2 THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS AND THE SPANISH WAR OF … · 2016-05-23 · Jaque al trono, Planeta (Translated) THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS AND THE SPANISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE ... located

● Describe the main events of the American Revolution and analyse its historical significance.

● Identify the main events of the French Revolution and analyse its historical significance.

● Understand the importance of the Napoleonic Empire in Europe.

● Discuss the significance of the Spanish War of Independence and the achievements of the Cádiz Cortes.

2 YOU WILL LEARN TO…

THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS AND THE SPANISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Explain what a revolution is in your own words.

What do you know about the French Revolution? When did it take place?

In your notebook, write what you know about these historical figures: Washington, Napoleon and Goya.

The fear of revolution[…] We should not be so afraid of revolutions. England had its revolution and now it is much better than it was before. The American colonies went through their war for independence, and the result was positive.

[…] Revolutions are perhaps good for the generations which come after them, but for those who have to live through them they are disastrous. Violence, chaos, anarchy, suffering […] and war. We are surrounded by absolute monarchs. Do you believe they will allow us to throw out Louis and set up a democratic republic?

C. Muñiz, Jaque al trono, Planeta

(Translated)

THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS AND THE SPANISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Final task

Design a guided tour

Nowadays many people spend their free time visiting places in order to find out about historical monuments, people and events – both in their own country and abroad. Travel agents and tour operators can help tourists to organise these trips and can advise them about the best places to visit.

Have you ever thought about planning a historical or cultural trip? To learn how to do this you will plan a visit based on the events of the French Revolution or the Napoleonic Empire. You will include guided tours and produce a leaflet that will contain information about your trip.

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40 Geography and History

1. THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS

This process was begun by two revolutions.

❚❚ The American Revolution: the independence of the United States was the bourgeoisie’s first triumph. Their achievements set an example for revolutionaries in other countries to follow.

❚❚ The French Revolution: this put an end to absolute monarchy and the estates system of the Ancien Régime. As a result of the changes it brought about, the French Revolution marks the beginning of a new period of history – the Modern Age.

2. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783)

2.1. The causes of the war

The American War of Independence was caused by a combination of factors.

❚❚ Ideological factors: the colonists were familiar with Enlightenment thinking about liberty and equality. These ideas became the basis for the independence movement.

❚❚ Political factors: the British Parliament made decisions about taxes and other issues related to the colonies. However, Great Britain refused to allow the colonies to be represented in Parliament.

❚❚ Economic and social factors: by this time there was a wealthy colonial bourgeoisie who wanted the freedom to trade without the interference of Great Britain.

In the short term the conflict was caused by the high cost of the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), in which Great Britain fought against France for control of the territory that today forms part of Canada. Although Great Britain won the war, George III increased taxes on products such as tea, sugar and lead in order to pay his war debts.

The colonies refused to pay these taxes. There were various protests, such as the 1773 Boston Tea Party, in which a group of colonists threw a cargo of tea into the sea in Boston.

In response, the British government sent troops to Boston and closed the port. This event marked the beginning of the conflict.

The bourgeois revolutions enabled the bourgeoisie to gain political power and a social status which had only been available to the nobility under the Ancien Régime. These revolutions1 took place in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

In the American War of Independence, Great Britain fought against its 13 colonies located on the Atlantic Coast of North America.

THE 13 COLONIES

The 13 colonies

QUEBEC

GEORGIA

SOUTHCAROLINA

NORTHCAROLINA

VIRGINIA

DELAWAREMARYLAND

PENNSYLVANIA

NEW YORK

NEW HAMPSHIRE

MASSACHUSETTSRHODE ISLANDCONNECTICUT

NEW JERSEY

ATLANTICOCEAN

The 13 colonies were established by Great Britain in the 17th and early 18th centuries.

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2. The bourgeois revolutions and the Spanish War of Independence 41

Remember

1. What does the term ‘bourgeois revolutions’ mean?

2. Describe the relationship between the Seven Years’ War and the American Revolution.

Understand

3. Make a mind map in your notebook showing the causes and consequences of the American Revolution.

Apply

4. Draw a timeline showing the most important dates of the American Revolution.

Analyse

5. Examine the principles of the United States Constitution. Do they represent a complete victory for the Enlightenment or do they have some limitations? Include examples to illustrate your argument.

Create

6. Use the George Washington webpage to make a biographical profile. Include significant dates in his life, as well as the important events in his military and political career.

2.2. The War of Independence and its consequences

The war began when some of the colonies decided to fight for independence. In 1775 they created their own army, which was led by George Washington.

The war developed in two stages. In the first stage, Great Britain had some military successes but the colonists took actions that were politically significant. On 4 July 1776 the Continental Congress proclaimed the Declaration of Independence. In the second stage, the colonists’ military victory at the Battle of Saratoga led France and Spain to offer them support. As a result, the two sides were more closely matched in military terms. This led to a ceasefire.

Great Britain recognised American independence and the birth of the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Versailles.

In 1787, the United States Constitution2 was adopted. This established a federal republic3 based on the Enlightenment principles of equality and liberty.

The American Revolution had important consequences. The United States became a symbol for the struggle for liberty and equality in other countries. It also showed that it was possible to put Enlightenment ideas into practice.

1 revolution: radical and often violent change to a country’s political, economic or social system

2 constitution: basic law which defines the rights and liberties of the citizens of a specific country, and the powers and institutions of its government

3 federal republic: political system consisting of various states with political and legislative autonomy. At a national level they share the same president, constitution, foreign policy and army.

George Washington was Commander-in-chief of the colonial military forces during the war. He became the first President of the United States.

Important

The United States Constitution included these principles.

❚❚ Type of government: federal republic

❚❚ Popular sovereignty: this was expressed through male suffrage. However, only white men with a certain amount of property could vote.

❚❚ Separation of powers: the president was the executive branch, Congress was the legislative branch and the Supreme Court was the judicial branch.

❚❚ Rights: citizens were free and equal before the law. Despite this, slavery continued to be legal.

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3. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution was a period of violent political and social change, which saw the abolition of the absolute monarchy and the end of the estates system of the Ancien Régime. The French Revolution began in 1789 and is considered to be the first European bourgeois revolution.

3.1. The causes of the French RevolutionThe French Revolution was caused by a combination of related factors.

❚❚ The influence of the Enlightenment: French intellectuals and the bourgeoisie supported Enlightenment ideas and wanted to put them into practice. For example, they demanded that all French subjects be free and equal before the law.

❚❚ The economic crisis: the French monarchy was heavily in debt. This was because of the court’s excessive spending on parties, palaces and other luxuries, and also because of France’s participation in military conflicts such as the American War of Independence.

Poor harvests after 1770 led to an increase in the price of grain, which is used to make bread. As a result of high bread prices, the peasants and the urban poor often suffered from hunger.

❚❚ The social crisis: the economic crisis affected each of the three estates differently. The privileged estates (the clergy and the nobility) were able to maintain their income, but the Third Estate (the non-privileged) suffered from rising taxes, since they were the only estate that paid tax.

❚❚ The political crisis: to improve royal finances, Louis XVI’s ministers suggested that the privileged estates should pay tax. The nobility and clergy refused and demanded that the king call the Estates General. This was the only body that could approve new taxes.

Louis XVI governed France as an absolute monarch. He opposed meetings of the Estates General so that the estates could not limit his power and present their demands. However, in the face of the nobility and clergy’s demands, he was forced to call the Estates General in 1789.

THE ESTATES GENERAL

The spread of Enlightenment ideas

Pamphlets written by intellectuals who supported Enlightenment ideals contributed to the start of the French Revolution. One of these pamphlets was ‘What is the Third Estate?’ by Sieyès. He stated:

[The Third Estate is] everything. What has it been heretofore in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something.

The cahiers de doléances

Before they attended the Estates General, the representatives of each estate collected the demands of their social group in documents called cahiers de doléances. These showed what each estate wanted.

❚❚ Most of the clergy and nobility were opposed to losing their privileges.

❚❚ The Third Estate demanded equality before the law and an end to the clergy and nobility’s privileges. In addition, the enlightened bourgeoisie wanted to end absolute monarchy so that they would be able to participate in politics. The peasants wanted to abolish tithes and end feudal privileges4.

4 feudal privileges: privileges enjoyed by the nobility in their fiefdoms, such as the right to demand payment from the peasants for their lands, the use of the mill, hunting and fishing

Clergy300 representatives

Nobility300 representatives

One vote

One vote

One vote

Third Estate 600 representatives

Unequal representation

In the Estates General the three estates met separately. Each estate had one vote, even though the Third Estate had twice as many representatives as the other estates.

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Remember

7. What was the Estates General? Why did Louis XVI call it in 1789?

Understand

8. Describe the economic situation of each of the estates before the French Revolution.

9. Read the text about the Estates General and answer the questions.

a) Who voted in the Estates General?

b) What were the demands of each estate?

c) How many votes did the privileged estates have?

d) Why did the clergy and nobles want Louis XVI to call the Estates General?

10. Copy and complete the table about the causes of the French Revolution.

Ideological Political Economic Social

11. Read the text about Marie-Antoinette. Summarise in your own words what type of person she was, according to the author.

Analyse

12. What did Sieyès mean when he said ‘The Third Estate is everything.’?

13. Compare and contrast the causes of the French Revolution and the causes of the American Revolution.

Create

14. Look for information about Marie-Antoinette and write a short essay about her in your notebook.

Did you know?

Marie-Antoinette never visited a hospital or market [...] she did not try to learn anything about the daily lives of her subjects. Because she enjoyed life and had no worries, she believed that the same was true for everyone else [...] Marie-Antoinette never realised that around the Paris Opera, there was an immense area in which poverty and discontent were rife [...] She never realised that real peasant homes fell down and real farms were empty; she never realised that behind the gilded gates of her park, millions of people worked, experienced hunger and cherished hopes [...] What was the first concern of this Rococo queen when she awoke in the morning in the Palace of Versailles? To find out what was happening in the city or the country? To read the ambassadors’ reports in order to find out if the army had been victorious, or if war had been declared against Great Britain? Absolutely not [...] Her day always began with a very important ceremony [...] Marie-Antoinette had to decide what to wear.

S. Zweig, María Antonieta Juventud (Translated and adapted)

Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette (Josef Hauzinger, 1776)

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3.2. The events of the French RevolutionIn the face of increasing economic and political problems, Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General in 1789 in order to increase taxes. This meeting was the beginning of the French Revolution.

The National Assembly

The Third Estate asked for a new voting system in which each representative would vote individually. When the king refused, the Third Estate declared that, as the true representative of the nation, it was forming a National Assembly.

The king locked the National Assembly out of the Estates General, so they met at a tennis court nearby. They declared that they would not leave the tennis court until France had a constitution.

The Constituent Assembly

Finally, the king agreed to the Third Estate’s demands. A new Constituent Assembly was formed to write a constitution. This was a triumph for the bourgeoisie because the monarchy was no longer absolute.

News that troops were being sent to Versailles led to a riot in Paris on 14 July 1789, in which people attacked the Bastille (where political prisoners were kept).

The popular revolt spread from Paris to other cities and also to the countryside, where peasants attacked the homes of the nobility, burned their archives and refused to pay feudal duties. The revolt in the countryside is known as the Grande Peur (Great Fear).

In response to these events, the Constituent Assembly passed a range of legal reforms which they hoped would satisfy the demands of the peasantry and urban masses. They abolished feudal privileges and the tithes paid by the peasantry to the clergy. The assembly also established equality in the payment of taxes.

THE PHASES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Important

The National Assembly also wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. This document put Enlightenment ideas into practice.

I. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.

IV. Liberty consists of the freedom to do anything which does not harm others.

IX. All men are innocent until proven guilty.

X. No man may be disturbed for his opinions, not even for his religious beliefs.

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Republic (the Convention) Directory and ConsulateNational Assembly and Constituent Assembly

LegislativeAssembly

September1791

September1792

October1795

December1804

June1789

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

The storming of the Bastille (1789)

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Remember

15. How was the National Assembly created? Why did the National Assembly become the Constituent Assembly?

16. What measures did the Constituent Assembly adopt in relation to the clergy and the nobility?

Understand

17. Listen and answer the questions about the Women’s March.a) When did it take place?b) Why were the women protesting?c) What was the result?

Apply

18. Look at the image of the Storming of the Bastille on page 44. Write a newspaper headline and a short article describing the event. Use the Internet to find details for your article.

Evaluate

19. What is the main difference between the US Constitution and the French Constitution of 1791? Which do you think was more radical?

20. Why do you think suffrage was restricted by gender and property?

THE PHASES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

In order to solve the French state’s financial problems, the Constituent Assembly confiscated and sold church property. In 1790 the assembly passed the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. It subordinated the church to the French state. The clergy would now be paid by the state and would be elected by the people.

All of these measures led to discontent among part of the clergy and to the emigration of many nobles to other European countries. These people became counterrevolutionaries and began a campaign to defeat the revolution.

Louis XVI asked Austria for support against the revolution. He also tried to escape from France but this ended in failure. Louis XVI’s actions caused an increase in popular opposition to the monarchy.

In 1791 the assembly approved the constitution, which established:

❚❚ a constitutional monarchy, in which the powers of the monarch were limited by the constitution.

❚❚ limited male suffrage – only men with a certain amount of property could vote.

❚❚ the separation of powers – the monarch had executive power, the assembly had legislative power, and the courts had judicial power.

Republic (the Convention) Directory and ConsulateNational Assembly and Constituent Assembly

LegislativeAssembly

September1791

September1792

October1795

December1804

June1789

Attack on the Tuileries Palace (1792) Napoleon Bonaparte’s coup (1799)Execution of Louis XVI by guillotine (1793)

Important

Numerous women were active participants in the events of the revolution, and some were members of associations that demanded the equal right to participate in politics. However, the leaders of the revolution were opposed to this because they feared that it would radically change the traditional model of the family. For this reason, women were not given the right to vote. They continued to be limited to domestic roles as wives and mothers.

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The Legislative Assembly

After the Constitution of 1791 had been adopted, there were elections for the new Legislative Assembly.

Two main political groups emerged.

❚❚ The Girondins represented the interests of the wealthy bourgeoisie. They had moderate views and supported the constitutional monarchy and limited suffrage. They dominated the Legislative Assembly.

❚❚ The Jacobins represented the petite bourgeoisie. They had more radical views. They wanted to abolish the monarchy, establish a republic and introduce universal manhood suffrage (all adult males would have the right to vote).

During this time France was under constant threat of invasion by Austria and Prussia. In response, France declared war on these countries in 1792.

France’s defeats at the hands of the European armies and Louis XVI’s reluctance to accept the revolutionary changes caused unrest among the population. In August 1792 the people of Paris revolted and attacked the Tuileries Palace. As a result of this event, Louis XVI was imprisoned, the monarchy was abolished and France became a republic.

The Convention

This was the most radical phase of the revolution. A new assembly called the Convention was elected with universal manhood suffrage.

In 1793 the Convention agreed to execute Louis XVI for treason and he was beheaded by guillotine. The Jacobins took control of the government and imposed a dictatorship known as the Terror. The Jacobins were led by Robespierre and supported by the sans-culottes5.

Did you know?

A French doctor called Guillotin proposed the use of a 16th-century machine for executing those who had been condemned to death. He argued that it was humane because it would give prisoners a quick and painless death.

During the Terror (1793–1794) the machine became known as the guillotine. Public executions became a popular spectacle during this period.

Members of the nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie, peasantry and the urban labouring population were executed by guillotine. In total, about 42 000 people were sentenced to death, including Louis XVI, Marie-Antoinette and even Robespierre himself, after he had been deposed from his position as leader of the Convention. The execution of Louis XVI by guillotine

5 sans-culottes: radical Parisian labourers who supported the revolution and were often involved in popular protests and riots

Important

In 1793 the republic introduced the revolutionary calendar. It contained no religious festivals and the names of the months were changed. The months of the new calendar were named after the weather and agricultural activities, for example Germinal (germination), Floreal (flower) and Brumaire (fog).

Each month had 30 days and any extra days became national holidays. The months were divided into periods of 10 days, and each day had a numerical name, such as Primidi, Duodi and Octidi.

In 1806 Napoleon abolished this system and re-established the Western Christian calendar.

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Remember

21. What were the differences between the Girondins and the Jacobins?

22. What events led to the abolition of the monarchy?

Understand

23. Listen and write the form of government that is being described.

Apply

24. In your notebook make a timeline showing the main periods and events of the French Revolution.

Evaluate

25. Which period of the French Revolution do you think was the most radical? Write a paragraph to explain your ideas.

26. Why do you think the revolutionaries introduced a new calendar? How do you think people reacted to this change?

Create

27. Look for information about Robespierre. Write a biographical profile in your notebook, including important dates and events in his life.

Important

The French Revolutionary Wars were fought in order to stop the French Revolution from spreading to other European countries. The first took place from 1792 to 1797, and the second from 1799 to 1802. Both ended in French victories.

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The Directory and the Consulate

The moderate deputies overthrew the Jacobins in 1794 and in 1795 they adopted a new constitution. This constitution re-established limited male suffrage – a symbol of the bourgeoisie’s power – and it also introduced a new form of government called the Directory. This was a more conservative government that was made up of five members, or directors.

The power and influence of the army increased as a result of the continuing foreign war, and of the threat that the radical revolutionaries might return to power.

Napoleon established a new form of government called the Consulate. It was made up of three consuls, including Napoleon himself as First Consul. In 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for Life. This allowed him to introduce reforms to end France’s political and economic instability.

By 1804, Napoleon had absolute power and the French Revolution had ended.

In 1799 General Napoleon Bonaparte organised a military coup. He aimed to restore peace at home and abroad.

THE TERRORThe measures that were introduced during the Terror were intended to contribute to the war that France was now fighting against its European enemies: Austria, Prussia, Great Britain and Spain.

They also aimed to end internal revolts led by the counterrevolutionaries.

❚❚ A popular revolutionary army was formed to fight the war against France’s European enemies.

❚❚ There was widespread repression of counterrevolutionaries: anyone suspected of opposing the revolution could be executed.

❚❚ The Constitution of 1793 was adopted. It established universal manhood suffrage.

❚❚ The Law of Maximum was adopted. It fixed maximum prices for basic products to stop speculation and make sure that people could buy food.

Maximilian Robespierre (1758–1794)

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4. THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE

Napoleon’s main political achievements were:

❚❚ his domestic policy consolidated the changes made during the revolution. He established the Civil Code, which was a set of laws that applied equally to all citizens. It introduced new concepts such as civil marriage, divorce, adoption and state-controlled education. Private property was also protected.

❚❚ his foreign policy made France an empire as a result of his victories over Austria, Russia and Prussia.

Great Britain was the only country that Napoleon never defeated, despite the Continental Blockade he set up. No country allied with or occupied by France was allowed to import British goods.

Napoleon’s greatest desire was to create a united Europe, made up of kingdoms that were dependent on France and were under the control of the French emperor.

From 1812 onwards, Napoleon’s military power began to decline as a result of his failed invasion of Russia. In 1813 his army was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig by a coalition army that included Sweden, Austria, Prussia and Russia.

After Napoleon’s defeat, the victorious European powers re-established the Ancien Régime for a brief period.

In 1804, Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France (Napoleon I). His rise to power was made possible by his military victories in Europe. In fact, he had become indispensable to France.

Napoleon spread the revolutionary principles of liberty and equality across Europe. He also brought about the introduction of new constitutions that ended absolute monarchy in many European countries.

Following a brief exile on the island of Elba, Napoleon returned to France. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. He was exiled to the island of St Helena, where he died in 1821.

Did you know?

❚❚ Napoleon’s military strategy consisted of dividing his troops into various corps, which advanced on the enemy independently. Once the enemy had been found, they reunited in order to attack. The speed at which they moved into battle, and Napoleon’s ability to find the enemy’s weak point, made his forces almost invincible.

❚❚ French troops used tinned food during this period. However, they had to open their tins with their bayonets because tin-openers had not been invented yet.

❚❚ Napoleon’s armies used ambulances to transport injured soldiers away from the battlefield. The ambulances were carriages which carried medicines and doctors.

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE

Napoleon Bonaparte

He was an enlightened man, he read The encyclopedia and the writings of philosophers. He was ambitious and looked for glory, and made sure that his ambitions and those of post-revolutionary France coincided. He wasn’t always able to make his wishes come true, however. For example, he respected human life, but his wars caused the deaths of around one million French people.

C. MartíneZ Shaw, La aventura de la Historia

(Translated)

Napoleon at the Battle of Jena (Horace Vernet, 1836)

Napoleon (Jacques-Louis David, 1812)

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Remember

28. What was the Civil Code? What new concepts did it introduce?

Understand

29. What methods did Napoleon use to extend the achievements of the French Revolution to other countries?

30. Copy and complete the table in your notebook.

Foreign policy

Political actions

Countries he defeated

Country he could not defeat

Final defeat

Exile

31. Look at the map and answer the questions in your notebook.

a) Which countries applied the Continental Blockade?

b) Which of these were dependent on France?

Analyse

32. Did Napoleon continue the French Revolution or end it? Write an essay considering both sides of the argument. Include examples.

33. In what ways does the Napoleonic Empire resemble the current European Union?

Create

34. Use the Internet to make a poster about Napoleon. Include a map of Europe showing his most important battles.


The Napoleonic Empire contained the countries that Napoleon defeated or occupied.

❚❚ In the countries which depended on France, Napoleon put members of his family on the throne, for example Joseph Bonaparte in Spain, Louis Bonaparte in Holland and Jerome Bonaparte in the Kingdom of Westphalia.

❚❚ Countries that had been members of the anti-French coalition, such as Austria and Russia, were not ruled by France but they had to support the Continental Blockade against Great Britain.

LisbonMadrid

Paris

London

Dublin

Vienna

Stockholm

Berlin

Bucharest

Warsaw

Belgrade

CeutaMelilla

RigaCopenhagen

Moscow

PORTUGAL

SPAIN

FRANCE

UNITED KINGDOM

DENMARK

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

SWEDEN

SWISS CONFEDERATION

CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE

PRUSSIA

GRAND DUCHY OF WARSAW

ITALY

NAPLES

SICILY

SARDINIA

ILLYRIAN PROVINCES

PAPALSTATES

WESTPHALIA

HOLLAND

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Black Sea

North Sea

BalticSea

Mediterranean Sea

Controlled directly by France

Dependent on France

Coalition powers

Continental Blockade in 1811

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5. THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE

The end of the Ancien Régime led to a number of important changes.

❚❚ Political changes

– Other forms of government were established in Europe, such as the constitutional monarchy and the republic. These replaced absolute monarchy.

– Constitutions based on popular sovereignty were adopted. These included limited male suffrage, the separation of powers and protected the rights of the people.

– Political parties began to appear. They represented citizens’ interests and competed in elections.

– The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen established equal rights, but only for men.

❚❚ Economic changes

– All citizens now had to pay tax and contribute towards the state’s expenses. The nobility and clergy lost the privilege of not paying tax.

– The law guaranteed free trade and respect for private property. This benefited the bourgeoisie.

❚❚ Social changes

– The estates system disappeared because the nobility and the clergy no longer had privileges. Everyone was now equal before the law.

– As a result of the introduction of limited male suffrage, the bourgeoisie could now participate in politics.

The main consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire was the crisis and the subsequent fall of the Ancien Régime.

Important

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen is a list of rights which are recognised and guaranteed by the state. The most important are:

❚❚ the right to life.

❚❚ the right to assemble.

❚❚ the right to vote (suffrage).

❚❚ freedom of association.

❚❚ freedom of conscience.

❚❚ freedom of opinion.

Gran Enciclopedia Larousse (Translated)

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Did you know?

❚❚ The French Revolution also influenced Spain’s American colonies. In the early 19th century they rebelled against Spain. A few years later they gained their independence.

❚❚ Although absolute monarchy was revived in Europe after Napoleon’s defeat, the French Revolution continued to influence events. It inspired new revolutionary movements during the early 19th century.

Proclamation of the independence of Chile (Pedro Subercaseaux, 1945)

Understand

35. Which of the changes outlined above benefited the bourgeoisie? How did the French Revolution influence subsequent historical events?

Apply

36. Find examples of countries where people today do not have the rights guaranteed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

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Understand

37. Answer the questions in your notebook.

a) How did Spain react to Louis XVI’s execution?

b) What was the difference between the Treaties of San Idelfonso and the Treaty of Fontainebleau?

c) What were the consequences of the Revolt of Aranjuez?

Apply

38. Make a timeline in your notebook showing the main events of Carlos IV’s reign.

Evaluate

39. Why do you think most Spaniards rejected the Bayonne Constitution? Could people have benefited from it?

Create

40. Use the Internet to find out more about the Battle of Trafalgar. Write a short essay including the main events and dates, the countries involved and the consequences.

6. SPAIN DURING THE REIGN OF CARLOS IV

In Spain, Carlos IV’s reign began in 1788. It coincided with the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire.

Carlos IV had many ministers, but the most important was Godoy. Godoy’s relationship with France changed in response to the events of the revolution and empire.

In 1793 Spain joined the first coalition against France as a result of Louis XVI’s execution. However, France defeated the coalition, and in 1795 Spain signed the Peace of Basel with France and left the coalition.

By 1795, the French Revolution had moved in a more moderate direction. As a result, Godoy allied with France against Great Britain. The consequences of this alliance were:

❚❚ the signing of the Treaties of San Idelfonso (1796 and 1800), in which Spain promised to help France in an invasion of Great Britain. However, in 1805 the French and Spanish fleets were defeated by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar (Cádiz). This marked the end of Spanish naval power.

❚❚ the signing of the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), which allowed French troops to cross Spain in order to occupy Portugal (an ally of Great Britain). However, Napoleon took advantage of the treaty to occupy part of Spain too.

Godoy tried to move the Spanish royal family to Sevilla in order to protect them from the French troops. This caused a popular revolt in March 1808 known as the Revolt of Aranjuez. This event forced Carlos IV to dismiss Godoy and abdicate in favour of his son, Fernando VII.

Finally, in May 1808 Fernando VII and his father Carlos IV were moved to Bayonne in France. There they renounced their rights to the Spanish throne in favour of Napoleon. Napoleon then made his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, king.

Joseph I imposed the Bayonne Constitution, which included enlightened reforms such as the equality of all citizens before the law and in the payment of taxes. Although most of Spain’s population rejected the new constitution, Joseph Bonaparte had some Spanish supporters. These people became known as afrancesados.

Carlos IV and his family (Francisco de Goya, 1800–1801)

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7. THE SPANISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The Spanish War of Independence saw the Spanish population fight against the French from 1808 to 1813. On 2 May 1808 the people of Madrid rose up against the French occupation but they failed to overthrow the French. Despite their defeat, other parts of Spain were encouraged by their actions and the Spanish War of Independence began.

7.1. The course of the war

Local and provincial councils (juntas) were formed to fight against the French. These committees were governmental organisations whose members were elected by the people. For the first time in Spain, people were voting to choose their representatives.

These committees were led by the Central Council (Junta Suprema Central), which represented the absent Fernando VII in areas that had not been occupied by the French. The Central Council had both executive and legislative power. It managed the war effort and could sign treaties.

The war itself can be divided into several phases.

❚❚ 1808: Spanish forces won several victories, including the Battle of Bailén. This temporarily stopped the French from reaching Andalucía.

❚❚ 1808–1812: guerrilla warfare6 began. Napoleon came to Spain to oversee the French occupation. There were sieges in some cities, such as Zaragoza and Gerona. Finally, the French occupied all of Spain except for Cádiz.

❚❚ 1812–1813: the Central Council signed a military alliance with Great Britain. At the same time, Napoleon withdrew some of his troops from Spain in order to send them to Russia. The Anglo-Spanish and Portuguese troops, led by the Duke of Wellington, won victories at Los Arapiles, Vitoria and San Marcial. This forced the French to withdraw from Spain. In December 1813, Napoleon signed the Treaty of Valençay. As a result Fernando VII returned to the throne.

The consequences of the War of Independence were devastating for Spain. Agriculture was abandoned, and cities and industries were destroyed. In addition, almost a million people died in the war.

6 guerrilla warfare: the use of irregular military tactics against a regular army, such as surprise attacks and sabotage

2 MAY 1808

Anger exploded among the people to such an extent that it caused as much terror as the enemy’s artillery. […] All that could be heard were voices calling ‘To arms! To arms! To arms!’ Those who were not shouting in the streets were shouting from their balconies, and those people of Madrid who moments before had been curious onlookers became instant participants as soon as the artillery appeared. Everyone ran to their house, to the house next door, or to the nearest house to get a weapon. Those who found no weapons grabbed hold of any tool they could get their hands on. Anything that could be used to kill was useful.

B. PéreZ galdóS, El 19 de Marzo y el 2 de Mayo

Alianza Editorial (Translated) The 2nd of May 1808 (Francisco de Goya, 1814)

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Remember


The Spanish War of Independence

Date of the uprising

Early Spanish victory

Cities under siege

Spanish style of fighting

Spain’s ally

Final victories

Peace treaty

Understand

42. Look at the map. Make a list of the important battles and cities under siege. Then describe the route taken by the Anglo-Spanish forces.

Apply

43. Look at the painting by Goya on page 44. How does it depict popular involvement in the uprising against the French?

44. Look for information about the Siege of Zaragoza. What were the roles played by Agustina de Aragón and General Palafox?

Analyse

45. How important were these factors in the war’s outcome?

❚ Guerrilla warfare

❚ The alliance with Great Britain

❚ The work of the Central Council

❚ The departure of French troops to Russia

French campaigns 1808–1812

City under siege

Battle

Anglo-Spanish offensive 1812–1813

Cantabrian Sea

Mediterranean Sea

ATLANTIC OCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

La Coruña

Valladolid

Burgos

Badajoz

Madrid

Vitoria

Bayonne

Zaragoza

Gerona

Barcelona

Valencia

Murcia

Sevilla

Málaga Granada

Córdoba

Somosierra

Cádiz

Talaverade la Reina

Arapiles

Tuy

Astorga

Oviedo

CiudadRodrigo

Oporto

San MarcialPamplona

Bailén

Salamanca

MóstolesCastellón

Alicante

GibraltarCeuta

Melilla

Jaca

Santiago

Coimbra

Lisbon

TorresVedras

Palma deMallorca

Santa Cruzde Tenerife

Las Palmas

Alcañiz

BruchLérida

Figueras

THE SPANISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Did you know?

Joseph Bonaparte had the support of the afrancesados – the Spanish people who supported his reforms. Despite this, most people were opposed to him. Even though he did not drink alcohol, he was nicknamed ‘Pepe Botella’. This was because French troops had confiscated wine from Calahorra in La Rioja. The people chanted rhymes about him, for example:

Here comes King Cucumber across the fields, With a couple of bottles for the journey.

Joseph Bonaparte (François Gérard, 1808)

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Remember

46. Which social groups did the deputies of the Cádiz Cortes belong to? Who did they represent?

47. What was the difference between the absolutists and the supporters of Enlightenment ideas in the Cádiz Cortes? Give specific examples.

Analyse

48. Write a list of the similarities and differences between the French Constitution of 1791 and the Spanish Constitution of 1812. Which was more radical?

49. Write an essay discussing the historical importance for Spain of the Cádiz Cortes.

7.2. The Cádiz Cortes

The Central Council took refuge in Cádiz from the advancing French troops. In 1810 it was replaced by the Regency Council, which called the Cádiz Cortes.

The Cádiz Cortes was the first unified cortes in which each deputy (or representative of the Spanish people) had an individual vote. It was no longer based on the estates system, one of the keystones of the Ancien Régime. Each deputy represented the whole nation rather than the estate into which he had been born.

There were 223 deputies who were elected by the Spanish and American provinces. Most of them were clergy, military men, lawyers and merchants, so the bourgeoisie were well-represented.

Different groups emerged in the Cortes, based on their political views:

❚❚ the supporters of Enlightenment ideas, who wanted to end the Ancien Régime in Spain, and establish a constitutional monarchy with popular sovereignty and the separation of powers.

❚❚ the absolutists, who wanted the king to be restored as an absolute monarch.

On 19 March 1812, the Cádiz Cortes approved Spain’s first constitution, the Constitution of 1812. It was a victory for the Enlightenment ideas of liberty and equality.

Important

The work of the Cádiz Cortes was extremely important because it led to fundamental changes in Spanish politics and society.

❚❚ It brought about the end of the political structures of the Ancien Régime.

❚❚ Now that all citizens were equal before the law, the estates system disappeared.

❚❚ The constitution became a model for future constitutions, both in other countries and in Spain itself.

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THE CONSTITUTION OF 1812

The constitution established the following principles:

❚❚ a constitutional monarchy.

❚❚ popular sovereignty with limited male suffrage.

❚❚ the separation of powers: executive power (the monarch), legislative power (the monarch and the Cortes) and judicial power (the courts of justice).

❚❚ guaranteed rights and freedoms – equality before the law, the right to privacy, freedom of the press and the prohibition of torture.

❚❚ Catholicism as the official state religion – a concession to the absolutists. Declaration of the constitution in 1812 (Salvador Viniegra, 1812)

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8. ART: GOYA AND NEOCLASSICISM8.1. Spain: Francisco de Goya (1746–1828)

The diversity and development of Goya’s work was shaped by several factors: his professional career as a court painter, the historical context of the Spanish War of Independence and his deafness.

Goya supported Enlightenment ideas, and he moved to Bordeaux in France in response to Fernando VII’s absolutism. His works are a faithful reproduction of the events Spain experienced during the War of Independence.

Francisco de Goya was a court painter during the reigns of Carlos IV, Joseph I and Fernando VII. Goya was the most significant Spanish artist of his time, although his style is difficult to classify.

The grape harvest (Francisco de Goya, 1786)Thou who canst not (Caprice 42) (Francisco de Goya, 1797–1799)

The development of Goya’s work

Period Subjects and type of work Characteristics and techniques

1771–1808

Court painter

• Cartoonsfortapestriesmadeintheroyalfactory: The grape harvest

• Portraitsoftheroyalfamilyandnobility: The family of Carlos IV

• Religiouspaintings:frescoesintheErmitadeSan Antonio de la Florida, in Madrid.

• Printsfrometchings:The caprices

• Paintingsoflocalfestivals;useofpastelcolours

• Depictionofpeople’spsychologicalcharacteristics;attention to the detail of clothing and fabric

• RepresentationofthemiraclesofStAnthony;senseofdepth

• CriticismofSpanishcustoms

1808–1820

War of Independence

• Historicalthemes:The 2nd of May 1808 and The 3rd of May 1808

• Printsfromengravings:The disasters of war, The tauromaquia and The disparates

• Protestsagainstthehorrorsofwar;varietyofdifferentposes with lots of action

• CriticismoftheAncienRégimeandwar;depictionsofbullfighting themes

1820–1828

Exile in France

• Blackpaintings:Two old men eating soup

• Burgundypaintings:The milkmaid of Bordeaux

• Reflectionsonoldageanddeath;darkcoloursandnight scenes

• Depictionsofdailylife;loosebrush-strokesand less-defined figures

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Understand

50. In your notebook, make an outline diagram of the different periods of Goya’s work. Include examples of paintings and their characteristics.

51. Give four examples of similarities between Neoclassical style and classical Greek and Roman art and architecture.

52. Find the artists who produced these works.

❚ Paulina Bonaparte ❚ The disasters of war

❚ The Cibeles Fountain ❚ Cupid and Psyche

❚ The grape harvest ❚ The Pantheon

Apply

53. Describe two of the images on this page. Include their titles, the periods they come from, their characteristics and the techniques used.

Create

54. Use the Internet to find two works by Goya from each of the periods. Write a commentary on each work, including a description, the period it comes from, its characteristics, the techniques used and the effect on the viewer.

8.2. Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism was the result of a rejection of Rococo’s excesses and the discovery of the Roman ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii in Italy.

❚❚ Architecture: buildings were well-proportioned and imitated classical temples and triumphal arches, with columns and domes. Good examples are Soufflot’s Pantheon and Chalgrin’s Arc du Triomphe, both in Paris.

❚❚ Sculpture: works were usually made of white marble. They represented mythological themes or prominent figures, such as Voltaire and Rousseau by Jean-Antoine Houdon, and Paulina Bonaparte by Antonio Canova.

❚❚ Painting: because of the lack of Greek and Roman models, painters imitated classical reliefs. This meant that figures often looked like statues and tones of grey were frequently used.

Mythological and historical themes were common, although many idealised portraits were also produced. Well-known works include Cupid and Psyche by François Gérard, and The coronation of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David – Napoleon’s principal portrait painter.

Neoclassicism is an artistic style which developed in Europe between 1760 and 1830. The best-known Neoclassical artists were French.

Neoclassicism imitated classical Greek and Roman art and was characterised by its simplicity.

Chalgrin’s Arc du Triomphe Portrait of Napoleon I (François Gérard, 1805)

Important

In Spain, Neoclassicism was introduced by Carlos III, who commissioned various works to modernise and beautify Madrid.

❚❚ Architecture: Juan de Villanueva designed the building that is now the Prado Museum, as well as the Botanical Gardens. Francisco Sabatini built the Alcalá Gate.

❚❚ Sculpture: Ventura Rodríguez built the Cibeles Fountain in Madrid.

❚❚ Painting: Vicente López painted portraits such as Goya and Carlos IV and his family honoured by the University of Valencia.

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The Cibeles Fountain by Ventura Rodríguez


The bourgeois revolutions

The bourgeois revolutions were political and social revolutions through which the bourgeoisie obtained the political power and improved social status that had been reserved for the nobility under the Ancien Régime. These revolutions took place in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

The American Revolution (1775–1783)

❚❚ During the War of Independence, Great Britain fought against its colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America (the 13 colonies).

❚❚ Great Britain recognised American independence and the birth of the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Versailles.

The French Revolution

The French Revolution was the first European bourgeois revolution. It was a period of violent social and political change which ended the absolute monarchy, the estates system and the Ancien Régime.

❚❚ The Third Estate asked for the voting system in the Estates General to be individual, and not one vote per estate. The king refused and so the Third Estate formed the National Assembly, proclaiming themselves the true representatives of the nation. Finally, the king gave in and the Constituent Assembly was formed to write a constitution. The people of Paris also stormed the Bastille.

❚❚ Once the constitution had been approved, the Legislative Assembly was established. It abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic. Louis XVI was subsequently executed. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre and supported by the sans-culottes, took power and the dictatorship known as the Terror began.

❚❚ In 1794 the moderates removed Robespierre from power and in 1795 they established the Directory. In 1799, after many military victories, Napoleon took control of France by military coup. His objective was peace both at home and abroad, and he established the Consulate.

The Spanish War of Independence

❚❚ On 2 May 1808, the people of Madrid rose up against the French occupation. Their revolt failed, but it served as an example to the rest of Spain. The Spanish War of Independence began.

❚❚ In the absence of Fernando VII, the Central Council was formed. In December 1813, Napoleon signed the Treaty of Valençay, which returned the crown to Fernando VII.

❚❚ On 19 March 1812, the Cádiz Cortes adopted Spain’s first constitution, which was a triumph for Enlightenment ideas.

Spain: the reign of Carlos IV

❚❚ The reign of Carlos IV was profoundly affected by the events of the French Revolution.

❚❚ Spain signed various treaties of alliance with France against Great Britain.

❚❚ After the Revolt of Aranjuez, Carlos IV abdicated in favour of his son, Fernando VII. However, at Bayonne, Napoleon took the crown away from Fernando VII and gave it to his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte.

The storming of the Bastille (Charles Thévenin, 1790)

The Napoleonic Empire

❚❚ In 1804 Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor (Napoleon I).

❚❚ Napoleon spread the revolutionary ideas of liberty and equality. He introduced constitutions that ended absolute monarchy across Europe.

❚❚ Napoleon was finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo (1815) and was exiled to the island of St Helena.

Art: Goya and Neoclassicism

❚❚ Francisco de Goya was court painter for Carlos IV, Joseph I and Fernando VII. In Spain he was the most important artist of this period. His works are a personal and realistic depiction of events in Spain during the War of Independence.

❚❚ Neoclassicism was an artistic style that developed in Europe between 1760 and 1830. Its most important artists were French. Neoclassicism imitated classical Greek and Roman art, and used simple and pure forms.

2KEY CONCEPTS


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CONSOLIDATION

55. Define these terms:

❚❚ the French Revolution.

❚❚ Jacobins.

❚❚ constitutional monarchy.

❚❚ Treaty of Fontainebleau.

❚❚ limited male suffrage.

❚❚ Central Council.

❚❚ feudal rights.

❚❚ federal republic.

❚❚ Civil Code.

❚❚ Neoclassicism.

56. Draw three timelines in your notebook to show events in the United States, Spain and France. Add each of these events to the correct timeline. Then add more important events to each one.

❚❚ The start of the French Revolution

❚❚ The end of the Spanish War of Independence

❚❚ The start of Joseph Bonaparte’s reign

❚❚ The Treaty of Versailles

❚❚ The Constitution of 1812

❚❚ The end of the Napoleonic Empire

❚❚ The adoption of the US Constitution

❚❚ The start of Carlos IV’s reign

❚❚ The Boston Tea Party

❚❚ The end of Joseph Bonaparte’s reign

❚❚ The start of the American War of Independence

LisbonMadrid

Paris

London

Dublin

Vienna

Stockholm

Berlin

Bucharest

Warsaw

Belgrade

Ceuta

Melilla

Riga

CopenhagenMoscow

PORTUGAL

SPAIN

FRANCE

UNITED KINGDOM

DENMARK

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

SWEDEN

SWISS CONFEDERATION

CONFEDERATIONOF THE RHINE

PRUSSIA

GRAND DUCHY OF WARSAW

ITALY

NAPLES

SICILY

SARDINIA

ILLYRIAN PROVINCES

PAPALSTATES

WESTPHALIA

HOLLAND

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Black Sea

North Sea Baltic

Sea

Mediterranean Sea Controlled directly by France

Dependent on France

Coalition powers

Continental Blockade in 1811


57. In your notebook make an mind map showing the causes of the French Revolution.


Consequences of the French Revolution

Main

Political

Economic

Social

59. Look at the map of the Napoleonic Empire and answer the questions.

a) Which countries were part of the Napoleonic Empire?

b) Which countries did Napoleon fight against? Which country was he unable to defeat?

c) What ideas did Napoleon promote in his empire?

d) Which countries were ruled by members of the Bonaparte family?

e) When and why did Napoleon’s military power begin to decline?

f) Which country did Napoleon occupy as a result of the Treaty of Fontainebleau?

g) Which countries defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig?


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60. Read the two texts and answer the questions below them.

The law should apply equally to everyone […] because all citizens are equal under the eyes of the law […] Everyone should be able to obtain political office […] according to their abilities, and with no distinction other than that based on their virtues and talents.

Constitution of France 3 September 1791

(Translated)

a) What does the text say about the law?

b) Who should be able to obtain political office?

c) On what conditions should political office depend?

d) In which phase of the revolution was this constitution written?

e) What important changes took place in this phase of the revolution?

f) How many constitutions did France have during the revolution?

Article 1. The Spanish nation is made up of all Spanish citizens from both hemispheres […]

Article 3. Sovereignty belongs in essence to the nation, and therefore the right to establish fundamental laws also belongs to the nation.

Article 12. The religion of the Spanish nation is, and always will be, the Catholic religion […]

Article 15. The power to make laws is held by the Cortes and the king.

Article 17. The power to apply the laws […] is held by the courts established according to the law.

Article 366. In every town the monarchy will re-establish schools, in which children will be taught to read, to count and the catechism of the Catholic religion […]

Constitution of Spain 19 March 1812

(Translated)

a) Explain the reference to ‘both hemispheres’ in article 1.

b) Explain the effect of article 3 on the absolute monarchy.

c) Which articles refer to the separation of powers?

d) Which institutions and powers are mentioned?

e) In what ways was education going to be improved?

f) Why is this constitution significant in Spain’s history?

61. In your notebook write an essay describing the Napoleonic Empire’s domestic and foreign policies.

Paulina Bonaparte (Antonio Canova, 1805–1808)

62. Match these people and institutions to the United States, the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Empire or Spain.

❚❚ Goya

❚❚ Robespierre

❚❚ Federal republic

❚❚ Washington

❚❚ Consulate

❚❚ Continental Blockade

❚❚ Jacobins

❚❚ Directory

❚❚ Estates General

❚❚ Central Council

❚❚ Constitutional monarchy

❚❚ Arc du Triomphe

❚❚ Civil Code

❚❚ Godoy

❚❚ Carlos IV

❚❚ Battle of Saratoga

63. Look at the images and answer the questions about each one.

a) What type of art work is it?

b) What is the subject?

c) Who was the artist?

d) What artistic style is it?

e) What characteristics of its artistic style can you identify in this work?

The Alcalá Gate by Francesco Sabatini

OUP00_CABECERO_BLANCO OUP00_CABECERO_BLANCO9


Procedure

Have you ever planned a historical or cultural trip? To learn how to do this, you are going to design a tour of the events of the French Revolution or the Napoleonic Empire. You will also create a leaflet that describes your trip.

Materials ❚ Notebook ❚ Computer with Internet access

❚ Encyclopedias, historical atlases, books, documentaries ❚ Colour photocopier

Once you have organised yourselves into groups, you should decide which places and monuments you want to include in your tour, and what explanations the guide is going to give during the tour. It is also important to think about the leaflet you are going to design so that it is attractive and encourages people to go on your tour.

We recommend that you choose places and monuments related to either the French Revolution or the Napoleonic Empire.

Preparation

The Palace of Versailles

We suggest that you follow these steps.

❚❚ Selecting the information

– With your group, choose the historical period and events that you are going to focus on.

– Decide which historical figures are going to feature in your tour.

– Make a list of the places and monuments that are related to the historical figures and events that you have chosen.

– Write an account of the important events involving the historical figures you have chosen.

❚❚ Analysis

Once you have chosen the places and historical figures, you can begin to do research to find information about them. You should use a variety of sources, such as the Internet, encyclopedias and art books.

– Monuments: these can be either buildings or sculptures. Look for information about their technical details, and use the list on the right to make an analysis of them. Take into account where the monument is located, and whether there are other interesting monuments nearby.

– Historical figures: write brief biographies of the people who took part in the events you plan to explain.

– Events: find out about the important events, as well as their causes and consequences.

– Locations: look for information about the events that occurred in the places you have chosen, and why these events were significant.

– Anecdotes: look for additional details about the people, events and places to add interest and fun to your tour.

Technical analysis of a monument

❚❚ Function of the building

❚❚ Floor plan

❚❚ Description of the walls, supports and roof

❚❚ Materials used

❚❚ Decoration

Technical analysis of a sculpture

❚❚ Subject

❚❚ Type of sculpture

❚❚ Position of the figure(s)

❚❚ Material used

Napoleon crossing the Alps (Jacques-Louis David, 1800–1801)


1A historical guided tour

2

In small groups

2. The bourgeois revolutions and the Spanish War of Independence 612. The bourgeois revolutions and the Spanish War of Independence 61

Final task

Display your posters around your school and distribute the leaflets to different people (other students, teachers, parents).

If it is possible to actually go on the trip you have planned, for example as a class excursion, record a video and upload it to your school’s webpage or blog.

Communication and publication

❚❚ Carrying out the task

Decide with your group who will be responsible for each part of the task.

– Writing the text for the tour guide that explains each monument and historical figure. This should contain all the important information.

– Searching for suitable pictures

– Designing the promotional leaflet. This could have one or two sides, or you could also use a fold-out format. It should have clear information about the itinerary, including the places that will be visited. You should include one or two photos and you should also say how long the tour takes.

– Producing a poster to advertise your tour

1. How has your opinion of the period changed as a result of this task?

2. What have you learnt about the period?

3. What did you learn about the works you researched for the task?

4. Which did you find the most interesting? Why?

5. Which historical figures have you learnt more about?

6. Which historical figure did you find the most interesting? Why?

7. Do you think that this type of tourism is a good idea? Why?

8. Which Spanish city would you choose to visit on a historical trip about the Spanish War of Independence? Why?

9. Do you think the task has helped you to learn about and appreciate the historical period you chose?

SELF-ASSESSMENT

Napoleon Bonaparte’s tomb Notre Dame Cathedral The Column Vendôme

This webpage contains examples of historical trips around Paris:

http://inicia.oupe.es/hist4ebi0202w

Documents

2 THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS AND THE SPANISH WAR OF … · 2016-05-23 · Jaque al trono, Planeta (Translated) THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS AND THE SPANISH WAR OF INDEPENDENCE ... located