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Meiosis&ProteinSynthesisUnitCoverPage

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Meiosis&ProteinSynthesisUnitCoverPage Attheendofthisunit,IwillbeprogressingtowardsmasteringthefollowingNGSSstandards:EngineeringPractices

q ETS1-1:Analyzeamajorglobalchallengetospecifyqualitativeandquantitativecriteriaandconstraintsforsolutionsthataccountforsocietalneedsandwants.

q ETS1-2:Designasolutiontoacomplexreal-worldproblembybreakingitdownintosmaller,moremanageableproblemsthatcanbesolvedthroughengineering.

q ETS1-3:Evaluateasolutiontoacomplexreal-worldproblembasedonprioritizedcriteriaandtrade-offsthataccountforarangeofconstraints,includingcost,safety,reliability,andaestheticsaswellaspossiblesocial,cultural,andenvironmentalimpacts.

q ETS1-4:Useacomputersimulationtomodeltheimpactofproposedsolutionstoacomplexreal-worldproblemwithnumerouscriteriaandconstraintsoninteractionswithinandbetweensystemsrelevanttotheproblem.

Attheendofthisunit,Iwill:

q LS3-1:AskquestionstoclarifyrelationshipsabouttheroleofDNAandchromosomesincodingtheinstructionsforcharacteristictraitspassedfromparentstooffspring.

q LS3-2:Makeanddefendaclaimbasedonevidencethatinheritablegeneticvariationsmayresultfrom:(1)newgeneticcombinationsthroughmeiosis,(2)viableerrorsoccurringduringreplication,and/or(3)mutationscausedbyenvironmentalfactors.

q EachchromosomeconsistsofasingleverylongDNAmolecule,andeachgeneonthechromosomeisaparticularsegmentofthatDNA.Theinstructionsforformingspecies’characteristicsarecarriedinDNA.

q Allcellsinanorganismhavethesamegeneticcontent,butthegenesused(expressed)bythecellmayberegulatedindifferentways.NotallDNAcodesforaprotein;somesegmentsofDNAareinvolvedinregulatoryorstructuralfunctions,andsomehavenoas-yetknownfunction.(LS3-1)

q Environmentalfactorsalsoaffectexpressionoftraits,andhenceaffecttheprobabilityofoccurrencesoftraitsinapopulation.Thusthevariationanddistributionoftraitsobserveddependsonbothgeneticandenvironmentalfactors.(LS3-2),(LS3-3)

q LS1-1:ConstructanexplanationbasedonevidenceforhowthestructureofDNA

determinesthestructureofproteinswhichcarryouttheessentialfunctionsoflifethroughsystemsofspecializedcells

q Knowthedifferencebetweensexualandasexualreproduction.q Understandthedifferencebetweenhaploidanddiploidcells.q Understandthestepsinvolvedinmeiosiswithregardtogametesandchromosomenumber.

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CrossCuttingConceptsq Patterns:Observedpatternsofformsandeventsguideorganizationandclassification,andthey

promptquestionsaboutrelationshipsandthefactorsthatinfluencethem.q Causeandeffect:Mechanismandexplanation.Eventshavecauses,sometimessimple,sometimes

multifaceted.Amajoractivityofscienceisinvestigatingandexplainingcausalrelationshipsandthemechanismsbywhichtheyaremediated.Suchmechanismscanthenbetestedacrossgivencontextsandusedtopredictandexplaineventsinnewcontexts.

q Scale,proportion,andquantity:Inconsideringphenomena,itiscriticaltorecognizewhatisrelevantatdifferentmeasuresofsize,time,andenergyandtorecognizehowchangesinscale,

q Systemsandsystemmodels:Definingthesystemunderstudy—specifyingitsboundariesandmakingexplicitamodelofthatsystem—providestoolsforunderstandingandtestingideasthatareapplicablethroughoutscienceandengineering.

q Energyandmatter:Flows,cycles,andconservation.Trackingfluxesofenergyandmatterinto,outof,andwithinsystemshelpsoneunderstandthesystems’possibilitiesandlimitations.

q Structureandfunction:Thewayinwhichanobjectorlivingthingisshapedanditssubstructuredeterminemanyofitspropertiesandfunctions.

q Stabilityandchange:Fornaturalandbuiltsystemsalike,conditionsofstabilityanddeterminantsofratesofchangeorevolutionofasystemarecriticalelementsofstudy.

Roots,PrefixesandSuffixesIwillbeabletounderstandwhenIseetheminwordsare:q Homo-,chromo-,hap-,di-,karyo-q -logous,-some

ThetermsIcancompletelydefineare:

q Gene,homologouschromosome,gamete,haploid,fertilization,diploid,meiosis,crossingover,karyotype,telomere,nondisjunction

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MeiosisandReproductionWarm-upHumanshave46chromosomesinalloftheirbodycells.Thefirstcelloftheorganismismadebyjoiningeggandsperm.

1. Howmanychromosomesdoyouthinkareinahumaneggorspermcell?Explain.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Doyouthinkthatcelldivisionbymitosis(duplicationofcells)canproduceeggorsperm?

Explain.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

UnderstandingHaploidandDiploidIfN=2,2Nwouldlooklike:

1. DrawthechromosomesinadiploidcellofanorganismwhereN=3.

2. Howmanycombinationsofhaploid(eggsorsperm)cellsarepossibleifN=2?Drawthepossiblecombinations.

3. HowmanycombinationsofhaploidcellsarepossibleifN=3?Drawthepossiblecombinations.

=Achromosome=Achromosome

Thereare2differenttypesofchromosomesinthiscell.2Nmeansthatthiscellisdiploid(ortherearetwocopiesofeachchromosome).Howmanytotalchromosomesarepresentinthiscell?_________

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AsexualReproductionWarm-up:WhatisAsexualReproduction?

Whatarethelimitationsofasexualreproduction?

Whataresomespecificexamplesofasexualreproduction?

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IntentionallyLeftBlank

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SexualReproductionNotesWhydoorganismshavesex?

Sexualreproductionincreases______________byproducingnew

______________combinations.

Whatdoessexualreproductionconsistof?

1. ______________:Formationoftwohaploidsexcells(or

_______________).

• Meiosisisaprocesstoconverta________celltoa________

gamete,andcauseachangeinthegeneticinformationto

increasediversityintheoffspring.

• Inhumans,meiosisonlyoccursinthe___________

– Spermatogenesis:Inthe___________(inmales)

– Oogenesis:Inthe_________________(infemales)

2. Fertilization:Combinationofgeneticinformationfromtwo

separatecellsthathaveone________theoriginalgenetic

information.

Wheredogametescomefrom?Whatareistheploidylevelsofgametes?Whatisthenamefortheprocessinwhichtwogametescombine?

• ______________forfertilizationusuallycomefromseparate

parents

o Femaleproducesan___________

o Maleproduces_____________

• Bothgametesarehaploid(1__),withasinglesetof

____________________.

• Thenewindividualiscalleda_____________,withtwosetsof

chromosomes(____________or2___).

• Oncethezygotebeginstodivide,itiscalledan

_________________.

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Karyotypes

Akaryotypeisthenumberandappearanceofchromosomesinthenucleusofaneukaryoticcell.

1. Analyzethekaryotypeabove.Howmanychromosomesdoyousee?________________

2. Arethesechromosomesreplicatedorunreplicated?Howcanyoutell?

3. Circlethesexchromosomes.Whatisthegenderofthisperson?____________________

4. Howmanyhomologouspairsdoyousee?

5. Howarehomologouschromosmespairedup?AndareXandYhomologous?Explain.

6. Forhumans,n=______.Explainwhatthismeans.

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USING KARYOTYPES TO PREDICT GENETIC DISORDERS Use the following website to help you fill in the blanks and answer the following questions. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/predictdisorder/

1. A normal human karyotype has ______ chromosomes: _____ pairs of autosomes and ____ sex chromosomes. Cells don’t always end up with these chromosomal numbers, though. The following text outlines what happens when cells end up with too much or too little genetic information.

2. Too many or too few chromosomes

a. To understand how our cells might end up with too many or too few chromosomes, we need to

know how the cells normally get _____ chromosomes.

b. First we need to understand meiosis. Meiosis is the cell division process that produces egg

and sperm cells (___________), which normally have ______ chromosomes each.

c. If eggs and sperm only have one set of _____________________, then how do we end up

with 46 chromosomes? During ______________________, when the egg and sperm fuse, the

resulting _________________ has two copies of each chromosome needed for proper

development, for a total of ________.

3. How can cells end up with too many or too few chromosomes?

a. Sometimes chromosomes are incorrectly distributed into the egg or sperm cells during

_______________. When this happens, one cell may get __________ copies of a particular

chromosome, while another cell gets none.

b. What happens if a sperm or egg cell with an abnormal number of chromosomes participates in

fertilization? It depends on how many chromosomes the gamete has. For example, if a

___________ with an extra chromosome fertilizes an egg with a normal chromosome number,

the resulting zygote will have _____ copies of one chromosome. This is called

_______________.

c. If a sperm that is missing a ___________________ fertilizes an egg, then the resulting zygote

will have only one copy of that chromosome. This is called ________________________

d. People who are born with an abnormal number of chromosomes often have genetic disorders

because their cells contain too much or too little genetic information. Scientists can predict

genetic disorders by looking for extra or missing chromosomes in a ___________________.

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4. Missing pieces of chromosomes

a. In some cases, genetic material is missing from a chromosome. Such chromosomes are said

to have __________________.

b. Deletions large enough to be seen in a karyotype result in the loss of many _____________.

In humans, these are less comman than deletions that remove small portions of a

chromosome.

c. A _________________________ is a chromosome rearrangement in which part of a

chromosome breaks off and then reattaches to a different chromosome.

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QUIZ: Use the options listed below and your knowledge to answer the following questions. Some options will be used more than once.

Normal female Turner Syndrome Down Syndrome

Normal male Klinefelter Syndrome

1. _______________________

2. _______________________

3. _______________________

4. _______________________

5. _______________________

6. _______________________

7. _______________________

8. _______________________

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Patient Histories: Karyotyping Activity

Introduction This exercise is a simulation of human karyotyping using digital images of chromosomes from actual human genetic studies. You will be arranging chromosomes into a completed karyotype, and interpreting your findings just as if you were working in a genetic analysis program at a hospital or clinic. Karyotype analyses are performed over 400,000 times per year in the U.S. and Canada. Imagine that you were performing these analyses for real people, and that your conclusions would drastically affect their lives.

G Banding During mitosis, the 23 pairs of human chromosomes condense and are visible with a light microscope. A karyotype analysis usually involves blocking cells in mitosis and staining the condensed chromosomes with Giemsa dye. The dye stains regions of chromosomes that are rich in the base pairs Adenine (A) and Thymine (T) producing a dark band. A common misconception is that bands represent single genes, but in fact the thinnest bands contain over a million base pairs and potentially hundreds of genes. For example, the size of one small band is about equal to the entire genetic information for one bacterium.

The analysis involves comparing chromosomes

for their length, the placement of centromeres (areas where the two chromatids are joined), and the location and sizes of G-bands.

Your assignment This exercise is designed as an introduction to genetic studies on humans. Karyotyping is one of many techniques that allow us to look for several thousand possible genetic diseases in humans. You will evaluate 3 patients' case histories, complete their karyotypes, and diagnose any missing or extra chromosomes. The assignment will be completed online, while the questions must be answered on the following page. Use the following website to help these patients diagnose their disorders from karyotypes and answer the following questions. http://www.biology.arizona.edu/human_bio/activities/karyotyping/karyotyping2.html

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Patient Histories Patient A Patient A is the nearly-full-term fetus of a forty year old female. Chromosomes were obtained from fetal epithelial cells acquired through amniocentesis. Complete Patient A's Karyotype (this will have to be done online). Patient B Patient B is a 28 year old male who is trying to identify a cause for his infertility. Chromosomes were obtained from nucleated cells in the patient's blood. Complete Patient B's Karyotype. Patient C Patient C died shortly after birth, with a multitude of anomalies, including polydactyly (more than five fingers on a hand) and a cleft lip. Chromosomes were obtained from a tissue sample. Complete Patient C's Karyotype.

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Making a diagnosis

The next step is to either diagnose or rule out a chromosomal abnormality. In a patient with a normal number of chromosomes, each pair will have only two chromosomes. Having an extra or missing chromosome usually renders a fetus inviable (meaning that it will not live). In cases where the fetus makes it to term, there are unique clinical features depending on which chromosome is affected. Listed below are some syndromes caused by an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Diagnosis Chromosomal Abnormality

Normal # of chromosomes patient's problems are due to something other than an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Klinefelter's Syndrome one or more extra sex chromosomes (i.e., XXY)

Down's Syndrome Trisomy 21, extra chromosome 21

Trisomy 13 Syndrome extra chromosome 13

1. What observations can you make regarding patient A’s karyotype?

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

2. What diagnosis would you give patient A? Explain your answer. _________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

1. What observations can you make regarding patient B’s karyotype?

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

2. What diagnosis would you give patient B? Explain your answer.

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_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What observations can you make regarding patient C’s karyotype?

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

4. What diagnosis would you give patient C? Explain your answer.

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

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MeiosisOverviewFollowyourteacher’spowerpointpresentation,anddrawtheoverviewofmeiosis,usingtwodifferentcolors.

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MeiosisNotes

Whendoesmeiosisstart?Whatismeiosisoftencalledandwhy?

Meiosisbeginsafterinterphase,whenthe______replicates.

Meiosisisoftencalled____________________/____________________

Reduction:

• Processtakesa________________cellwithtwosetsof

chromosomesandreducesittoa_________________

cellwithonesetofchromosomes.

Division

• Thecytoplasmicdivisionofonecellinto_______

cells.

• Thistakes2roundsofdivision.

Meiosiscanbebrokenupintotwophasesofdivision:

and

.

MeiosisI

• ProphaseI

ProphaseIismuchliketheprophaseofmitosis:

1.Nuclearmembrane_________________________

2.________________form

3.Chromatin________________into__________________.

However,unlikemitosis,wherethechromosomesofa

homologouspairarerandomlyscatteredwithinthe

nucleus,inprophaseIofmeiosis:

1.Homologouschromosomesgroupwithother

homologouschromosomestoforma“_________________”

2.A“_________________”occursatthepointwherethe

chromosomes______________________,_______________,and

______________________________ofthechromosome

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CheckforUnderstanding:PhasesofMeiosis

NameofPhase Description

1. Homologouschromosomespairupandformtetrad

2. Spindlefibersmovehomologouschromosomestooppositesides

3. Nuclearmembranereforms,cytoplasmdivides,4daughtercellsformed

4. Chromosomeslineupalongequator,notinhomologouspairs

5. Crossing-overoccurs

6. Sisterchromatidsseparate

7. Homologouschromosomeslineupalongequator

8. Cytoplasmdivides,2daughtercellsareformed

Oneachoftheimages,labelthephaseofmeiosis.

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MeiosisNotes

• MetaphaseI

MetaphaseI1. _____________________chromosomes_____________atthe

______________________________.

2. Microtubules(_______________)attachtothekinetochoreof_____________________

• AnaphaseI

AnaphaseI

1. Homologouschromosomes____________________.

2. ___________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

• TelophaseI

TelophaseI/Cytokinesis

1. _____daughter_________areformedwitheachone

containingonly_____chromosomeofthe_________________

__________.

2. Thedaughtercellsarenow___________________.

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MeiosisApplication: Labelthemicrographsoflilyanthersundergoingmeiosis.

1. Acellwithadiploidnumber(2N)of20undergoesmeiosis.Thiswillproduce________

daughtercells,eachwithahaploidnumberof____________chromosomes.2. Crossingoveroccursduringthisphase:_______________________

3. TrueorFalse:Theonlydifferenceinmitosisandmeiosisisthatmeiosishappensinordertocreatesexcells.

4. AttheendofmeiosisI,________daughtercellsarecreated.Thesedaughtercellsare[diploid|haploid].(Pickone)

5. Meiosisoccursinwhattypeofcells:____________________________

6. Circlethehomologouschromosomes.

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MeiosisNotesMeiosisII

• ProphaseII

ProphaseII1. DNAdoes__________________________________.

2. ProphaseIIisjustlike______________prophase.

• MetaphaseII

MetaphaseII

1. Allofthechromosomeslineupatthe____________________

plate.

• AnaphaseII

AnaphaseII

1. __________________divide

2. ___________________________________migrateseparatelytoeach

pole.

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Mitosisvs.Meiosis

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MeiosisNotes

• TelophaseII/Cytokinesis

TelophaseII/Cytokinesis

1. Chromosomesrevertto_________________.

2. ________________________.

3. Cytoplasm_______________.

4. Four______________daughtercellsareobtained

Mitosisvs.Meiosis

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LilyHistologyLabBackground:Thestamenisthepollenproducingpartofaflower,usuallytoppedwithanantherthatmakespollen.Pollenisthemalegameteforflowers.Thefemalegameteisproducedbytheovaryoftheflower.

Procedure:

1. Openthe“PlantHistology”apponaniPad.2. Selectthe“Meiosis”option,thenchoose“study”3. Chooseeitherovarycellsoranthercellstoinvestigate.4. Carefullydraweachphaseonthefollowingpagesandlabelcharactericticstructuresineach

phase.5. Describewhatishappeningduringeachphase,indetail,underthecolumn“Whatis

happeningduringthisphase?Describetheprocess.”Identifyeachphaseaseitherhaploidordiploidinthe“HaploidorDiploid”column.

ConclusionQuestions:

1. Duringwhichphasedidcrossingoverlikelyoccur?

2. HowdoMeiosisIandMeiosisIIdiffer?

3. Whyismeiosisimportantforsexualreproduction?

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4. TheAsiaticlilyhasadiploidnumberof24.(2n=24)a. HowmanychromosomesshouldbepresentinacellinProphaseI?Howmany

sisterchromatids?

b. HowmanychromosomesshouldbepresentinoneofthecellsinProphaseII?Howmanysisterchromatids?

c. HowmanychromosomesshouldbepresentinacellinAnaphaseII?Howmanysisterchromatids?

5. HowmanydaughtercellsareattheendofMeiosiscomparedtoMitosis?

6. Whatisthepurposeofthesecellsthathadundergonemeiosis?

7. Whatistheadvantageofsexualreproductioninplantsvs.asexualreproductioninplants?

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LilyHistologyLab

DrawingandLabels Whatishappeningduringthisphase?Describetheprocess.

Diploidor

Haploid?

Interphase

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I

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Telophase I

Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Telophase II

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MeiosisSongtotheTuneof“AreYouSleeping”

Useyourfingersto“actout”meiosistothissong.Yourteacherwilldirectyou.

I’mfrommymommy

I’mfrommydaddy

Replicate

Replicate

Atprophasewecrossover

Thenshuffle,shuffle,shuffle

Separate

Separate

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MeiosisSquareDanceLyrics

Now coil up, coil up, coil up tight

If we’re to do meiosis right

Interphase one is almost done

Marks the start of prophase one

Face your partners and do them bow

Do-se-do crossover now

Allemande left with your left hand

Promenade around the land

Now grab your partner’s chromatid

Crossing arms you’ll be glad you did

The nuclear membrane breaks down here

Attach your fiber to you centromere

The fibers pull the dance is done

Hold on tight its metaphase one

Couples move to the central plate

It’s anaphase one so you separate

Now wave goodbye to reach your goal

Each partner move to the other pole

Telophase one is mighty sad

You’re all alone lost what you had

Together we’ll no longer be

These parts of you will be dear to me

Prophase, prophase, prophase two

The spindles coming after you

With a fiber stuck to your centromere

You’re pulled into the center here

On the central plate for metaphase two

Just like before it’s déjà vu

At Interphase one you duplicate

So now that you can separate

The fibers tugging this is it

Time for your chromatids to split

Anaphase, anaphase, anaphase two

This time you wave goodbye to you

At telophase two half the teams on hand

You’re feeling sad you’re a single strand

Now this is just your normal state

With some luck you’ll procreate

So rest a while and unwind too

As the nuclear membrane surrounds you

Now meiosis is complete

Four nuclei from ones the treat

The cytoplasm will divide

Four gametes form with you inside

And if we zoom out you will find

Many more of the same kind

And if you’re wondering what’s the use

It’s all so we can reproduce… reproduce

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MeisoisFoldable

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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlay–WARMUPTounderstandtoday’sactivity,youwillneedtoknowthefollowingterms.Lookthemupinyourtextbookandthoroughlysummarizethembelowinyourownwords.

• Allele

• Phenotype

• Genotype

• Dominant

• Recessive

• Heterozygous

• Homozygous

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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlay

Act1:SceneI–Interphase Act1:Scene2–ProphaseI

Act1:Scene4–AfterCytokinesisofMeiosisI

Act2:Scenes3and4–AfterCytokinesisofMeiosisII

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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlayIntroduction:Adragon’stestesaregoingthroughmeiosis.Youandyourclassmateswillactouttheprocessusingpipecleaners.Act1:Scene1-InterphaseThedragonhas6chromosomes.ThegenotypeofyourfruitflyisGgBbrr.Removethesechromosomesfromyourbagtostarttheplay.Analleleisaformor"version"ofagene.Organismstypicallyhavetwoallelesforatrait.Dominantallelesareshownwithuppercaseletters,whilerecessiveallelesareshownwithlowercaseletters.

-Chromosome1:withalleleG(forGrayeyes)-Chromosome2:withalleleg(forgreeneyes)-Chromosome3:withalleleB(forblack,solidbody)-Chromosome4:withalleleb(forredstripedbody)-Chromosome5:withalleleR(forlarge,pointedtippedwings)-Chromosome6:withalleler(smaller,roundedtippedwings)

Howwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringinterphase?Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawonthepreviouspage.Act1:Scene2-ProphaseIHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringprophaseI?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawonthepreviouspage.Act1:Scene3-MetaphaseIHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthisphaseandwhy?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.

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Act1:Scene4–AnaphaseI,TelophaseI,andCytokinesisHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthesephases?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawtheendproductofmeiosisIonthepreviouspage.Act2:Scene1and2–ProphaseIIandMetaphaseIIHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthesephases?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Act2:Scene3and4–AnapahseII,TelophaseII,andCytokinesisHowwouldthesechromosomesarrangethemselvesduringthisphase?Describeanyimportanteventsorprocessesoccurringinthespacebelow.Afterconfirmingwithyourteacher,drawonthepreviouspage.

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MeiosisPipeCleanerPlay

Act3:FertilizationYourdragonmeetsafemaledragon,andtheylikeeachotherandwanttohavebabydragons.Chooseoneofthefourgametescreatedandwritedownitsgenotypehere____________.

Haveitfertilizewithanothergametefromanotherstudent.Writedowntheirgenotypehere

________.

Whatisthenewoffspringsfullgenotype?_________________

Whatistheoffspring’sphenotype?

Drawthenewdragonoffspringinthespacebelow.Usecolorandmakesureitmatchesthegenotype.

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WarmUp:

1. Accordingtothisgraphic,whatmolecule(s)canbecreatedfromDNA.

2. WhattypeofmacromoleculeisDNAandRNA?

3. WhatistheprocesscalledwhenDNAcreatesmoreDNA?

4. IdentifythenameoftheprocessthatinvolvesmakingRNAfromDNA.

5. IdentifythenameoftheprocessthatinvolvescreatingproteinfromRNA?

6. InferwhatthecirclesmarkedH,V,andMmightbe.Hint:theyarethemonomersofprotein.

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BrainstormWhichofthefollowingchromosomeswouldhaveagreaterrateofcrossingover.Makeaclaim,anddefendyourclaimbasedonwhatyouknowaboutthestructureofDNAandchromosomes.

ChromosomeA ChromosomeB

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ProteinSynthesisNotes

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ProteinSynthesisNotes

WhatisRNA?

RNAstandsfor________________________________________acid.

HowisRNAdifferentfromDNA?

Itcontainsa_______________________________asthesugarinitssugar-

phosphatebackbone.

RNAhasa____________________________ratherthanThymineasitsbase:

Abondswith_________,andCbondswith_________.

WhatarethethreetypesofRNA?

1. ______________________________RNA(mRNA)

2. _______________________________RNA(tRNA)

3. ________________________________RNA(rRNA)

Whatarethetwostepstoproteinsynthesis?

______________________________________:mRNAismadefromastrandofDNA

______________________________________:Proteinismadebyaribosomewith

using___________asthesetof“instructions.”

HowdoesProteinSynthesisoccurinProkaryoticcells?(Labeltheimagetotheleft)

ProteinSynthesisinProkaryotesoccursintwosteps:

1. Transcription:_________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

2. Translation:_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

HowdoesProteinSynthesisoccurinEukaryoticcells?(Labeltheimagetotheleft)

ProteinSynthesisinEukaryotesoccursinthreesteps:

1. Transcription:__________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

2. RNAProcessing:Non-codingregionsofmRNA,called_____________

areremovedfromthepre-mRNA,whilethecodingregion(or

________________)leavethenucleus.

3. Translation:_____________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

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ProteinSynthesisNotes

Whatifasinglebaseischanged?

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ProteinSynthesisNotes

WhatarethefivestepstoTranscription?

1. _______________________doesNOTunzipDNAatthegeneofinterest

2. ____________________________________unzipsandmatchesRNA

nucleotidebasestoDNA,usingonesideasatemplate.

3. The_______________strandiscreated.Itnowcomplimentsthe

originalDNAstrand(G-_______andA-________).

4. ________________________helpsthestrandofDNAtocloseagain.

5. mRNAstrandmovesoutofnucleusto_____________________________,

DNAzipsup.

Whatarethekeyplayersinvolvedintranslation?

§ rRNA=RNAthatmakesupa____________________________.

§ tRNA=RNAthat___________________________specificaminoacids

§ mRNA=carriesthe______________________;RNAtranscribedfromDNA

§ _____________________=3nucleotidesinarowonastrandofmRNA

thatcodeforanaminoacid

§ Anticodon=3nucleotidesin___________________thatbasepairwith

thecodon

§ Aminoacids=__________________________ofproteins(20inhumans)

WhatarethefourstepstoTranslation?

1. ____________________attachtothe“start”codonofmRNA(_________),

signalingthebeginningoftheproteinchain

2. mRNA____________________arematchedtocorrespondingtRNA

_____________________andappropriateaminoacidsarestrungtogether.

3. Dehydrationsynthesisoccursbetweenthe______________________

acids,andtheyjoin,makingaproteinchainwith______________________

bondsinbetween.

4. Ribosomesdetachwhentheycomeacrossa“________________”codon

(UAA,UAG,UGA).Proteinsynthesisiscomplete.

Whatifasinglebaseischanged?

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Common-CoreWarm-up:

Theabovegraphshowsthatabodytemperatureof98.6degreesFahrenheitistheoptimaltemperatureforlife-sustainingbiochemicalreactionsinyourbody.1.Usingyourknowledgeofenzymes,explainwhytemperaturesbelowandabove98.6degreeswouldcauseamedicalemergency.(Hint:Consideryourknowledgeofrandommotionofmoleculesaswellastheconditionsthathelpmaintainthestructuralintegrityofproteins.)__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2.Whywouldyourbodydevelopa“fever”tofightoffbacterialorviralinfectionsifitcanpotentiallycausemedicalemergencies?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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ProteinNotes

Whatareproteins?

MadeupofC______________,H_________________,O__________________and

N______________________(andsomeSulfur)

Proteinsareresponsibleformanychemicalreactions

Nameanddescribetheseventypesofproteins.

1. ______________________=________________________that______________

_______therateofachemical_______________________

________________upor_____________________________substrate

Fittogetherlikea“______________”anda“___________”

_______________________________________inthereaction

Workinaveryspecific__________________________________________

Usuallyendwith“-_______________”

2. _______________Proteins

Provides___________________________________tocellsandtissues

3. ________________________Proteins

________________________small_____________or________________________

4. ______________________Proteins

Enablesstructuresto___________________

5. _________________________(signalingproteins)

Carries_______________________fromcell-to-cell

e.g.,____________________

6. ___________________________

_____________________________smallmoleculesorions

e.g.,____________________isstoredinthe_______________inferritin

7. Otherspecializedfunctions

_________________________(immunesystemantibodies)

___________________________proteins(ineyesandmusclesto

detect stimulus)

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EnzymeCommonCorePractice(toreviewenzymes,referbacktopage165ofyourinteractivenotebook)

Sucroseisasweetenerfoundinmanycandies.Itisacarbohydratedisaccharidemadeupofglucoseandanothersugarcalledfructose.Whenweeatsucrose,itmustbedigestedorbrokendownintosmallersubstances,whichourcellscanabsorb.Anenzyme(protein)calledsucrasespeedsupthischemicalreactionbybreakingthechemicalbondinsucrose,thesubstrate.Highheatandstrongacidsorbasesdestroytheenzymeandwouldstopthechemicalreaction.Theonlywaytomakethereactiongofasteristoaddmoreenzymes.Scientistssupportthe“lockandkey”modelbelowforhowanenzymespeedsupchemicalreactions.Theletters“ase”attheendofwordshelpusidentifyenzymes.

1. LabelA-Edirectlyontheimageabove(activesite,substrate,enzyme,glucose,fructose)2. Areenzymeschangedorusedupwhentheyconvertsubstratesintoproducts?Explainyour

answerwithevidencefromtheimageabove

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ProteinNotes

Whatareproteins?

MadeupofC______________,H_________________,O__________________and

N______________________(andsomeSulfur)

Proteinsareresponsibleformanychemicalreactions

Nameanddescribetheseventypesofproteins.

8. ______________________=________________________that______________

_______therateofachemical_______________________

________________upor_____________________________substrate

Fittogetherlikea“______________”anda“___________”

_______________________________________inthereaction

Workinaveryspecific__________________________________________

Usuallyendwith“-_______________”

9. _______________Proteins

Provides___________________________________tocellsandtissues

10. ________________________Proteins

________________________small_____________or________________________

11. ______________________Proteins

Enablesstructuresto___________________

12. _________________________(signalingproteins)

Carries_______________________fromcell-to-cell

e.g.,____________________

13. ___________________________

_____________________________smallmoleculesorions

e.g.,____________________isstoredinthe_______________inferritin

14. Otherspecializedfunctions

_________________________(immunesystemantibodies)

___________________________proteins(ineyesandmusclesto

detect stimulus)

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ProteinNotes

H2O

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ProteinNotes

Whatarethemonomersofproteins?

Proteins’_______________arecalledaminoacids

_____________________bond:abondbetween2________________Acids:

Achainofaminoacidsarecalled_______________________________“ManyPeptides”

Polypeptides____________________and____________________toformaspecific

___________________

______________ormorepolypeptidesformacomplete_____________________

Theseshapesallowproteinstofunction

SummarizetheEndo-membraneSystem

Howdoproteinscreatedbythe“free”ribosomesdifferinfinaldestinationfromtheproteinscreatedbythe“attached”ribosomesoftheER?

___________________ribosomes:Theymakeproteinsthatareeither:

1)____________________________________________________

2)____________________________________________________

3)___________________________________inamembranetofunctionasanother

organelle,suchasa_______________________.

___________________ribosomes:Theymakeproteinsthatstaywithinthe

___________________________.Thecellusestheseproteinsitself.

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CodonTable:CodonsarethreemRNAbasesthatcodeforanaminoacid.Fourcodoncombinationshavebeenleftblankonthiscodontable.Filltheminwithyourclassmatesfollowingyourteacher’sinstructions.

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TanscriptionandTranslationMiniLabhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B6O6uRb1D38

Purpose:Ingroups,youwillbetranscribingastrandofmRNAandtranslatingaproteinusingmRNAasyourtemplate.Thisisaproteinsequencethatyourbodyactuallymakes.Materials:

v LongstrandofpaperwithDNAsequencev Longstrandofblankpaper(servingasmRNA)v Dry-erasemarkerv Ribosome(largepieceofconstructionpaper)v 9tRNAswithanticodonsv 9aminoacids(foamrectangles)v AminoAcidtable(onpage360)

Procedure:

1. LaythestrandofDNAoutonthetable.

2. LaytheblankmRNAstrandoutonthetable,andtranscribethemRNAsequencefromtheDNAtemplate.OncetheRNAsequenceiscomplete,youmayrolltheDNAbackup.YoudonotneedtheDNAfromthispointon.

3. Carefullyinsertthebeginningofthesequence(AUG,thestartcodon)intotheribosome.

4. OnememberofthegroupcanactastheenzymethatattachesthetRNAtotheaminoacid.Thisisatoughjob!

5. AsyouslidethemRNAthroughtheribosome,matchtheanticodonsonthetRNAuptothecodonsonthemRNA.Youwillberecruitingaminoacidsaswell.

6. Besuretobondeachaminoacidtothenext.Whilewemaybeusingtoothpicks,thepolypeptideusespeptidebonds.

7. WheneachtRNAhastransferreditsaminoacid,itmayleavetheribosomecomplex(inthecell,itwouldberecycledtopickupanotheraminoacid)

8. Whenyouaredone,raiseyourhandtogetyourproteinchecked.

9. Carefullyputallofthestartingmaterialsbackinthebackforthenextclass.

AUG

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TranscriptionandTranslationMiniLabCongratulations!Youjusttranslatedtheprotein,anti-diuretichormoneorvasopressin,whichhelpsyoutoconservewaterinyourbodybypreventingyoufromurinatingallofthetime.

1. Fillintheaminoacidsequencefortheproteinyoutranslatedbelow:

Met-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________-_________

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CELLULARSPYACTIVITYSectionOne:Answerthefollowingquestions

1. WhenmRNAtakesthegeneticinformationcopiedfromDNAoutofthenucleusandintothe

cytoplasmofthecellitiscalled______________________.

2. _______________________convertsthenucleotidesequenceofthemRNAintoaspecificsequence

ofaminoacidstoproduceaspecificprotein.

3. Whichofthesenucleotidebasepairsarecorrect?a. Adenine-Guanineb. Thymine-Cytosinec. Thymine-Adenined. Guanine-Cytosinee. Bothcandd

4. Thestartcodon________codesfortheaminoacid____________________.

SectionTwo:DecodingSofarwehaveseenaminoacidsrepresentedwiththeirthree-lettercode.Occasionally,youwillseeaminoacidsrepresentedwithaone-lettercode(i.e.,Alanine=Ala=A).UseoneoftheaminoacidtablesinyournotesorthewheelonthenextpagetodecodethefollowingsentencesbytranscribingthemintomRNAandfinallytranslatingthemintotheiraminoacidsequence.

1 . AAATGCGTATCA

2 . GCATTACGGTAAAGACCCTCTCTCCGGTGG

3 . CTATTGCGTTAGAGGGACTAAAAGCTT

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CELLULARSPYACTIVITY

1. Thisaminoacidtablebelowisalittle

differentfromtheoneyou’veworkedwithbefore.Followthewheelfromtheinsidetotheoutsidetofindthecodonsequenceandtheaminoacid.

2. Usethetableontherighttogettheone-lettercodefortheaminoacid.

One-lettercode Three-letter-code Name1 A Ala Alanine2 C Cys Cysteine3 D Asp AsparticAcid4 E Glu GlutamicAcid5 F Phe Phenylalanine6 G Gly Glycine7 H His Histidine8 I Ile Isoleucine9 K Lys Lysine10 L Leu Leucine11 M Met Methionine12 N Asn Asparagine13 P Pro Proline14 Q Gln Glutamine15 R Arg Arginine16 S Ser Serine17 T Thr Threonine18 V Val Valine19 W Trp Tryptophan20 Y Tyr Tyrosine

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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein

PARTI:TRANSCRIPTION,TRANSLATIONANDMUTATIONSThefollowingisthebasesequenceonthesensestrandofaDNAmolecule: DNASenseStrand: AATGCCAGTGGTTCGCAC

1. WhatisthebasesequenceofthecomplementarymRNAtranscribedfromthesensestrandoftheDNAmolecule?

NewmRNAstrand: _________________________________________________

2. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsontheabovemRNAmoleculethatyoumadefromthesensestrandofDNA.

3. Useacodontablefigureouttheaminoacidsequencethatwouldbesynthesizedfromthe

mRNAmoleculeinnumberoneabove.Recordyouranswersbelow.

mRNACodon AminoAcid

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

4. Stringsofaminoacidsliketheonesynthesizedinthetableabovemakeupwhatkindof

molecule?_____________________________

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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein

5. Below,addaguaninebase(G)totheoriginalDNAstrandafterthethirdbase.WhatwouldtheresultingmRNAlooklike?OriginalDNAStrand:AAT___GCCAGTGGTTCGCACNewmRNAstrand:____________________________________________________

6. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthemRNAstrandinnumber5above.

7. UseacodontableandthenewmRNAstrandabovetofillinthetablebelow.

mRNACodon AminoAcid

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

Leftoverbase?

8. DidtheadditionofaGinnumber5abovechangetheaminoacidsequence?(Comparethe

sequenceofaminoacidsinthechartinnumber3withthesequenceofaminoacidsinthe

chartinnumber7).____________________

Thistypeofmutationiscalledaninsertion.

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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein

9. ChangetheeighthbaseintheoriginalDNAstrandfromGtoC.WhatwouldtheresultingmRNAlooklike?OriginalDNAStrand:AATGCCAGTGGTTCGCAC

NewmRNAstrand:____________________________________________________

10. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthenewmRNAstrandinquestion9above.

11. UsingthechartorthewheelandthenewmRNAstrandinquestionnumber9,fillinthechartbelow.

mRNACodon AminoAcid

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

12. DidchangingaGtoaCinnumber9abovechangethesequenceofaminoacids?(Compare

thesequenceofaminoacidsinthechartinnumber3withthesequenceofaminoacidsin

thechartinnumber11).________

Explain.________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Thistypeofmutationiscalledasubstitution.

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Sicklecellanemiaisaworldwidehealthproblemaffectingmanyraces,countries,andethnicgroups.The

WorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthateachyearmorethan250,000babiesarebornworldwidewiththis

inheritedbloodcelldisorder,whichcausesredbloodcellstoelongateandclogarteries.Chronicpainandlife-

threateninginfectionsmayresultfromtheillness.Aboutonein400African-AmericannewbornsintheUnited

Stateshavesicklecellanemia,butthediseaseisalsoprevalentinmanySpanish-speakingregionsoftheworld

suchasSouthAmerica,Cuba,CentralAmerica,andamongtheHispaniccommunityintheUnitedStates.

PeopleinMediterraneancountriessuchasTurkey,Greece,andItalyalsohavetheillness.Andmanypeople,

includingonein12African-Americans,carrythesicklecelltraitwhichmeansthattheycanpassthedefect

ontooffspringalthoughtheirownhealthremainsexcellent.

Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein

PARTII:SICKLECELLANEMIA

Afterreadingaboutsicklecellanemia,completethetaskbelowtounderstandthegeneticcauseofthisdisorder.

ThefollowingsensestrandofDNAispartofthegenetomakehemoglobin(theredpigmentinbloodcellsthatcarriesoxygentobodycells).DNAsensestrandforhemoglobin:CACGTGGACTGAGGACTCCTC

1. WhatisthebasesequenceofthemRNAstrandtranscribedfromtheaboveDNAmolecule?

mRNAStrand:_______________________________________________

2. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsinthemRNAmoleculeinquestion1.

3. UsingacodontableandthemRNAstrandabove,fillinthefollowingtable.

mRNACodon AminoAcid

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein

4. Changethe17thbaseintheDNAstrandfromTtoA(isthisaninsertionorasubstitution?)________________________________________

WhatmRNAbasewouldthenewDNAbasecodefor?(Tpairswith…?)_______________

DNAsensestrandforhemoglobin: CACGTGGACTGAGGACTCCTC

NewmRNAStrand: ________________________________________________

5. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthemRNAstrandinquestion4above.

6. UsingacodontableandthemRNAstrandinnumber4above,fillinthechartbelow.

mRNACodon AminoAcid

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

7. Whatisthedifferenceintheaminoacidsequenceinquestionnumber3andquestion

number6?_____________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

NOTE:Theaminoacidsequenceinnumber3codesfornormalhemoglobin.Theaminoacid

sequenceinnumber6codesforsicklecellhemoglobin.Thissingleaminoacidsubstitutionhassomedevastatingconsequences.Thenormallysmooth,doughnut-shapedredbloodcellstakeonasickleorcurvedshape.Thesicklecellsbecomestiffandstickyandclogsmallbloodvessels.

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ThemostcommongeneticdiseaseintheUnitedStatesiscysticfibrosis,whichstrikes1inevery2500

Caucasiansbutismuchrarerinotherraces.Cysticfibrosiscausesexcessivesecretionsofmucusfromthe

pancreas,lungsandcirrhosisoftheliver,pneumoniaandotherinfections.Untreated,mostchildrenwith

cysticfibrosisdiebythetimetheyarefourorfiveyearsold.Currently,however,treatmenthasprolonged

theirlifeexpectancyintotheir40's.

Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein

PARTIII:CYSTICFIBROSIS

ThefollowingisthebasesequenceonthesensestrandoftheDNAmoleculethatcodesforpartofthegenethatdirectsthecelltoproducenormalamountsofmucussecretions.DNAsensestrandfornormalmucus:TAGTAGAAACCACAAAGGATA

1. GivethebasesequenceofthemRNAstrandtranscribedfromtheaboveDNAmolecule.

mRNAStrand:_________________________________________________

2. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsinthemRNAmoleculeinquestion1.

3. UsingacodontableandthemRNAstrandinnumber1above,fillinthefollowingtable.

mRNACodon AminoAcid

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

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Activity:DNAà RNAà Protein

4. Ifwedeletethe7th,8th,and9thbaseintheDNAsensestrand,whatmRNAmoleculewouldthenewDNAcodefor?DNAsensestrandfornormalmucus:TAGTAGAAACCACAAAGGATA

Newstrand:TAGTAGCCACAAAGGATA

NewmRNAStrand: _________________________________________________

5. DrawalinebetweenthecodonsofthemRNAstrandinquestion4above.

6. UsingacodontableandthenewmRNAstrandabove,fillinthetablebelow.

mRNACodon AminoAcid

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7. Whatisthedifferenceintheaminoacidsequenceinnumber3andnumber6above?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________________NOTE:Theaminoacidsequenceinnumber3codesfornormalmucussecretions.Theamino

acidsequenceinnumber6codesfortheexcessivemucussecretionstypicalofcysticfibrosis.

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ChromosomalMutationActivityThenumberedrectanglerepresentsachromosome.Eachofthenumbersaremeanttorepresentseveralbandsonachromosome.Readthescenarios.Then,cutouteachrectanglechromosomewhilekeepingtheindividualnumberedsquaresattached.Yourgoalistoperformamutationtoeachofyournumberedchromosomes.Tapeorgluethemutatedchromosometothepapernexttoeachtypeofmutation.Theinsertionandtranslocationmutationswillrequiretwodifferentchromosomes(circleandrectangle).Oneruleorconstraintisthateachmutatedchromosomemuststartwiththenumberoneandendinthenumbersix.

4p-Deletion(Wolf-Hirschhornsyndrome)

Nutritionalfactorshavebeencorrelatedwiththedeletionoftheshortarmofchromosome4(4p)resultsinginprofoundintellectualdisability.Manifestationsalsomayincludeepilepsy,abroadorbeakednose,midlinescalpdefects,cleftpalate,anddelayedbonedevelopment.Manyaffectedchildrendieduringinfancy;thosewhosurviveintotheir20shaveseveredisability.

ExampleofDeletion:

1

2

4

5

6

HeatShockResistanceinFruitFliesEvidenceofchromosomalinversionshavebeenfoundinfruitfliescalledDrosophilla,aftertheflieswereexposedtohighamountsofheatandradiation.Flieswiththisformofchromosomalmutationweremorelikelytoproduceamutatedenzymethatsignificantlyhelpedtoincreaseitsresistancetoheat,andthrivedforlongerperiodsoftimeinthisextremeenvironment.ExampleofInversion:

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MECP2duplicationsyndrome?

MECP2duplicationsyndromeisaconditionthatoccursalmostexclusivelyinmalesandischaracterizedbymoderatetosevereintellectualdisability.Mostpeoplewiththisconditionalsohaveweakmuscletoneininfancy,feedingdifficulties,poororabsentspeech,seizuresthatmaynotimprovewithtreatment,ormusclestiffness(spasticity).IndividualswithMECP2duplicationsyndromehavedelayeddevelopmentofmotorskillssuchassittingandwalking.Someaffectedindividualsexperiencethelossofpreviouslyacquiredskills(developmentalregression).Approximatelyonethirdofpeoplewiththisconditioncannotwalkwithoutassistance.ManyindividualswithMECP2duplicationsyndromehaverecurrentrespiratorytractinfections.Theserespiratoryinfectionsareamajorcauseofdeathinaffectedindividuals,withalmosthalfsuccumbingbyage25.Exposuretotoxinsandviralinfectionshavebeenimplicatedasthepossiblecauseforthisformofautism.

ExampleofDuplication:

BacterialAntibioticResistanceBacteriahavebeenknowntopickupforeignDNAfromitsenvironmentandincorporatetheforeigngenesintotheirownchromosomeasaninsertion.Manyofthegenesareoftenleftoverintheenvironmentfromrupturedvirusesorotherdeadorganisms.Ifthisforeigngenecodesforproteinsthatpromoteresistancetoantibiotics,thenthatbacteriawillalsodeveloparesistancetoantibioticsoncethegeneisinsertedintoitsowngenome.

ExampleofanInsertion:

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TranslocationDownsyndromereferstothetypeofDownsyndromethatiscausedbyrearrangedchromosomematerial.Justliketypicaldownsyndrome,therearethreechromosomes#21,butinthiscase,oneofthechromosomes21isattachedtoanotherchromosome,insteadofbeingseparate.Riskfactorsforthistypeofdiseaseincreasewiththeageofthemother.

ExampleofaTranslocation:PracticalApplications:Younoticeasigninaparkingstructurethatsays“Warning:ThisareacontainschemicalsknowntothestateofCaliforniatocausecancerandbirthdefectsorotherreproductiveharm.”InferhowtheseharmfulchemicalsaffectyourDNA.Then,explainhowalterationsintheDNAaffectgeneexpression.ConsidertheCentralDogmaofMolecularBiologyinyourresponse.

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Claims-Evidence-Reasoning:Makeanddefendaclaimbasedonevidencefromthisactivitythat(1)inheritablegeneticvariationsmayresultfrom(2)mutationscausedby(3)environmentalfactors.Claim:Evidence#1 Reasoning:

Evidence#2

Reasoning:

Evidence#3 Reasoning:

Basedonthisactivity,areallmutationsbad?Writeyourclaimanddefendit,usingevidenceandreasoningfromtheactivity.

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CaseStudy:Santhi’sStory

1. Talktothepersonnexttoyouandidentifyatleast5characteristicstodistinguishmalesfromfemales.

2. Howissexdeterminedinhumans?

3. Isthereanotherwaythatsexischaracterizedinhumans?

4. HowisSexDeterminedinHumans?

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