1. What emotions do you think these cartoons are showing?

2. What are the key features of the face that we use to show emotion?

3. Now draw faces for the following emotions:

• amazed• confused• fearful

EmotionsEmotions

Surprised or indifferent?

Angry or pleased?

Calm or fearful?

Cheerful or sad?

Happy or sad?

Disgusted or delighted?

Surprised

Sad

FearfulAngry

DisgustedHappy

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Simon Baron Cohen Simon Baron Cohen &Therese Joliffe (1997) &Therese Joliffe (1997) A new test for Theory of A new test for Theory of

MindMind

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Baron Cohen et al Baron Cohen et al (1997)(1997)

The eye taskThe eye task

Which word best describes what this person is thinking or feeling

CONCERNED or UNCONCERNED

AutismAutism An experimental approach, An experimental approach,

investigating the nature of investigating the nature of autismautism

Autism Autism (from Greek meaning (from Greek meaning “self”)“self”)

IIdentified by Leo Kanner (1943)dentified by Leo Kanner (1943) Children very much in their own Children very much in their own

little world, show no regard for little world, show no regard for the existence of othersthe existence of others

““treat people and objects alike” treat people and objects alike”

Characteristics of Characteristics of AutismAutism

Impaired ability to communicate verballyImpaired ability to communicate verbally Impaired ability to communicate non-Impaired ability to communicate non-

verbally (no pointing)verbally (no pointing) Inability to relate socially to othersInability to relate socially to others Inability to behave flexiblyInability to behave flexibly Obsession with a restricted repertoire of Obsession with a restricted repertoire of

activities (“insistence on sameness”)activities (“insistence on sameness”) ““Islets of ability” (eg. art/music)Islets of ability” (eg. art/music) IQ below 70 (80%) – but not consistent (eg. IQ below 70 (80%) – but not consistent (eg.

above average in visual/spatial tests, low in above average in visual/spatial tests, low in language tests)language tests)

Asperger’s SyndromeAsperger’s Syndrome Identified by Hans Asperger Identified by Hans Asperger

(1944) in young Austrian boys (1944) in young Austrian boys Less severe than AutismLess severe than Autism Problems with social Problems with social

interactions, behaviour, interactions, behaviour, emotions, etcemotions, etc

Fewer problems with Fewer problems with language and cognitions language and cognitions

Grouped with the AUTISTIC Grouped with the AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDERSSPECTRUM DISORDERS

Explanations/Theories for Explanations/Theories for Autism/Asperger’sAutism/Asperger’s

Kanner Kanner (1943) & (1943) & BettelheimBettelheim (1967): poor (1967): poor parenting (psychoanalytic) parenting (psychoanalytic)

Nikolas TinbergenNikolas Tinbergen (1983): lack of instinct to (1983): lack of instinct to bond/form attachment with other members of bond/form attachment with other members of familyfamily

LovaasLovaas (1979) suggested that the symptoms are (1979) suggested that the symptoms are dealt with, without going into the causes dealt with, without going into the causes (behaviourism)(behaviourism)

Physiological/genetic – some evidence of brain Physiological/genetic – some evidence of brain differences, seems heritable, identical twins differences, seems heritable, identical twins concordant for autism, 1/3 also suffer epilepsyconcordant for autism, 1/3 also suffer epilepsy

Second Order Second Order RepresentationsRepresentations

Alan LeslieAlan Leslie (1984) suggests (1984) suggests a cognitive mechanisma cognitive mechanism

Second order Second order representationsrepresentations – – developed in 2nd year of lifedeveloped in 2nd year of life

““ability to impute mental ability to impute mental states to others”states to others”

Responsible for Responsible for pretend pretend playplay

Simon Baron-CohenSimon Baron-Cohen Professor at Cambridge Professor at Cambridge

UniversityUniversity SuggestsSuggests physiological physiological

explanationsexplanations (hereditary) (hereditary) Autism is extreme form Autism is extreme form

of the “male brain”of the “male brain” (It’s 3 times more common in (It’s 3 times more common in

boys)boys) Cousin of Cousin of Sacha Baron-Sacha Baron-

CohenCohen ““Ni-i-ice!”Ni-i-ice!”

Baron-Cohen Baron-Cohen et alet al's 's explanation explanation

Autistic people do not Autistic people do not have a “Theory of Mind”have a “Theory of Mind”

They do not understand They do not understand that people have their own that people have their own thoughts about the worldthoughts about the world

serious implications for serious implications for social interactionsocial interaction

They do not understand They do not understand people can hold false beliefspeople can hold false beliefs

They do not engage in They do not engage in pretend playpretend play

An old test for Theory of An old test for Theory of MindMind

The Sally-Anne test The Sally-Anne test was usedwas used (Wimmer (Wimmer & Perner, 1983)& Perner, 1983)

tests a child's tests a child's ability to understand ability to understand what a person what a person believesbelieves

easily solved by easily solved by “normal” 5-year-olds“normal” 5-year-olds

The “Sally – Anne Test” The “Sally – Anne Test” 11

Children tested individually - Children tested individually - seated at desk opposite researcher seated at desk opposite researcher

Two dolls - Sally & Anne Two dolls - Sally & Anne Sally has Sally has basketbasket, Anne has , Anne has boxbox

Sally has a basket. Anne has a box.

The “Sally – Anne Test” The “Sally – Anne Test” 22

Naming Question: children asked Naming Question: children asked to confirm they know the names of to confirm they know the names of the two dolls (CONTROL) the two dolls (CONTROL)

Sally puts Sally puts marblemarble in basket in basket

Sally has a marble. She puts the marble into her basket.

The “Sally – Anne Test” The “Sally – Anne Test” 33

Sally goes for a walk (doll disappears from view)Sally goes for a walk (doll disappears from view) Anne plays a trick - takes marble from Sally's Anne plays a trick - takes marble from Sally's

basket and puts it in her (Anne's) boxbasket and puts it in her (Anne's) box

The “Sally – Anne Test” The “Sally – Anne Test” 44

Sally returns Sally returns CRITICAL QUESTION (the CRITICAL QUESTION (the

“Belief Question”): “Where will “Belief Question”): “Where will Sally look for her marble?”Sally look for her marble?”

The “Sally – Anne Test” - The “Sally – Anne Test” - ResponsesResponses

"Where will Sally look for her marble?""Where will Sally look for her marble?" Correct response: "in Sally's basket"Correct response: "in Sally's basket" (that is where Sally left it - she is (that is where Sally left it - she is

unaware of Anne's trickery)unaware of Anne's trickery) Incorrect response: "in Anne's box"Incorrect response: "in Anne's box" (Sally does not know this - child is (Sally does not know this - child is

saying where saying where theythey believe the marble believe the marble is)is)

demonstrates inability to demonstrates inability to understand Sally has a false beliefunderstand Sally has a false belief

Why a new test?Why a new test?

Sally-Anne test identifies autism in Sally-Anne test identifies autism in CHILDRENCHILDREN

Adults with Autism can pass itAdults with Autism can pass it (they apply logic and experience, rather (they apply logic and experience, rather

than trying to “get into Sally’s head”)than trying to “get into Sally’s head”) CEILING EFFECT CEILING EFFECT test stops being test stops being

useful when participants reach a useful when participants reach a certain level of abilitycertain level of ability

Need a new test for adultsNeed a new test for adults

The “Strange Stories” The “Strange Stories” testtest

Francesca HappFrancesca Happéé (1994) created this (1994) created this test for older childrentest for older children

24 “vignettes” (very short stories, just a 24 “vignettes” (very short stories, just a paragraph each)paragraph each)

2 questions – one about physical events 2 questions – one about physical events (what happened?); one about mental (what happened?); one about mental events (what did people think, mean or events (what did people think, mean or feel?)feel?)

People with Autism/Asperger’s have People with Autism/Asperger’s have difficulty with the mental events questiondifficulty with the mental events question

Example from the “Strange Example from the “Strange Stories” testStories” test

Sarah and Tom are going on a picnic. It Sarah and Tom are going on a picnic. It is Tom's idea, he says it is going to be a is Tom's idea, he says it is going to be a lovely sunny day for a picnic. But just as lovely sunny day for a picnic. But just as they are unpacking the food, it starts to they are unpacking the food, it starts to rain, and soon they are both soaked to rain, and soon they are both soaked to the skin. Sarah is cross. She says, "Oh the skin. Sarah is cross. She says, "Oh yes, a lovely day for a picnic alright!" yes, a lovely day for a picnic alright!"

PHYSICAL EVENTS: Is it true, what PHYSICAL EVENTS: Is it true, what Sarah says? Sarah says?

MENTAL EVENTS: Why does she say MENTAL EVENTS: Why does she say this?this?

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The StudyThe Study

Research Question: WHY do adults Research Question: WHY do adults with autistic spectrum disorders with autistic spectrum disorders have problems with social have problems with social relationships?relationships?

The hypothesis:The hypothesis: That adults with Autism/Asperger’s That adults with Autism/Asperger’s

Syndrome can’t interpret states of Syndrome can’t interpret states of mind from ‘reading eyes’ mind from ‘reading eyes’

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Details of the StudyDetails of the Study

Method: Natural experiment (or Method: Natural experiment (or “quasi-experiment”)“quasi-experiment”)

3 groups of participants3 groups of participants IV = Normal, Autistic, Tourette’s IV = Normal, Autistic, Tourette’s

syndromesyndrome DV = performance on eye task DV = performance on eye task

(maximum score = 25)(maximum score = 25)

ParticipantsParticipants There were three groups of participants.There were three groups of participants. All had normal (>85) intelligence on Wechsler All had normal (>85) intelligence on Wechsler

Adult Intelligence Test.Adult Intelligence Test. 16 Adults with High functioning 16 Adults with High functioning

autism/Asperger’s Syndromeautism/Asperger’s Syndrome 13 males: 3 females13 males: 3 females recruited by advert and clinicsrecruited by advert and clinics

10 adults with Tourette’s Syndrome 10 adults with Tourette’s Syndrome age matchedage matched 8 males: 2 females8 males: 2 females

50 normal adults (from Cambridge)50 normal adults (from Cambridge) 25 males: 25 females25 males: 25 females assumed normal intelligenceassumed normal intelligence

Groups 1 and 2 and both passed 1Groups 1 and 2 and both passed 1stst order order ToM TestsToM Tests

Why did Baron-Cohen use participants with Why did Baron-Cohen use participants with Tourette’s Syndrome?Tourette’s Syndrome?

Tourettes participants were used as Tourette’s Tourettes participants were used as Tourette’s Syndrome and autism are similar and using both Syndrome and autism are similar and using both would control some of the extraneous variables.would control some of the extraneous variables.

Both Tourette’s Syndrome and autism Both Tourette’s Syndrome and autism participants:participants: had normal intelligencehad normal intelligence suffered with disorder from childhoodsuffered with disorder from childhood had disorders that disrupted schooling and had disorders that disrupted schooling and

peer relationspeer relations had disorders supposed to originate in frontal had disorders supposed to originate in frontal

lobe abnormalities.lobe abnormalities. Participants in both clinical groups had passed Participants in both clinical groups had passed

Theory of Mind tests based on 6-year-old Theory Theory of Mind tests based on 6-year-old Theory of mind skills.of mind skills.

Method and designMethod and design

The Eyes task, Strange Stories task The Eyes task, Strange Stories task and two control tasks were and two control tasks were presented in random order to all presented in random order to all subjects.subjects.

Subjects were tested in a quiet room Subjects were tested in a quiet room either at home, in clinic or in a either at home, in clinic or in a laboratory.laboratory.

Independent design.Independent design.

Independent and dependent Independent and dependent variablesvariables

Independent variables:Independent variables: autismautism Tourette’s SyndromeTourette’s Syndrome normalnormal gender in normal groupgender in normal group

Dependent variables:Dependent variables: correct identification of emotioncorrect identification of emotion correct identification of gendercorrect identification of gender

HypothesesHypotheses

1.1. Patients with Tourette’s Syndrome would Patients with Tourette’s Syndrome would be unimpaired on this advanced theory be unimpaired on this advanced theory of mind test, but the subjects with autism of mind test, but the subjects with autism or Asperger’s Syndrome would show a or Asperger’s Syndrome would show a significant impairment on this test.significant impairment on this test.

2.2. Subjects who had difficulties when Subjects who had difficulties when completing the Eyes task or Strange completing the Eyes task or Strange Stories task should also have difficulties Stories task should also have difficulties when completing the other task.when completing the other task.

3.3. Normal females may be superior to Normal females may be superior to normal males in emotion perception.normal males in emotion perception.

Eyes taskEyes task

Words were generated by the panel Words were generated by the panel and tested.and tested.

Each word was presented with a Each word was presented with a ‘foil’ or opposite.‘foil’ or opposite.

e.g. serious vs playfule.g. serious vs playful The method of using the eyes only The method of using the eyes only

was chosen as no context/planning was chosen as no context/planning skills are required.skills are required.

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More on the Eye Task More on the Eye Task ProcedureProcedure

Forced choice ‘eye task’ questionsForced choice ‘eye task’ questions examplesexamples TARGET (correct)TARGET (correct) FOIL (opposite)FOIL (opposite) attraction attraction worried worried friendly friendly hostile hostile calmcalm anxious anxious The TARGET is the correct answer The TARGET is the correct answer

presented randomised both left and right. presented randomised both left and right.

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More on how the eye task More on how the eye task was selectedwas selected

How was the ‘eye task’ createdHow was the ‘eye task’ created Magazine photos selected Magazine photos selected 4 judges generated the target words4 judges generated the target words TARGET TARGET FOILFOIL calmcalm anxiousanxious The TARGET is the correct answer. The The TARGET is the correct answer. The

FOIL is the opposite.FOIL is the opposite.

Strange Stories taskStrange Stories task

This had already been linked to theory This had already been linked to theory of mind (Joliffe 1997).of mind (Joliffe 1997).

It was carried out to validate Eyes task.It was carried out to validate Eyes task. It found that Tourette’s Syndrome It found that Tourette’s Syndrome

group made no errors, group made no errors, autism/Asperger’s Syndrome group autism/Asperger’s Syndrome group made a significant number of errors.made a significant number of errors.

This gives the Eyes task concurrent This gives the Eyes task concurrent validity.validity.

Control tasksControl tasks

Basic emotion recognition task Basic emotion recognition task looking at whole faces and judging emot

ions Gender recognition task Gender recognition task

looking at two sets of eyes and identifying gender

On the two control tasks, there were On the two control tasks, there were no differences between the groups.no differences between the groups.

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Controls 1Controls 1

CONTROL in generating targets & CONTROL in generating targets & foilsfoils

(increases eye task VALIDITY) (increases eye task VALIDITY)

eye photos shown to panel of 8 eye photos shown to panel of 8 adults who did not know there was a adults who did not know there was a ‘right or wrong’ answer there was ‘right or wrong’ answer there was 100% agreement with TARGET100% agreement with TARGET

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The ProcedureThe Procedure

The ‘eyes task’ procedure:The ‘eyes task’ procedure:

25 photos of eyes25 photos of eyes each 15 x 10cm black and whiteeach 15 x 10cm black and white each photo shown for 3 secondseach photo shown for 3 seconds forced choice questionforced choice question tested individually in quiet roomtested individually in quiet room

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Controls 2Controls 2 CONTROL tasksCONTROL tasks (1) Gender Identification: all participants asked (1) Gender Identification: all participants asked

to identify the GENDER of each of the 25 eye to identify the GENDER of each of the 25 eye photosphotos

(2) Basic emotion task: all participants asked (2) Basic emotion task: all participants asked to identify the emotion in full face photos, to identify the emotion in full face photos, happy, sad, angry, afraid, surprise, disgust happy, sad, angry, afraid, surprise, disgust (Paul Ekman’s 6 basic categories of emotion) (Paul Ekman’s 6 basic categories of emotion)

CORRELATIONCORRELATION Participants also attempted HappParticipants also attempted Happéé’s Strange ’s Strange

Stories task – check for CONCURRENT Stories task – check for CONCURRENT VALIDITYVALIDITY

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ResultsResults

Findings:Findings: Score are out of 25; mean scores Score are out of 25; mean scores

below:below:

Eyes Task Autistic Normal TourettesMean 16.3 20.3 20.4Range 10 9 9Identify gender? 24.1 23.3 23.7

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ConclusionsConclusions

Were these differences significant Were these differences significant (above the level of chance) ? (above the level of chance) ?

At a significance level of p =< 0.0001 At a significance level of p =< 0.0001 Normal and Tourette’s better than Normal and Tourette’s better than AutisticAutistic

At a significance level of p =< 0.0001 At a significance level of p =< 0.0001 Normal females better than males Normal females better than males

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ConclusionsConclusions

Evidence for subtle ‘mindreading’ Evidence for subtle ‘mindreading’ deficits in intelligent adults on the deficits in intelligent adults on the Autistic spectrumAutistic spectrum

The eye task is a ‘pure theory of mind The eye task is a ‘pure theory of mind test’ because there is NO contexttest’ because there is NO context

(but that does mean it lacks (but that does mean it lacks ecological validity)ecological validity)