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b) a sufficient

c) a necessary and sufficient

d) neither necessary nor sufficient

b)

_____________a)

b) c) d)

c)_____________

a) b) c)

d)

d)_____________

a) b) c) d)

Tutorial 6 Deductive Reasoning (I)

a. A statement(/) is a sentence() which states that something is the case.

b. A proposition() is the meaning of a statement.c. Inference(): An inference is a mental process of linking propositions in which a proposition is

claimed to be justified by other propositions.

d. Argument(): An argument is a group of statements in which one statement is claimed to be justifiedby (or to follow from) other statements.

e. Causal Explanation(): claims to give the causes and to account for why somethingis the case.

e. A reason() is something used to justify a conclusion in an argument.f. A cause() is something used to account fora certain event in an explanation.g. An argument is validif the conclusion is justified by (or follows from) the premises with necessity, i.e., it

is necessary that the conclusion is true if all the premises are true. Otherwise it is invalid.

h. An argument issoundif it is valid and all premises are true. Otherwise it is unsound.

1. Determine for each passage below whether it contains an argument. If yes, rewrite the argument in standardform.

i. He was hit by the car because he was blind.

ii. Many of the worlds greatest philosophers were bachelors. For instance, Descartes,

Locke, Hume, and Kant were all unmarried.

iii. If it is raining, then the street is wet.

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iv. If it rains, then the picnic will be canceled. It will rain tomorrow. So the picnic will

be canceled.

v. Children should not be taught not to steal because there is a rule against stealing.

They should be taught not to steal because stealing is wrong.

vi. Dogs make better pets than cats because theyre more intelligent and obedient.

2 Determine for each passage below whether it contains an argument or an explanation.

i. The rate of unemployment falls this year because the economy has improved.

ii. You need to pay the membership fee because every member should pay and you are our member.

iii. The department store was crowded with people because there was a big sale.

iv. Jenny must be very unhappy. I am sure about this because whenever she is unhappy she eats a lot

of chocolate, and she has just brought a full bag of chocolate home.

v.

vi.

3. Analyze the following arguments and determine whether they are valid or invalid.

a)

b) Aristotle loves Plato. Plato loves Socrates. Therefore, Aristotle loves Socrates.

c)

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Tutorial 5 Linguistic-Conceptual Analysis (II)

(linguistic traps)Obscurity in Meaning: Unsubstantial meaning, Distorted meaning

Conceptual Deflection: Conceptual Confusion, Conceptual Distortion

Vacuous Expressions: Relative Vacuity, Absolute Vacuity

Explain the language trap(s) in each of the following:

a) Airplanes are used for getting high. And airplanes are perfectly legal. Drugs are

used for getting high, too. So they should be legal.

b) Look! The notice on his office door says Will be back soon. But Ive been

waiting here for over two hours!

c)

d)

e)

f) 20%

g)

h) How can we make our new product popular?

Well, if we can make everyone like it, it will surely be very popular!

Tutorial 4 Linguistic-Conceptual Analysis (I)

(Linguistic-Conceptual Analysis) (meaning): (concept)

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(reference) : (object)(statement)(proposition) / (context): ,

1 Specify the meaning and reference of the following expressions.

a)

b) Racial discrimination ()

2 Think up different contexts for each statement below and explain how each of them can be

understood.

a) The wolf is coming.

b) !

3.

4.

1. All bachelors are unmarried.

2.

3. 200

4. 1998

5.

6.

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7.

8. 1+7=9

9. If God exists, then God exists.

10. All men are mortal but some men are not mortal.

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