Land

Cha

pter

10

The

Impo

rtan

ce o

f Lan

d

•La

nd q

ualit

y di

ffers

from

pla

ce to

pla

ce•

A r

enew

able

res

ourc

e if

it is

not

abu

sed

•E

ssen

tial t

o –

The

type

of f

ood

of fo

od a

vaila

ble

–N

utrie

nt c

onte

nt a

nd q

ualit

y of

food

–S

usce

ptib

ility

to w

ater

pol

lutio

n–

She

lter

safe

ty–

Pre

vent

har

m fr

om e

xter

nal e

lem

ents

Land

Deg

rada

tion

•E

cono

mic

gro

wth

dep

ends

on

prod

uctiv

ity o

f the

la

nd•

Pop

ulat

ion

grow

th a

nd la

nd d

egra

datio

n ar

e re

late

d•

10%

of t

he E

arth

’s s

urfa

ce is

mod

erat

ely

degr

aded

–La

ck o

f wat

er–

Des

ertif

icat

ion

–N

atur

al d

isas

ters

–D

efor

esta

tion

–D

eple

ted

soils

–P

ollu

tion

or c

onta

min

atio

n•

Peo

ple

mig

rate

from

one

are

a to

ano

ther

bec

ause

of

scar

ce r

esou

rces

Sus

cept

ibili

ty o

f Lan

d to

Deg

rada

tion

•C

erta

in e

cosy

stem

s an

d bi

omes

are

mor

e vu

lner

able

than

oth

ers

•T

ropi

cal r

ain

fore

sts,

wet

land

s, g

rass

land

s,

and

tund

ra a

re e

asily

dis

turb

ed a

nd ta

ke

long

er to

rec

over

•P

rimar

y re

ason

s fo

r la

nd d

egra

datio

n in

clud

e de

fore

stat

ion,

dra

inin

g of

wet

land

s,

over

graz

ing,

and

poo

r ag

ricul

tura

l pr

actic

es

Top

ogra

phy

•M

ount

ains

•F

ores

ts•

Wet

land

s

Mou

ntai

ns

•S

usce

ptib

le to

ear

thqu

akes

, vol

cani

c er

uptio

ns, l

ands

lides

, ava

lanc

hes,

floo

ds•

Min

ing

prac

tices

, pow

er p

lant

s, a

nd

tour

ists

can

be

a pr

oble

m

For

ests

•F

ores

ts–

Ove

r ha

lf of

U.S

. for

ests

hav

e be

en d

estr

oyed

by

logg

ing,

roa

d co

nstr

uctio

n, m

inin

g, fo

rest

fir

es, s

ki r

esor

ts, o

ff-ro

ad v

ehic

les,

and

oth

er

hum

an a

ctiv

ities

–D

efor

esta

tion

is th

e pe

rman

ent d

eclin

e of

tr

ees

to le

ss th

an 1

0% o

f the

orig

inal

fore

st

Wet

land

s

•A

lso

know

n as

mar

shes

, sw

amps

, bay

ous,

fe

ns, b

ogs,

est

uarie

s, a

nd b

otto

mla

nds

•S

atur

ated

by

moi

stur

e, n

utrie

nt-r

ich

•H

ighe

st r

ate

of p

rodu

ctiv

ity–

Nea

rly 2

/3 o

f fis

h an

d sh

ellfi

sh r

equi

re

wet

land

s to

rep

rodu

ce a

nd g

row

–60

–90%

of c

omm

erci

al fi

sher

ies

depe

nd o

n co

asta

l wet

land

s

•A

lmos

t eve

ry s

tate

has

wet

land

s•

A n

atur

al r

eser

voir

for

flood

wat

ers

•W

etla

nds

also

filte

r po

lluta

nts

out o

f wat

er in

to

less

har

mfu

l for

ms

•A

buf

fer

for

coas

tline

s•

Rec

reat

iona

l opp

ortu

nitie

s

Land

Pre

serv

atio

n

•72

6 m

illio

n ac

res

are

pres

erve

d w

ith

natio

nal f

ores

ts, n

atio

nal p

arks

, wild

life

refu

ges,

wild

erne

ss a

reas

, and

his

toric

si

tes

•F

eder

al a

genc

ies

invo

lved

:–

Dep

artm

ent o

f Int

erio

r–

U.S

. For

est S

ervi

ce–

Nat

iona

l Par

k S

ervi

ce

Effe

cts

of L

and

Usa

ge

•S

oil e

rosi

on•

Coa

stal

ero

sion

•O

verg

razi

ng•

Min

ing

•D

eser

tific

atio

n

Def

ores

tatio

n

•S

oil e

rosi

on o

ccur

s w

hen

fore

sts

are

dest

roye

d•

Ero

sion

occ

urs

with

win

d, w

ater

, and

oth

er

natu

ral f

orce

s•

Whe

n so

il er

odes

, sed

imen

t fill

s w

ater

way

s an

d w

ater

sup

plie

s

Coa

stal

Ero

sion

•C

oast

al s

hore

lines

are

dyn

amic

and

div

erse

, sh

aped

by

Nat

ure

and

man

•O

cean

wav

es a

nd s

torm

s at

tack

bea

ches

, blu

ffs,

and

dune

s•

Lit

tora

l dri

ftst

irs u

p sa

nd a

nd c

arrie

s it

to o

ther

be

ache

s•

The

pro

blem

is v

ery

serio

us–

43%

of t

he lo

wer

48

stat

es h

ave

serio

us e

rosi

on

prob

lem

s–

Ove

r 2,

600

mile

s of

bea

chfr

ont h

ave

criti

cal e

rosi

on

prob

lem

s as

the

shor

elin

e w

ashe

s aw

ay•

Bar

rier

isla

nds

have

bee

n re

trea

ting

inla

nd a

s m

uch

as 2

–3 fe

et p

er y

ear

due

to s

low

ly r

isin

g se

a le

vels

Coa

stal

Pro

tect

ion

•It

is im

port

ant t

o pr

otec

t the

nat

ural

hab

itat o

f be

ache

s•

Dun

es a

re h

eld

in p

lace

by

natu

ral v

eget

atio

n (s

ea o

ats,

sea

am

aran

th, a

nd s

ea g

rape

s ar

e pr

otec

ted

spec

ies)

•N

ew c

onst

ruct

ion,

hea

vy v

ehic

les,

foot

traf

fic

from

res

iden

ts a

nd to

uris

ts a

re p

robl

ems

•B

reak

wat

ers,

gro

ins,

and

jetti

es a

re m

an-m

ade

met

hods

of r

educ

ing

beac

h er

osio

n•

Bea

ch r

enou

rishm

ent a

nd d

isco

urag

emen

t of

deve

lopm

ent a

re o

ther

sol

utio

ns

Ove

rgra

zing

•T

he a

ctiv

ity m

ost d

evas

tatin

g to

soi

l de

grad

atio

n•

A m

ajor

cau

se o

f spe

cies

end

ange

rmen

t–

Dec

line

of n

ativ

e tr

out p

opul

atio

n in

Wes

tern

st

ates

•A

s to

o m

any

lives

tock

dep

lete

nat

ive

vege

tatio

n, s

oil i

s ex

pose

d to

win

d an

d ra

in•

The

gra

ssla

nd b

ecom

es a

des

ert

Rip

aria

n R

ight

s

•T

he r

ight

to u

se w

ater

alo

ng th

e sh

ores

or

bank

s by

res

iden

ts•

Cat

tle g

razi

ng a

long

wat

er s

ourc

es e

at o

r tr

ampl

e ve

geta

tion

and

pollu

te th

e w

ater

•W

ater

turb

idity

har

ms

aqua

tic li

fe

•H

arm

ful m

icro

orga

nism

s lik

e gi

ardi

am

ay

infe

ct th

e riv

ers,

lake

s, a

nd s

trea

ms

Min

ing

•A

maj

or in

dust

ry in

the

U.S

.•

The

wor

ld’s

larg

est p

rodu

cer

of c

lay,

co

pper

, gyp

sum

, lith

ium

, mag

nesi

um,

phos

phat

e, s

alt,

silic

a, a

nd s

ulfu

r•

Sec

ond

wor

ld’s

larg

est p

rodu

cer

of c

oal

and

gold

•D

estr

uctiv

e to

land

, for

ests

, riv

ers,

pla

nts,

an

d an

imal

s

Typ

es o

f Min

es

•P

lace

r•

Har

d ro

ck•

Ope

n pi

t•

Hyd

raul

ic (

the

mos

t har

mfu

l to

the

envi

ronm

ent

Pla

cer

Min

ing

•P

anni

ng, d

redg

ing,

slu

icin

g, r

ocke

r, a

nd

pick

ing

tech

niqu

es

Har

d R

ock

Min

ing

•D

igs

into

sol

id r

ock

usin

g pi

cks,

sho

vels

, ro

ck d

rills

, dyn

amite

, and

oth

er to

ols

•D

igs

tunn

els

or s

hafts

Ope

n P

it M

inin

g

•U

sed

mos

t ofte

n bu

t har

mfu

l to

land

•La

rge

pits

are

mad

e by

trac

k-m

ount

ed

elec

tric

sho

vels

or

dies

el-p

ower

ed fr

ont

end

load

ers

•D

iese

l-pow

ered

fron

t end

load

ers

are

gene

rally

use

d at

sm

alle

r

Hyd

raul

ic M

inin

g

•Q

uick

and

cov

ers

a la

rge

area

•W

ater

is c

arrie

d to

the

min

ing

site

via

ca

nals

and

ditc

hes,

then

go

into

a h

ose

with

a p

ipe

atta

ched

to it

, for

cing

the

wat

er

out w

ith g

reat

pre

ssur

e•

The

wat

er r

uns

over

the

hills

ide

was

hing

di

rt a

nd g

rave

l int

o a

slui

ce b

ox

The

Afte

rmat

h of

Min

ing

•H

eavy

met

als,

aci

ds, a

nd o

ther

mat

eria

ls a

re le

ft be

hind

•S

omet

imes

the

ore

is p

iled

up o

n th

e gr

ound

and

sp

raye

d w

ith c

yani

de a

nd w

ater

or

acid

–T

he s

lurr

y ru

ns o

ver

the

grou

nd a

nd s

eeps

in

to th

e gr

ound

and

sur

face

wat

ers

•O

rgan

ic m

atte

r, n

utrie

nts,

and

wat

er is

eith

er

acid

ic o

r al

kalin

e ki

lling

fish

and

pla

nt li

fe•

Tai

lings

can

con

tain

rad

ioac

tive

mat

eria

ls a

nd

harm

ful t

oxin

s

Des

ertif

icat

ion

•H

eavy

rai

nfal

l cau

sed

by g

loba

l war

min

g ca

uses

floo

ding

and

soi

l ero

sion

•O

verg

razi

ng li

vest

ock

and

min

ing

oper

atio

ns c

hang

e th

e pr

oduc

tivity

and

liv

abili

ty o

f the

land

•If

ther

e is

a d

roug

ht, g

rass

land

s dr

y up

Effe

cts

on W

ildlif

e

•H

uman

s ar

e no

t the

onl

y on

es to

leav

e th

e ar

ea•

Wild

life

sear

ch fo

r fo

od w

hen

drou

ght,

flood

ing,

or

soil

eros

ion

rem

oves

thei

r fo

od

sour

ce

Soi

l Com

posi

tion

•S

oil c

onsi

sts

of in

orga

nic

and

orga

nic

mat

ter

•In

orga

nic

mat

eria

ls a

re r

elea

sed

whe

n br

oken

do

wn

by h

eat,

wat

er, e

xplo

sion

s, o

r w

eath

erin

g–

Incl

udes

car

bon,

hyd

roge

n, o

xyge

n, n

itrog

en,

phos

phor

us, p

otas

sium

, cal

cium

, mag

nesi

um,

and

sulfu

r•

Org

anic

mat

ter

ofte

n in

clud

es d

ecay

ing

plan

t an

d an

imal

s an

d th

eir

was

te p

rodu

cts

Nut

rient

s in

Soi

l

•F

ound

in to

psoi

l (th

e to

p 6–

8 in

ches

of

soil)

•D

ecre

ased

sub

stan

tially

with

soi

l ero

sion

•25

% o

f U.S

. soi

l is

high

ly e

rodi

ble

•T

he lo

ss o

f top

soil

has

a ne

gativ

e af

fect

on

agric

ultu

ral p

rodu

ctiv

ity•

It ta

kes

200–

1,00

0 to

form

an

inch

of

tops

oil

Soi

l Con

serv

atio

n

•T

he S

oil C

onse

rvat

ion

Ser

vice

was

form

ed

afte

r th

e “D

ust B

owl”

in th

e M

idw

est i

n th

e 19

30s

•S

CS

offi

cial

s en

cour

aged

farm

ers

to s

top

soil

eros

ion

by–

Pla

ntin

g tr

ees

for

win

dbre

aks

–C

reat

ing

terr

aces

on

tille

d la

nd–

Con

tour

str

ip-c

ropp

ing

–D

evel

opin

g w

ater

way

s

Ince

ntiv

es fo

r F

arm

ers

•T

he S

CS

als

o en

cour

aged

farm

ers

to u

se

diffe

rent

met

hods

to te

nd c

rops

•F

inan

cial

ince

ntiv

es w

ere

prov

ided

for

–R

otat

ing

crop

s fr

om o

ne y

ear

to th

e ne

xt–

Leav

e ol

d cr

op v

eget

atio

n to

dec

ompo

se–

Till

cro

ps w

ith le

ss p

low

ing,

usi

ng te

chni

ques

lik

e “n

o til

l,” “

ridge

till,

” an

d “m

ulch

till”

–“D

iver

ting”

land

by

leav

ing

it al

one

or u

sing

it

for

past

urel

and

or w

oodl

ands

Fer

tiliz

ers:

Agr

icul

tura

l Pol

lutio

n

•U

sed

to in

crea

se c

rop

prod

uctio

n an

d fo

od

prod

uctio

n •

The

use

of c

hem

ical

s do

es n

ot r

epla

ce

nutr

ient

s lo

st th

roug

h er

osio

n•

Com

mon

nut

rient

s in

clud

e ni

trog

en,

phos

phor

us, a

nd p

otas

sium

•N

itrog

en a

nd p

hosp

horu

s po

llutio

n tr

igge

r eu

tro

ph

icat

ion

, kill

ing

aqua

tic s

peci

es

The

“G

reen

Rev

olut

ion”

•B

egan

in th

e 19

70s

with

new

hyb

rid s

eeds

, new

fe

rtili

zers

, and

new

pes

ticid

es to

boo

st fa

rm

prod

uctio

n•

Thi

s w

as c

onsi

dere

d ne

cess

ary

to fe

ed

popu

latio

ns o

vers

eas

•M

any

farm

ers

conv

erte

d un

prod

uctiv

e la

nd to

fa

rmla

nd•

Cro

p pr

oduc

tion

incr

ease

d dr

amat

ical

ly b

ut s

till

does

not

kee

p up

with

pop

ulat

ion

grow

th•

The

bes

t sol

utio

n is

to s

tabi

lize

popu

latio

n gr

owth

and

rev

erse

land

deg

rada

tion

Land

Pol

lutio

n

•B

row

nfie

lds

•H

uman

was

te d

isch

arge

s (b

ioso

lids)

Bro

wnf

ield

s

•F

orm

er in

dust

rial,

com

mer

cial

, or

mili

tary

si

tes

•P

ollu

ted

with

haz

ardo

us s

ubst

ance

s or

co

ntam

inan

ts, c

over

ed w

ith tr

ash,

pol

lute

d,

or le

ft id

le•

Ow

ners

and

pro

pert

y m

anag

ers

are

requ

ired

to c

over

the

cost

of c

lean

up•

Som

e ci

ties

have

rec

lam

atio

n pr

ojec

ts

Bio

solid

s

•In

the

U.S

. 60%

of w

aste

wat

er tr

eatm

ent

bios

olid

s ar

e di

scha

rged

ont

o la

nd

•T

reat

ed s

ewag

e is

dis

char

ged

to “

dryi

ng b

eds”

•

Som

e fe

el it

pro

vide

s nu

trie

nts

like

nitr

ogen

and

ph

osph

orus

that

pro

mot

e cr

op g

row

th u

sing

an

“org

anic

” fe

rtili

zer

•In

the

U.S

. the

EP

A li

mits

pub

lic a

cces

s to

dry

ing

field

s, g

razi

ng o

f cat

tle, a

nd p

lant

ing

of c

rops

Bio

solid

s: A

Pub

lic H

ealth

Issu

e?

•R

esid

ent c

ompl

ain

abou

t the

sm

ell

•P

oten

tial h

ealth

haz

ards

incl

ude

harm

ful

path

ogen

s th

at m

ight

be

in th

e se

wag

e•

Mos

t sci

entis

ts s

ay th

e pa

thog

ens

are

unab

le to

sur

vive

in th

e so

il•

Som

e sa

y th

e so

il fil

ters

the

bact

eria

and

ab

sorb

s vi

ruse

s

Pub

lic H

ealth

Rem

edie

s

•B

ioso

lids

mus

t be

clas

sifie

d–

Cla

ss A

hav

e un

dete

ctab

le p

atho

gens

–C

lass

B h

ave

dete

ctab

le le

vels

of p

atho

gens

•W

hen

wor

kers

han

dle

bios

olid

s, th

ey m

ust

use

prot

ectiv

e eq

uipm

ent a

nd g

ood

hygi

enic

pra

ctic

es•

The

use

of b

ioso

lids

in th

e U

.S.,

Can

ada,

an

d ot

her

coun

trie

s co

ntin

ues

Nat

ural

Dis

aste

rs

•C

itize

ns s

houl

d be

aw

are

of th

e ris

k fr

om n

atur

al

disa

ster

s be

fore

mov

ing

to a

new

are

a,

incl

udin

g:–

For

est a

nd w

ild fi

res

–E

arth

quak

es–

Tor

nado

s–

Flo

ods

–H

urric

anes

–S

ubsi

denc

e an

d “s

inkh

oles

”–

Land

slid

es a

nd a

vala

nche

s

For

est a

nd W

ild F

ires

•T

he h

ighe

st r

isk

is in

are

as e

xper

ienc

ing

drou

ght

•S

omet

imes

fire

s ar

e se

t del

iber

atel

y by

fore

st

auth

oriti

es (

know

n as

“co

ntro

lled”

or

“pre

scrib

ed”

fires

)•

The

fire

s ar

e ne

cess

ary

to b

urn

lefto

ver

logg

ing

mat

eria

ls, c

lear

bru

sh, c

ontr

ol u

nder

grow

th, g

et

rid o

f dis

ease

d tr

ees,

red

uce

inse

ct p

opul

atio

ns,

and

enco

urag

e ne

w g

row

th•

Soi

l ero

sion

can

occ

ur a

fter

fore

st o

r w

ild fi

res

Ear

thqu

akes

•C

an o

ccur

alm

ost a

nyw

here

at a

ny ti

me

•C

an b

e an

ticip

ated

, but

not

pre

dict

ed•

Eas

tern

and

Wes

tern

are

as o

f the

U.S

. are

m

ost a

t ris

k•

Afte

r an

ear

thqu

akes

, lan

dslid

es a

nd

lique

fact

ion

pose

add

ition

al r

isks

•W

hen

an e

arth

quak

e oc

curs

und

er th

e oc

ean,

a ts

unam

i occ

urs

Tor

nado

s

•A

vio

lent

ly r

otat

ing

colu

mn

of a

ir•

Can

be

up to

1 m

ile w

ide

and

50 m

iles

long

with

win

d sp

eeds

250

mph

or

mor

e•

Usu

ally

occ

urs

with

a th

unde

rsto

rm•

The

re m

ay b

e tw

o or

mor

e at

one

tim

e•

Whe

n it

occu

rs o

ver

war

m w

ater

, a

wat

ersp

out o

ccur

s

Flo

ods

•O

ne o

f the

mos

t des

truc

tive

of a

ll ge

olog

ic

haza

rds

in th

e U

.S.

•A

reas

mor

e su

scep

tible

to fl

oodi

ng a

re

calle

d flo

odpl

ains

•G

over

nmen

tal o

ffici

als

asse

ss a

nd

docu

men

t flo

odpl

ains

•A

100

-yea

r flo

odpl

ain

has

a 1%

cha

nce

of

flood

ing

ever

y ye

ar

Hur

rican

es

•A

lso

know

n as

cyc

lone

s be

caus

e w

inds

rot

ate

arou

nd a

n “e

ye”

•O

ccur

on

the

Atla

ntic

coa

st•

The

sto

rm s

urge

incr

ease

s th

e se

a le

vel b

y 15

fe

et o

r m

ore

•T

he w

ater

is p

ushe

d to

war

d th

e sh

ore

•S

tron

g w

inds

cau

se g

reat

dam

age

on th

e co

ast

and

inla

nd•

Fly

ing

debr

is p

rodu

ces

an a

dditi

onal

haz

ard

•T

he p

rimar

y co

ncer

n is

the

dam

age

from

flo

odin

g

Tro

pica

l Sto

rms

or D

epre

ssio

ns

•T

hese

are

less

har

mfu

l tha

n hu

rric

anes

•H

eavy

rai

ns p

ersi

st a

nd c

ause

floo

ding

Sub

side

nce

•W

hen

soil

beco

mes

wea

kene

d fr

om

min

ing,

dro

ught

s, o

r ca

ves,

the

soil

may

co

llaps

e or

sin

k•

Sin

khol

es d

evel

op w

hen

wat

er m

oves

th

roug

h so

lubl

e ro

ck u

nder

grou

nd•

Mos

t are

less

than

10

feet

in d

iam

eter

Land

slid

es a

nd A

vala

nche

s

•A

land

slid

e is

the

rapi

d do

wnw

ard

and

outw

ard

mov

emen

t of r

ock,

soi

l, an

d ve

geta

tion

•N

ot a

ll ar

e su

dden

•M

ost a

re tr

igge

red

by

wea

knes

ses

in th

e ro

ck

and

soil,

ear

thqu

ake

activ

ity, h

eavy

rai

nfal

l, sn

owm

elt,

or

cons

truc

tion

on a

slo

pe

•A

n av

alan

che

is th

e ra

pid

dow

nwar

d an

d ou

twar

d m

ovem

ent

of

snow

and

ice

Buy

ing

and

Sel

ling

Land

•S

elle

rs s

houl

d in

form

buy

ers

of k

now

n ge

olog

ical

haz

ards

or

cont

amin

ated

land

–M

ost c

onta

min

ants

are

pes

ticid

es, g

asol

ine,

m

anur

e, o

r un

derg

roun

d st

orag

e

•B

uyer

s sh

ould

inqu

ire a

bout

the

land

on

whi

ch a

hom

e is

bui

lt es

peci

ally

whe

n od

ors,

hol

es, p

its, a

nd u

nusu

al s

oil c

olor

s ar

e no

ticed

Buy

ing

and

Sel

ling

Land

(co

ntin

ued)

•B

uyer

s sh

ould

alw

ays

insp

ect a

djoi

ning

pro

pert

y fo

r po

ssib

le h

azar

ds•

Buy

ers

shou

ld a

lway

s bi

d on

the

prop

erty

with

a

cont

inge

ncy

clau

se th

at s

tate

s th

e pr

oper

ty m

ust

be fr

ee o

f pot

entia

l pro

blem

s an

d pa

ss a

n in

spec

tion

•O

ther

con

side

ratio

ns in

clud

e rip

aria

n rig

hts,

se

tbac

ks, a

nd e

asem

ents

•A

sur

vey

of th

e la

nd is

alw

ays

a go

od id

ea•

Hom

eow

ners

can

ask

the

Soi

l Con

serv

atio

n S

ervi

ce (

now

kno

wn

as th

e S

oil S

urve

y S

ectio

n)

to h

elp

test

the

soil