2 the Land and the People

8/6/2019 2 the Land and the People

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THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE

1. GeographicalOutline

InShakespeareschronicleplayRichardII, therearesomefamous lives

uttered by John of Gaunt, in which the beauty and uniqueness of

the country is nowhere better extolled; the text is a wonderful

portrayal of what thisblessedplot of land shows and means to itspeople.

Thisroyalthroneofkings,thisscepteredisleThisearthofmajesty,thisseatofMars, ThisotherEden,demi-paradise;ThisfortressbuiltbyNatureforherselfAgainstinfectionandthehandofwar;This happy breedofmen, this littleworld;Thispreciousstoneset in thesilverseaThis blessedplot, this earth, this realm,this

England,(ActII,SceneI)

The excerpt portrays the island myth, a nature fortress against

threats coming from outside, the plot of landpeopled with a happy

breed of men recognizing their fortune in belonging to the island

community. But, the country consists of a multitude of islands

representing geographical and regional distinction, and the idea of a

single island has been one of the most misleading British myths;

however, the myth has been a useful oneby creating the image of a

single islandpeople staying together against the rest of the world, the

English, Scots, Welsh and Irish constituting a cohesive unit [50,p.

500].

ForanEnglishman, as MonicaRedlich says[38;p. 13], nomattertheplacewherehehappenstolive,whateverthebackground,thatplaceisthebestofallintheworld,isthemostspecialone;forone;itmaybe

Devon,for another the Welsh border,for anotherLondon,for another


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EastAnglia; but each of them knows that hisparticular corner ofEnglandisthebestpossibleone.Eventhedrawbacksarebetterwhichis to say worse than those of any other district; its frost areunsurpassable, its mud in winter timescarcely to be believed. We mustreturntothismatterforonecannotunderstandEnglandortheEnglishifonedoesnotrememberit.TheEnglishmanloveshisplaceandhishome,and,notaccidentally,they

saythatforanEnglishmanhishomeishiscastle.

The full name of the country is theUnitedKingdom ofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland; the names United Kingdom, Great Britain andEngland are often confused, evenby the United Kingdom inhabitants

[53;p.1].Sometimes, thenameBritain isusedwithreference toThe

United Kingdom. The country is located off the north-western coast of

Europe,itstotallandareacovering94,231squaremiles(244,110sq.km)

with300 milesacrossat itswidest,andabout600 miles from the topof

thenorthernpointtoitssoutherncoast.

The United Kingdom consists of four geographic and historicalparts:

England, Wales andScotland which constitute together Great Britain,the larger of the two main islands, andNorthernIreland,part of thesecondlargeislandwhichalsoincludestheRepublicofIreland,(Ireland

orEire)politicallyindependentandnotpartoftheUnitedKingdom.

There are also numerous isles spread along the coast, large enough or

quite tiny: theIsle ofWight to the south of England, and theIsles ofScilly to its southwest; the island ofAnglesey lies off north-westernWales,whiletheIsleofManisaboveit,intheIrishSea,facingtheLakeDistrict; theHebrides lie to the westof Scotland,while theOrkneyandShetlandislandslietoitsnorth.The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands off the French west coast are

not part of the United Kingdom, being self-governing Crown

Dependencies; theyhave theirown independent legalsystem, legislatures

and administrativebodies, with the British government responsible for

theirdefenceandforeignrelations,andbeingentitledtointerfereincase

ofunproperadministration.


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England is the largest (129,634 sq. km/50,052 sq. miles) and most

densely populated part of the United Kingdom, being the most

industrializedoneaswell.

Wales (20,637sq. km/7,968sq.miles) lies westof theEnglish lowland,

being composed almost entirely of rocky outcrops dissectedby deep

valleys,butwithawell-known industrialsouth.WalesandEnglandwere

unified administratively, legally, andpoliticallyby the Acts of Union

(1536,1542).

Scotland (77,179 sq. km/29,799 sq. miles) is the most northern and

mountainouspart of Great Britainbut the less denselypopulated one,as a

resultofitspositionandhighground.In1707,ScotlandjoinedEnglandand

WalesbyformingasingleParliamentandthecountrybecameGreatBritain.

TheareaofNorthernIreland(13,438sq.km/5,206sq.miles)consisting

of 6 counties, whichbecamepart of the United Kingdom in 1922, is

relatively smallbut varied, with a growing industry,particularly in and

around its capital, Belfast. It has a common frontier with the Irish

Republic(200mileslong)whichrepresents,infact,theonlylandborder

of theUnitedKingdom.Witha territory consistingofsmalleror larger

islands,theUnitedKingdomisacountrysurroundedbysea.TheEnglishChannel lies to the south of England (between the UnitedKingdomandFrance)while theNorthSea lies to theeast,bothof them,together with the Strait of Dover separating England from Europe. The

seas arenotdeep,but they are frequently roughand difficult tonavigate

during storms, which made crossing from England to France far from

pleasant. Nowadays, a tunnel constructed under the English Channel

connects, the two countries. To the west, theIrishSea surrounds theland, while the north-western coast of Ireland andwestern Scotland face

theAtlanticOcean.TheseasaroundBritainaregenerallyshallowandprovideexceptionally

good fishing grounds. Thedistance from the south coast of England tothe most northerlypart of Scotland is 960 km (600 miles), while the

distancebetweenEnglandsandWalescoastsare480km (300 miles),

makingthatnoplaceintheUnitedKingdombemorethan80milesfrom

thesea.However,thereusedtobepeopleinBritainwhohadneverseen

the sea, a fact which is no longer the case in our days. The distances

being relatively small, the development of politicalunion the

standardization of social, economic and institutional norms, as well as

propercommunicationshavebeenpossible.


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ThefactthatBritainisanislandhasdeterminedandexplainsmanyofthe

consequences of its special development; it has mainly made of its

inhabitantsaseafaring nation,sailorsandmerchants, travelingacross the

seas and oceans of the world,but,permanently, longing for and coming

back to their precious homeland. It also meant invasion orsecurityfrom invasion, shipyards, a gentle climate, Brightonpiers, and sandcastles,andmuchelsebesides[38;p.15].Thus,theseaisquitefamiliartotheEnglishmanandhe,instinctively,turnstoitastohisfriend.


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AnotherimportantgeographicfeatureofthemainislandofGreatBritain

is its deeply indented coastline; it has created, as a consequence, the

sheltered bays and caves, a lot of perfect natural harbors, easily

accessibletodeep-watershipping,adecisivefactorbothforthecountrys

economic development and for its imperial expansion. Besides, the high

tides provide safe anchorages along a large number of rivers and

estuariesofthecountry.

The coast is of a great diversity andbeauty and it is said that it offers

something for everybody in every mood; maybe, its mostbeautiful

parts are tobe found in the south-west of England and in the west of

Scotland. There is much indentation along the coast of Devon and

Cornwall with the hills running close to the sea andbecoming cliffs.As

regards the southern and eastern coast, it is composed of chalk cliffs

which vary in size, the coast being sometimes flat, and of a less

dramaticeffect.

On the other hand, the north-western coast offers images of a wild

beauty: here, many river valleys (fyords), widenedby the sea-drownedglaciers,penetrate deeply into the mountains which are stately rising

from the sea, either forming elongated peninsulas or emerging in

hundredsofsmalloffshoreislands.

There are alsobig seaside resort towns which have grown up on the

coastline: Brighton, Bournemouth or Southend in the south, and

Blackpool in thenorth-west, amongothers.Theyarewell-known for the

greatnumberofvisitorstheyreceive,eitherforafortnightstayorjustfor

a couple of hours spent on thebeach. The coastline which can be

admired today, is the result of the natural forces whose actions are

still in apermanentprocess; over time, the sea moved backwards andforwards, with the coastline sinking under or rising above it, the

seas retreat creating either the chalk and limestone uplands or the

beaches along the coasts;but, in someplaces, the process oferosion is

stillon,theseaconsumingthelandslowlyandrelentlessly.

Besides the sea, the second importantpresence in the scenery of Britain

arethehills,asthiscountryisalandwithoutspectacularhighmountains.

Withsomeexceptions,afewdistrictsineasternEnglandwheretheland

issmoothandflatandWestWalesandNorthScotlandwhichhavesome

real mountains, theprevailing landscape of the country is the hilly one,


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butofawidevarietywithboth largeandsmallhills.Thehillplaysan

importantpart in the life of thepeople and in their way of thinking as

well. An average Englishman asked to imagine a typically Englishscenewillalmostcertain include in itsomefamiliarhill toporarowofblue-shadowed hills in thebackground.ThehillsarepartandparceloftheEnglish culture,beingpartof thepeoples lifeastheyseparateonetown or villagefrom another, they act asshelterfrom theprevailingwind, they change colour continually with the changes ofsunlight andcloud, theygivepointandpurpose toacountrywalk; theymake theoldrhymeaboutoverthehillsandfarawayasymbolofadventureandtheunknown[38;p.11].

2. ReliefandEconomicDevelopment

Thearchipelago that forms theUnitedKingdom, irregular inshapeandbeautiful in the diversity of its scenery, is, largely, the result of its

underlying structure, of its nature and disposition: the archipelago

represents the westward extension of European mainland, connected,

thousands of years ago, by land links which disappeared under the

shallow waters of the Strait of Dover and theNorth Sea. The Strait ofDover represents, now, the shortest stretch of water separating the two

landmasses(29miles/32km).

It was the consequence of the glaciers melting in the last Ice Age,

causing the sea level to rise, and the separation of the island from the

continent. In its turn, Northern Ireland is the westward extension of

Scotlandsrocks.ThegreatvarietyofBritainsgeography is theresultof

a long geological history: its oldestparts were formedby the mountain

chainsrisingfrom thesea-bed,duetotheearthmovements.

Between the earth movements, there were important climatic changeswhen warm, sub-tropicalperiods alternated with sub/arctic ones; thus,

during the warmperiods there were large swamp forests which covered

the lowland areas, (their fossil remainsburiedby sand soil and mud

formedthecoaldepositsoftheisland)whileinthecoldones,theglaciers

movedsouthwards leaving their markover the mostof thearea,shaping

the details of the valleys andplains, and deciding the sitting of the

futurerivers.


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The highest part of the Highlands is represented by the GrampianMountains (1,000-3,500 feet above sea level), reaching their highestaltitude with the Cairngorms, exceeding 4,000 feet (Ben Nevis, thehighest mountain of Great Britain stands abit farther to south west).

Numerous mountains torrents and brooks descend from the highland

masseswhicharefurrowedbywidevalleys.However, the Highlands of

Scotland are not entirely of great altitude; there are occasional areas

of lowland, sharply contrasting with the mountain scenery around;long linesofsand dunes fringe them,adding varietytothelandscape.

There are many long and narrow fresh water lochs, some of them

exceptionally deep, which enhance the wild beauty of the lonely

landscape.LochLomond deserves a special mention for its wonderfulscenery, while Lock Ness is a famousplace for the largely debatedmonsterwhichissupposedtolivethere.

The Western coast is intersected by long, narrow sea lochs

orfyordswhichcut deep into the land, making the coast rugged

and irregular. The cliffs vary in character according to the natureofthe rock. The population is not dense in the mainland and the

Highlands, the largest parts of heather-covered moorland being

uninhabitable; however, many remote places along the west coast

have recently developed as summer residences,famousfortheirwild

beauty. The most important towns of the Highlands are Aberdeen,

(university town, manufacturing centre, port and place of oil support

facilities), Inverness,Peterhead,Elgin,etc.The Highlands of Scotland

also include numerous islands, the most importantbeingtheHebrides,

theOrkneysandtheShetland.

TheHebrides

(consisting of Outer Hebrides and Inner Hebrides) canbeconsidered a broken archipelago, formed of eighty inhabited islands.

Manyoftheseremoteislandsaresmallandrocky,withonlylighthouses

and few inhabitants. Their landscape is very attractive, rugged and

picturesque,especially insummer timewhen theyarevisitedbypleasure

cruisers, as tourism to these islands has recentlybecome of growing

importance. The richest and most productive of all islands is Islay,

situated in theextremesouthof theInnerHebrides; it isknownforgood

troutandsalmonfishingduetoitsmanyfreshwaterlochsandriverswith

whichitisprovided.


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Stock raising and dairy farming are of great importance, the islands

maincropsbeingoats,potatoesandsomeothervegetables.

The Orkneys are growing in importance with the development of oil-fields in theNorth Sea; they are also known for sheep raising, largely

kept on common grazing land; some farm land canbe found in some

parts of the island, and fishing of herring shoals, appearing off the

Orkneys,ispossibleinsummertime.

TheShetlandIslandsliein thefarnorth,makingacompactarchipelagoofaboutonehundred islandsand islets,outof whichonlyno more than

twenty/twenty five are inhabited,because of theirposition and severe

climate conditions. The Shetlands are famous for sheep raising,

appreciated for the finewool produced by a native breed able to live

out in all weathers; the harsh conditionsaresaidtobebeneficialforthe

wool quality. There is a well-known hand-knitting industry here

using traditional patterns, which has greatly contributed to the islands

prosperity.In many ways, the Shetland Islandsare unique; thebeauty of

the scenery is also remarkable, with rugged ridges, many fresh water

lochs and sea inlets. There are long summer twilights, a reminder ofthe northerly latitude.

The CentralLowlands liebetween the Highlands, theboundarybeing,here, of a wall-like feature, and the Southern Uplands. It constitutes a

broad depression,but this trench is,by no means, a continuousplain;

therearemanyseparategroupsofhillshere,andisolatedcragsformedof

sturdy, resistant masses of volcanic rock. (The Castle of Edinburgh is

builtonahillof this typeof rock).There are three chief valleys in the

Central Lowlands: the valley of the Tay and of the Forth descending

from the Highlands, and the valley of the Clyde descending from the

Southern Uplands; the last two form the deeplypenetratingestuariesoftheFirthofClydeandtheFirthofForth.Therearenotmanylochsinthis

part of the country,but there are shallow lakes of various sizes. The

population of this region is comparatively dense, as a consequence of

theimportantindustrialpositionoftheregion.

The main important towns are Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Dundee,

Paisley,Perth,etc.eachofthemspecialisedinsomespecificproduction.


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Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland, famous for its fine setting,architectureandhistorical interest.;administration is themainactivityof

this city,but it is also abanking and insurance centre; Edinburgh is a

university town, its universitybeing founded in 1582. In the town there

are industries of quite considerable importance as rubberproduction,

bakingandmillingindustries.

Glasgow is known for a great variety of manufacturing industries, asheavy industry,includingshipbuilding,beinganimportanttextilecentre

as well. Glasgow is also known for itsbook-producing andpublishing

firms. It is one of the countrys chiefports and a leading distribution

centre.Close to the manufacturing districts lie rich agricultural lands,

situated especially in the east of the region; the main crops arebarley,

oats and potatoes,withafarmingnotableforitshighyields.

The Southern Uplands lie to the south of Central Lowlands, from theNorthChannel (south-west) toSt. AbbsHead (north-east);much of this

part of Scotland consists of high ground; however, in comparison with

theNorthern Highlands, the relief is more subdued here, and its highestpointisonly2,800feetabovethesea.

ThemainhillmassesaretheCheviots,culminatingwithBroadLawand

Merrick, which is the highest summit in the region (above

2,700 feet),both of thembeing mainlybased on volcanic rocks and

granite; they, together with the rugged imprint of formerglaciers,givea

mountainous quality to the landscape. Otherwise, the general aspect of

the region is of broad plateau surfaces separatedby numerous dales

covered with woods. There are many rivers flowing in the west of the

regionandfollowingthe slope of theplateau towards the SolwayFirth.In the east, the Valleyof

the

Tweed

and itsnumeroustributariesformabroad lowland expanse. One of the mostpicturesque andbest-known

locks is the wild and lonely Loch Skene. The easternpart of the uplandcarriesagreatdealofmoor.

The density of thepopulation in the Southern Uplands is not very high;

the urbanpopulation is concentrated in a number of small market and

textile towns, but, for the most part, the region is rural, with its

population either grouped in small villages or scattered in hill and

lowland farming units; sheep raising hasbeenpractised for a long time;

dairy farming is developed, as well as fishing, sideby side with the


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woollen industry. The largest and most important town of south-west

Scotland isDumfries well known for its textile industry embracing

a variety of knitted garmentsforhomeandforeignmarkets.

Stranraer is another town, smallbut important as a dealing centre withdairyproducts.This region is also known as theBorder country, and itis important as wellbecauseofSirWalterScottwhosespecialprovinceitwas.

As regards the economic development of the three regions forming

Scotland, the traditional industries (coal, steel and ship building)

have recently declined,but less dramatically than it happened in other

parts of the UK. There hasbeen an important growth in new industries,

such as chemicals, electronic engineering and some forms of

mechanical and instrument engineering. Thus, Scotland accounts for

more than half of Britains output of integrated circuits and for

more than 10 p.c. of European output [54;19].Aserious impacton

its economic development was due to the discovery of oil and gas

under theNorth Sea, a large number of jobsbeing estimated to havearisenasdirect or indirect resultofNorth Seaactivities.

As regards the traditional industries thereare some textiles (high quality

tweeds, food and drinkproducts) which are still important. There are

more than 100 whisky distilleries, especially in north-east Scotland,

whisky exports valuing over 2 million. Services have also expanded:

there are four Scottishbased clearing banks having limited rights to

issue their own banknotes, and there is also a large number of

insurance companies. As regards agriculture, 80p.c. of Scotlands land

area is devoted to this activity,muchofthelandrepresentinggrazingfor

cattleandsheep.The productivity of the arable land is high, and its

principal crop is barley,usedinproducingwhiskyandbeer.Nearly halfof Britains forest area lies in Scotland, and the timber production

isalsonotable.Fishing is an activity well represented, especially in the

north-east area and in the islands; more than 60p.c. of the total value

ofBritains fish landingcomesfromScotland.

In general, and with few exceptions, Scotland canbe characterizedby

harshphysical conditions, a cold climate and isolationbecause of its

remoteness; as a consequence, settlement there, agriculture, general

development,butalsoitsconquest,havebeendifficultovertime.


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Northern Ireland (at its nearest point only 13 miles/12 km from

Scotland) couldbe considered an extension of the Scottish Highlands,

presenting the same type of mountain scenery, with peat-covered

summits, (Sperrin Mountains, 2,241 feet above the sea) while theuplands here, are a continuation of the Southern Uplands of Scotland;

however, the land is flatter (500 feet) with the exception of theMourne

Mountainaclusterofgranitesummits risingsharply in thesouth-east(thehighestpeakSlieveDonardis2,796feet(853m).Thedifferenceinthegeologicalstructure is representedby an outpouring ofbasaltic lavas

which formed a hugeplateau, its largestpartbeing coveredbyLough

Neagh(147sq.miles/381sq.km),ashallowfreshwaterlake,thelargestinBritain.

Economically, Northern Ireland has for long been a traditional

manufacturer of textiles, especially linen; nowadays, its industry

(situatedmostlyintheeasternpart)isdiversified,showingexcellencein

theproduction of vehicle components, oil-drilling equipment, electronic

instruments, synthetic rubber. Most of the province population,

generally sparse and scattered, is concentrated in Belfast and in the

neighboring counties. Belfast, the capital, stands at the head of the

wide Belfast Lough, where the riverLagan reaches the shore; itslocation made it aport of great importance for Northern Ireland; it

has developed a large shipyard, where a considerablenumberof

passenger liners and aircraft carriers werebuilt. There are some other

towns situated in valleys, such as Londonderry, especiallyknown for

its clothing industry,Ballymena,Newry etc. As regards, agriculture, itincludes livestock products, while the main cereal crop areoats; there

is abigproduction ofpotatoes, as well; many farmers grow flax and

fruitsinthesuitabledistricts.

The Highland region of Great Britain continues to the southwith theHighland of England and of Wales. Here, it consists of four upland

masses descending from north to south: ThePennines, the CumbrianMountains,theCambrianMountainsandSouthWestpeninsula.The Cambrian Mountains (known as theWelsh Massif) form thecoreofWales; their slopes go down into the sea, excepting the eastern side

where theyborder the Englishplain. The general scenery they offer is

that of a hilly region dissectedby long, deep wooded valleys; their

ancient summits were worn down by cycles of erosion and glacial


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processes, the activity of former volcanism being visible as well.

However, there are still fine peaks, especially in North Wales, in

Snowdonia and in its southward extensions, Cader Idris and theBerwynmass,were mountainareasabove 2,000 feetare tobe seen(Snowdon massif is the highestpart of Wales, 3,561 feet high/1,085 m;but CarneddDafydd 3,427 feet, and CarneddLlewelyn 3,485 feet,are also worth mentioning). With some exceptions, Wales central area

does not include similarhigh surfaces,mostof the region representingaplateauwithmuchgrass-coveredmoorland.

Thesceneryissmoothandroundedwitharemarkableevenskyline.Only

in the south, theBlack Mountains and theBreconBeacons canbe seenstanding out, again, in their wonderful solitary splendour above the

upland. Tothenorthwestof theWelshmassifliestheIsleofAnglesey,aremnant of a very ancient land mass. There are several valleys that

radiate from the highland core to the coastal regions which have a

milder climate, being sheltered from the high winds. Besides this

higher area, there are other two zones in the region, presenting a

bit different nature: the south easternpart, which canbe considered,physically and structurally, an extension of the English plain, andWelsh

borderland,hilly,butlowerthantheWelshMassif.

The southern area is the most denselypopulated, due to its industrial

development. Thispart of Wales is well known for the ferrous metals

manufacturing and cool mining. A high quality coal started to be

extracted here as early as the 13th century; theseaproximity made the

coal transportation easy, the region becoming one of thebiggest coal-

mining centres in the world. In time, because of the difficulty of coal

extraction, and the decrease in demand for the Welsh coal, the

mining industry ceased to be of utmost importance. However, the

traditional industry of steel making remains important, sideby sidewith the development of a more diverse range of manufacturing

industries, many of them at the forefront of technology;(electronics,

information technology, automotive components, chemicals, etc.); they

havestartedtodevelopnotonlyinthesouth,butalsoinnorth east.

As regards agriculture, it occupies nearly 80 p.c. of Wales land area.

The most extensive crops are wheat,barley, oats and mixed corn. Other

main activities are sheep and cattle rearing in the hilly regions, and dairy

farming in the lowlands. About 12p.c. of Wales territory is coveredby


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woods.The most important towns of the region areCardiff, the capital of

Wales andanancientcity,SwanseaandNewportinthesouth,andColwyn,Bay,Pembrokeandothersinthenorthwesternarea.The rest of the Highlands regions represents England. The Pennines,

considered to start in the north, along the river Tyne gap, and running

straightdown thecentreof thecountry, are alsocalledthebackboneofEngland. (TheCheviotsare thenortherly extensionof thePenninesandthe surface of this arch is remarkably smooth, with bare, rounded

heights). The Pennines have few sharppeaks, and chiefly consist of

plateaux situated at different levels. The valleys, although deep, cover

smallareas,so that themoor landbetween them lookalmostfeatureless.

Theplateaux in the north are of a less hospitable character,because of

low temperatures,heavysnowfallsandrainfalling.TheCentralPennines

are lower and densely populated (Manchester, Sheffield, Nottingham,

DerbyandLeicesterbeingthemostimportanttownsinthearea).

Thesouthernpartof thePennines isamoregrassyupland,characterized

by dry valleys and steep-sided gorges. At lower levels the larger dalesare more richly wooded, the trees standing out against abackground of

rugged cliffs of white grey rocks [53,p.3]. To the north-west of the

Pennine system lie the Cumbrian Mountains, constituting a compact

and isolated mountain group. They include the famousLakeDistrictorLake Country orLakeland. The region is well known for its greatnaturalbeauty it is considered the mostbeautifulpart of England,

the lakes occupying many ice- deepened valleys and showing a

wonderful variety. The largest lakes are Windermere, Coniston Water,DerwentWater andUllswater.There are numerous swift and clear streams, and small water falls, and,in spite of the fact that the altitude is not high, two individual masses

tower over the surrounding area (the highest, Scafell Pike, is only3,210 feet, and Helvelyn,3,116 feetabove thesea).The northern part

of the Cumbrians is formed of tough slate rocks cut into deep gorges,

separated by narrow ridges and sharp peaks. To the south, there are

greater expenses of level upland formed from the lava and the ash

thrown out by ancient volcanoes. There are clear glacial actions

which created the hanging valleys, and left signs of their

passage. This mountainous district is also widely known for its


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associationwiththehistoryofEnglishliterature,and,especially,withthe

name of William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and other Lakepoets, who

celebratedthespecialbeautyofthisareaintheirpoetry.

It seems thatbefore the Romantic Movement in the late 18th century,

which was representedby Wordsworth and the otherpoets who drew

their inspiration from theperfection of the natural scenery, of waters,

treesandheathen-coveredslopesof thearea,peoplewere less impressedby/or concerned with naturesbeauty. The most so, it is thesepoets

merit tohavedrawn thepeoplesattentiononwhat isnowaccountedfor

themostbeautifulpartofEngland. The largest townof theLakeDistrict

isCarlisle,on the riverEden.Besides different industrial developments,

the region ismainlya tourist attraction.

The South-West of England includes the largest peninsula of the

country. There are six uplands here: Exmoor (Dunkey Beacon is1,704 feet) Dartmoor (High Willhays is 2,038 feet), mysteriousstretches of grass and heather, with strange granite, coming out torsi,

here and there; Bodmin Moor; St. Austell; Carn Brea; thespectacular extremity ofLandsEnd, a dreadful sector of English coast;abit farther, granite can beseenagainontheIsleofScilly.The landscapeof the region has a certain uniformity of summit heights, with some

differentiationbetweenthegroupsofareas;thereisanetworkof deep and

narrow valleys which alternate with flat-topped zones ofrisinginland.

The fine and diversified coastline attracts many tourists who enjoy

visiting the resort towns, fairly small, but full of magic. (The only

exception insize isTorquay, locatedon thesouthcoastof thepeninsula,

whichreceivesalargenumberoftourist).The main towns in the south

west England are Plymouth (the largest town of thepeninsula and anaval base), Exeter (a university centre),Falmouth (reputed for itsshipyards), Dartmouth (with a deep and largeharbour).TheLowlandzone.Theboundaryof the lowland runs from themouth

of the Tyne in north east of England, including a strip of low-lyinggroundaroundtheSolwayFirthinthenorthwest,tothemouthoftheExein the southwest, descending against the Welsh Massif and the lowerriverSeverninthewest;itopenstotheMidlandPlainwiththescarpfaceof the Cotswold Hills, covering the area from the Dorset coast insouthern England, and continuing in the ClevelandHills to the coast of


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NorthYorkshire.ThispartofEnglandconsistsofalternatingrocks,lyingin long sweeps of scarp and vales, stretching from Dorset in the

southwest to the moors of Cleveland.

The first major scarp feature consists of Jurassic rocks and stretches

from Dorset to the north Riding. (It is known as the Cotswolds,

Northampton uplands and North Yorkshiremoors).Behind thisscarp

lies a wide vale of soft, clayey rocks including the vales of Oxford,WhiteHorse,Lincoln andPickering. The flat, even reclaimed landscapeof the Fens is underlinedby these clays. The westernedgeof thechalk

layer is alsopart of the English lowlands, stretching fromFlamboroughHeadinYorkshiretothewesternDownsof Dorset, a line of hills gentlysloping to the east and south. (North and South Downs are uplands,

so called because of their aspect: open, rolling, treeless grassland).

The chalk outcrop is a more conspicuous and continuous featurethan its sandstone and limestone predecessors[53;p.6]. To the eastof the Fens, the outcrop is very low (150 feet),but it rises gradually in

theattractive,gracefulChilterns.

The Downs cover a wide area of England, from the Salisbury Plain and

theMarlboroughDowns to theNorthDowns, reaching theseaatDover,

and the South Downs ending at Beachy Head. The wide, undulatingdown land,with itsfresh,greenspringy turf,providesaspaciouskindoflandscapewhichisverytypicallyEnglish.Fromonegreatwaveofgreengrass one canseefar away over the crests of other waves, and in thevalleysaretinyvillageswithanancientchurchinthecentre.[38;p.13].In the southeast, thescenery contrastsstrongly with the adjoining zones;

mostof thearea is takenupby thezoneofthewealdregionofKentand

East Sussex (the central hillypart of the area has different names: the

HighWeald,theForestRidges,AshdownForest).Surrounding theForestRidgesisabeltofvalecountrycalledtheLowWeald.

On thecoast, thewatersof theEnglishChannelhaveeatenpartsof the

chalk wall, producing a succession of chalk cliffs which face the

Europeanmainlandandglitterinthelightofthesunnydays;theirwhite

colour made the Romans call the territory they were eager to conquer,

theAlbion.


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Many regions and towns in England are associated with important

English writers and artists. Thus,besides, William Wordsworth, already

mentionforhisassociationwiththeLakeDistrict,WilliamShakespeare

is connected with Stratford-upon-Avon, Arnold Bennett with Stoke-on-

Trent, theBrontsisterswithYorkshire,ThomasHardy withDorsetand

John Constable with thebeauty of Essex and Suffolk landscape. The

region of Lowlands has considerable changed economically during the

20th century; manufacturing is still important in some fields; it is most

significant in West Midlands and in north of England. High technology

industrieshaverecentlydevelopedinEastAnglia.

As regardsagriculture,dairy iscommon in thewesternpart,whilesheep

andcattlearerearedin thehillyandmoorlandareasofthenorth,andin

thesouthwest.The east and south area concentrate most of the arable

land, pig and poultry farming. Horticulture is well developed here, as

wellasinthewestMidland.As regardspopulation, it is concentrated in

the largest townsandcities,

in London and south coast England, around Birmingham (west

Midlands), in Leeds, Bradford and Sheffield (Yorkshire); aroundLiverpool and Manchester (north-western industrial area); inNewcastle

andSunderland(north-easternpartofthecountry).

3. Landscape and Climate in Great Britain

Asaconsequenceofsomanyhills,Britainisrichinwaterways.Alotoftowns and villages stand on a river, a fact obvious from their names;

some of theplaces are quite famous, others are less known: Stratford-

upon-Avon, Stockton-on-Tees, Stoke-on-Trent, Weston-by-Welland andmany others. Looking at Britains map the important rivers can be

easily discovered:in Scotland, from north to south, the Spey, theDee,the Tay, theForth and the Tweed are all flowing east, while the Clydeis flowing west, into the Atlantic Ocean. The rivers draining east

are longer and faster, runningalongimpermeablerocks,andincreasing

rapidlyafterrains.

In northern England, the significant westward-flowing rivers are the

Eden and the Mersey, and in Wales, theDee, the Teifi and the Tywi,flowing over relatively short distance. Between England and Wales, is

theSevern, flowing south west into theBristolChannelafter its meetingwith theAvon. Coming from the northern Pennines are the Tyne, the


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Wear and the Tees; they flow independently into theNorth Sea, whileother rivers as the Ouse, theAire and the Trent, drain into theHumber.To the south, after draining a large, flat area of the Fen county, another

group of rivers flow into the Wash: the most significant is the GreatOuse.SoutheasternEngland isdominatedby the largedrainagesystem

oftheThames;itrisesfromtheCotswolds,andaftercrossingtheOxfordClayandbeingjoinedbymany tributaries, it forms theThamesestuarybeforeflowingintotheEnglishChannel.

Other important rivers flowing into theEnglishChannelare theTamar,theExe, theFowey, theTest, theArun, theOuse. InNorthernIreland themajor rivers are theErne, theFoyle and theBann. Once again, as ithappens with the hills or the seacoast, the landscape which this

multitude of rivers offer, is diverse andpicturesque: the swiftand short

rivers in the Highlands with their tumbling brown waters fringedby

heather; the shallow, clear waters flowing over bright pebblessomewhere in Hampshire; the slow Midland streams winding throughrichpasture lands,orsmallstreamsflowingalongtree-darkvalleysinthe

north.

Once again everybody knows his own favourite minor river orunimportantstream; and whereveryou are in theBritishIsles, ifyoureckonontakingyoureveningstroll totheriver,or tothestream,or to the bridge, and inquire the best way toget there,you willscarcely even be disappointed, andyou willspend manypleasant half-hours leaning over ancientstone bridges orstrolling in quiet meadows,and willseefar more of the realEngland thanyou ever couldfrom themainhighway[38;p.16].Aswell-known, theBritishweather is thesourceof innumerablejokes,

being,atthesametime,aninexhaustibletopicofconversation.Thefactisnotaccidental;theclimateofferssomanyexceptionstosomanyrules,

thatspeakingaboutithasbecomeahabit,andnotonly.Besides,climate

has abad reputationpartlyjustified; it is considered tobepermanently

rainy, foggy and windy, with few sunny days. The climate in Britain is

determined, to a large extent,by the countrys position related to the

formanddistributionoflandandsea.


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Lying in middle latitudes, Britain has a mild, temperate climate. But its

climate is also influencedby the Gulf Stream, the warmNorth Atlantic

Currentthatheatstheseaandtheairoftheregionsitcrosses;thus,Great

Britains climate is more temperate than it wouldbe, considering its

northerlyposition.As regards the classification of climate, it generally

falls into the cool temperate humid type with some obvious regional

diversity.

In theory, there are four definite seasons,butbecause of itsposition,

between theEuropean landmassand the relativelywarmAtlanticwaters,

there are permanent modifications of the main thermal and moisture

characteristics of the air masses circulation over the countrys area. As

the weather changes with the wind, and Britain is crossedby winds

coming from different source regions, ranging from Arctic polar to

tropical ones, each of them being, in their turn, either maritime or

continental, it is natural that the characteristic feature of Britains

weather shouldbe variability. In theirpaths, these atmospheric systems

fluctuate rapidly, varyingboth in frequency and intensity throughout the

seasons and from year to year. But, althoughby definition, the weatheris changeable, the extremes are not severe: in winter, the polar

maritime masses of air reaching the country determine a line of

equal temperature from north to south of about 400F (40C), rarely

fallingbelow zero; in summer, there are som regionaldifferences,with

temperature increasing from north to south,but never exceeding 900F

(320C); however, this happens on some rare occasions, when

southerly or south-easterly airstreamsbring some waves of heat to the

southofEngland.

Therearesituationswhenvarietiesofairstreamscanbringwintercoldin

spring, and spring days inwinter, autumn days in summer, and splendid

summerdaysattheendofOctober.Here,wecannothelpmentioningthe

wonderfulseasonandmagicatmospheredescribedbyJohnGalsworthy

in the interlude The Indian Summer of a Forsyte in his trilogy

TheForsyteSaga.Thus,ontheBritishIslestheweatherisalongseries

of exceptions to its traditional rules which say that spring lasts from

March to May, being gentle and sunny with blooming flowers and

singingbirds,summerfromJunetoAugust,beingevensunnierwithlong

hotdayswheneverybodycangetsunburned,autumn,fromSeptember to

November,being the time when leaves and fog isprevailing, while in

winter people expect snow andbright sparking frostydays.


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Allthesetraditionsareonlypuretheory,because,inpractice, nobody can

guess from one day to another which season will meet him next

morning; that is why, the foreign tourists are advised to take some

winterclothesfortheirsummerholidaysinBritain,andneverforgettheir

umbrellaswhenleavingthehotelinthemorningwhilethesunisbrightly

shining in the sky. The discrepanciesbetween weather forecasts and the

real weather is something usual, this climatic changeable characteristic

with its unpredictabilitybeing virtually a national institution andforsomeaconditioningfactorinthenationalcharacter[38;p.23].As regards, rainfallpattern, a concept verypopular with the foreignersassociate Britain withperpetual rainfall. In fact, it seems that rain is

distributed well enough throughout the year; June, May and April are

considered thedriestmonths,eachof thematdifferent times indifferent

regions,whilethewettestmonthsarefromOctober toJanuary.However,

again, it can neverbe taken as a rule, as, in someparticular years, any

month mightbe equally wet or the wettest, even in the south. (An

unforgettable example is the summer of the year 1992, when for three

weeks,inJuly,therewashardlyasunnydayinPlymouth.)

Anyway, the rainfall distribution also depends and even to a great

extent to the exposure to the Atlantic Ocean and the place

topography: in the mountainous areas there is more rain than in the

plainsof thesouth andeast. Besides, increasing with altitude, and from

southwest to northeast some precipitations turn into snow in

wintertime. Sometimes, there are heavy snowfalls, locally immobilizing

traffic, with glazed frost and icy roads causing great inconvenience,

and occasional little whirlwind can uproof the houses. (The average

number of snow falling days can vary from 30 in north-eastern

Scotland to five in southwester England). But, of course, the worstweather circumstance is caused by the famous British fog or mist,

causing collisions and other unhappy events on roads, railways and

alongthecoast.Anyway, most of the time the sky is overcast in the

British isles and, according to official records, the average daily hours

of sunshine vary from less than three in northeast to about four and a

halfalongthesouth- easterncoast.


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Assaidbefore,tohaveweatherasatopicofconversationissomething

usual in Britain;however, wearewarned that, insomecases, this might

notbeamerereferencetoweather.Thus, a sentence as lovely weather

for the time of year! could mean that theperson really enjoys the

sunshine, or it couldbe nothing elsebut small talk, in order to make

the time pass; but, it could also express someones desire to get

acquainted to someone else, or even to declare,in a special way, some

feelingof affection.Here is anamusingexampleofwhatcommunicatingacrossculturesmeans!

4. Vegetation andAnimalLife

In remote times, much of Britain was forest,but, nowadays, woodlandcovers less than 10p.c. of the country. Since its creation in 1919, the

Forestry Commission was active in afforestations, having important

plantations,but, the woods arestill fairlysmallandscatteredoutside the

enclosed cultivated fields; they are quiet and interesting areas, where

different kinds of trees growing together in friendlyproximity canbeseen: oak, larch and crabb-apple sideby side with scrubs and flowering

bushes.

However, large areas of woodland can be found in north-eastern

Scotland; there are Kielder and other forests in

Northumberland.Ashdown Forest in East Sussex, Gwynedd in Wales,

and Breckland inNorfolk arealso worth mentioning.There are some

famous places, as for example Sherwood Forest in Midlandwhere

Robin Hoodandhis merry men used to livestealing from the rich lords

to give to thepoorpeople, or Epping Forest to the north east of

London; New Forest in Hampshire is also a place to be

mentioned,being laid outby William the Conqueror for his own royal

pleasure as a hunting-ground. Thepurpose for which it was cultivated

was theprotection of deer,by offering them everything they needed for

their survival. The forest covers an area of 145 sq. miles of woodlands,

moors and marshes. People have lived on that area sinceprehistoric

times,butbecauseofitssoil,alargepopulationcouldnot livethere.The

areaisnowadaysopentoholidaymakers.

As regards the species of trees, except for northern Scotland where the

pineisthemostcharacteristic,thetreedominatingtheforestistheoak;


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but some other trees, as the elm, the ash, thebeech and the thorn, also

belongto theBritishlandscape;no lessthewillow,mirroringitselfinthe

waters of a lake or river, thepoplar, supplying a vertical line to the

sloping country scenery, or the acacia and the silverbirch with their

outstanding grace. In south Devon there arepalm-trees growing along

thecoast.Anyway, the general image the trees offer is not that of a

forest as we might expect to see, but that of groups or individuals,

magnificent and impressive in their unusual attitudes, watching thegroundforcenturies.

Allover theBritishIslesthereareappleandpeartrees,andalmostevery

farm or country house has its orchard, where one can also findplums

damsons, greengages and cherries. In Worcestershire and Somerset, to

the west of England, for example, there are famous orchards, and, in

springtime, the sight of the trees in blossom is not tobe forgotten.

Typically British are also the luxuriant hedgerows, a natural transition

from trees to hedges and a way, both impressive and practical, of

separatingonefieldfromanother,andthefieldfromthecountrylane;the

hedges are full of flowering bushes, honey-suckle and dog roses,blackberry and elder, crab-apple and hawthorn, and what not. It is said

that there is a certain, present day tendency towards destroying the

hedgerows,because they are, sometimes, considered harmful to crops,

although theyareanaturalhabitatforbirdsandinsects.But,ontheother

hand, others say that a short termeffectofhedgerowsdestructionwould

be a gradual reduction of scenic quality and of the landscape variety.

About a forth of the total area of the British Isles is representedby

moorlands and heathlands. But vegetation canbe even more specific,

initsdiversity.

Thus, some mountain summits in Scotland are coveredby arctic-alpine

vegetation, while in the highland zone,peat moss, heatherbilberry andgrass moors are most extensively found; a similar vegetation covers the

highgrounds ineasternNorthern Irelandand theMourns.In the lowland

area, where the soil is lightly sandy, the common heather is dominant,

sometimesmixedwithbilberryorbellheather; inautumn, thescenery is

quite special,because of the deeppurple colour of the vegetation which

addasplashofcolourtothelandscape.


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The image of the British wild nature would notbe complete without

shortlymentioningthegardensofInverewee,asmallpeninsulajustnorth

of Gaitloch, in the northwest of Scotland; the variety of the scenery is

extraordinary there, a combination of mountain and moor, loch and sea,

forming a never-to-be-forgotten panorama. Theplace is a fascinating

spot, wherepalms and eucalyptus trees, hugepines and firs, as well as

the greatblaze of colourcoming from the delicateandbeautiful flowersfrom Africa, South America orNew Zeeland canbe seen together. The

surprise and secret of all theseplants growing there, at that northern

latitude,isthatInvereweeiswashedbytheGulfStream.

Now,thegardensarethepropertyoftheNationalTrustforScotland,butitwastheworkofaHighland laird,OsgoodMackenzie,whostarted itinthe mid 60s of the 19th century; at that time, the smallpeninsula, thename of which is Ane Ploe Ard (in the Gaelic language) was abare,bleakspot,beingmainlycoveredwithblackacidypeatandoutcropsofrock.Mackenzie startedby running a fence over the neck of thepeninsula inorder to keep out sheep and deer, and, only later on, created abarrier

against thecoldwindsandstormsoftheplacebyplantingathickbeltofScots firs, Corsicanpine and massive hedges of rhododendrons. Afterabout twenty years, all of them made good shelter, and, nowadays,thesegiantbeautiful treesarepartof thegardens,constitutingoneof themainfeaturesofthelandscape.

ThebeautyoftheBritishlandscapeowesalottothewildflowers,which

pattern the scenery from early spring, in February, till late in autumn.

The first to appear are the aconite and snowdrop followedby others

coming upon with a rush: carpets ofbluebells andbanks ofprimroses,

fields of cowslips and weaves of daffodils, (famous along the shores of

Lake Windermere), so beautiful and gentle that they inspired the

romanticpoet when he saw them: Besides the lake, beneath the trees,/Fluttering and dancing in the breeze (William Wordsworth); and othermore and more flowers scattered in the summer fields, like theblue

speedwell, the scarlet pimpernel, the graceful pansy, the poppy

cornflower and chicory, and the common flowers like clover and daisy

andbuttercup with their delicatebeauty, ready to welcome those who

takethetroubletostopforaminuteforadmiringthem.

Flowers are really loved in Britain, and they represent part of the

peoples life. You can see them everywhere, attentively looked after, in

thetinygardensinfrontofthehouses,inthewindowsflowerstandsorin


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pots hanging from iron fences orjust on the walls of the houses in

Londonorinanyothertownsorvillages.Notonlyonce,youaretempted

tostopinfrontofthemtoadmire,and, ifpossible,totouchtheirdelicate

and colouredpetals, as a sign of respect for those who so tenderly care

for them. There are flower contests festivals in Britain, and thepeople

are reallyproud with their achievements in this activity, which is more

thanahobby,itisaculturalcharacteristic.

The wild animalspopulating the British Isles are similar to those of

Europe,but most of the formerly abundant larger mammals, asboars,

reindeer,bearsandwolves,havebecomeextinct.

Some species of deer do still survive, as the red deer in the Scottish

Highlands and in Exmoor Forest, and the roe deer in wooded Scotland

andsouthernEngland. Inaddition, therearebadgers,otters, foxes,stoats

andweaselslivinginruralareas;therearesomespeciesofrodents,such

as rats,squirrelsand mice,andof insectivoressuchashedgehogs,moles

andshrews.Therearestillplentyof rabbitsand twospeciesofhare.On

somepartsofthecoastthereareseals.Asregardsreptiles,therearethree

species of snakes, of which only one is venomous, and three species oflizard.Theamphibiansarerepresentedby fivespeciesoffrogsand toads

and three species of newt. From his earliest childhood, the average

British is familiar to all these littlebeings; he either couldhave had the

lucktoseethemasachildwhilestrollinginthewoodsoralongariveror

whencrossingsome lane,orheknows them from thestoriesofKenneth

Grahams The Wind in the Willows or of Beatrix Potters, whoseimmortalanimalshavebecomehispersonalfriends.

The birds are, equally, an important and varied part of the British

landscape; there are more than two hundred species in the British Isles,

more thanone-halfof thembeingmigratory.Among thebestknownand

usually seen are the town-dwelling birds, such as the sparrow, the

blackbird, the thrush and thepigeon,oreven theswallow, the robinand

the house-martin as well, all of them living in the suburbangardensand

havingadensityhere,maybe,higherthaninthewoodland.

However, a specialattentionshouldbepaid tosomebirds often met in

thefields,as,forexamples,thelark,thecloudoffireasShelleycalledit,whosesongcouldmakethepleasureofacountrywalk,thenightingalemaking the delight of a summer evening, or the cuckoo, whose coming

around the 15th of April is considered a real event in Britain, while,


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during thenight, theowlsscream issadand impressive. Insome lonely

places,but very often in theparksas well, one maysee the magnificent

wildswanssailingmajesticallyon thewatersface,sidebysidewith the

small and agile ducks, and, everywhere, the seagulls: above the Thames

bridgesintheheartofLondon,onthecoastwheretheycomearoundany

sittingperson begging for some crumbles, or even far inland, wheeling

above the country cottages. There are many ornithological

organizations which encourage a more sympathetic attitude tobirds,and promote their conservation by assisting the creation of refuges,

sanctuaries and reserves; such effort contributes to the elimination of

the negative effects of environmental changes onbirdlife.

Surroundedbywater,crossedbymanyrivers,Britain isrenowned for its

many species of fish: trout, salmon,perch,pike and others which could

be found in the fresh waters, and cod, haddock, mackerel, herring and

plaice in the offshore one. Fresh water fishing is, nowadays, merely

considered some sport or recreationbecause of the waterpollution,but

there are still rich fishing grounds in theNorth Sea, Irish Seaor off the

westerncoastofScotland.


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Documents

2 the Land and the People