ALLIANCE FOR CHOICE IN

EDUCATION

ValueofaHighSchoolDiploma

Quantitative Research Evaluation & Measurement June 15, 2017

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page2

TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary 3CurrentGraduationRates 4PowerofaDiploma 7

Introduction 7ACEFamilyCharacteristics 8Coursework&Earnings 9EarningsComparison 10EconomicImpact 12

ImpactofDroppingOut 15RecentGraduationRates 15YoungDropouts 16

Social/Emotional 18CivicEngagement 21ACEVolunteerAttitudes 22VotingHabits 23CommunityActivities 25FamilyStatus 27ACECollegeExpectations&Preparation 29

HealthHabits 30GovernmentAssistance 32MedicalCosts 35DisabilityFactors 36HealthLiteracy 38ACETimeUse-HealthyBehaviors 39

ContributionsbyACEScholarships 40Appendices 41

AppendixA-HigherEducationDifficulties 41AppendixB-AfterAttainingDegree 43AppendixC-HighSchoolNon-CompletersbyState 44AppendixD-WorksCited&Consulted 46

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page3

ExecutiveSummaryThisreportprovideskeyfindingsfromACEparticipantsandtheirfamilies,butalsoprovidescriticalresearchconducted,focusingontheimpactofhaving,ornothavingahighschooldiploma.Theseimpactsarenotlimitedtotheeconomicbenefitsofattainingahighschooldiploma.Otherfactorsincludephysicalhealth,communityinvolvement,andthecosttosocietyofnothavingadiploma.KeyfindingsforACEandACEparticipantsinclude:

• ACEstudentsgraduateatahigherratethanlowincomepeers–approximately93.1%ofACEscholarsgraduatedfromhighschool–whichis25.3to36.4pointshigherthanalllowincomeandTitleIstudentsinbothDenverPublicSchoolsandColorado.

• ACEstudentsgotocollegeatahigherratethanallstudents–ACEstudentsaretwiceaslikelyaslowincomestudentstogotocollege.

• AhigherrateofACEstudentsdirectlyenrollintocollege–eachyear,ahigherproportionofACEscholarsenrollintocollegetheFallimmediatelyfollowingtheirgraduationfromhighschool.

• ACEfamiliesreceivefewersourcesofrelief/assistancethanColoradofamilies–althoughahigherproportionofACEparentsdonothaveahighschooldiploma,buttheyreceive$123lessthanColoradofamiliesfromfederalorstateassistance.

• ACEsavessocietymoney–withoutACE,itislikely42.4%oftheirstudentswouldnotgraduatefromhighschool,costingsociety$13million(fortherecenthighschoolgraduatesonly)to$459million(ifallACEscholarsgraduateatthesamerateasthe2016cohort)incostsassociatedforindividualswithoutahighschooldiploma.

Thesignificantfindingsofnothavingahighschooldiplomainclude:

• HighschooldropoutsinACEstateswillcost$215Billion–basedonresearch,itcostssociety$292,000foreachhighschooldropout.Thecurrentcohortofyoungdropouts(aged18to24)willcostsociety$215Billionovertheirlifetimes.

• Individualswithoutadiplomacannottakecareofthemselves-ahigherproportionofhighschooldropoutshavedifficultylivingindependentlyandcaringforthemselvesthananyotherlevelofeducation.Further,76%ofhighschooldropoutsdonothavehealthliteracytoknowwhentotakeprescribedmedication.

• Highereducationalattainmentsresultinmorestablefamilies–thehigherone’seducation,themorelikelytheywilleattogetherasafamily.Approximately54.1%offamilieswithoutahighschooldiplomaeatdinnertogether,andthosewithoutahighschooldiplomaandwithchildrenaremorelikelytobedivorcedormarriedmorethanonce.

• Lowereducationalattainmentresultsinweakercivicengagement–thosewithoutahighschooldiplomaarelesslikelytovote,discusspolitics,orhaveaninterestinhelpingneighborsortheirneighborhoods.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page4

CurrentGraduationRatesToday,highschoolsintheUnitedStatesarejudgedmainlybytheirabilitytograduatetheirstudentsandgetthosestudentsintocollege.Assuch,themainbenefitofattendingaqualityhighschoolmaybetheincreasedlikelihoodofobtainingallofthebenefitsthataccompanygraduatingfromcollege.Perhapsasaresultofthisperception,therearefewstudiesintheacademicliteraturethatisolatethebenefitsofattendingaqualityhighschoolfromthebenefitsofgoingtocollegeorearningadiplomamoregenerally.Thisshouldnotbesurprising.Asimportantashighschooleducationstillis,themodernknowledge-basedeconomyplacesamuchhigherdemandonacollegeeducation,andsotheliteratureseemstomainlyviewhighschoolasasteppingstonetocollege,ratherthanakeypinnacleofachievement.Betterhighschoolsarevaluedmainlyfortheirabilitytogettheirstudentsintocollegesothattheycanenjoythebenefitsofearningadegree.Moreover,itisnotentirelyclearhowtodefinewhataqualityhighschoollookslike.Whilethereisplentyofliteraturetosupportthepremisethatprivateschoolstudentsoutperformstudentsinpublicschools,therearealsoanumberofstudiesthatcallintoquestionjusthowmuchthathastodowiththeschoolsthemselvescomparedtootherfactorsinthestudents’lives.Forthepurposesofthisreport,aqualityhighschooleducationisdefinedashavingahighgraduationrate,withstudentswhoscorewellonanycollegeentranceexam,whotakearigorousfieldofcoursework,andwhomatriculatetocollege.However,whatisclearisthatobtaininganeducationisstillthebestpathtowardprosperityformostpeople.Forthepurposesofthispaper,andgivenitslimitation,itmaybebesttothinkofaqualityschoolsimplyasonethatmaximizesgraduationratesandtherebygivesitsstudentsthebestchancetoleavewithadiplomaandthenpursueacollegedegree.Themyriadofbenefitsofearningadiplomaarediscussed.

Notalllow-income(economicallydisadvantagedstudents),attendTitle1schools;however,thegraduationratesaresimilar.TheyarealsosimilarforACEstudentscomparedtotheschoolwheretheyattend.It’sall

aboutexpectationsandperformance.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page5

Again,lowincomeschoolsproducepoorresultsfortheirlow-incomestudents.ACEstudentsactuallyoutperformtheirpeersatahigherlevelnationwide.ACTscores(above)showthatACEstudentsoutperformtheirColoradopeers,lowincomestudents,etc.,ineverysubject,whileearningcomparablescorestoallstudents(lowincomeandhighincomealike).

NotonlydotheyposthigherACTscores,ACEstudentsattendcollegeatagreaterrate–comparedtolowincomestudentsinDenverandColorado.

WhileACEstudentsstilllagbehindtheirprivateschoolcounterparts,theyarenearlytwiceaslikelytogotocollegecomparedtolow-incomestudentsoryouthattendingaTitleIschool.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page6

Forthepastfiveyears,DirectFallEnrollment(DFE)–studentsmovingfromgraduatinginthespringtocollegethefollowingfall–hasseensteadygains.AsACEmembershipandtenureincreases,sotoodoesDFE.

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016ACETenure 4.35 4.71 4.69 4.74 4.87

Performanceatcollegehasalottodowithhighschoolrigor.Recentresearchindicatesthatrigorandlackofpreparation–especiallyinMathclasses--andnothavingtakenAPcourses,aretheprimaryreasonsthatlowincomestudentsarenotabletocopeincollege.Academicsandbeingabletonavigatethecollegeterrainarecriticalfirst-stepstowardemployment(Flores,Park&Baker,2017).UsingdatafromtheHSClassofboth2009and2010(NationalStudentClearinghouse),thelongerthechildremainsinaprivateschool,thehigherthedegreetheywillearn.(Note:Onlytwoyearsofdataareavailableanddonotindicateatrend,merelyacorrelation).

Thebetterthestudentisinhighschool,themorelikelytheywillearnanadvanceddegree.Astrongmajorityofstudents(4-yearrollingaverageof88%)attendcollege,andofthosewhowenttocollege,52.3%graduatedon-timewitheithera2-yearora4-year

degree.Anadditional38.6%arecurrentlyattendingcollege(2010cohort).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page7

PowerofaDiplomaIntroductionTherearetwomainschoolsofthoughtwhenitcomestothebenefitsofobtaininganeducation:(1)humancapitaltheoryand(2)signalingtheory.Ina2014studytitled,“TheSignalingValueofaHighSchoolDiploma,”ClarkandMortorellexplainthatwhilehumancapitaltheorypositsthatindividualspursueeducationtoincreasetheirwagesbywayofimprovedproductivity,signalingtheorysuggeststhatadiplomaisprimarilyusefulasameansofsignalingproductivity,sinceemployersrarelyhaveperfectknowledgeaboutworkerproductivity.Theresearchersalsonotethedifficultyofseparatingthetwotheoriesinpractice,writing:“Thereasonisthatmosttypesofeducation(e.g.,yearsofschooling,schoolquality)couldincreasewagesbyimprovingproductivityorbyactingasproductivitysignals,”(p.283).Clark&Mortorell’sstudylooksatstudentsinTexaswhobarelypassedorbarelyfailedlast-chanceexitexamsnecessarytograduatefromhighschool.Theychosethisgroupofstudentsasawaytocontrolforproductivity,notingthatthetwogroupsshouldbeverysimilarinability.Whiletheresearchersdidfindastronglinkbetweentheexamscoresandearningsoverall,theydonotfindanysignificantdifferenceinearningsbetweenthebarelypassandbarelyfailgroups,promptingthemtoconcludethatadiplomacarrieslittleornosignalingvalue(atleastfortheirsampleofstudents)(Clark&Mortorell,2014).Theimplicationofthisisthatwhileadiplomamaynotholdmuchsignalingvalue,studentswhoarebettereducated(andthuscapableofgreaterproductivity)dotendtoearnmorethantheirless-educatedpeers.Inotherwords,theeducationitselfmaybemuchmorevaluablethanthediploma,atleastatthehighschoollevel.Ofcourse,theresearchersdidnotethattheirconclusioncontradictspreviousstudieswhichfoundaconnectionbetweenearningadiplomaandwageincreases,buttheysuggestthatthosestudiesdidnotadequatelycontrolforproductivitydifferencesamongemployeesthathadearnedorfailedtoearntheirdiplomas(Clark&Mortorell,2014).Inanycase,obtainingaqualityeducationisalmostcertainlythebestwaytoensuregreaterfinancialsuccesslaterinlife.AndaccordingtoaSassetal.(2016)study,charterschoolsmayofferaclearerpathtogreaterearningsthansomeofthealternatives,largelyasaresultofhigherratesofcollegeattendancebycharterschoolgraduates.Theywrite:

“Whilemeasuringcharterschools’impactontestscoresisimportant,itmaynotcapturethefullscopeoftheimpactschoolshaveonstudents.Infact,non-testscoreoutcomessuchashighschoolgraduation,collegeenrollmentandpersistence,andearningsmaybeofgreaterconsequencethantestscores.Forinstance,thefinancialadvantageassociatedwithacollegeeducationhaslongbeenrecognized(Day&Newburger,2002)andinrecentyears,itsvaluehasbecomeincreasinglyapparentasmanufacturingjobshavevanishedandthe

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page8

wagesofhighschooleducatedworkershavestagnated.Evenasthecostofhighereducationhasincreasedsubstantially,thevalueofadegreehascontinuedtogrow,”(Sassetal.,2016,p.684).

ACEFamilyCharacteristics

Incomeandeducationalattainmenthaveastrongcorrelationwitheachother,accordingtoChevalier(2013),anditisapparentACEfamiliesarenotexemptfromthisrule.Thechartaboveshows25%ofACEfamiliesin2016didnothaveahighschooldiploma,while31%attainedonlyahighschooldiploma–indicatingamere44%attainedanyhighereducation(CertificateProgram,SomeCollege,Bachelor’s,etc.).AlowerproportionofACEfamiliesdonothavetheirhighschooldiploma,thanColoradoandDenverlowincomefamilies,andahigherrateofACEfamilieshaveadvanceddegrees(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2016;AmericanCommunitySurvey,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page9

Coursework&EarningsSassetal.’s2016studybuildsontheirearlierworkshowingthatattendingacharterhighschoolispositivelylinkedwiththelikelihoodofgraduatingfromhighschoolandthenattendingcollege(Bookeretal.,2011).Utilizingthesamegroupofstudentsfromthatearlierstudy,theresearchersreaffirmtheirearlierfindingsregardinggraduationandcollegeattendance,andfindadditionalevidencethatcharterschoolstudentsaremorelikelytostayincollegeforaminimumoftwoyears.Theyalsofindasignificantincreaseinearningsrelatedtocharterschoolattendance.Theywrite:

“Moreimportantly,wealsoexaminedataonthesubsequentearningsofstudentsinouranalyticsample,atapointaftertheycouldhaveearnedcollegedegrees.Inourprimaryanalysis,charterhighschoolattendanceisassociatedwithanincreaseinmaximumannualearningsforstudentsbetweenages23and25of$2,318—orabout12percenthigherearningsthanforcomparablestudentswhoattendedachartermiddleschoolbutmatriculatedtoatraditionalhighschool,”(Sassetal.,2016,p.700-701).

Recentresearchcenteringonacademicrigoratthehighschoollevelconcludesthatstudentstakinghigherlevelsofmathinhighschool–regardlessofthegrade–outperformtheirpeersincollege,andgoontoearnmorethan$35,000perannumfiveyearsaftergraduatingcollege(Altonji,1995).AdditionalstudiesfindthattakingAlgebraIIisacausalfactorincollegematriculation,collegepersistence,andstrongerearningsinthepost-collegecareers(Gaertner,etal.,2013).

Schoolsthatkeepstudentsinarigorouscourseloadarebuildingastrongerfuturefortheirstudents.Asseeninthechartonthepreviouspage,approximatelyone-thirdofACEstudentshavetakenAlgebraII(25%)orPre-Calculus(8.3%).DirectcomparisoncannotbemadewithColoradopublicstudentsasIntegratedMathcoursescomprisethebulkofhighschoolmathematicsparticipation(ColoradoDepartmentofEducation,2017.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page10

Furthermore,mostseniorstakeBiology,PhysicsandChemistrybythetimetheygraduate.Only5.5%ofACEseniorshadnotcompletedthosecourses.Thesethreesciencecoursesarelistedasbasiccoursestobecompletedaspreparationforcollegescience(ACE,2016).Improvedchancesofgainingadmissiontoaneliteuniversitymaybethemostsignificantbenefitofattendingaselectiveprivateschool—particularlyforgirlsandstudentsfromlow-incomehomes.

“EstimatesimplythatenrolleesattheeliteprivateschoolsubsequentlyattendcollegesanduniversitieswhosestudentshaveSATscoresthatare20pointshigheronaverage…Importantly,recentestimatessuggestthattheeconomicgainstoattendingmoreselectiveuniversitiescanbesignificant.Forexample,Hoekstra(2009)reportsthatattendingtheflagshipuniversityincreasesearningsby20%relativetoattendingcollegeelsewhere,”(Berkowitz&Hoekstra,2011,p.281).

EarningsComparison

Highereducationalattainment,regardlessofage,resultinhigherincomes.WithinthestateofColorado,theaveragehouseholdincomeincreasedwithhighereducationalattainment.Itisnotablehouseholdswithoutahighschooldiplomaearnapproximately$11,000to$16,000lessthanhouseholdswhoonlyhaveahighschooldiploma,andthepaygapincreaseswithacollegedegree(eitherAssociate’sorBachelor’s)(AmericanCommunitySurvey,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page11

ACEParents’EducationalAttainment ACEFamilyIncome PerCapita

NoHSDiploma $29570 $7372

HSDiploma $29009 $7556

SomeCollege $30678 $7984

Certificate/AssociatesProgram $31307 $7691

Bachelors $39296 $7663

Graduate $39422 $8007ACEfamiliesarenotexemptfromthisrule,asACEparentswithaBachelor’sorGraduateDegreeearnapproximately$10,000morethantheircounterpartswithoutahighschooldiploma–reaffirmingChevalier’s(2013)findings(tableabove).Nationally,theseincomesshowawidediscrepancy,forthechartbelowprovidesacomparisonofACEfamilies’averageincomestotheincomelevelsfoundacrossthenationwhereACEhasapresence.1Itisapparentfamilyincomesincreasewitheducation,asanon-ACEindividualwithaBachelor’sdegreeearnsmorethan$40,000morethansomeonewhohasnotearnedahighschooldiploma,whileanindividualwithagraduatedegreehasanaveragesalary$64,000higherthanahighschooldropout(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2017).

1WhiletheseACEfamiliesaresituatedinColorado,comparisonsaremadetofamilieswithchildreninstateswhereACEhasapresence(Colorado,Kansas,Louisiana,Texas,Wyoming,andMontana).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page12

EconomicImpact

TheBureauofLaborStatistics(2017),reportedthosewithhighereducationalattainmentsearnmore.Onaverage,allworkersin2016earnedamedianweeklywageof$885

permonth,orslightlymorethan$44,000peryear.Itisestimatedtheweeklyearningsforthosewithoutadiplomaareslightlyhigherthan$25,000perannum.Inaddition,highereducationalattainmentresultsinalowerprobabilityofbeingunemployed,astheaverageunemploymentratewas4%forallworkers.Thosewithoutahighschooldiplomausuallyhadanunemploymentrate3.4pointshigherthanthenationalaverage(7.4%).

WhencomparedtoDenverandColorado,ACEparentsaredisproportionallyundereducated,makingitlikelyACEadultsexperiencedahigherrateofunemploymentandlowerpay.Measuringpay-scalegaps,under-educated

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page13

ACEhouseholdhavelowerincomesthanDenverandColoradohouseholds.TheonlyeducationallevelwhereACEparentsearnmorearethosewithanAssociate’sDegree–wheretheyout-earntheirpeersby$4,000tonearly$7,000(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2017).

Overalifetime(~30years)ofworking,thosewithoutaHSdiplomacanexpecttoearnabout75%ofwhatsomeonewithahighschooldiplomamightearn,andlessthanhalf(46.2%)ofthepotentialincomeofsomeonewithacollegedegree.ThisfeatureappearstobeevidentacrossACE,ColoradoandDenverhouseholds.Further,ACEhouseholdswithahighschooldiplomaearn141%morethantheircounterpartswithoutadegree,whilethosewithanytypeofhighereducationearnatleast191%morethanACEhouseholdswithoutahighschooldiploma.ThistrendissimilaracrossallhouseholdsinDenverandthestateofColorado(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page14

Individualswithmoreeducationstayontheirjobslonger.Forthe25to34-year-oldagegroup,jobtenureisshortbecausegraduatedegreesareoftenearnedduringthisagespan(BureauofLaborStatistics,2017).

Highschoolgraduates’jobtenureissixmonthslongerthantheaveragetenureofsomeonewithoutthisdegree.ThosewithaMaster’sDegreehavethehighestgap(14.4months),andthosewithaBachelor’sDegreehavethelowestgap(2.4months)(BureauofLaborStatistics,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page15

ImpactofDroppingOutRecentGraduationRates

State/Region Year Non-HighSchoolCompleters

Colorado 2016 12,456

Montana 2015 1,421

Wyoming 2016 1,406

Kansas 2016 4,959

Louisiana 2015 8,958

Texas 2015 21,357

Houston,TX 2015 1,4352

Total(States) 50,557Thechartaboveshowsthemostrecentyeardataonthenumberofpublicschoolstudentswhodidnotgraduatefromhighschoolareavailable,specificallyinthestatesandregionswhereACEhasapresence.Thesefiguresincludestudentswhoareconsidereddropouts,andthosewhomerelydidnotgraduatefromhighschool.Studentsnotincludedinthesefindingsarethosecontinuingwithhighschool,graduated,orattainedtheirGED(ColoradoDepartmentofEducation,2017;MontanaOfficeofPublicInstruction,2017;WyomingDepartmentofEducation,2017;KansasDepartmentofEducation,2017;LouisianaDepartmentofEducation,2017;TexasEducationAgency,2017).

State/Region Non-HighSchoolCompleters

CosttoSociety($292,000)

IndividualCost($1,180,460)

Colorado 12,456 $3,637,152,000.00 $14,703,809,760.00

Montana 1,421 $414,932,000.00 $1,677,433,660.00

Wyoming 1,406 $410,552,000.00 $1,659,726,760.00

Kansas 4,959 $1,448,028,000.00 $5,853,901,140.00

Louisiana 8,958 $2,615,736,000.00 $10,574,560,680.00

Texas 21,357 $6,236,244,000.00 $25,211,084,220.00

Houston,TX 1,4352 $419,020,000.002 $1,693,960,100.002

Total(States) 50,557 $14,762,644,000.00 $59,680,516,220.00

2FiguresfromandregardingHouston,TX,areincludedwithTexasfindings(TexasEducationAgency,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page16

Therearetwodollaramountsthatcanbeusedtoquantifythemonetaryimpactofnotgraduatingfromhighschool.Notably,whatahighschoolgraduatecoststosocietyandtheindividualcosts,whichemphasizeslostwagesoverathirty-periodandincludesthelifetimecostsattributedtosociety.Toclarify,thecoststosocietyincludewhatsocietypaysforahighschooldropout,specificallythecostsofincarcerationandlowertaxrates–astheseindividualswithoutadiplomadonothavestrongearningpower,andthereforewillnotcontributeasmuchtotaxrevenues.Whileitwasnotexplicitlystated,thecosttosocietymayalsoincludethebenefitstheseindividualsreceive,eitherfederalorstate,duetohealthproblems,lowerincomes,andhigherratesofunemployment(Breslow,2012;BureauofLaborStatistics,2017;CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,2017;CurrentPopulationSurvey,2017).Thesefigurescanbeappliedtotheserecenthighschoolnon-graduates–andiftheychosenottogettheirdiploma,theywillcostsocietyapproximately$14.7Billionovertheirlifetimes.Inaddition,theyindividuallywillcostthemselvesandsociety$59.7Billion,(withanestimated$888,460inlostwagesperperson,or$44.9Billion,overathirty-yearperiod)(Breslow,2012;BureauofLaborStatistics,2017;ColoradoDepartmentofEducation,2017;MontanaOfficeofPublicInstruction,2017;WyomingDepartmentofEducation,2017;KansasDepartmentofEducation,2017;LouisianaDepartmentofEducation,2017;TexasEducationAgency,2017).YoungDropoutsThissectionprovidesdatafromtheAmericanCommunitySurvey(2017)onthenumberofindividuals18to24yearsoldwhohavenotcompletedahighschooldiplomaintheseregions,andtheeconomicimpacttheywillhave,iftheychoosenottocompleteahighschooldiploma.Thispopulationwastargetedbecausetheyarebeginningtoentertheworkforce,andtheseresultsaremorepredictiveofwhattheywillcostsocietyandthemselves.

State/Region NumberofHSDropouts18to24YearsOld Population18to24YearsOld

Colorado 74,219 516,873

Montana 14,857 99,861

Wyoming 7,601 57,674

Kansas 38,244 299,772

Louisiana 89,504 470,616

Texas 463,866 2,714,461

Houston,TX2 48,352 234,600

Total(States) 688,291 4,159,257

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page17

Somewherebetween12.76%and20.61%ofyoungpeople(16.55%ofallyoungpeople)intheseareas,donothaveahighschooldiploma(AmericanCommunitySurvey,2017).Thetablebelowshowsthesocietalandindividualcostsattainedbytheseyoungpeople(AmericanCommunitySurvey,2017;BureauofLaborStatistics,2017;Breslow,2012).

State/Region CosttoSociety IndividualCost

Colorado $21,671,948,000.00 $87,612,560,740.00

Montana $4,338,244,000.00 $17,538,094,220.00

Wyoming $2,219,492,000.00 $8,972,676,460.00

Kansas $11,167,248,000.00 $45,145,512,240.00

Louisiana $26,135,168,000.00 $105,655,891,840.00

Texas $135,448,872,000.00 $547,575,258,360.00

Houston,TX2 $14,118,784,000.00 $57,077,601,920.00

Total(States) $215,099,756,000.00 $812,499,993,860.00

Basedofftheseestimates,itispredictedthecosttosocietyofthesedropouts(iftheydonotcompleteahighschooldiploma)throughouttheirlifetimeswillbemorethan$215Billion.Itispredictedthecumulativecostsfortheseindividualswillbemorethan$812Billion(AmericanCommunitySurvey,2017;BureauofLaborStatistics,2017;Breslow,2012).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page18

Social/EmotionalWhilethereisawell-documentedpositiveconnectionbetweensocialandemotionaldevelopmentandacademicsuccess,therehasbeenlittleresearchonthesubjectofhowvariousschooltypescaninfluencethis.Socialandemotionalintelligenceismostlyviewedasaprecursortoacademicsuccess,ratherthananoutcome.Studieshaveshownthatemotionalintelligenceisnegativelyassociatedwithbehaviorslikeskippingschoolorbeingexpelled(Petridesetal.,2004)aswellasalcoholortobaccouse(Trinidad&Johnson,2002).Emotionalintelligencehasalsobeenfoundtomoderatedifferencesincognitiveabilityandacademicachievement(Petrides,Frederickson,andFurnham,2004).Ina2004study,Parkeretal.examinehowemotionalintelligenceinfluencesacademicachievementinstudentsmakingthetransitionfromhighschooltocollege.Theyfoundthatitisavitalcomponentofsuccessfullymakingthisleap.Theresearcherslookatawiderangeoffactorswithinthedimensionsofintrapersonal,interpersonal,adaptability,andstressmanagement.Theywrite:

“Resultsofthepresentstudysuggestquitestronglythatintrapersonal,adaptability,andstressmanagementabilitiesareimportantfactorsinthesuccessfultransitionfromhighschooltouniversity.Theintrapersonaldimensioninvolvestheabilitytodistinguishamongandlabelfeelings,aswellastheabilitytouseinformationaboutfeelingstounderstandandguidebehavior(Bar-On,1997,2000,2002;Tayloretal.,1997).Theadaptabilitydimensioninvolvesskillsrelatedtochangemanagement.Managingchangeinvolvestheabilitytoidentifypotentialproblems,aswellastheuseofrealisticandflexiblecopingstrategies(Bar-On,1997,2000,2002).Thestressmanagementdimensioninvolvestheabilitytomanagestressfulsituationsinarelativelycalmandproactivemanner.Individualswhoscorehighonthisdimensionarerarelyimpulsiveandworkwellunderpressure(Bar-On,1997,2000,2002),”(Parkeretal.,2004,p.170).

ThefindingssupportanotherParkeretal.(2006)study,whichfindsthatstudents’emotionalintelligenceislinkedwithstayinginschoolratherthandroppingoutbeforetheirsecondyearofcollege.Theresearchersfindthatstudentswhostayinschoolhavegreateremotionalintelligenceandsocialskillsthanthestudentswhodropout.Giventheinfluenceofemotionalintelligenceaswellastheimportancethathighschoolsplaceonpreparingtheirstudentsforcollege,itcouldbesaidthatahighqualityhighschoolisonethatdevelopsitsstudentsemotionallyaswellasacademically.However,inareviewoftheacademicliteratureonemotionalintelligenceinelementaryandhighschoolcurricula,Opengart(2007)suggeststhatwhilebusinesseshavediscoveredtheimportanceofdevelopingemotionalintelligence,schoolshaveonlyrecentlycaughtontotheimportanceofteachingtheseskills.Thismaypartiallyexplainwhylittleresearchhasbeendevotedtodiscoveringtheimpactthathighschoolqualitycouldmakeonemotionalandsocialdevelopment.Thismay

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page19

changeinthefuturethough,asschoolsarebeginningtoputemotionalintelligenceprogramsintoplace.Opengartwrites:

“Thereareemotionalintelligenceprogramsinplaceininnovativeschoolsystems.ThesearemostoftenreferredtoasSEL,socialandemotionallearningprograms.Theyaredevelopedbasedonlocalneedsandthereforediffergreatlyfromoneanother.Theyarestillinfantileinanypotentiallarge-scalenationalefforttoimplementaschool-to-workemotionalintelligenceprogram,”(Opengart,2007,p.443).

Opengart(2007)pointsoutthereisstrongevidencesupportingthetheorythatsocialandemotionalintelligencecanbetaughteffectivelyinschools(citingPaytonetal.,2000),thatschoolscanproducepositivesocialandemotionaladjustment(citingLopes&Salovey,2004),andthatthesekindsofprogramscanimproveacademicachievement(citingBarchard,2003;Flemingetal.,2005;Gumora&Arsenio,2002;andLinaresetal.,2005).Opengartlaterwrites:

“EmpiricalevidenceseemstosuggestthatSELprogramscanimprovechildren’ssuccessinschoolandinlife.Theeffectiveprogramshaveapproachesthatarecomprehensiveandmultiyear.Theyincludemanycomponentsthatarebasedontheoryandresearch;teachchildrentoapplySELskills;buildconnectionstoschool,parents,andcommunities;provideinstructionthatisdevelopmentallyandculturallyappropriate;areintegratedintothecurriculum;andinvolvehigh-qualityteacherdevelopmentandsupport,”(2007,p.453).

Schoolsthathavetheresourcesandabilitytoinnovatewithsocial-emotionaldevelopmentprogramsmayultimatelybeabletoofferbenefitstostudentsthatotherschoolscannot,giventhelinkbetweensocial-emotionalintelligenceandacademicsuccess.However,itmaybeamistaketoassumethatanyparticularcategoryofschooliscurrentlyaheadwhenitcomestosocial-emotionaldevelopment.Asanexampleofwhyanysuchassumptionmightbeoff-baseisaWestetal.(2016)studytitled“PromiseandParadox:MeasuringStudents’Non-CognitiveSkillsandtheImpactofSchooling.”Westetal.notethatschoolshaverecentlybecomemoreinterestedindevelopingtheirstudents’non-cognitiveabilitiesand—citingLakeetal.(2012)—whohighlightcharterschoolmanagementorganizationsthathaveput“comprehensivedisciplinesystemsaimedatmoldingstudentbehaviorinandoutofschoolinpro-socialandpro-academicdirections”inplace.AmongthesecharterschoolmanagementorganizationsistheKnowledgeisPowerProgram(KIPP),whichissuesa“CharacterGrowthCard”tostudentstomonitortheirnon-cognitiveskilldevelopment(Westetal.,2016,p.149).Curiouslythough,Westetal.findthatwhilefactorslikeself-control,growth-mindset,conscientiousness,andgritcorrelatewithdesiredbehavioraloutcomesinstudents,thesefactorsdonotseemtorelatetogainsintestscoresattheschoollevel.Infact,theyfindthatwhilecharterschoolattendanceproducespositiveresultsinacademicachievement,itisalsolinkedtonegativeimpactonnon-cognitiveskills.Theywrite:

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page20

“Ourresultshighlightboththepotentialvalueofthesefactorsinexplainingpro-academicbehaviorandachievementandachallengingparadoxthatmaybeinherenttomanyavailablemeasuresofnon-cognitiveskills.Thepromiseisillustratedbythefactthatourmeasuresofnoncognitiveskillsarepositivelycorrelatedwithstudentattendanceandbehavior,statetestscores,andtest-scoregainsfromfourthgradetoeighthgrade.Theparadoxisthatschoolsinwhichstudentsonaveragereporthigherlevelsofconscientiousness,self-control,andgritdonothavehigheraveragetest-scoregainsthandootherschools.Inotherwords,thepositivestudentlevelrelationshipsbetweentheseself-reportedmeasuresofnon-cognitiveskillsandimprovementsinacademicachievementdissipatewhenthemeasuresareaggregatedtotheschoollevel,”(Westetal.,2016,p.150).

Highlightingoneofthedifficultiesinherentinthesocialsciences,Westetal.attributetheirunexpectedfindingstoreferencebias,writingthat“studentsattendingacademicallyandbehaviorallydemandingcharterschoolsmayredefineupwardtheirnotionofwhatitmeanstodemonstrateconscientiousness,self-control,andgrit—andthusratethemselvesmorecritically.Intheory,suchreferencebiascouldbesevereenoughtodistortthemagnitudeofanychangesintheunderlyingtraitsandeventoinverttheirsign,”(2016,p.165).Putanotherway,thestudentsmayhavebeenmovingthegoalposts.Attendingademandingcharterschoolmayhaveledstudentstochangethestandardthattheywerejudgingthemselvesbywhenself-reportingtheirnon-cognitivedevelopment.Itisdifficult,then,totakeawayanythingconclusivefromthisstudy,asitmayindicateeither(1)thatstudentsincharterschoolsdofarepoorlyinnon-cognitivedevelopmentor(2)thattheysimplylearntoholdthemselvestoahigherstandardandthusdidnotreportgainsthataccuratelyreflectedtheirtruenon-cognitivedevelopmentduringthisstudy.

Agoodmeantomeasuresocial/emotionalintelligenceistimeuse.ACEstudentsspendconsiderablymoretime

onstudies(inschoolanddoinghomework),inadditiontomoretimedoingchoresaroundhomethantheaveragehighschoolstudentintheUnitedStates.Thebiggestdiscrepancyisvolunteering,whereACEscholarsvolunteered33.6timeshigherthantheaveragehighschoolstudent(AmericanTimeUseSurvey,2015).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page21

CivicEngagement

Thechartaboveshowsmoreeducationresultsingreatertheratesofvolunteerism.Slightlymorethaneightpercentofindividualswithoutahighschooldiplomareportedvolunteeringin2015(BureauofLaborStatistics,2016).

ItisimportanttounderstandthatwhentheyentertheprogramallACEstudentsqualifyfortheFederalFree&ReducedLunchprogram,aproxyvariableforpoverty.WhilesocialmobilityfactorswillbeexaminedinafutureACEstudy,itisevidentfromexaminingthevolunteerpatternsandbehaviors,ACEparentsmoreresemblemiddleclassindividualsthanthosefromthelowereconomicstrata.Whenparentsfirstentertheprogram,theirvolunteerhabitsmirrorthoseabove(chart)byeducationstrata.However,bythetimetheirchildhasbeenintheprogramforthreeyears,theirvolunteerbehaviorshavechangedconsiderably.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page22

ACEVolunteerAttitudes

BasedontheACE2015-16ParentSurvey,parentsofACEscholarshiprecipientshaveverystrongattitudestowardsparentvolunteering.Approximately92.3%ofACEparentsareinvolvedwiththeirchild’seducation,and76.2%statetheyvolunteerattheirchild’sschool–slighltylowerthanthe84.2%ofparentswhobelieveallparentsshouldberegularvolunteers(above).Despitethisdiscrepancy,theseresultsshowstrongparentalattitudestowardsvolunteeringandparticipatingintheeducationoftheirchild/children.ThechartbelowhighlightstheproportionofACEfamilies,asbrokendownbyK-8andHighSchool,whovolunteerattheirchild’sschool.ACEparentsvolunteerratesare27toalmost45pointshigherthanthenationalrateofparentswhovolunteerattheirchild’sschool(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2017).ThesefindingsshowACEfamilies,regardlessoftheireducationalattainment,haveastrongsocial/emotionalintelligence,inadditiontoastrongdesiretobeinvolvedwiththeirchild’seducation.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page23

VotingHabitsDiscussingpoliticsisaproxyvariableforkeepingup-to-datewiththenewsandshowinginterestinthefutureofone’scommunity.Thosewithoutahighschooldiplomadonotdiscusspoliticstoanotherperson(inperson,byphone,letter,etc.,)asoftenasindividualswithhighereducationallevels(Smith,2013).

Thislackofinterestplaysoutinvotingbehaviors.Thechartbelowshowshowevenahighschooldiplomainfluencesvotingpatterns.Itisevidenthighereducationalattainmentresultsinhighervotingrates(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2015).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page24

Voterregistrationinbothpresidentialandnon-presidential,off-yearelectionsisastrongindicatorofoverallvoterbehavior.Thetwochartsonthispageshowthateducationalattainmentisastrongpredictorofvotingbehavior.Infact,researchonpeer-groupinfluencesonvotingbehaviorsisastrongerpredictorofelectionresultsthannationalpolls(Caldas&Blankston,2001).Onbothofthesecharts,individualswithoutahighschooldiplomaarelesslikelytoberegisteredvoters(above),andmorelikelynottovoteinthesemainstreamelections(below)(U.S.CensusBureau,2017;U.S.CensusBureau,2015).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page25

ACEfamiliesseemtoreflectthetrendsassociatedwithvotingpatternsassociatedwitheducationalattainment.Thechartabovefromthe2015ACEEvaluationreportshowshowACEparentsalignwiththeRepublicanandDemocraticpoliticalparties,inadditiontothosewhoareregisteredindependents(basedontheACEParentSurvey).3However,46.9%ofACEparentsarenotregisteredvoters.Whilethisisnearlyfivepointslowerthanthenon-registeredrateofvotersinmetroDenver,thesefindingsreaffirmthelowvoterregistrationexhibitedbytheunder-educated(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2015).CommunityActivities

Visitingthepubliclibraryisanothermetricthatsimultaneouslymeasurescommunityengagementandstayingwell-informed.Again,thosewiththeleastamountofeducationareleastlikelytovisittheirlocallibraries(PewResearchCenter,2010).3ComparisonstoDenverarebasedontheCurrentPopulationSurveyfromNovember,2014forvoterregistrationamongparentsofschoolagedchildrenwhoearnlessthan$35,000peryear.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page26

Communityengagementmovesbeyondvotingandvolunteerism.Gettingtoknowyourneighborsandperformingtheodd-joborpersonalfavorisaproxyvariableforneighborhoodstability.Knowledgeofneighborsalsotranslatesintoreducedcrimeinthearea,anddemonstratesintegrationwithintheneighborhood,loyaltytoplace,andevenresistancetocrime.Again,thisisstronglyinfluencedbyeducation–asfewindividualswithoutahighschooldiplomadidfavorsfortheirneighbors(above),orhelpedtofixorimprovesomethingintheirneighborhood(below)(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2013).4

4EstimatesfromtheCurrentPopulationSurveywith0.0%or0.1%usuallyindicatesthepopulationis<.1%.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page27

FamilyStatusStabilityinthefamilyisanothervariabletoassesssocialandemotionalstability.Thosewithhigherlevelsofeducationaremorelikelytoremainmarriedandliveasacouplewiththeirschool-agechildren.Marriedcoupleswith

highereducationalattainmenthavestrongermarriages,asitismorelikelyforanundereducatedindividualtobedivorcedwithchildren,ortobemarriedtwicewithschool-agedchildren(below)(PewResearchCenter,2016).

Attainingacollegeeducationusuallymeanssmallerfamilysizes.Thosewithahighschooldiplomahavethehighestfamilysizesofallthelistededucationalattainments.ACEfamilieshavethelargestfamilysizes(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page28

Eatingdinnertogetherasafamilyonaregular(daily)basisisaproxyvariableforfamilycohesionandemotionalstability.Inhisrecentbook,Robert

Putnamusesthisvariableasawaytomeasurehowparentsandchildreninteractwithoneanother(Putnam,2015).DatafromtheCurrentPopulationSurvey(2013)isforallofColorado.Anotherproxyformeasuringfamilycohesionareattitudestowardseducation–whicharestrongforACEfamilies.Thefindingsonthechartbelowshowstrongfamilyinteractions,asamajorityofACEparentsareawareoftheirchild’sattitudestowardsschool,andareattunedtotheeducationalhabitsoftheirchildren.Whiletheyhavealoweducationalattainment,theyrepresentstrongfamilycohesion.Overall,ACEfamiliesreportstronginteraction,astheyareawaretheirchildlikesschoolandtheirchildtalksaboutschoolathome–inthesecases,moreACEparentsareawareoftheirchild’sattitudesthanthenationalaverage(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2017).5

5Thenationalcomparisonfortheirchild’sfriendsdowellinschoolcomefromtheNationalEducationalLongitudinalSurvey,butwasaskedofstudents.Itispresumedifthereisagoodrelationship,thentheparentswillbeawareoftheirchild’sfriendsattitudestowardsgoodgrades(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page29

ACECollegeExpectations&Preparation

BerkowitzandHoekstra(2011)alsonotenumerousstudiessupportingthisbenefit.Dale&Krueger(2002)findthatstudentsfromlow-incomehomeswhoattendmoreselectiveuniversitiesearnmore;Breweretal.(1999)reportincreasesinearningsforallstudentswhoattendeliteprivateuniversities;andBehrmanetal.(1996)findsignificantbenefitsofattendingaprivate,Ph.D.awardinguniversitywithahighly-paidfaculty.

ComparedtotheirUSpeers,ACEstudentshavestrongerexpectationstoattendingcollege,arebetterpreparednotonlyacademically,butinthesensethattheyhavetouredacollegecampus,completedaFAFSA,appliedforatleastonescholarship,andhaveconsideredacareer.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page30

HealthHabitsWhenitcomestohighschoolqualityandlong-termhealth,atleastonegroupofresearchersclaimstohavefoundaclear,positiverelationship.Ina2016study,Dudovitzetal.lookatschoolqualityanditsconnectiontothreehealthfactors:self-ratedoverallhealth,depression,andobesity.Aftercontrollingforadditionalfactorslikebaselinehealth,accesstohealthinsurance,academicperformance,andsocio-demographics,theyfindthattheirschool-qualityfactorspredictatleastoneofthegivenhealthoutcomes.Studentswhogotoschoolswithlowaverageattendancearemorelikelytoratetheiroverallhealthaslowerandalsomorelikelytobediagnosedwithdepression.Highparentalinvolvementinschoolsisalsolinkedtoreducedchancesofadultobesity.Theonlyunexpectedoutcomewasanegativerelationshipbetweenschoolpromotionrateandself-ratedhealth.Dudovitzetal.domentionsomecaveatsfortheirfindings,however,writing:

“Withrespecttoobesity,althoughtheschoolqualityvalidationanalysessuggestthatsomeschoolswithextremelyhighlevelsofparentalinvolvementmaybeschoolsrequiringmoreparentaloversight,parentalinvolvementmayneverthelesssignifygreateroverallparentengagementinschool,whichmightresultinhealthiernutritionandphysicalactivitypatterns.Therelationshipbetweenpromotionrateandhealth,however,appearsmorecomplex.Ahigherschool-levelpromotionratewasassociatedwithlowself-ratedhealthinadulthood.Itisunclearwhatunderliesthisfinding.Itispossible,forinstance,thathighpromotionratesintheabsenceofotheressentialaspectsofindividualacademicachievementorschoolquality(“socialpromotion”)mightnotsignificantlybenefitadulthealth,”(2016,p.5-6).

Howeverschoolqualityismeasured,itisclearthatthereisapositiverelationshipwithacquiringagoodeducationandoverallhealth.Ina2012studytitled“Degreesofhealthdisparities:healthstatusdisparitiesbetweenyoungadultswithhighschooldiplomas,sub-baccalaureatedegrees,andbaccalaureatedegrees,”Rosenbaumnotesthatherstudyisjustoneinalonglineshowingthepositiverelationshipbetweeneducationandhealth.Reviewingtheliteraturetodate,Rosenbaumwrites:

“Educationalattainmenthasbeenwidelyrecognizedasarootofhealthdisparities(Woolf&Braveman,2011).Peoplewithhigherlevelsofeducationhavebetterhealthstatusbyalmosteveryhealthmeasure:obesityandwaistcircumference(Hermannetal.,2011;Cutler&Lleras-Muney,2010),smoking(Cutler&Lleras-Muney,2010),heavydrinking(Cutler&Lleras-Muney,2010),oralhealth(Bernabe´etal.,2011),cardiovasculardiseaseanditsriskfactors(Kavanaghetal.,2010;Fiscella&Franks,2004;Ernstsenetal.,2010)cancermortality(Spragueetal.,2011),dietquality(Azagba&Sharaf,2011;Aggarwaletal.,2011),andgreatersuccessquittingsmokinginresponsetohealthproblems(Kingetal.,2007).ThehealthstatusoftheUSpopulationhasimprovedacross

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page31

mosteducationallevelsbetween1971and2002,buteducationaldisparitieswidenedforpre-matureadultmortality(Reitheretal.,2006),smoking,anddiabetes(Kanjilaletal.,2006).Education-linkedhealthandlongevitydisparitiesbetweenUSadultswithandwithoutBAshavebeenestimatedtohaveaneconomicvalueof$1trillion(Schoenietal.,2011)andtoberesponsibleforabout40percentofprematureadultcancerdeaths(Siegeletal.,2011).”

Rosenbaum’sstudyprimarilyaimstoseewheretwo-yearcollegeprograms(associatedegreesandcertificates)figureintothis.Notsurprisingly,giventhelongtrackrecordofstudiesshowingalinkbetweeneducationandhealth,Rosenbaumfindsthatindividualswhoearnsub-baccalaureatedegreesareslightlybetteroffthanthosewithonlyahighschooldiplomaandsomewhatworseoffthanthosewhoearnabaccalaureatedegree.Individualswithsub-BAdegreesare16percentlesslikelytosmokedailywhencomparedtotheirpeerswithjustahighschooldiploma.Individualswithfour-yeardegrees,ontheotherhand,are60percentlesslikelytosmokethansub-BAs,14percentlesslikelytobeobese,and38percentlesslikelytohavebeendiagnosedwithdepression(2012).Rosenbaumhypothesizesthatthesignificantdifferenceinhealthoutcomesbetweenindividualswithtwo-yeardegreesandfour-yeardegreescomparedwiththerelativelysmalldifferencesforthosewithatwo-yeardegreeandahighschooldiplomamaybethegreateravailabilityoftwo-yeardegreesforhighschoolgraduates.Comparedtoafour-yeardegree,two-yeardegreesarerelativelyeasytoobtainforhighschoolgraduatesbecausetheiracademicbackgroundislessofafactor.Highschooldropoutsareatthegreatestriskofdevelopinghealthproblemslaterinlife.Forexample,Kaplan,Damphousse,andKaplan(1994)findthatfailuretofinishhighschoolislinkedtoanincreasedlikelihoodofpsychologicaldysfunctionlaterinlife.TheirresultsechoanearlierstudybyAlexander,Natriello,&Pallas(1985)whichfindsthatdroppingoutofhighschoolhasasignificantnegativeimpactoncognitiveperformance,especiallyamongHispanicstudentsandstudentswithlowsocioeconomicstatus.Kaplanetal.alsopointtoaFine(1986)studywhichfindsthatevenifanindividualdropsoutofschoolwithsomefinancialorpsychologicaladvantageovertheirpeers,thatadvantagetendstodissipatebythetimetheindividualturnstwenty-five.Kaplanetal.’sstudylooksonlyatindividualswhodidnotgotocollege,soastoisolatetheimpactoffinishingornotfinishinghighschoolfromtheinfluenceofcollegeattendance.Italsocontrolsforpsychologicaldysfunctionpriortodroppingoutaswellasgender,race,andsocioeconomicstatus.Asapotentialexplanationforwhydroppingoutseemstoimpairpsychologicalfunctioning,Kaplanetal.write,citingWehage&Rutter(1986):

“Somehavearguedthattheactofrejectinganinstitutionasfundamentaltothesocietyasschoolismustalsobeaccompaniedbythebeliefthattheinstitutionhasinturnrejectedthepersoninquestion,”(1994,p.107).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page32

GovernmentAssistance

Althoughthestudydoesnotlinkthiseffecttoschoolquality,itmayspeaktoit,atleastinthesensethatstudentswhodropoutmayfeelthattheirhighschoolsdidnotdoenoughtohelpthemsucceed.Whileinsomecasesthatperceptionmaybemoreaboutdivertingblame,forthosewhohonestlybelievethattheymightnothavedroppedoutiftheirschoolhaddonemoretohelpthem,itdoesimplythattheymighthavebeenbetteroffiftheyhadbeengiventheoptiontoattendabetterhighschool(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page33

ThechartonthepreviouspageshowsthevarioustypesofassistanceACEfamiliesreceive,andhowtheyarecomparedtotheaveragemonthlybenefitforamemberofColorado.Thevarioustypesofaidprovidedtothesefamiliesinclude:

• Medicaid• SupplementalNutritionAssistanceProgram(SNAP)• HousingAssistance• SupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI)• TemporaryAssistanceforNeedyFamilies(TANF)• GeneralAssistance(GA).

Onaverage,ACEparentsreceive$1,876.68permonthingovernmentassistance-$123lessthantheaveragebenefitforColoradofamilies.Mostofthepeopleusingthesesafetynetsareundereducated.

“Lowereducationalattainment[i]sassociatedwithhigherprogramparticipationrates.Duringanaveragemonthof2012,37.3percentofpeoplewhodidnotgraduatefromhighschoolreceived…benefits.”Irving&Loveless(2015).

In2015,familiesreceivingTANFassistanceaveragedabout$420.00eachmonthforafamilyoftwo,foranannualbenefitof$5040.00(Falk,2014).Itisevidentmostindividualswhoareinneedofassistancedonothaveahighschooldiploma.Itislikelytheneedforassistancecanbecontributedtothelowwagesearnedbyhighschoolnon-completers,inadditiontoahigherrateofunemploymenthighschoolnon-completersexperience(7.4%)thanthegeneralpopulation(4%)(BureauofLaborStatistics,2017).Themedianincomeofhighschoolnon-completers(approximately$25,200peryear),doesnotmeettherequiredlivingwageformosttypesoffamilies,ascalculatedbytheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(2017)(chartonnextpage).Theonlyscenariowherethisspecificsalarymeets,orcomesclosetomeeting,isthestandardoflivingintheDenverMetropolitanRegionandColorado,isforanadultlivingbythemselveswithoutanychildren.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page34

Thosewhodropoutofhighschoolaremorelikelytoneedassistance,andiftheyareonassistance,theyarelikelytoremainonassistancelongerthantheirpeerswhohaveatleastahighschooldiplomaoroneyearofcollege.Ifearnersofthesedegreesrequireassistance,theyarelesslikelytospendtimeonassistancethanindividualswithoutthisdegree.Toclarify,participatingfor“oneormoremonths”emphasizesshort-termassistance,whichismoreprevalent,thenparticipating36to48months.This,inadditiontothelivingwagescalculatedbyMIT(2017),showshighereducationalattainmentprovidesthemeanstoliveindependently,withoutaid(CurrentPopulationSurvey,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page35

MedicalCosts

AccordingtotheCurrentPopulationSurvey(2017),thosewithlowereducationslackhealthinsurance,andmoreyoungerindividualsdonothavehealthinsurance.Onelikelyreasonforthisisthehighcostofhealthinsurance.IntheDenverMetropolitanRegion,itcostsoneadultapproximately$2,119perannumtoprovideformedicalexpenses,whiletwoadultswithatleastonechildrequire$14,724peryear(MIT,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page36

Ifthesecostsaretakenintoaccount,alongwiththepresumedincomeforsomeonewithoutahighschooldiploma,thentheamountindividualswithoutahighschooldiplomaspendonmedical-relatedexpensesintheDenverMetropolitanRegionaccountsfor8.4%to58.4%ofalloftheirpretaxincome(BureauofLaborStatistics,2017;MIT,2017).DisabilityFactors

Nationalobesityratesarelinkedtoeducationlevel.Earninga4-yeardegreewillpay-offinreducedmedicalexpenses(CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,2017).Costestimatesforbeingobeserangefrom$1267to$2085peryear.ApplicationsforSocialSecurityDisability

paymentshaveskyrocketedsince2004(SSDI,2016).InDenverCounty,applicationsfordisabilitypaymentsincreased21%overthelastdecade.Researchpointstosocio-emotionalfactorssuchasdepressionoverlossofemploymentopportunities(McCoy,2017).AdditionalindicatorsofoverallhealthincludecigarettesmokingandTypeIIDiabetes.Cigarettesmokingamongthosewithoutahighschooldiplomaare4to24pointshigherthansmokerswhoholdhigherdegrees(excludingGEDearners)(CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page37

RatesforTypeIIDiabeteshavealmostdoubledfortheundereducatedsince1994–increasingfrom6.7%ofthisgroupto12.9%by2014.AccordingtotheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(2017),Type2Diabetesistheseventhleadingcauseof

deathintheUnitedStates,andcancausemultiplehealthcomplications,whichincludeblindness,kidneyfailure,heartdisease,andamputationsoflower-extremities.TypeIIdiabetesisassociatedwithobesity,andthebestformoftreatmentscombinehealthyhabits–specificallyhealthyeatingandphysicalactivities–withbloodglucosetesting.Inessence,theseratesshownotonlywhohasdiabetes,butalsohowtheyfailtotakecareofthemselves.

Individualswithlesseducationaredisproportionalitydisabled,asahigherproportionoftheseindividualsfinditdifficulttolivebythemselvesindependently.Specifically,thismeanstheyareunabletorunerrands,suchasvisitingadoctororgettinggroceries.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page38

Ahigherproportionofhighschooldropoutsdonothavetheabilitytotakecareofthemselves–i.e.,itisdifficultforthemtocleananddressthemselves(left)(American

CommunitySurvey,2017;U.S.CensusBureau,2014).HealthLiteracy

AccordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofHealth&HumanServices(2003),theunder-educatedarealsolesslikelytobeproficientinhealthliteracy.Thisisdefinedastheabilitytoprocess,obtain,andunderstandbasicinformationandservicesregardinghealthinordertomaketherightdecisions.Thesurveyconductedin2003definedfourlevelsofhealthliteracy(nextpage):

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page39

Level TasksDone NationalRates

BelowBasicReadashortsetofinstructionsIdentifywhatispermissibletodrinkbeforeamedicaltest.

14%

BasicAfterreadingapamphlet,givetworeasonstoapersonwhodoesnothaveanysymptomswhytheyshouldbetestedforadisease.

21%

Intermediate Readinstructionsonaprescriptionlabelanddeterminewhenapersoncantakethatmedication. 53%

Proficient Beabletocalculateanemployee’sannualportionofhealthinsurancecosts. 12%

SlightlylessthanhalfofallindividualswithlessthanahighschooldiplomacouldcompletetheBelowBasictasks,whileonly24%oftheseindividualscoulddothetwomostadvancedtasks.Inessence,approximately76%ofindividualswithoutahighschooldiplomasurveyedcouldnotdeterminewhentheyshouldtakemedicationfromaprescription(U.S.DepartmentofHealth&HumanServices,2003).ACETimeUse–HealthyBehaviors

ThechartaboveemphasizestheamountoftimeACEHighSchoolstudentsspendexercisingandontheirmobiledevices–providingthebestindicatorsofhealthybehaviors.ACEhighschoolstudentsspendnearly29minutesmoreexercisingthantheirpeers.ACEstudentsalsodevotenearly80fewerminutesonmobiledevicesthanColoradoteenagers,whichindicatesACEstudentsspendlesstimesittingdownorstayingstill(AmericanTimeUseSurvey,2015).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page40

ContributionsbyACEScholarshipsThissectionpresentsahypotheticalsituationbaseduponifACEScholarshipsdidnotexist.Topresentthisargument,severalfunctionsareheldconstantforthemostrecenthighschoolgraduates(93%),andpresumingthisratewillbemaintainedforallfuturecohorts.Further,thesamecoststosociety($292,000)andlifetimecostsofnothavingadiploma($1,180,460),areheldconstantaswellforallfuturecohorts(Breslow,2012;BureauofLaborStatistics,2017).Inthisscenario,weexaminewhatthesocietalandindividualcostswouldbeforthe129ACEgraduatesin2016,andthe4,444studentsenrolledinACE–presumingallstaywithACE,comparingtheirprojectedfutureswithACEandwithoutACE.

WithoutACE NumberNotGraduate

fromHighSchool(42.4%)6

CosttoSociety LifetimeCosts

TotalScholars 4,444 1884 $550,202,752.00 $2,224,288,837.76

SeniorStudents 129 55 $15,971,232.00 $64,566,440.16Thetableaboveshowswhattheprobablescenariowouldbeforstudentswhodidnotgraduatefromhighschool,boththetotalACEscholarsandtheseniorstudents.ThetablebelowshowswhatthecosttosocietywillbefortheACEstudents,becauseoftheinvolvementofACEScholarships.Thedifferencesarestriking.

WithACE NumberNotGraduate

fromHighSchool(7%)

CosttoSociety LifetimeCosts

TotalScholars 4,444 311 $90,835,360.00 $367,217,496.80

SeniorStudents 129 9 $2,636,760.00 $10,659,553.80ThetablebelowshowswhatthepresenceandcontributionofACEScholarshipssavedbothsociety,andthewagegainstheseindividualsmade,allbecausetheygraduatedfromhighschool.

Savings ReducedCosttoSociety

WageGains(30-YearPeriod) LifetimeGains

TotalStudents $459,367,392.00 $1,397,703,948.96 $1,857,071,340.96

SeniorStudents $13,334,472.00 $40,572,414.36 $53,906,886.36

6The2016non-graduaterateforTitleIstudentsinColorado(ColoradoDepartmentofEducation,2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page41

AppendixA–HigherEducationDifficulties

Veryfewstudentsgraduatefromtheirrespectiveprogramsandcollegeson-time.Thehigheston-timegraduationratesarefromflagshipcollegesanduniversities(highresearch

institutionsthatarebestknownineachstate,andtypicallyhavemoreresources).Thetablebelowhighlightstheaveragenumberofcoursestaken,comparedtothestandardnumberofcreditsrequired.Inallcases,studentsgraduatewithmorethanthestandardnumberofcreditsneeded(CompleteCollegeAmerica,2014;Fernandez,2017).

Degree RequiredCredits CreditsTaken TotalCreditsasPercentofRequired

Certificate 30 64.9 216.3%

Associates 60 80.9 134.8%

Bachelor's(Flagship) 120 133.5 111.3%

Bachelor's(Non-Flagship) 120 134.6 112.2%

Atrightaretheaveragenumberofyearsprogramsarerequiredtolast(blue),andthenumberofyearsitactuallytakestocompletethesetypeofdegrees(orange)(CompleteCollegeAmerica,2014).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page42

Degree CostofAttendance

LostWages Total TotalAttendanceCostsandLost

WageswithTimetoComplete

Two-Year $15,933 $35,000 $50,933 $81,492.80

Four-Year(Non-Flagship) $22,826 $45,327 $68,153 $61,337.70

Four-Year(Flagship) $22,826 $45,327 $68,153 $27,261.20

Stayingincollegelongerthanthestandardtimecostsmoneytothestudent–moneytheyloseduetothecostofattendanceandlostwages.Astudentattendingatwo-yearschoollosesmorethan$81,000intheadditional1.6yearstheyspendatalocalschool.Astudenttryingtocompleteafour-yearprogram,basedonthetypeofuniversitytheyattend,couldloseasmuchas$61,337.70or$27,261.20,becausetheydonotgraduateon-time(CompleteCollegeAmerica,2014).

Typically,studentsdonottakeenoughcreditstograduateon-time.Manyselectlightercourseloads,puttingthembehindthenecessarygraduationrequirements.Approximatelyhalfoffour-yearstudentsand29%ofstudentsattwo-yearschoolsearnenough

creditstograduateon-time.Thetablebelowshowsothersignificantissuesthatcontributetopreventingstudentsfromgraduatingon-time(CompleteCollegeAmerica,2014).

Item HindrancetoGraduation

Advisors • Oneadvisorisavailableto400students

Remediation

• 70%ofcommunitycollegestudentsarereferredtoremedialmathcourses

• 1.7millionstudentsareinremediation• Approximately10%(170,000)remedialstudentsgraduate

ExcessiveDegreeRequirements

• Mostfour-yearschoolshavedegreerequirementsmorethan120credits

• Mosttwo-yearschoolsrequiremorethan60credits• Certificateprogramsrequiremorethan30credits

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page43

AppendixB–AfterAttainingDegree

AlargeportionofACEstudentsareinterestedinpursuingaSTEMcareer(48.2%),followedbydegreeswithinliberalarts(21.7%).AlowproportionofACEscholarsselectedaBusinessorProfessionalcareer(Policeman,Teacher,Lawyer,etc.)

OverallACEstudentsarepreparedforcollege,buttheyarealsopreparedforlifeingeneral.Highschoolseniorswereaskedabouttheirunderstandingofbanking,debt,creditcards,andbudgeting.WelloverhalfofACEstudentsindicatedasolidunderstandingoffinances(55.6%).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page44

AppendixC–HighSchoolNon-CompletersbyState

State 18to24YearsOldNon-HighSchoolCompleters

IndividualCost($1,180,460perperson)

Alabama 77,561 $91,557,658,060.00

Alaska 13,013 $15,361,325,980.00

Arizona 116,890 $137,983,969,400.00

Arkansas 39,988 $47,204,234,480.00

California 553,859 $653,808,395,140.00

Colorado 74,219 $87,612,560,740.00

Connecticut 42,255 $49,880,337,300.00

Delaware 13,573 $16,022,383,580.00

Florida 291,923 $344,603,424,580.00

Georgia 178,505 $210,718,012,300.00

Hawaii 11,030 $13,020,473,800.00

Idaho 21,520 $25,403,499,200.00

Illinois 169,425 $199,999,435,500.00

Indiana 113,959 $134,524,041,140.00

Iowa 35,196 $41,547,470,160.00

Kansas 38,244 $45,145,512,240.00

Kentucky 60,163 $71,020,014,980.00

Louisiana 89,504 $105,655,891,840.00

Maine 13,119 $15,486,454,740.00

Maryland 67,418 $79,584,252,280.00

Massachusetts 74,293 $87,699,914,780.00

Michigan 137,223 $161,986,262,580.00

Minnesota 64,011 $75,562,425,060.00

Mississippi 52,610 $62,104,000,600.00

Missouri 80,340 $94,838,156,400.00

Montana 14,857 $17,538,094,220.00

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page45

State 18to24YearsOldNon-HighSchoolCompleters Cost

Nebraska 22,185 $26,188,505,100.00

Nevada 49,936 $58,947,450,560.00

NewHampshire 13,790 $16,278,543,400.00

NewJersey 97,046 $114,558,921,160.00

NewMexico 40,870 $48,245,400,200.00

NewYork 257,748 $304,261,204,080.00

NorthCarolina 149,504 $176,483,491,840.00

NorthDakota 8,338 $9,842,675,480.00

Ohio 157,687 $186,143,196,020.00

Oklahoma 65,260 $77,036,819,600.00

Oregon 50,749 $59,907,164,540.00

Pennsylvania 156,073 $184,237,933,580.00

RhodeIsland 12,711 $15,004,827,060.00

SouthCarolina 74,179 $87,565,342,340.00

SouthDakota 13,008 $15,355,423,680.00

Tennessee 79,014 $93,272,866,440.00

Texas 463,866 $547,575,258,360.00

Utah 41,896 $49,456,552,160.00

Vermont 6,183 $7,298,784,180.00

Virginia 90,470 $106,796,216,200.00

Washington 101,432 $119,736,418,720.00

WestVirginia 23,412 $27,636,929,520.00

Wisconsin 67,174 $79,296,220,040.00

Wyoming 7,601 $8,972,676,460.00

Total 4,503,448 $5,316,140,226,080.00DatafromtheAmericanCommunitySurvey(2017),andcalculationscompiledbyBreslow(2012),andBureauofLaborStatistics(2017).

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page46

AppendixD–WorksCitedorConsulted

Aaronson,Daniel,(1997).“Siblingestimatesofneighborhoodeffects.”In:Brooks-Gunn,J.,Duncan,G.J.,Aber,J.L.(Eds.),NeighborhoodPoverty,PolicyImplicationsinStudyingNeighborhoods,vol.2.RussellSage,NewYork,pp.80-93.

Abdulkadiroglu,Atila,JoshuaAngrist,SarahCohodes,SusanDynarski,JonFullerton,ThomasKane,andParagPathak.(2009).InformingtheDebate:ComparingBoston’sCharter,PilotandTraditionalSchools.BostonFoundationReport.Boston,January.

Aggarwal,A.,P.Monsivais,A.J.Cook,andA.Drewnowski.(2011).“Doesdietcostmediatetherelationbetweensocioeconomicpositionanddietquality?”EuropeanJournalofClinicalNutrition,65(9),1059-1066.

Alexander,KarlL.,DorisR.Entwisle,andCarrieS.Horsey.(1997).“Fromfirstgradeforward:earlyfoundationsofhighschooldropout.”SociologyofEducation,70(2),87-107.

Alexander,KarlL.,GaryNatriello,andAaronM.Pallas.(1985).“Forwhomtheschoolbelltolls:Theimpactofdroppingoutoncognitiveperformance.”AmericanSociologicalReview,50,409-420.

Angrist,JoshuaD.,andKevinLang.(2004).“DoesSchoolIntegrationGeneratePeerEffects?EvidencefromBoston’sMetcoProgram.”AmericanEconomicReview,94(5),1613-1634.

Angrist,JoshuaD.,SusanM.Dynarski,ThomasJ.Kane,ParagA.Pathak,andChristopherR.Walters.(2010).“WhoBenefitsfromKIPP?”NationalBureauofEconomicResearchWorkingPaper15740.

Azagba,Sunday,andMesbahF.Sharaf.(2011).“DisparitiesinthefrequencyoffruitandvegetableconsumptionbysociodemographicandlifestylecharacteristicsinCanada.”NutritionJournal10(118),1-8.

Baker,JeanA.(1999).“Teacher-StudentInteractioninUrbanAt-RiskClassrooms:DifferentialBehavior,RelationshipQuality,andStudentSatisfactionwithSchool.”TheElementarySchoolJournal,100(1),57-70.

Barchard,KimberlyA.(2003).“Doesemotionalintelligenceassistinthepredictionofacademicsuccess?”EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement,63(5),840-858.

Bar-On,Reuven.(1997).BarOnEmotionalQuotientInventory:Technicalmanual.Toronto:Multi-HealthSystems.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page47

---.(2002).BarOnEmotionalQuotientShortform(EQ-i:Short):Technicalmanual.Toronto:Multi-HealthSystems.

Bar-On,Reuven,andJamesD.A.Parker.(2000).TheBar-OnEQ-i:YV:Technicalmanual.Toronto:Multi-HealthSystems.

Baumrind,Diana.(1971).Currentpatternsofparentalauthority.Volume4,Issue1,Part2ofDevelopmentalPsychologyMonograph.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichigan.

Berkowitz,Daniel,andMarkHoekstra.(2011).“Doeshighschoolqualitymatter?Evidencefromadmissionsdata.”EconomicsofEducationReview,30,280-288.

Bernabe´,Eduardo,AnnaL.Suominen,AnneNordblad,MiiraM.Vehkalahti,HannuHausen,MattiKnuuttila,MikaKivimȁki,RichardG.Watt,AubreySheiham,andGeorgiosTsakos.(2011).“EducationlevelandoralhealthinFinnishadults:evidencefromdifferentlifecoursemodels.”JournalofClinicalPeriodontology.38(1),25-32.

Booker,Kevin,BrianGill,RonZimmerandTimR.Sass.(2009).“AchievementandattainmentinChicagocharterschools”.SantaMonica,CA:RAND.RetrievedMarch15,2017,fromhttp://lbr.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2009/RAND_TR585-1.pdf.

Boyd,Donald,PamGrossman,MarshaIng,HamiltonLankford,SusannaLoebandJamesWyckoff.(2011).“TheInfluenceofSchoolAdministratorsonTeacherRetentionDecisions.”AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,48(2),303-333.

Braun,Henry,FrankJenkins,andWendyGrigg.(2006).Comparingprivateschoolsandpublicschoolsusinghierarchicallinearmodeling.Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,InstituteofEducationSciences,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics.RetrievedMarch19,2017fromhttp://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED492570.pdf.

Breslow,J.M.(2012).Bythenumbers:Droppingoutofhighschool.Retrievedfrom:http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/by-the-numbers-dropping-out-of-high-school/

Brooks-Gunn,Jeanne,GregJ.Duncan,PamelaKatoKlebanov,andNaomiSealand.(1993).“Doneighborhoodsinfluencechildandadolescentdevelopment?”AmericanJournalofSociology,99(2),353-395.

BureauofLaborStatistics.(2016).Employeetenurein2016.(USDLPublicationNo.16-1867).Retrievedfrom:https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/tenure.pdf

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page48

BureauofLaborStatistics.(2017).VolunteeringintheUnitedStates,2015.Retrievedfrom:https://www.bls.gov/news.release/volun.nr0.htm

BureauofLaborStatistics.(2017).Unemploymentratesandearningsbyeducationalattainment,2016.Retrievedfrom:https://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm

Campbell,JayR.,CatherineM.Hombo,andJohnMazzeo.(2000).“NAEP1999TrendsinAcademicProgress:ThreeDecadesofStudentPerformance.”USDepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics.Washington,DC,August.

Ceballo,Rosario,andVonnieC.McLoyd.(2002).“Socialsupportandparentinginpoordangerousneighborhoods.”ChildDevelopment,73(4),1310-1321.

CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention.(2017).CurrentcigarettesmokingamongU.S.adultsaged18yearsandolder.Retrievedfrom:https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/campaign/tips/resources/data/cigarette-smoking-in-united-states.html#by_education

CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention.(2015).Age-adjustedratesofdiagnoseddiabetesper100civilian,non-institutionalizedpopulation,byeducation,UnitedStates,1980-2014.Retrievedfrom:https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics/prev/national/figbyeducation.htm

Clark,Damon,PacoMartorell.(2014).“TheSignalingValueofaHighSchoolDiploma.”JournalofPoliticalEconomy,122(2),282-318.

CompleteCollegeAmerica.(2014).Four-YearMyth:Makecollegemoreaffordable.Restorethepromiseofgraduatingontime.Retrievedfrom:http://completecollege.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/4-Year-Myth.pdf

Crosby,A.E.,Ortega,L.,&Stevens,M.(2013).Suicides–UnitedStates,2005-2009.MorbidityandMortalityWeeklyReport(MMWR),62(03),179-183.FoundintheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention.Retrievedfrom:https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/su6203a31.htm

Cullen,JulieBerry,BrianA.Jacob,andStevenD.Levitt.(2005).“TheImpactofSchoolChoiceonStudentOutcomes:AnAnalysisoftheChicagoPublicSchools.”JournalofPublicEconomics,89(5-6):729-760.

Cutler,DavidM.,andAdrianaLleras-Muney.(2010).“Understandingdifferencesinhealthbehaviorsbyeducation.”JournalofHealthEconomics.29(1),1-28.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page49

Danielsen,AnneG.,OddrunSamdal,JørnHetland,andBenteWold.(2009).“School-RelatedSocialSupportandStudents’PerceivedLifeSatisfaction.”TheJournalofEducationalResearch,102(4),303-318.

Darling-Hammond,Linda,andGarySykes.(2003).“Wanted:Anationalteachersupplypolicyforeducation:Therightwaytomeetthe"HighlyQualifiedTeacher"challenge.”EducationPolicyAnalysisArchives,11(33).RetrievedMarch20,2017fromhttp://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/261.

Day,JenniferCheeseman,andEricC.Newburger.(2002).“Thebigpayoff:Educationalattainmentandsyntheticestimatesofwork-lifeearnings,CurrentPopulationReports.”Washington,DC:U.S.CensusBureau.RetrievedMarch15,2017,fromhttp://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-210.pdf.

Dobbie,Will,andRolandG.FryerJr.(2011).“AreHigh-QualitySchoolsEnoughtoIncreaseAchievementAmongthePoor?EvidencefromtheHarlemChildren’sZone.”AmericanEconomicJournal:AppliedEconomics,3,158-187.

Dudovitz,RebeccaN,BergenB.Nelson,TumainiR.Coker,ChristopherBeily,NingLi,LynneC.Wu,andPaulJ.Chung.(2016).“Long-termhealthimplicationsofschoolquality.”SocialScience&Medicine,158,1-7.

Duncan,GregJ.,(1994).“FamiliesandneighborsassourcesofdisadvantageintheschoolingdecisionsofWhiteandBlackadolescents.”AmericanJournalofEducation,103(1),20-53.

Duran,BernadineJ.,andRafealaE.Weffer.(1992).“Immigrants’aspirations,highschoolprocess,andacademicoutcomes.”AmericanEducationalResearchJournal,29(1),163-181.

Entwisle,DorisR.,KarlL.Alexander,andLindaSteffelOlson.(2005).“Firstgradeandeducationalattainmentbyage22:anewstory.”AmericanJournalofSociology,110(5),1458-1502.

Ernstsen,Linda,OttarBjerkeset,andSteinarKrokstad.(2010).“Educationalinequalitiesinischaemicheartdiseasemortalityin44,000Norwegianwomenandmen:theinfluenceofpsychosocialandbehaviouralfactors.TheHUNTstudy.”ScandinavianJournalofPublicHealth,38(7),678-685.

Fine,Michelle.(1986).“Whyurbanadolescentsdropintoandoutofpublichighschool.”TeachersCollegeRecord,87,393-409.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page50

Fine,Michelle,andPearlRosenberg.(1983).“Droppingoutofhighschool:Theideologyofschoolandwork.”JournalofEducation,165,257-271.

Finn,JeremyD.(1989).“Withdrawingfromschool.”ReviewofEducationalResearch,59,117-142.

Fiscella,KevinandPeterFranks.(2004)“Shouldyearsofschoolingbeusedtoguidetreatmentofcoronaryriskfactors?”AnnalsofFamilyMedicine,2(5),469-473.

Fleming,CharlesB,KevinP.Haggerty,RichardF.Catalano,TracyW.Harachi,JamesJ.Mazza,andDianaH.Gruman.(2005).“Dosocialandbehavioralcharacteristicstargetedbypreventiveinterventionspredictstandardizedtestscoresandgrades?”JournalofSchoolHealth,75(9)342-349.

Foster,E.Michael,SaraMcLanahan.(1996.)“Anillustrationoftheuseofinstrumentalvariables:doneighborhoodconditionsaffectayoungperson’schanceoffinishinghighschool?”PsychologicalMethods,1(3),249-260.

Fraser,BarryJ.,andHerbertJ.Walberg(Eds.).(1991).Educationalenvironments:Evaluation,antecedents,andconsequences.Oxford:Pergamon

Freedman,SarahWarshauer,andDaborahAppleman.(2009).“‘InItfortheLongHaul’-HowTeacherEducationCanContributetoTeacherRetentioninHigh-Poverty,UrbanSchools.”JournalofTecherEducation,60(3),323-337.

Fryer,RolandG.,Jr.(2011)“RacialInequalityinthe21stCentury:TheDecliningSignificanceofDiscrimination.”InHandbookofLaborEconomics,Vol.4B,ed.OrleyAshenfelterandDavidCard,855–972.Amsterdam:NorthHolland.

Fryer,RolandG.,Jr.,andStevenD.Levitt.(2004).“UnderstandingtheBlack-WhiteTestScoreGapintheFirstTwoYearsofSchool.”ReviewofEconomicsandStatistics,86(2),447–64.

---.(2013).“TestingforRacialDifferencesintheMentalAbilityofYoungChildren.”AmericanEconomicReview,103(2),981-1005.

Gaertner,MatthewN.,et.al(2013).“Preparingstudentsforcollegeandcareers:thecausalroleofAlgebraII.”ResearchofHigherEducation,Publishedonline:29November2013.

Gleason,Philip,MelissaClark,ChristinaClarkTuttle,EmilyDwyoer,andMarshaSilverberg.(2010).“TheEvaluationofCharterSchoolImpacts.”InstituteforEducationalSciences,USDepartmentofEducation.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page51

Goldhaber,DanD.andDominicJ.Brewer.(2000).“DoesTeacherCertificationMatter?HighSchoolTeacherCertificationStatusandStudentAchievement.”EducationEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis,22(2),129-145.

Greenman,Emily,KaterinaBodovksi,andKatherineReed.(2011).“Neighborhoodcharacteristics,parentalpracticesandchildren’smathachievementinelementaryschool.”SocialScienceResearch,40,1434-1444.

Gumora,Gill,andWilliamF.Arsenio.(2002).“Emotionality,emotionregulation,andschoolperformanceinmiddleschoolchildren.”JournalofSchoolPsychology,40(5),395-413.

Hanushek,EricA.,JohnF.Kain,StevenG.Rivkin,andGregoryF.Branch.(2005).“CharterSchoolQualityandParentalDecisionMakingWithSchoolChoice.”NationalBureauofEconomicResearchWorkingPaper11252.

Hanushek,EricA.,andStevenG.Rivkin.(2010).“Constrainedjobmatching:Doesteacherjobsearchharmdisadvantagedurbanschools?”(WorkingPaperNo.15816).Cambridge,MA:NationalBureauofEconomicResearch.

Hastings,JustineS.,ThomasJ.Kane,andDouglasO.Staiger.(2006).“GenderandPerformance:EvidencefromSchoolAssignmentbyRandomizedLottery.”AmericanEconomicReview,96(2):232-236.

Hermann,Silke,SabineRohrmann,JakobLinseisen,AnneMMay,etal.(2011).“TheassociationofeducationwithbodymassindexandwaistcircumferenceintheEPIC-PANACEAstudy.”BMCPublicHealth,11(169),1-12.

Hoekstra,Mark.(2009).“Theeffectofattendingtheflagshipstateuniversityonearnings:Adiscontinuity-basedapproach.”ReviewofEconomicsandStatistics,91(4),717-724.

Horowitz,John.,andLeeSpector.(2005).“Isthereadifferencebetweenprivateandpubliceducationoncollegeperformance?”EconomicsofEducationReview,24(2),189-195.

Hoxby,CarolineM.,andSonaliMurarka.2009.“CharterSchoolsinNewYorkCity:WhoEnrollsandHowTheyAffectTheirStudents’Achievement.”NationalBureauofEconomicResearchWorkingPaper14852.

Hoxby,Caroline,andJonahRockoff.(2004).“TheImpactofCharterSchoolsonStudentAchievement.”RetrievedMarch19,2017fromhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/602d/d930c8a4c21d8b3cce5800e1b80954c0fe6b.pdf.

Jackson,C.Kirabo.(2014).“TeacherQualityattheHighSchoolLevel:TheImportanceofAccountingforTracks.”JournalofLaborEconomics,32(4),645-684.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page52

Kanjilal,S.,E.W.Gregg,Y.J.Cheng,P.Zhang,D.E.Nelson,G.Mensah,andG.L.A.Beckles.(2006).“Socioeconomicstatusandtrendsindisparitiesin4majorriskfactorsforcardiovasculardiseaseamongUSadults.”ArchivesofInternalMedicine,166(21),2348-2355.

Kaplan,DianeS.,KellyR.Damphousse,andHowardB.Kaplan.(1994).“MentalHealthImplicationsofNotGraduatingfromHighSchool.”TheJournalofExperimentalEducation,62(2),105-123.

Kavanagh,Anne,RebeccaJ.Bentley,GavinTurrell,JonathanShaw,DavidDunstan,andS.V.Subramanian.(2010).“Socioeconomicposition,gender,healthbehavioursandbiomarkersofcardiovasculardiseaseanddiabetes.”SocialScience&Medicine,71(6),1150-1160.

King,Gary,AnthonyP.Polednak,TamikaGilreath,andRobertB.Bendel.(2007).“DisparitiesinsmokingcessationamongU.S.adultswithahistoryofasthma.”AnnalsofBehavioralMedicine,33(3),312-317.

Klebanov,PamelaKato,JeanneBrooks-Gunn,andGregJ.Duncan.(1994).“Doesneighborhoodandfamilypovertyaffectmothers’parenting,mentalhealth,andsocialsupport?”JournalofMarriageandtheFamily,56(2),441-455.

Krueger,AlanB.,andPeiZhu.(2004).“AnotherLookattheNewYorkCitySchoolVoucherExperiment.”AmericanBehavioralScientist,47(5):658-698.

Lake,Robin,MelissaBowen,AllisonDemeritt,MoriaMcCullough,JoshuaHaimson,andBrianGill.(2012).“Learningfromcharterschoolmanagementorganizations:Strategiesforstudentbehaviorandteachercoaching.”Washington,DC:CenteronReinventingPublicEducationandMathematicaPolicyResearch.RetrievedMarch13,2017fromhttp://www.crpe.org/sites/default/files/pub_CMO_Strategies_mar12_0.pdf.

Linares,L.Oriana,NicoleRosbruch,MarciaB.Stern,MarthaE.Edwards,GillianWalker,HowardB.Abikoff,andJoseMa.J.Alvir.(2005).“Developingcognitive–social–emotionalcompetenciestoenhanceacademiclearning.”PsychologyintheSchools,42(4),405-417.

Lopes,PauloN.,andPeterSalovey.(2004).“Towardabroadereducation:Social,emotional,andpracticalskills.”InJosephE.Zins,RogerP.Weissberg,MargaretC.Wang,andHerbertJ.Walberg(Eds.),Buildingacademicsuccessonsocialandemotionallearning.(pp.76-93).NewYork:Teacher’sCollegePress.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page53

Lubienski,SarahT.,andChristopherLubienski.(2006).“Schoolsectorandacademicachievement:AmultilevelanalysisofNAEPmathematicsdata.”AmericanEducationalResearchJournal,43(4),651-698.

Merrifield,John.(2008).“Dismalscience:ShortcomingsoftheU.S.schoolchoiceresearchandhowtoaddressthem.”Washington,DC:CatoInstitute,2008.RetrievedMarch19,2017fromhttps://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa-616.pdf.

Monto,MartinA.,andJessicaDahmen(2009).“CollegeSuccessAmongStudentsGraduatingfromPublicandPrivateHighSchools.”JournalofSchoolChoice,3(3),307-312.

Neal,Derek.(2006).“WhyHasBlack-WhiteSkillConvergenceStopped?”HandbookofEconomicsofEducation,Vol.1,ed.EricHanushekandFinisWelch,511–76.Amsterdam:NorthHolland.

Ogbu,JohnU.(1992).“UnderstandingCulturalDiversityandLearning.”EducationalResearcher,21(8),5-14.

Opengardt,Rose.(2007).“EmotionalIntelligenceintheK-12CurriculumanditsRelationshiptoAmericanWorkplaceNeeds:ALiteratureReview.”HumanResourceDevelopmentReview,6(4):442-458.

Parker,JamesD.A.,RonaldE.CrequeSr.,DavildL.Barnhart,JanIronsHarris,SarahA.Majeski,LauraM.Wood,BarbaraJ.Bond,andMarjorieJ.Hogan.(2004).“Academicachievementinhighschool:doesemotionalintelligencematter?”PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,37,1321-1330.

Parker,JamesD.A.,MarjorieJ.Hogan,JenniferM.Eastabrook,AmberOke,andLauraM.Wood.(2006).“Emotionalintelligenceandstudentretention:Predictingthesuccessfultransitionfromhighschooltouniversity.”PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,41,1329-1336.

Payton,JohnW.,DanaM.Wardlaw,PatriciaA.Graczyk,MichelleR.Bloodworth,CarolynJ.Tompsett,andRogerP.Weissberg.(2000).“Socialandemotionallearning:Aframeworkforpromotingmentalhealthandreducingriskbehaviorinchildrenandyouth.”JournalofSchoolHealth,70(5),179-185.

Peterson,PaulE.,andElenaLlaudet.(2002).“TheNCESprivate-publicschoolstudy:Findingsareotherthantheyseem.”EducationNext,7(1),75-79.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page54

Petrides,K.V.,NorahFrederickson,andAdrianFurnham.(2004).“Theroleoftraitemotionalintelligenceinacademicperformanceanddeviantbehavioratschool.”PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,36,277-293.

Reither,E.N.,P.E.Peppard,P.L.Remington,andD.A.Kindig,(2006).“Increasingeducationaldisparitiesinprematureadultmortality,Wisconsin,1990–2000.”WMJ,105(7),38-41.

Ronfeldt,Matthew,SusannaLoeb,andJamesWyckoff.(2013).HowTeacherTurnoverHarmsStudentAchievement.”AmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,50(1),4-36.

Rosenbaum,JamesE.(2012).“Degreesofhealthdisparities:healthstatusdisparitiesbetweenyoungadultswithhighschooldiplomas,sub-baccalaureatedegrees,andbaccalaureatedegrees.”HealthServicesOutcomesResearchMethods,12,156-168.

Rosenbaum,JamesE.,MarilynJ.Kulieke,andLeonardS.Rubinowitz,(1988).“Whitesuburbanschools’responsestolow-incomeBlackchildren:sourcesofsuccessesandproblems.”UrbanReview,20(1),28-41.

Rouse,CeciliaElena.1998.“PrivateSchoolVouchersandStudentAchievement:AnEvaluationoftheMilwaukeeParentalChoiceProgram.”QuarterlyJournalofEconomics,113(2),553-602.

Sanbonmatsu,Lisa,JeffreyR.Kling,GregJ.Duncan,andJeanneBrooks-Gunn.(2006).“Neighborhoodsandacademicachievement:resultsfromthemovingtoopportunityexperiment.”JournalofHumanResources,41(4),649-691.

Sass,TimR.,RonW.Zimmer,BrianP.Gill,andT.KevinBooker.(2016).“CharterHighSchools’EffectsonLong-TermAttainmentandEarnings.”JournalofPolicyAnalysisandManagement,35(3),683-706.

Schoeni,R.F.,W.H.Dow,W.D.Miller,andE.R.Pamuk.(2011).“TheeconomicvalueofimprovingthehealthofdisadvantagedAmericans.”AmericanJournalofPreventiveMedicine,40(1Supplement1),S67–S72.

Shumow,LeeandRichardLomax.(2002).“Parentalefficacy:predictorofparentingbehaviorandadolescentoutcomes.”Parenting:ScienceandPractice,2(2),127-150.

Siegel,R.,E.Ward,O.Brawley,andA.Jemal.(2011).“Cancerstatistics,2011:theimpactofeliminatingsocioeconomicandracialdisparitiesonprematurecancerdeaths.”CaliforniaCancerJournalforClinicians,61(4),212-236.

Slicker,EllenK.(1998).“RelationshipofParentingStyletoBehavioralAdjustmentinGraduatingHighSchoolSeniors.”JournalofYouthandAdolescence,27(3),345-372.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page55

Smith,A.(2013).Civicengagementinthedigitalage.Retrievedfrom:http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/04/25/part-1-online-and-offline-civic-engagement-in-america/

Steinberg,Laurence,andNancyDarling.(1994).“Thebroadercontextofsocialinfluenceinadolescence.”InSilbereisen,RanierK.andEberhardTodt(eds.),AdolescenceinContext:TheInterplayofFamily,SchoolPeers,andWorkinAdjustment.NewYork:Springer-Verlag.

Sprague,B.L.,A.Trentham-Dietz,R.E.Gangnon,R.Ramchandani,J.M.Hampton,S.A.Robert,P.L.Remington,andP.A.Newcomb.(2011).“Socioeconomicstatusandsurvivalafteraninvasivebreastcancerdiagnosis.”Cancer,117(7),1542-1551.

Taylor,G.J.,Bagby,R.M.,andParker,J.D.D.(1997).“Disordersofaffectregulation:alexithymiainmedicalandpsychiatricillness.”CambridgeUniversityPress.Cambridge:UnitedKingdom

Trinidad,DennisR.,C.AndersonJohnson.(2002).“Theassociationbetweenemotionalintelligenceandearlyadolescenttobaccoandalcoholuse.”PersonalityandIndividualDifferences,32,95-105.

U.S.CensusBureau.(2017).VotingandregistrationintheelectionofNovember2016.Retrievedfrom:https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/voting-and-registration/p20-580.html

U.S.CensusBureau.(2015).VotingandregistrationintheelectionofNovember2014.Retrievedfrom:https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/voting-and-registration/p20-577.html

U.S.DepartmentofHealth&HumanServices.(2003).America’shealthliteracy:Whyweneedaccessiblehealthinformation.Retrievedfrom:https://health.gov/communication/literacy/issuebrief/

Wehlage,GaryG.,andRobertA.Rutter.(1986).“Droppingout:Howmuchdoschoolscontributetotheproblem?”TeachersCollegeRecord,87,374-392.

West,MartinR.,MatthewA.Kraft,AmyS.Finn,RebeccaE.Martin,AngelaL.Duckworth,ChristopherF.O.Gabrieli,andJohnD.E.Gabrieli.(2016).“PromiseandParadox:MeasuringStudents’Non-CognitiveSkillsandtheImpactofSchooling.”EducationEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis,3891),148-170.

ACEValueofaDiplomaJune15,2017|Page56

Woolf,S.H.,andP.Braveman.(2011).“Wherehealthdisparitiesbegin:theroleofsocialandeconomicdeterminants-andwhycurrentpoliciesmaymakemattersworse.”HealthAffairs,30(10),1852-1859.