2011 AICP Review Course - New Jersey Chapter | American Planning

MAY 2011 AICP EXAM REVIEW HISTORY AND THEORY

February 2011 Kelly O’Brien, AICP, PP, LEED AP Professional Development Officer of Exam Prep American Planning Association – New Jersey Chapter

2011 AICP Review Course H I S T O R Y A N D T H E O R Y


History and Theory (and Law) 15% • History of planning

• Planning law

• Theory of planning

• Patterns of human settlement


Primary functions of planning • improve efficiency of outcomes

• counterbalance market failures -‐ balance public and private interests

• widen the range of choice -‐ enhance consciousness of decision making

• civic engagement -‐ expand opportunity and understanding in community


Professionalization of Planning 1901 NYC: “New Law” regulates tenement housing 1907 Hartford: first official & permanent local planning board 1909

– Washington DC: first planning association – National Conference on City Planning – Wisconsin: first state enabling legislation permitting cities to plan – Chicago Plan: Burnham creates first regional plan – Los Angeles: first land use zoning ordinance – Harvard School of Landscape Architecture: first course in city

planning


Pre-modern to New Urban Form 1682 Philadelphia plan Grid system &

neighborhood parks William Penn Thomas Holme

1695 Annapolis plan Radiocentric Francis Nicholson

1733 Savannah Ward park system Oglethorpe

1790 Washington Grand, whole city plan Pierre L’Enfant

1852-‐1870 Paris Model for “City Beautiful” Napoleon III; Haussmann

1856 Central Park First major purchase of parkland

F L Olmsted Sr

1869 Riverside, IL Model curved street “suburb”

FL Olmsted Sr Calvert Vaux

1880 Pullman, IL Model industrial town George Pullman


Philosophies and Movements Agrarian Philosophy 1800’S

– Belief that a life rooted in agriculture is the most humanly valuable. – Reflected the largely rural settlement pattern in the country at that

time. – Two major spokesmen:

• Thomas Jefferson deCrevecoeur – Characteristics

• Simplicity • Uniformity • Non-‐restrictive and minimal government • Religious fundamentalism • Morality of Agricultural Property reward


Philosophies and Movements Laissez Faire Philosophy

– Adam Smith – Developed through the theories of Capitalism – Out of totally unrestricted competition, all society would ultimately

benefit, and the individual hardship resulting from such unrestricted competition was essential to the ultimate economic good of the state


Philosophies and Movements Public Health Movement Late 1800s to 1920

– To guarantee government involvement in public health and safety of the worker

– Sanitary Conditions of mid-‐19th Century cities • Air and Water Pollution • Cemeteries • Tenement Living

1867 San Francisco First modern land-‐use zoning in US (forbad slaughterhouses in geographic districts)

1867/1879 New York City First major tenement house controls

1879 Memphis 60% of city flees from yellow fever; of those who remain, 80% get sick; 25% die


Philosophies and Movements Parks Movement

– Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux – Design of Central Park – Horace W. S. Cleveland, Minneapolis – park system proposal 1883; – Charles Eliot & Sylvester Baxter, Boston – extensive regional park system

(1891-‐1893 and beyond)


Philosophies and Movements City Beautiful Movement 1893

• Key Actors: Burnham, Olmsted Sr., McKim, St. Gaudens, Gottlieb

• Contributions of Movement: 1) Revival of city planning and its establishment

as permanent part of local government 2) The quasi-‐independent planning commissions

composed of citizens 1893 Columbian Exposition The “White City” Burnham,

Olmsted Sr,

1902 McMillan Plan for Washington DC

Update of L’Enfant’s Plan Burnham, Olmsted Jr

1906 San Francisco Plan First major application of City Beautiful in US

Burnham, Bennett

1909 Chicago Plan First metro regional plan Burnham


Philosophies and Movements Garden City Movement

• An anti-‐urban agrarian/romantic approach to the city predicated on: 1) The sacredness of nature 2) The inherent immorality of the city 3) A return to the pre-‐industrial village

• Key Actors: Ebenezer Howard, John Ruskin

1898 “Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform”

Merge urban & agrarian

Ebenezer Howard

1903-‐1920 1919-‐1934

Letchworth Welwyn

Two garden city projects

Welwyn introduces superblock


Philosophies and Movements Radiant City

– 1920s – LeCorbusier – Robert Moses replaces Burnham

as leading American planner: “If the ends don’t justify the

means, then what the hell does?”

– Grew out of conception of capitalist authority and a pseudo-‐appreciation for workers’ individual freedoms


Philosophies and Movements Concentric Ring Theory

– 1925 – Ernest Burgess – Distribution of social groups

within urban areas – Depicts urban land use in

concentric rings • The center was the CBD • The transition zone of mixed

residential and commercial uses • Low-‐class residential homes (inner

suburbs), in later decades called inner city

• Better quality middle-‐class homes (Outer Suburbs)

• Commuters zone


Philosophies and Movements City Efficient Movement

– Standardization (SSZEA, SCPEA)

1913 Massachusetts: planning mandatory for local gov’ts; planning boards required

1916

New York: first comprehensive zoning ordinance

1917

American City Planning Institute established in Kansas City

1922

Standard State Enabling Act issued by US Dept of Commerce Los Angeles County establishes planning board

1925

Cincinnati: first comprehensive plan based on welfare of city as a whole

1926

Euclid vs. Ambler Realty Co: Supreme Court upholds comprehensive zoning


Philosophies and Movements 1928

Standard City Planning Enabling Act – issued by US Dept of Commerce

1929

– Radburn,NJ completed -‐ innovative neighborhood design based on Howard’s theory

– Harvard: Creates first school of city planning – Regional Plan of New York completed – “Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs” published

1930’s

City Humane Movement


Philosophies and Movements Broad Acre City

– Frank Lloyd Wright presented the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932.

– Opposite of transit-‐oriented development. – All important transport is done by automobile and the pedestrian can

exist safely only within the confines of the one acre (4,000 m²) plots where most of the population dwells.


Philosophies and Movements Sector Theory 1939

– Homer Hoyt – Modification of the

concentric zone model – Allows for an outward

progression of growth – Does not make allowances

for private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries


Philosophies and Movements 1940’s City Functional Movement

1945 Multiple Nuclei Theory -‐ Harris and Ullman

1960 – “Image of the City” by Kevin Lynch

– basic elements of "imageability"

• paths

• edges • nodes • districts • landmarks


Philosophies and Movements 1962 The urban growth simulation model emerges in the Penn-‐Jersey

Transportation Study.

1968 Pittsburg Community Redevelopment Model

1976 Growth Machine Theory -‐ Harvey Molotch

1982 New Urbanism -‐ Seaside, Andres Duany

1991 Edge City -‐ Joel Garreau


Progressive Movement as Reform • Reaction against political and economic

– influence of corporations; monopolies (Rockefeller) – influence of corrupt ward bosses (Tamany Hall) because of dispersed,

decentralized power of elected officials

• Loss of control of central cities by elites as democracy spread – elites moving to streetcar suburbs; dislocation of economic and political

power

• Emergence of corporate models of management – strong executive leadership

• Rationalize and professionalize city governance – rationalize city service provision and infrastructure development – civil service – depoliticize city


Theories on Planning Evolution from planning as science to planning through

participation

Rational Planning Model • Myerson and Banfield

Incremental Planning • Charles Lindblom

Advocacy Planning • Sherry Arnstein, Ladder of Participation, 1969 article • Paul Davidoff


Planning Theories • Synoptic Rationality

• Incremental

• Transactive

• Advocacy

• Radical

• Utopianism

• Methodism


Why do we not have a unifying theory of planning?

• Goals and objectives, as well as means to achieve them, are often uncertain

– “wicked problems” – concerned primarily with public issues

• broadly defined groups/clients • diverse interests

• planners rarely make decisions but rather advise those who do

• results of most planning activity is discernable only 5 to 20 years after the decision

– feedback and corrective actions are difficult


People Know the “Fathers”

Father of Regional Planning Patrick Geddes

Father of Zoning Edward Bassett

Father of City Planning Daniel Burnham

Father of Modern Ecology Ian McHarg

Father of Modern Housing Code Lawrence Veiller

Father of Advocacy Planning Paul Davidoff


People

• Lawrence Veiller

• Robert Moses

• Clarence Perry

• Lewis Mumford

• Paul Davidoff

• Saul Alinsky

• Sherry Arnstein

• Jacob Riis

• Patrick Geddes

• Jane Jacobs

• Frank Lloyd Wright

• Lawrence Haworth

• T.J. Kent

• Alan Altshuler

Memorize people who made important contributions to planning


People • Robert Lang

• Alfred Bettman

• Catherine Bauer

• Rexford Tugwell

• Charles Lindblom

• Walter Christaller

• Ernest Burgess

• Homer Hoyt

• LeCorbusier

• James Rouse • Andres Duany


Places Memorize facts that have influenced current planning and

development decisions such as:

– First National Park, Yellowstone 1872

– First National Wildlife Refuge, in Florida 1903

– First historic preservation commission, New Orleans 1921

– First off-‐street parking regulations, Columbus, OH 1923

– First limited access highway, Bronx River Parkway, 1926


Planning Firsts Public Water System ………………………………….Philadelphia

Planning Commission ………………………………..Hartford, Connecticut

Regional Planning Commission ………………….Los Angeles

Zoning Ordinance ………………………………………New York City

National Conference on Planning ………………Washington D.C.

Planned Suburban Community ………………….Riverside, IL

Historic Preservation Ordinance ………………..Charleston, SC

Urban growth boundary ……………………..…….Kentucky

(continued list online)


Acts Environmental Legislation • 1969 NEPA • 1970 Clean Air Act • 1972 Clean Water Act • 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act • 1973 Endangered Species Act • 1980 Superfund Act


Other need to know items… • Erie Canal was completed in 1825

• First US city with a subway was Boston in 1897

• Washington D.C. was part of the City Beautiful Movement

• Jean Gottmann termed the word Megalopolis

• Union Pacific and Central Pacific joined at Promontory Point, Utah to form the transcontinental railroad in 1869

• ACIP and ASPO joined in 1978 to form the APA

• Zip Code stands for Zone Improvement Plan Code

• First historic preservation commission was formed in Vieux Carre, New Orleans, LA

• First historic preservation ordinance enacted in Charleston, SC

• First department store was located in Salt Lake City, UT


Other need to know items… • Largest concrete structure in the US was built in 1941 and is the

Grand Coulee Dam

• First urban growth boundary established in the US in Lexington, KY in 1958

• First state to institute statewide zoning was Hawaii in 1961

• 43,560 square feet in 1 acre

• 5,280 linear feet in 1 mile

• 2.47 acres in 1 hectacre

• 640 acres in 1 square mile

Documents

2011 AICP Review Course - New Jersey Chapter | American Planning