Mixtures5.1.3 Argon-oxygen mixture

5.2.0 Electrodes5.2.1 Classification 5.2.2 Electrode Selection 5.2.3 Conformance and Approvals

6.0.0 WELDING APPLICATIONS6.1.0 Industries 6.1.1 Structures 6.1.2 Ships 6.1.3 Industrial Piping 6.1.4 Railroads 6.1.5 Automotive Products 6.1.6 Heavy Equipment 6.1.7 Maintenance and Repair

6.2.0 Flux Cored Arc Spot Welding

7.0.0 WELDING METALLURGY7.1.0 Properties of the Weld 7.2.0 Chemical Properties 7.3.0 Mechanical Properties 7.4.0 Microstructure 7.5.0 Metals Weldable 7.5.1 Steels 7.5.1.1 Low-carbon and Mild Steels 7.5.1.2 Low-alloy Steels 7.5.1.3 Heat Treatable Steels 7.5.1.4 Chromium-Molybdenum Steels 7.5.1.5 Free Machining Steels 7.5.1.6 Stainless Steels

8.0.0 WELD and JOINT DESIGN8.1.0 Process Method8.2.0 Type of Metal8.3.0 Strength 8.4.0 Position 8.5.0 Thickness 8.6.0 Accessibility 8.6.1 Backing Strips

8.7.0 Weld Joint Designs8.8.0 Arc Welding Positions8.8.1 Flat-Position Welding8.8.2 Horizontal-Position Welding8.8.2.1 Electrode Movement8.8.2.2 Joint Type8.8.3 Vertical-Position Welding8.8.3.1 Current Settings and Electrode Movement8.8.3.2 Joint Type8.8.4 Overhead-Position Welding8.8.4.1 Current Settings and Electrode Movement8.8.4.2 Type of Welds8.8.5 Pipe welding8.8.5.1 Pipe welding positions8.8.5.2 Pipe welding procedures8.8.5.3 Joint preparation and fit-up8.8.6 Tack welding8.8.7 Spacers8.8.8 Electrode selection8.8.9 Weather conditions

9.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE VARIABLES9.1.0 Fixed Variables 9.1.1 Electrode Type 9.1.2 Electrode Size

9.2.0 Primary Variables 9.2.1 Welding Current 9.2.2 Welding Voltage (Arc Length) 9.2.3 Travel Speed

9.3.0 Secondary Variables 9.3.1 Electrode Extension9.3.2 Electrode Angles

10.0.0 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES11.0.0 PREWELD PREPARATIONS11.1.0 Preparing the Weld Joint 11.2.0 Cleaning the Work Metal11.3.0 Fixturing and Positioning 11.4.0 Preheating

12.0.0 WELDING DEFECTS and PROBLEMS12.1.0 Discontinuities Caused by Welding Technique 12.1.1 Slag Inclusions12.1.2 Wagon Tracks12.1.3 Porosity12.1.4 Wormhole Porosity (Piping Porosity)12.1.5 Undercutting12.1.6 Lack of Fusion12.1.7 Overlapping12.1.8 Melt-Through 12.1.9 Excessive Weld Spatter 12.1.10 Arc Strikes 12.1.11 Craters

12.2.0 Cracking 12.3.0 Other Problems 12.3.1 Arc Blow 12.3.2 Inadequate Shielding 12.3.3 Clogged or Dirty Contact Tube 12.3.4 Wire Feed Stoppages


14.0.0 WELDER TRAINING and QUALIFICATION14.1.0 Welder Training 14.1.1 Basic Flux Cored Arc Welding


15.0.0 WELDING SAFETY15.1.0 Electrical Shock 15.2.0 Arc Radiation 15.3.0 Air Contamination 15.4.0 Compressed Gases15.5.0 Fires and Explosions 15.6.0 Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards 15.7.0 Summary of Safety Precautions


SW Basic Ch 12 Welding Quality ControlChapter 12Welding Quality ControlTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 INTRODUCTION 2.0.0 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING2.1.0 Visual Inspection2.2.0 Magnetic Particle Inspection2.3.0 Liquid Penetrant Inspection2.4.0 Radiographic Inspection2.5.0 Ultrasonic Inspection2.6.0 Eddy Current Testing

3.0.0 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING3.1.0 Free-Bend Test3.2.0 Guided-Bend Test3.3.0 Nick-Break Test3.4.0 Impact Test3.5.0 Fillet-Welded Joint Test3.6.0 Etching Test3.7.0 Tensile Strength Test


SW Basic Ch 13 Layout and Fabrication of Sheet-Metal and Fiber and Glass DuctChapter 13Layout and Fabrication of Sheet Metal and Fiberglass DuctTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 TOOLS and EQUIPMENT1.1.0 Layout Tools 1.1.1 Scriber1.1.2 Flat Steel Square1.1.3 Combination Square1.1.4 Protractor1.1.5 Prick Punch1.1.6 Dividers 1.1.7 Trammel Points1.1.8 Circumference Ruler

1.2.0 Cutting Tools 1.3.0 Sheet Metal Bending and Forming Equipment1.3.1 Stakes1.3.2 Other Forming Tools1.3.2.1 Bar Folder1.3.2.2 Brakes1.3.2.3 Roll Forming Machine1.3.2.4 Combination Rotary Machine

2.0.0 SHEET METAL DEVELOPMENT 2.1.0 Parallel Line Development 2.2.0 Radial Line Development2.3.0 Triangular Development2.4.0 Fabrication of Edges, Joints, Seams, and Notches 2.4.1 Edges2.4.2 Joints2.4.3 Seams2.4.4 Notches

3.0.0 JOINING and INSTALLING SHEET METAL DUCT 3.1.0 Metal Screws3.2.0 Rivets3.3.0 Riveted Seams

4.0.0 SHEET METAL DUCT SYSTEMS 4.1.0 Shop Procedures 4.2.0 Shop Drawings 4.3.0 Duct Material 4.4.0 Reinforcement and Support 4.5.0 Flexible Connections4.6.0 Hanging Duct

5.0.0 FIBERGLASS DUCT SYSTEMS5.1.0 Characteristics5.2.0 Fabrication5.3.0 Installation

6.0.0 SAFETYSummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in this ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 14 Fiber LineChapter 14Fiber LineTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 FIBER LINE1.1.0 Types of Natural Fiber Line 1.1.1 Manila1.1.2 Sisal1.1.3 Hemp1.1.4 Coir1.1.5 Cotton

1.2.0 Types of Synthetic Fiber Lines 1.3.0 Fabrication of Line1.3.1 Fibers1.3.2 Yarns1.3.3 Strands1.3.4 Lines

1.4.0 Types of Lays of Line1.4.1 Hawser-Laid1.4.2 Shroud-Laid1.4.3 Cable-Laid

1.5.0 Size Designation1.6.0 Handling and Care of Fiber Line1.6.1 Uncoiling1.6.2 Uncoiling Nylon1.6.3 Making Up1.6.4 Whipping1.6.5 Inspecting1.6.6 Storing

1.7.0 Strength of Fiber Line1.7.1 Breaking Strength 1.7.2 Safe Working Load1.7.3 Safety Factor1.7.4 Breaking Strength of Nylon Line

1.8.0 Knots, Bends, and Hitches1.8.1 Line Parts1.8.2 Overhand Knot1.8.3 Figure-Eight Knot1.8.4 Square Knot1.8.5 Sheepshank1.8.6 Bowline1.8.7 French Bowline1.8.8 Spanish Bowline1.8.9 Running Bowline1.8.10 Becket Bend1.8.11 Clove Hitch1.8.12 Scaffold Hitch1.8.13 Barrel Hitch

1.9.0 Splicing Fiber Line1.9.1 Eye Splice1.9.2 Short Splice1.9.3 Long Splice1.9.4 Back Splice

1.10.0 Splicing Nylon Line


SW Basic Ch 15 Wire RopeChapter 15Wire RopeTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisitesFeatures of this Manual1.0.0 WIRE ROPE1.1.0 Construction 1.1.1 Wires1.1.2 Strands1.1.3 Core

1.2.0 Grades 1.2.1 Mild Plow Steel1.2.2 Plow Steel1.2.3 Improved Plow Steel

1.3.0 Lays1.4.0 Lay Length1.5.0 Classification1.6.0 Selection1.6.1 Tensile Strength1.6.2 Crushing Strength1.6.3 Fatigue Resistance1.6.4 Abrasion Resistance1.6.5 Corrosion Resistance

1.7.0 Measuring1.8.0 Safe Working Load1.9.0 Failure1.10.0 Attachments1.11.0 End Fittings1.11.1 Clips1.11.2 Clamps1.11.3 Thimble1.11.4 Wedge Socket1.11.5 Basket Socket1.11.5.1 Dry Method1.11.5.2 Poured Method1.11.6 Splices

1.12.0 Handling and Care1.12.1 Coiling and Uncoiling1.12.2 Kinks1.12.3 Reverse Bends1.12.4 Sizes of Sheaves1.12.5 Seizing and Cutting

1.13.0 Inspection1.14.0 Cleaning and Lubricating1.15.0 Storage


SW Basic Ch 16 RiggingChapter 16RiggingTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisites1.0.0 BLOCK and TACKLE1.1.0 Terminology1.2.0 Block Construction1.3.0 Block to Line Ratio1.4.0 Types of Blocks 1.4.1 Standing1.4.2 Traveling1.4.3 Snatch

1.5.0 Reeving Blocks1.6.0 Types of Tackle1.6.1 Single-whip1.6.2 Runner1.6.3 Gun Tackle1.6.4 Single-luff Tackle1.6.5 Twofold Purchase1.6.6 Double-Luff1.6.7 Three-fold Purchase1.6.8 Compound Tackle

1.7.0 Allowance for Friction1.8.0 Block Safety

2.0.0 SLINGS2.1.0 Slings and Rigging Gear Kits2.2.0 Wire Rope Slings2.3.0 Fiber Line Sling2.3.1 Synthetic Web Slings

2.4.0 Chain Slings2.4.1 Metal Mesh Slings

2.5.0 Using Wire Rope and Fiber Slings2.5.1 Endless2.5.2 Single Leg2.5.3 Bridle

2.6.0 Sling Inspection2.6.1 Synthetic Web Slings2.6.2 Synthetic Round Slings2.6.3 Wire Rope Slings2.6.4 Wire Mesh Slings2.6.5 Alloy Chain Slings

2.7.0 Proof Testing Slings2.8.0 Safe Working Loads of Slings2.9.0 Sling Angle2.10.0 Storage

3.0.0 CHAINS3.1.0 Inspection3.2.0 Safe Working Loads3.3.0 Handling and Care

4.0.0 ADDITIONAL LIFTING EQUIPMENT4.1.0 Hooks4.1.1 Slip Hooks4.1.2 Grab Hooks4.1.3 Mousing a Hook4.1.4 Inspection4.1.5 Hook Strength

4.2.0 Shackles4.2.1 Safe Working Load4.2.2 Mousing a Shackle

4.3.0 Beam Clamps

5.0.0 OTHER LIFTING EQUIPMENT5.1.0 Spreader Bars5.2.0 Pallets5.3.0 Jacks5.4.0 Planks and Rollers5.5.0 Blocking and Cribbing5.6.0 Scaffolds5.6.1 Planking and Runway Scaffold5.6.2 Swinging Platform Scaffold5.6.3 Needle-Beam Scaffold5.6.4 Boatswains Chair5.6.5 Safety

6.0.0 FIELD-ERECTED HOISTING DEVICES6.1.0 Holdfasts6.1.1 Natural Types6.1.2 Single-Picket6.1.3 Combination-Picket6.1.4 Combination Log Picket6.1.5 Deadman6.1.6 Steel Picket

6.2.0 Gin Poles6.3.0 Tripods6.4.0 Shears

7.0.0 SAFE RIGGING OPERATING PROCEDURESSummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in this ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 17 Pre-Engineered StructuresChapter 17Pre-Engineered StructuresTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisites1.0.0 PRE-ENGINEERED BUILDINGS1.1.0 Pre-Erection Work1.2.0 Erection Procedures1.2.1 Bolting Rigid Frames1.2.2 Frame Erection1.2.3 Brace Rods1.2.4 Sag Rods1.2.5 Brace Angles and Base Angles1.2.6 End-Wall Framing/Doors/Windows1.2.7 Sheeting1.2.8 Building Insulation1.2.9 Multiple buildings Set Side by Side

1.3.0 Disassembly Procedures1.3.1 Marking

2.0.0 K-SPAN BUILDINGS2.1.0 ABM 120 System2.1.1 Operating Instructions2.1.2 Machinery Placement2.1.3 Foundations2.1.4 Building Erection

2.2.0 ABM 240 System

3.0.0 STEEL TOWERS3.1.0 Assembly and Erection of Sections3.2.0 Dismantling a Tower

4.0.0 ANTENNA TOWERS4.1.0 Guyed Towers4.2.0 Freestanding Towers4.3.0 Tower Assembly4.4.0 Erection of Guyed Towers4.4.1 Davit Method4.4.2 Gin Pole Method

4.4.3 Hand Assembly4.5.0 Guying4.5.1 Temporary Guying4.5.2 Permanent Guying4.5.2.1 Single-Guy Layer4.5.2.2 Two-Guy Layers4.5.2.3 Three-Guy Layers4.5.3 Guy Tension4.5.3.1 Initial Tension4.5.3.2 Final Tension4.5.4 Guy Anchors4.5.4.1 Screw Anchor4.5.4.2 Expansion Anchor4.5.4.3 Concrete Anchor

SummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in This ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 18 Introduction to Structural SteelChapter 18Introduction to Structural SteelTopicsOverviewPrerequisites1.0.0 STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS1.1.0 Terminology1.1.1 W-Shape1.1.2 Bearing Pile 1.1.3 S-Shape 1.1.4 C-Shape 1.1.5 Angle 1.1.6 Plate 1.1.7 Bar

2.0.0 ANCHOR BOLTS 3.0.0 BEARING PLATES 4.0.0 COLUMNS 5.0.0 GIRDERS 6.0.0 BEAMS 7.0.0 BAR JOISTS 8.0.0 TRUSSES 9.0.0 PURLINS, GIRTS, AND EAVE STRUTS SummaryReview QuestionsTrade Terms Introduced in this ChapterAdditional Resources and ReferencesCSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update

SW Basic Ch 19 Introduction to Reinforcing SteelChapter 19Introduction to Reinforcing SteelTopicsOverviewObjectivesPrerequisites1.0.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE1.1.0 Concrete Materials1.2.0 Concrete Strength1.3.0 Purposes and Types of Reinforcing Steel1.3.1 Reinforcing Bars1.3.2 Tension in Steel

1.4.0 Additional Types of Reinforcing Steel1.4.1 Expanded Metal1.4.2 Welded Wire Fabric1.4.3 Sheet-Metal Reinforcement


APPENDIX IAPPENDIX IIAPPENDIX IIISW Basic Back Cover

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