2 Ecology

1Principles of Ecology

A. Networks: interdependent,

diversity

B. Nested System: boundaries

and limit

C. Cycle: recycling of resources,

feedback

D. Flows Through: energy and

resources

E. Development: succession and

co-evolution

F. Dynamic balance: flexibility,

self-organization, stability,

sustainability

1

2Principles of Ecology (A):

Network: Interdependency and diversity

Main characteristics:

Interdependency between ecosystem

components and all life

processes

Achieve stability through a diversity of

linkages.

Example:

food webs,

leaf venation,

interrelationship between forest species

1

3Principles of Ecology (B):

Nested System: Scale, boundary and limit


All living systems are nested

Each within its own boundary and limits.

Example:

habitat type,

animal territories,

carrying capacity

1

Personal

Space

Workplace

Space

Organization/Company

Space

Administrative & Ecological Boundary

Bio-Regional Boundary

International Boundary

4Principles of Ecology (C):

Cycles: Recycling of resources and feedback


Continuous cycles of resource exchange;

All wastes are recycled;

A closed loop of cyclic changes.

Example:

nutrient cycling, food web,

seasonal changes,

currents and tides, hydrology cycle

1

5Principles of Ecology (D):

Flow: Energy and resources


Solar energy drives ecological cycles;

All organisms live off the flow of energy and resources,

All species produce food for other organisms.

Example:

water through a cell,

energy through an ecosystem,

nutrients through a plant.

1

6Principles of Ecology (E):

Development: Succession and co-evolution


Development and learning at the individual level as

evolution at the species

level;

Involves creativity and mutual adaptation between

an organism and its

environment.

Example:

plant succession,

tissue growth,

reproduction/decomposition.

1

7Principles of Ecology (F):

Dynamic Balance: flexibility, self organization,

stability, sustainability


Ecological communities organize themselves, maintaining a state of dynamic balance.

Flexibility, resilience and oscillations in light of a disruption.

Example:

hurricanes, forest fires,

disease,

predators,

plate tectonics.

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8Environmental Issues Today and

Challenges

Global issues: Biodiversity and Forest

Degradation

Global warming Ozone depletion Marine pollution Resource depletion

(e.g., over-fishing, water)

Clean water scarcity/pollution Population growth

Environmental-Social problems

Hazardous and Chemical Wastes

National/local issues:

Biodiversity and Forest Degradation

Air pollution

Marine Pollution Resource depletion (overfishing,

water)

Clean water scarcity/pollution Population growth

Environmental-Social problems Law enforcement issues Hazardous and Chemical

Wastes

2

9Global Environmental Issue:

Biodiversity and Forest Degradation

Forests: major reservoirs of carbon,

containing 80% of

all carbon stored in

land vegetation

Globally, primary forests are being

rapidly destroyed

2.1

10Global Environmental Issue: Biodiversity and Forest Degradation (2)

Global Center of Biodiversity

SOURCE: BARTHLOTT, W., BIEDINGER, N., BRAUN, G., FEIG, F., KIER, G &

MUTKE, J. 1999: Terminological and methodological aspects of the mapping and

analysis of the global biodiversity. Acta Bot. Fennica 162: 103110

2.1

11National Environmental Issue: Biodiversity and Forest Degradation (4)

Forest Cover Changing in Indonesia

1.5 million ha/yr forest damage by illegal logging (World Bank, 1990)

Forest Conversion: 2 million ha forest for

transmigration area (1998);

1.8 million ha for oil palm plantation, 2.3 million ha for timber estate(1990-2000);

4.0 million ha (during 1985-1997) for agricultural; and

300.000 ha/yr for mining concession.

350,000 ha of total 2.4 juta ha Java forest damage caused by forest encroachment (Koran Tempo, 10 Jan 02). Rate of forest damage in West Java is 2 ha/day (Pikiran Rakyat, 2 Feb, 03)

) Multiplier Effect

2.1

12National Environmental Issue: Forest and Biodiversity (5)

Forest Fire in Indonesia Juni 2013

Forest Fire Riau 2013

2.1Forest fire : 20 % hotspots in forest, 80 % in plantation.Juni 2013 : hotspots in Indonesia are 3.862, Thailand 20.208, Kamboja 17.757, Laos 15.107, Myanmar 41.458, dan Vietnam

9.769 hotspots.

Wind direction bring fog from Indonesia to Singapore .Industrial forest (Hutan tanaman industri (HTI)) from two companies which based in Singapore have many hotspots.

Pulp and paper industry

Industry ply wood

Illegal logging

13National Environmental Issue: Forest and Biodiversity (5)

Forest Fire in Indonesia2.1

Paper consumption on1996 :

Indonesia : 15,5 kg per capita/year.

Malaysia : 87,4 kg,

Singapore : 161,2 kg,

USA : 334,6 kg.

14

Growth of pulp and paper industry is high

Production capacity of paper industry per-year:

In 1987 : 980.000 ton

1997 : 7.232.800 ton.

2005 : 13.696.170 ton

Production capacity of pulp industry per-year:

in 1987 : 515.000 ton

1997 : 3.905.600 ton.

2005 : 12.745.600 ton.

National Environmental Issue: Forest and Biodiversity (5)

Industry Pulp and Paper2.1

15National Environmental Issue: Forest Degradation (4)

Mangrove Degradation in Indonesia

68% (5.9 million ha) mangrove forest degraded (mostly it is converted into prawn ponds) until 2002 from total 18 million ha of Indonesian mangrove;

Ecological services from mangrove:

Protection of shoreline;

Trapping of water-borne pollutants;

Nursery and feeding ground for fish, prawn, crabs and molluscs;

Nesting sites for birds; and

Resources for tourism and recreation

2.1


Global Warming

Cause: Increasing emissions of CO2

(from vehicles, industry),and other gases(methane, CFCs, etc.)

Impacts: Climate changes,

seasonal irregularities

Sea level rise Impact on: Agriculture,

Health, forest, water resources, coastal areas, and biodiversity.

Kyoto Protocol (2001)

2.2

17Global Environmental Issue: Global Warming (3)

People at Risk from Rising Sea-Levels

SOURCE: Hadley Centre 2003. Prediction of the effects of sea-level rise

by 2080. http://www.env.leeds.ac.uk/envi2150/lecture14/lecture14.html

Areas most vulnerableto wetland loss

> 50 million

1050 million

region boundary

PEOPLE AT RISK

(millions per region)

2.2

18Global Environmental Issue: Global Warming (3)

Rising Sea-Levels

2000 Indonesians small island will lost due to sea level rise (IPCC scenario:

sea level will rise 100 cm within 100

years, base yr: 2000) (Kompas, 2002)

2012 flooding in Jakarta: flood height 30cm 5 m.


Air Pollution (3)

Impact on human health: asthma, allergic respiratory diseases, adverse pregnancy outcomes;

5 % of the global disease resulted by indoor and outdoor air pollution.

2.4 million people of developing countries die annually due to exposure to high concentrations of outdoor and indoor SPM (suspended particulate matter).

2.4

More contribution of air pollution in Jakarta from vehicle.

Vehicle passing through Jakarta every day: motorcycle more than 6 million, four wheels vehicle

more than 3 million.

UI riset 2006, urine masyarakat DKI Jakarta mengandung hidrokarbon empat kali lipat lebih tinggi

dari yang diperbolehkan WHO.

Indikator buruknya udara : jika menggunakan transportasi umum atau berjalan kaki di pusat kota,

mencium bau bensin pada pakaian dan kulit.


Air Pollution (1)2.4


Air Pollution in Cilegon, 2006 2.4

22Global Environmental Issues:

Marine Pollution (2)

Source: International Petroleum Industry

Environmental Conservation Association,

International Association of Oil and Gas Producers

and United Nations Environment Programme. 2002

Industry as a partner for sustainable development:

Oil and Gas.

2.5

23Marine Pollution Caused by Seismic Survey:

Impact on Marine Mammals (1)

Noise and explosion

In air, 8 kg TNT detonations be visible and audible at a few KM. In the water, it were clearly detectable more than 9,000 km away (Tasker and Weir 1998).

Noise pollution coming from shipping, seismic surveys, oil drilling, marine construction and active sonar devices negatively impacting on cetacean populations

Example of marine mammals: whales, dolphins, seals and dugongs.

2.5

24Marine Pollution Caused by Seismic Survey:

Impact on Marine Mammals (2)

Known distribution of Dugong dugong in

Indonesia waters (Tomascik et al. 1997)

Whales and dolphins reported from Kalimantan waters (Celebes Sea and Makassar

Strait) (Tomascik et al. 1997): Steno bredanesis Orcinus orca Orcaella brevirostris Physeter macrocephalus Balaenoptera borealis Kogia breviceps (probably found)

2.5


Resources Depletion: Water (3)

Only 3% of the water on planet earth is fresh

water, and

Ketidakseimbangan kebutuhan air antara wilayah.

Pulau Jawa dan Madura, luasnya 7 % dari Indonesia, dihuni oleh 68 % total populasi, cadangan airnya

hanya 4.5 %.

Penduduk Indonesia yang bisa mengakses air bersih baru 20 %, dominan di kota.

Tahun 2003 PDAM baru mampu menyuplai sekitar 52,13 % kebutuhan air bersih untuk Jakarta.

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2.6Global Environmental Issue:

Resources Depletion: Water (3)

Layanan Air Bersih di Indonesia Paling Buruk di Dunia. SUARA PEMBARUAN Rabu, 22 Mei 2013

Kebutuhan air di Jakarta sebanyak 95% diambil dari luar DKI Jakarta.

LIPI, kebutuhan air untuk industri naik 700% tahun 2025. Perumahan naik rata-rata 65% dan produksi

pangan naik 100%.

Di Malaysia, tingkat akses sumber air di pedesaan mencapai 94 persen, Indonesia 69%.

Ketersediaan air baku di Kuala lumpur 99%, Jakarta hanya memasok 2,2% kkebutuhan masyarakatnya.


Resources Depletion: Water (3)2.6

28National Environmental Issue:

Resources Depletion: Coral ReefSignificance of Coral Reefs:

the most diverse and complex marine

communities;

coral reefs are responsible for the

deposition of half of

the calcium brought by

rivers;

more than 111 million tonnes of carbon per

year (climate change

issue).

Source: Burke, Selig, and

Spalding. 2002. Reef at Risk at

Southeast Asia. World

Resources Institute.

2.6


Population Growth (1)

2 babies born per second

World Total Population in 2000 = 6 billion, 5 times greater than 1900

Indonesia population 2010 more than 240 million.

Over-population will decrease access to:

Clean water

Food

Land

2.7


Population Growth (2)2.7


Global Community Issues: WSF

Global Issues (WSF World Social Forum): The negative impacts of the

current model of trade globalization including issues of debt relief and ongoing WTO negotiations;

The on-going militarization of the planet with a particular focus on the threatened war against Irak and Suriah.

Access and the right to clean drinking water.

2.8

Hear no evil, see no evil, speak no evil. WSF, Porto Alegre 23-28 January 2003

WSF: As the principal architects and beneficiaries of this

system, leaders gathered in Davos (WEF) are seen to be

responsible for and complicit in these abuses.

32Local Environmental Issue:

Local Community Issues

Local Issues:

Jakarta: need of open space vs poor people;

PT Inti Indorayon case (e.g., water pollution, job opportunities,

land use);

Dalam 2 tahun zin lokasi pabrik seluas 200 hektar di Porsea, dan

hak pengusahaan hutan (HPH)

seluas 150.000 ha, namun belum

mendapatkan izin Amdal (Analisa

Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan).

2.8

Ruang terbuka hijau adalah area memanjang atau mengelompok, yang penggunaannya lebih bersifat

terbuka, tempat tumbuh tanaman, baik yang tumbuh

secara alamiah maupun yang sengaja ditanam.

UU no 26 tahun 2007 : Lahan terbuka hijau minimal 30% dari luas wilayah. 20% RTH publik dan 10%

RTH privat.

Tidak ada RTH :

80% sinar matahari diserap oleh pepohonan, 10%

kembali ke angkasa, dan 10% menempel di

bangunan, aspal dan lainnya

Ada RTH 30% dari luas lahan :

90% panas akan menempel di aspal, genting rumah,

dan bangunan, 10% akan kembali ke angkasa.


Open Space2.8


Open Space2.8

No Kota % RTH

1. Jakarta 9,8% 2000-2011 RTH publik baru bertambah 0,8% .

2. Bandung 8,76% 1700 Ha

3. Semarang 7,5% 3,97 % RTH publik

4. Surabaya 9,6% RTH yang di bawah 10% menjadi 20,25%

tahun 2011

5. Bogor 10% Luas kebun raya 87 ha, kota Bogor 11.850 ha

Hutan pinus di pantai Padang PariamanRTH di Bandung

Jakarta memproduksi sampah sebesar 29.624 m3 per harinya tahun 2010.

Individu di kota kecil hingga menengah menghasilkan 2,5 - 2,75 lt (2-3 kg) sampah/hari.

Sampah organik menyumbang 65 % dari total sampah yang diproduksi.


Sampah2.8

Kementrian kesehatan (Riskesdas) : 6 metode yang digunakan rumah tangga untuk membuang sampah :

1) Diangkut oleh petugas kebersihan (23,4%), 2)

dikubur dalam tanah (4,2%), 3) dikomposkan (1,1%),

4) dibakar (52,1%), 5) dibuang di selokan/sungai/laut

(10,2%) dan 6) dibuang sembarangan (9%).

Pembakaran sampah menghasilkan gas dioxin dari pembakaran plastik. dan bahan beracun lainnya yang

ada didalam sampah.

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2.8Local Environmental Issue:

Sampah

Prinsip 4R yaitu :

1. Reduce, sebisa mungkin lakukan minimalisasi barang atau material yang kita pergunakan.

2. Reuse, sebisa mungkin pilihlah barang-barang yang

bisa dipakai kembali.

3. Recycle, yaitu sebisa mungkin, barang-barang yg

sudah tidak berguna lagi, bisa didaur ulang.

4. Replace, teliti barang yang kita pakai sehari-hari.

Gantilah barang-barang yang hanya dipakai sekali

dengan barang yang tahan lama. Hanya memakai

barang-barang yang lebih ramah lingkungan,


Sampah2.8


Hazardous and Chemical Waste

Kebocoran nuklir Fukushima ( Agt 2013) akibat badai dan hujan setelah rusak akibat tsunami bulan Maret 2013. Laut dan tanah tercemar

Accident at Union Carbide in Bhopal, India 1984: 3,800 dead, 500,000 sick. More than 40 tons of methyl isocyanate gas leaked from a pesticide plant.

Kebocoran amonia cair di Shanghai Agust 2013, 15 orang tewas, 25 luka.

2.9

39

Hazardous and Chemical Waste

Third World countries with less than 15% of the world pesticide consumption suffer

50% of poisonings and 75% of the deaths

resulting from improper pesticide

handling. (http://collections.ic.gc.ca/environmental/environment/

env-degrade.html)

Okt 2012 South Korea : 8 tons of hydrofluoric acid escaped from chemical

manufacturer following an explosion.

More 3,000 residents in the area

requested medical treatment for eye,

throat and lung irritation, also damaged

more than 200 hectares of farmland.

2.9


Chemical Wastes : POPs

What is POPs? a group of man-made

chemicals that:

cannot easily be broken down by natural processes,

accumulate in the body, and

are toxic to a wide range of fish and wildlife as well as people.

Effect on human health: endocrine disruption,

reproductive and immune dysfunction,

neurobehavioural and developmental disorders and cancer.

POPs: Pesticide (insecticide, herbicide, termiticide, etc), DDT,

PCB, dioxins and furans (The UNEP Governing Council Decision 19/13)

2.9

Global Historical Use/Source

1. aldrin and dieldrin

Insecticides used on crops such as

corn and cotton; also used for termite control.

2. chlordane

Insecticide used on crops, including vegetables, small grains,

potatoes, sugarcane, sugar beets, fruits, nuts,

citrus, and cotton. Used on home lawn and garden pests.

3. DDT

Insecticide used on agricultural crops, primarily cotton, and

insects that carry diseases such as malaria and typhus.

4.

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4. mirex

Insecticide used to combat fire ants, termites, and mealybugs.

Also used as a fire retardant in plastics, rubber, and electrical

products.

5. hexachlorobenzene

Fungicide used for seed treatment.

Also an industrial chemical used to make fireworks, ammunition,

synthetic rubber, and other substances. Also unintentionally

produced during combustion and the manufacture of

certain chemicals.

Also an impurity in certain pesticides.

42

6. PCBs

Used for a variety of industrial processes and purposes,

including in electrical transformers and capacitors, as heat

exchange fluids, as paint additives, in

carbonless copy paper, and in plastics.

7. toxaphene

Insecticide used to control pests on crops and livestock, and to

kill unwanted fish in lakes.

8. dioxins and furans

Unintentionally produced during most forms of combustion,

including burning of municipal and medical wastes, backyard

burning of trash, and industrial processes.

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2 Ecology