2.5 Custom:

Customs are generally referred to as traditional practices that are followed by the people of a section

of society or by the society at large and make-up the foundation structure of a society. Indian society

has diverse customs and traditions and they usually bring out the distinctiveness of Indian people.

These customs are an out come of the cultural matrix which are followed by the people.

Custom is an integral part of culture or subculture. K.M. Panikkar (1967), defines culture as

“the complex of ideas, conceptions, developed qualities and organized relationships and courtesies

that exist generally in a society.” He described it as a“ community of thought, a similarity of conduct

and behaviour, a common general approach to fundamental problems, which arrives from shared

traditions and ideals.” Culture is more general whereas custom is specific, specific to a society, or

community.

According to MacIver and Page “the socially accredited ways of acting are the customs of society.”

According to Kingsley Davis, “custom refers primarily to practices that have often been repeated

by a multitude of generation, practices that tend to be followed simply because that they have been

followed in the past.”

Nature of customs

� Custom is a social phenomenon- customs are the oft-repeated practices of the people. They

represent the routine acts of daily life of the people. Customs are created by the groups,

associations, communities and institutions. They are considered to be conducive for the

integration of society.

� Customs are followed unconsciously- as MacIver and Page have pointed out “ we conform to

the customs of our society in a sense ‘unconsciously’.” This is because they are a strongly

embedded part of our group life. We are trained from our infancy to behave in a customary

way. Children learn their customs by imitation or by direct instruction during the course of

their socialization.

� Customs are varied in nature- Customs are universal in nature but they differ from community

to community and society to society. For example the customary dressing act on occasions

such as marriage and funeral ceremonies differ from group to group.

� The origin of custom is obscure- It is difficult to ascertain the exact way in which customs

emerge. As McDougall writes, “The ends and purposes of many customs are lost in the midst

of antiquity.”

� Customs are relatively durable- In comparison with the folk ways, fashions, customs are more

durable. Customs evolve gradually and hence they are obeyed mostly in a spontaneous

manner. When once the customs are established they gain grounds to become firm. They are

implicitly obeyed with least resistance by the majority of the people.

Social Importance of customs

� Customs regulate our social life- Customs act as the effective means of social control.

Individuals can hardly escape their grip. They are the self accepted rules of social life. They bind

people together, assimilate their actions to be the accepted standards and control their purely

egoistic impulses. They are found among the pre-literate as well as the literate people.

� Customs constitute the treasury of our social heritage- customs preserve our culture and

transmit it to the succeeding generations. They have added stability and certainty to our social

life. They bring people together and develop social relationships among them. They provide for

a feeling of security in human society. People normally abide by these and their violation is

considered as a sin.

� Customs are basic to our collective life- customs are found in all the communities of the world.

They are more influential and dominant in the primitive society than in the modern society. As

Malinowski writes in the context of the study of Trobriand Islanders that “A strict adherence to

customs …..is the main rule of conduct among our natives ….”

� Customs support law- Customs also provide the solid foundation for the formulation and

establishment of law. Customs become laws when the state enforces them as rules binding on

citizens. Laws divorced from customs is bound to become artificial. This happened in USA in the

case of ‘prohibition’. Customs consolidate law and facilitate its practice.

Customs are more complex and pertain to all aspects of human life. E.g. there are customs of

meeting and greeting in all societies. In Indian society we join our hands when we meet someone.

2.6 Folklore

Like custom, Folklore is also part of culture. It includes stories, music, dance legends, oral

history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs and so forth within a particular population

comprising the traditions (including oral traditions) of that culture, subculture of group. It is also the

set of practices through which, those expressive genres are shared. The academic and usually

ethnographic study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristic. The word ‘folklore’ was first used by

the English antiquarian William Thomas in a letter published by the London Journal ‘Athenaeum’ in

1846. In common usage, there is a continuum between folklore and mythology. Smith Thompson

made a major attempt to index the motifs of both folklore and mythology, providing an outline into

which new motifs can be placed, and scholars can keep track of all older motifs.

Folkways, mores and customs represent different kinds of social norms. Social norms refer to the

group shared standards of behaviour. A social norm is a pattern setting limits on individual behaviour.

Norms are the blue prints of behaviour. They are the rules for social living or for social being. They

determine, guide, control and also predict human behaviour.

Folklore just like folkways represent a means of social control. Through story telling, drama performance

and cultural values need to be transmitted to posterity.

Genres of Folklore

Material culture folk art, vernacular architecture, textiles, modified mass-produced objects

Music traditional, folk, and world music

Narrative legends, urban legends, fairy tales, folk tales, personal experience narratives

Verbal art jokes, proverbs, word games

Belief and religion folk religion, ritual, and mythology

Foodways traditional cooking and customs, relationships between food and culture

Folklore as an Academic Discipline

Folklorists focus on the study of human creativity within specific cultural and social contexts, including how such expressions (i.e. stories, music, material culture and festivals) are linked to political, religious, ethnic, regional, and other forms of group identity.

The elusive materials of folklore can be best defined through the formal genres into which

they fall. Four broad sectors of folklore studies, as given below, have been outlined by

scholars:

� Oral literature

� Material Culture

� Social Customs and festivals

� Performing folk- Art.

Oral Literature: Oral literature, also called as verbal art or expressive literature are ‘spoken, sung

and voiced forms of traditional utterances’. Oral narrative is one big sub- division of this group, which

is turn has its own manifold distinctions. For example, myth, fairy- tale, romantic tale or novella,

religions tale, folklore, legend, animal tale, anecdote, joke, numskull tale etc. Another major sub-

division of oral literature is oral poetry or folk poetry which has its own family of related forms i.e. folk

epics, ballads, folk songs, lullabies, work songs, ‘Deh- bichar’ songs, ‘Zikirs’ (with reference to the

North East of India) and songs associated with rituals and rites (Samskaras), of birth, marriage, death,

etc, commonly found in almost all parts of India. Also included in this category is the rich oral poetry

connected with festive occasions, feasts and ceremonies. Proverbs embodying wisdom in pithy

phrases and riddles with enigmatic question paired with a deceptive answer still function in folk/

tribal societies as important devices for imparting knowledge about cultural semantics, logical and

behavioral patterns among the younger members. The folk speech embraces the local and regional

turns of phrase that deviate from the standard language, which are sometimes taboo words or

expressions from passive vocabulary. Characteristics at the level of grammer, idiom and even

phonetics and nonsense sentence- of such slang is difficult to pronounce because of its string of

assonances. In this category, minor forms viz. beliefs or superstitions, chants, prayers, laments and

cries can also be enumerated. Folklore is describable and transmissible entity

Folklore can contain religious or mythic elements, it equally concerns itself sometimes

with the mundane traditions of everyday life. Folklore frequently ties the practical and the esoteric

into one narrative package. It has often been conflated with mythology, and vice- versa. Because it

has been assumed that any figurative story that does not pertain to the dominant beliefs of the time

is not of the same status as those of the dominant beliefs. Thus Roman religion is called a “myth” by

Christians. In that way, both “myth and folklore” have become catch – all terms for all figurative

narratives which do not correspond with the dominant belief structure.

“Folklore” is a general term for different variation of traditional narrative. The telling of

stories appears to be a cultural universal, common to basic and complex societies alike. Even the

forms, folktales are certainly similar from culture to culture, and comparative studies of themes and

narrative ways have been successful in showing those relationships. Also, it is, considered to been oral

tale to be told for everybody.

On the other hand, folklore can be used to accurately describe a figurative narrative,

which has so sacred or religious content. In the Jungian view, which is but one method of analysis, it

may need to pertain to unconscious psychological patterns, estimates or arched types of the mind.

This may or may not have components of the fantastic (such as magic, ethereal begins or the

personification of inanimate objects). These folktales may or may not average from a religions

tradition, but nevertheless speak to deep psychological issues. The familiar folktale, ‘Hansel and

Gretel’ is an example of this. The manifest purpose of the tale may primarily be one of mundane

instruction regarding forest safety or secondarily a cautionary tale about the dangers of famine to

large familiars but its latent meaning may evoke a strong emotional response due to the widely

understood themes and motifs such as “ The terrible Mother”, “Death” and “Atonement with the

father”.

Material Culture: in the spectrum of folklore, material culture or folklife responds to

techniques, skills, recipes, and formulas transmitted across the generations and, it is subject to

the same force s of traditions and individual variations as verbal art, which is visual rather than

aural. In this category can be placed folk architecture, arts and crafts, designs and decorations

of the buildings and utensils, and performance of home industries according to traditional

styles and methods. Decorative paintings embellishing the walls and entrances of rural/ tribal

homes having both ritualistic and aesthetic significance is a pan- Indian phenomenon.

Although the motifs of such paintings of one region or culture zone may vary from that of

another, their structural unity remains the same. For instance, the snake and sparrow motifs

are predominant in South and East coats; and animal, tree and flower motifs are common in

Northern tribes.

Social Customs and festivals: Here the emphasis is on group interaction rather than on individual

skills and performances. To the verbal and tangible elements are added group behavioural traits. Of

particular importance are the rites de passage such as birth, initiation, marriage, death and similar

paraphernalia. Rituals and customs associated with festivals in our country are sometimes related to

agricultural activity following a calendrical cycle. These along with customs associated with religious

practices and the concept of Indian world view form an important segment of folklife, and they partly

function to provide psychic reassurance against external dangers of natural calamities. The religious

aspect is multi- dimensional encompassing the most complex caste hierarchy which has a net-work of

inter- relations with the religious hierarchy. Besides pan- Indian mode of worshipping Hindu

pantheon, there are very ancient and indigenous modes of worship and performance of rites

prevalent in tribal belts to placate gods and demons, quite distinguishable from other parts of the

country.

Performing Folk –Art: This sector of folklore studies concerns primarily with the traditional music, drama and dance passed on to the succeeding generations by ear and performed by memory rather than by the written and printed musical score and relevant literature, which usually overcome the generic barriers. The folk- music is ‘functional’ in the sense that it is not entertainment or of particular aesthetic interest, but is and accompaniment to other

There can be both moral and psychological scope to the work, as well as entertainment

value, depending upon the nature of the teller, the style of the telling, the ages of the audience

members and the overall context of the performance. Folklorists generally resist universal

interpretations of narratives and wherever possible, analyze oral versions of telling in specific context,

rather than print sources, which often show the work or bias of the writer or editor.

Folk literature is but a part of folklore. Customs and beliefs, ritualistic behavior, dances, folk music

and other non- literary manifestations form part of the larger study of ethnology. However, these

distinctions are of concern to the folklorists. The study of folklore materials was, at the time, being

carried on under labels such as ‘Popular Antiquities’ or ‘Popular Literature’. Therefore, he suggested

‘a good Saxon Compound Fold- lore- the lore of the people. Besides, the work of Brothers Grimm,

particularly German Philologist Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) who published the first volume (1812-12) of

the ‘Kinder Und Mausmarchen’ (translated as Grimms’ Fairy Tales), the scholarly scientific study on

folklore was initiated. The Tales were the detritus of the old myths. Of course, all the American

folklore- minded anthropologists experienced difficulty in employing the term folklore within a

culture almost wholly oral and traditional, and they resorted to various substitutes: William Bacom, a

student of Herskowits, suggested the term ‘verbal art’ to denote the oral aesthetic tradition of tale,

proverb, song, and riddle in the culture, tearing out the supernatural belief- system and the plastics.

He clarified the functional uses of folklore in non literate societies.

In order to trace all growth of folkloristic studies, we must focus on the scholarly works

done in Asia, particularly in India, before the Grimms, Fairy Tales viz. Kathasaritasagar, Panchatantra

and jataks. A German scholar, Theodor Benfey, even claimed in his introduction to Panchatantra

(1859) that India, the seat of an ancient, highly developed civilization that had spread to Europe, was

the home of the master tales subsequently found in the Grimms’ collection. Along with language and

mythology, these wonder tales had diffused from India to Europe in ancient and historic times along

well – traversed trade routes. The famous ‘Historical – Geographical’ School known as Finnish School

was highly inspired by this Diffusionist theory. Some scholars in India applied the methodology of this

formalistic discipline in their studies while Benfey’s theory gave support to mythological perspective.

However, European scholars (with strong colonial convictions ) including famous Indologists,

historians and anthropologists who believed in gradually converting India and bringing in within the

Greek/ Roman/ Semitic culture, zone discarded the Diffusionst approach and advocated theories that

were polygenetic in nature.

Anthropologists of the School of Cambridge University converged on a central idea of

myth- ritual origins of folklore on the basis of comparative study of Sir James George Frazer (The

Golden Bough, 1st edition 1890). In their view, mythic narrative accompanied and explained a

sacrificial fertility ritual among the heathens, in course of time, the myth becomes separated from the

rite and floats independently in oral tradition, to splinter into magic tales, popular ballads, nursery

rhymes and other folklore genres.

Party as a result of the Romantic Movement in literature and partly due to the interest in

primitivism and the common folk, the recording of all sorts of songs and oral tales has been

phenomenal since about 1800. Scholars have propounded many theories about the origin,

development, spread an structure of folklore throughout the world in the last (more than) 150 years.

Besides, ‘comparative mythology’ developed by Max Muller on his publication of translated version

from the Sanskrit ‘Sacred Books of the East’. ‘Evolutionary’ theory of culture and ‘devolutionary’

theory of folklore which emerged in a hypothesis put forward by Theodor Benifey, and several other

Schools also engaged themselves in the studies and interpretation of folklore. To name a few:

� Mythological School

� Migrational/ Benfey’s School

� Anthropological School

� Historical – Geographical School/ Finissh School

� Psychoanalytical School

� Structural School

� Syntagmatic/ Propp’s Morphological School

� Paradigmatic/ Levi Straussian School

� Thompsonian Concept of Motif/ classificatory analysis- tale- types

� Functional School

� Historical reconstructional theory

� Ideological theory

� Oral Formulaic theory

� Cross- Cultural theory

� Folk- cultural theory

� Mass- cultural theory

� Contextual theory

� Hemispheric theory

The writers and lyricists have always used themes taken from oral legend and

folk songs, and in turn have themselves affected the traditions. In the recent years, cinema has

presented old fork- tales to an enthralling public, and radio and television. Inevitable, this oral

literature has become less truly oral, and mostly pseudo- folk culture has been presented to

the public. Therefore, during the past few generations, folk – festivals have flourished in both

number and rich variety, and have become almost worldwide. They have been like a stimulus

of preservation of a disappearing phase of modern life, and are likely to revive older dances

keeping them within the authentic local traditions. The inquiring minds of intellectuals in

Social Sciences and Humanities- particularly ethnologists, anthropologist, historians etc. have

adopted scientific approach to investigate this subject of a substantial, worldwide body of

scholarship.

In India, we always talk of Margi and Desi, Vedic and Laukik i.e. classical and folk

traditions, which is also as Great and Little traditions. Unilinear evolutions and few universals

may not explain the variety produced by multi- culture folk traditions. In this sense, the Indian

equivalent of folklore, ‘Lokayana’ coined by Suniti Kumar Chatterji, expresses the real scope of

folklore as it signified a way of life ((yana) of a people (lok). The area of folklore is, therefore,

circumscribed by a pedagogical motive of adjusting the members of a social group to the

needs of the group. Folklore thus ultimately becomes the means of expression of a group’s

own attitude and cultural life. The civilization of a people being a movement from unconscious

to conscious, it is obvious that their beliefs and customs would be didactic with an end to

adjust man to his immediate surroundings for a leap forward to his future. Ultimately, the said

area would give as a glimpse of social formations, cultural evolutions and the group’s world

view.

In the colonized nations, each folk tradition serves to reinforce the group identity of its

members in a pluralistic culture. Syncretism, acculturation of the fusion of different traditions

is a process especially characteristic of new world folklore. The traditional lore physically

attached to the original homeland seems to vanish fast. If any of its items cease to exist within

the memory of man, it is completely lost. However, its dying process is actually very slow.

Tribal peoples scattered across different continents need their myths to safeguard their

identity. Therefore, in the electronic age, according to Marshall Mc Luhan, the literate world is

reverting to an oral- aural community.

References:

Bauman, Richard (ed.). 1992. Folklore, Cultural Performances, and Popular Entertainments: A Communications-centered Handbook. New York: Oxford University Press.

Dorson, Richard (ed.). 1972. Folklore and Folklife, an Introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Dundes, Alan. 1965. The Study of Folklore. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Dundes, Alan. 1980. "Who Are the Folk?" in Interpreting Folklore. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Noyes, Dorothy. 1995. "Group." Journal of American Folklore. 108 (430): 449-478.

2.7 Caste System

Caste is known as jati in common parlance. Caste as a system of social relations has been a

central point in Hindu society for several centuries. A lot of injectors, controversies and explanations

have come about its origin, nature and role in Indian society. It has been claimed that it is an all-

encompassing system, an ideology, which would govern all others relations. Its whole notion is

hierarchy based on the ideas of pollution and purity.

A Caste is an endogamous group, that is its members marry within the same caste. A man

is born in a caste and remains in that for ever. Member of a caste used to have a particular

occupation on a hereditary basis. A given caste occupies a particular rank in the hierarchy of castes,

hence some are superior to it, some are inferior. I here are certain rules regarding eating, drinking and

social interaction, which are to be followed by all castes. Caste panchayats used to regulate the

behavior of its members by implements these rules. Caste is a dynamic institution; it has changed a

great deal in accordance with changes in the wider society.

The origin of the caste system dates back to the age of the Rigveda. There is a refrence to the

word (varna colour) in the Rig Veda Arya is referred to as fair and Dasa as dark. People of the two

Varnas differed not only in their skin colour but also in their worship and speech. Thus the differences

were both social and cultural. Brahmanas, Rajanyas (Kshatriyas) and Vaishy as constited the Arya

varna, suc=herear the non- Aryans made up the Das a Varna.

The purusha – sukta, a part of the Rig Veda, states that the Brahmanas, Rajanyas, Vaishyas

and shudras strong up from the mouth, arms, things and fect of the Purusha (God). Lates on , those

became castes. However, there is no reference to the closes becoming hereditary. Classes were

merely functional. The priest and the warrior occupied positions above the Vaishya and the shudra,

but they were mither herditory positions nor exclusive ones. There was interchange of duties, also

inter- class marriage prevailed. The ban on eating food cooked by shudras did not exist. There was no

true of untouchability.

The later vedic civilization consists of samhites – Atharva, Jaiur and same and the Brahmas and

sutra. The notion of sacrifice gained prominence. The doctrines of Karma, Maya, transmigration ,

identity of the individual soul with the universal soul and Mukti as main tenets of Hinduism, find their

first expression in the Upanishads.

The power and privilege of the priestly caste ( Brahmanas) increased, but the Kshatriyas

challenged this from time to time> T system of nomenclature to address the members of these castes

emerged. The idea of pollution by touch found expression.

The caste system became inflexible when birth became the basis of caste rank. Restriction on

Marriage and social relations were also imposed. The godes of Gautama, Bodhayana and Apastamba

have reference regarding heredity, comubiality and

The caste system which is an integral part of the Indian system has a long standing history of

it’s own. To understand how the system has come to be it is today one needs to have a deeper

understanding of the origin, evolution and growth of the caste system. Three main stages in the

evolution of caste may be identified 1. Caste in ancient age (the period up to 1100 AD, which is

inclusive of vedic age, post vedic age and puranic age. 2. Caste in medieval age (1100 AD 1757 AD)

which includes the musling rule in India. 3. Caste is modern age (post 1757 AD till independence).

Changes in caste system in independent India

A . Changes in the tradition features in of cast

� The religious basis of cast has been attacked – cast is no more believe to be divinely ordained.

It is being given a more social and secular meaning than a religious interpretation.

� Restrictions on food habits have been relaxed. Distinction between ’pakka’ food and

‘kachacha’ food has almost vanished. Food habits have become more a matter of personal

choice than a caste rule. Still commensal taboos are not completely ignored especially in the

rural areas. Interdinning has not become the order or the day.

� Caste is not very much associated with hereditary occupations. Caste no longer determines

the occupational career of an individual. Occupations are becoming more and more “caste-

free” . Even Brahmins are found driving taxis, dealing with foot- wears and running non-

vegetarian hotels and bars and so on.

� Endogamy, which is often called the very essence of the caste system, still prevails. Inter- caste

marriages though legally permitted, have not become predominant, especially in rural areas.

The Ritual Aspect and the beginning of the Jati System

The “Vamadharma” or code governing the conduct of the different varnas received a high degree of

elaboration in the post-vedic period. The three lower castes are ordered to live according to the teaching of the

Brahmin, who declared their duties. The king is exhorted to regulate their conduct accordingly. Commenting on

the slowly changing social phenomena, Lannoy observes that the “different specialist tasks among the

bharmans themselves became associated with degree of ritualistic purity and impurity, for example the priest

who actually killed the sacrificial beast was lower in ritual status than the presiding priest. It was in the

extension of this Vedic principle of graded ritual status to the entire range of social life that caste classification

– division into jati- originated”. He further points out that there appears to be two interacting movements: the

Brahman gradation of purity and impurity, eventually resulting in jati classification, and a second gradation,

residual or evolving, among groups excluded form the Brahmanical rites. “What may have occurred is a

defensive reaction on the part of the Aryan rules, massively outnumbered of social division were incorporated

into the emergent pure- impure opposition; the trend would have been given added impetus by the increasing

occupational differentiation. While the determining principle remained the pure- impure opposition, and

power was differentiated from status, changes in the means of production and association of occupation with

purity and pollution demanded the extension of a social ranking which accorded with both criteria”. Caste were

therefore, a device for coming to terms, with the other in a holistic system.

The Varna and the Jati

The Vedic theory of the varma system is the textual reference to the Indian Social Organization in which subtle

balance was maintained between the Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaish and the Sudra. The Varna system is uniform

throughout the country. It is the classical form of social stratification. The caste system is apparently linked

with the varna, but is so different from it . The two are often confused and are taken to mean the same. The

jati system is an “empirical order, verifiable by direct observation of caste ranking and other familiar

distinctions”. The jati system is not uniform. It varies from region to region. Whatever the nature of ranking,

the consideration of pure and impure remains the sole common basis of the jati system. Dumont, according to

Lannoy, regards these two systems as homologous and to have interacted on each other.

Jati (Caste) and its Transformation

The Dharma – Shastras, the law books of Manu, Yajnavalkya and Vishnu throw considerable light on the

contemporary social institutions. The Manu Smriti, which is pre- Buddhist in composition, maintains a

distinction between the Arya and non- Arya called Dasa. This term was also used for Chandalas, savapakas and

others, who were considered inferior to Sudras. According to Manu Smriti, as indicated in the Hindu

Civilization. “There were mixed castes (antara- prabhavah) springing from adultery, marriage and ineligible

women, and violation of the duties of caste…..Intermarriage between castes produced a crop of unclassified

progency who were all branded as Sudras…..and described by their occupations (svakarmabhih)”.

“There was a catholic rule that ‘he who was begotten by an Aryan of a non- Aryan female may become an

Aryan by virtue’. This relaxation was probably to accommodate the foreigners and the artisan classes ‘whose

hand was always pure’ (nityam suddah kurukahastah). These new Surdas were given a higher status that the

born Surdas and Untouchables”.

Caste, as social unit thus came to be recognized and came to be known by the appropriate marks of

distinction. It is described to be the duty of the king to see that all castes observe their rules and regulations,

and to bring the erring members to the path of duty. Before, settling a dispute a king is expected to inquire into

the caste of the individual to the dispute and to administer justice in accordance with the caste regulations.

According to Ghurye, Jati or caste had come to be a very important feature of social organization. Both the,

plaintiff and the defendant in a law suit had to register their jati. “No principle of equality or equality was

accepted before law for all the castes and there were differential norms for reward and punishment for the

same deeds on the basis of people belonging to higher or lower castes”. With the emergence of the new group

or caste, of untouchables, there had come existence, rigid norms of pollution and purity.

Caste in Urban and Rural Society

In the Urban society too, caste differentiation, during this period became rigid. The Orhodox, avoided not

only the new settlers but also the converts as well, for consideration of personal hygiene and pollution, as it

indicated by the use of the word malechha for the new settlers. Within the structured society, the caste barrier

too became rigid as a safety cover against the conversion to Islam. Successively, however, these was the

change in the attitude, and the word malechha went out of use. The expediency of social intercourse, later did

bring the people closer, and the belief in chhoot- chat got relaxed; but the caste rigidities did not.

The hands of the power, that was, could not reach the village, except in so far as the collection of revenue

was concerned. Conversions to Islam in the villages, except in those which were closer to the towns, was not

possible. The villages therefore, in general retained their socio- economic structure.

In most of the rural India, there existed, and continues to exist a dominant caste. It had, to have three

characteristics, 1. It should be land owning class, 2. The land owners should be of higher caste; 3. They should

be numerically strong. In case if in a given area, there existed more than one dominant caste, one of them had

to give to another. This according to M.N. Srinivas happened “occasionally even in pre- Britis India, and has

been and important aspect of rural social change in the twentieth century”.

The authority in the village used to be divided in terms of status and role between Brahmans and

the dominant caste. The Brahman was the supreme arbitrator in matters religious; and , the temporal disputes

were settled by the internal disputes within a caste. Besides, as indicated by Lannoy, the, “Internal affairs of

each middle or law caste were governed by its own caste panchayat, and by Sabhas, a rather loose isooctane

found among high caste. Council covering the affairs of a caste within a readily accessible region also existed,

though some were rarely convened; in many case, particularly among middle and low castes, these still

survive”.

New Socio Economic Force and Castes

Fro m the Upanishadic time to this day the teachers such as Buddha, Kabir, Gure Nanak, chaitanya,

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand, Mahatma Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda, all spoke against caste

system. “The caste system is opposed to the religion of Vedanta” remarked Swami Vivekananda. Lala Lajpat

Rai, held that , “The Arya Samaj repudiates caste by birth”. There has been thus a continuous protest down the

ages against it. The changed conditions, have now made its continuous protest down the ages against it. The

changed conditions, have, now made its continuity difficult. It is an ending phenomenon. Here we discuss some

of the trends against the caste system.

English language, Modern Education and Caste prejudices.

The role of Purohit, his ritual sanction authority, the traditionalism and the immobility of individuals and of

the groups had generally sustained the caste prejudices. Introduction of the English language, as the language

of administration made the first serious breach in the assumed impregnability of the caste system. It weakened

the position of the Purohit, his ritual sanction authority, traditionalism and encouraged social mobility since to

learn the English language one had to go to the town or to the city; one needed no initiation in the orthodox

manner or any other help from the purohit Brahman. Obviously it caused power disequilibrium in the social

group; may be even in the village. The English learning progressed under the government patronage. It

processed independent of influence of Brahan. Those who got the benefit of this education secured the

position of prestige available to them in the village in the form of jobs in the administration. Some of them

worked in the towns, and earned a good salary. This added significance, prestige and power to the caste group,

from which such individual came from.

The modern education introduced by the British was basically secular and liberal. It was available

to anyone, who could pay for it irrespective of ones caste or community position. It popularized the idea of

freedom of a association, equality before law, equal right of all citizens or the state and equal freedom to

follow any vocation. This on the one hand led, a section of educated class of Hindu society, like Ram Mohan

Roy, Debenndranath Tagore, Keshab Chandra Sen and others, to raise standard of revolt against caste, and on

the other gave rise to the depressed classes movement under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar and the Self

Respect Movement is South India.

Caste – Stablising Factor

Our society presents a panoramic view of the play of history. We have amongst us the primitive

tribes and progressive communities, the custom and practices of unknown antiquity and also a long tradition of

resentment against them; there is the presence of the tribal instinct to preserve the old, and the natural desire

to adopt and own the new. We are a pluralistic society with much pluralism at every level of our social order.

We are a structural society, with many not within the social structure; and with the structured society, there

are insular caste minded groups who do not seem as to take into account the changes that influence the

community. We are also a society of contradictions; there are primitive practices which everybody talks of

eradicating , yet all along these are accommodated; there is the recognized uneasiness against the caste at all

levels, and yet in all our social thinking, it has not lost its dominance. We are instinctively and constitutionally a

proclaimed secular society, yet there is a commission to look after the interest of the religious minorities. We

are a society, yet one of the least integrated. Pandit Nehru well compared this society to palimpsest, an ancient

manuscript written upon over and over again, without the preceding traces having been removed. Much of

the past hinders our progress. Some undoubtedly we cannot give up, but indiscriminate loyalty to anything

cannot be helpful.

Varna- ashrama Dharma, Purusarth and the system of Samskaras imparted individuals and social

discipline, inculcated tradition and culture and helped in acculturation. The varna system, in terms of the twice

born concept, insisted on a certain cultural standard, which others in the structured society were expected to

follow. It beaconed the non- structured to join on the manifest conditions. It did not visualize that closed

society as we see it now. The internalization of norms and values was effected on the one hand by ashrama

system and on the other by performance of the sanskaras. The role of Brahman- Purohit, in this was singularly

significant. On the one hand he opened up the interior of the other, he stimulated the culturalisation of the

detribalized. He put, as Lannoy indicates, “the stamp of sacred approval on any unavoidable change…..” “on

the one hand they (the Brahmins) were the most rigid the authoritarian of dogmatists, on the other they were

extremely flexible if it suited their interest”. The jati system as indicated before, developed in response to

changing social conditions.

They gave flexibility to the social order, and brought all peoples within its fold. The unassimilated

pockets remained, as Lannoy has pointed out, as “the untransformed residue of the original primitive culture

probably because of their physical isolation, in the rugged terrain of Central and South India”. Considering the

age we are referring to , taking in account the difficulties- geographical and physical, linguistic and

psychological- one can only wonder for an applaud their endurance, and preservance and their motivating

idealism. They gave to the country the basic cultural unity that creeped over, with the passage of time, on the

man living in the hills or on the mountainheight; on the plains or in the fastness of jungles. This cultural

cohesiveness, the Indianness withstood the dynamic rivalry, foreign rivasion and proselytism by the fanatics.

No doubt, when looking, from this distance of time , their holistic approach, invites comment, yet every age has

its values and norms; its means and ends , its survival is its justification. It made clash of races and of cultures

an impossibility. The manner they used the concepts of Svadharma (personal moral conduct) and Vamadharma

to bring about the integration in the interest of Sanatanadharma, (the principle of universal harmony) is simply

inspiring. It not only integrated the peoples at various levels of culture but also set out the path ways for other

to join. This way, the variation little traditions, got affiliated an attached to the great tradition. One helped the

other to grow stronger and stronger.

By the beginning of the 8th century A.D., the society was again, the crucible. The political India had

broken up and the society was in disruption. Brahman had lost the intellectual leadership, priestism had

become dominant, and the caste rigidities had compartmentalized the society and killed the community sense.

The Truks, Afghans and Mughals in succession gained political ascendancy. While retaining their strong sense of

belonging to the Islamic west, they followed the policy of Dar- ul – Islam, imposed jariya on the people,

effected conversions to Islam, which in consequence developed situation extremely unusual, like of which the

society had never confronted before. Caste system failed for the first time toe bring thee people within the

social fold. The society got divided, as we have indicated above (see Socio- cultural Dynamics and Islam).

The settlers thus remained outside the structure society. Indian Musalman bewildered and

confused (see above) successively worked out new adjustments. “when all is said,” Tutus in the Indian Islam

says, “there seem to be little doubt that Hinduism has wrought a far greater change in Islam than Islam has

wrought in Hinduism”. It got, in more ways than one, localized as it has got elsewhere. Indian Islam assumed a

form much different form the Islam beyond the frontiers of our country. That of cause, though natural, is not

always appreciated and emphasized.

The discouraging factor in bringing about the sociological homogeneity was not religion a it is

commonly believed, as at higher level there is broad agreement between Hinduism and Islam. The sufi

persuasions especially of the Chisti order and the teachings of the Bhaktas such as Chaitanya, Kabir and Nanak

made a deep impact on the common people. The men of letters with vision like Rahim did not fail to add their

moral weight to the growing process of social homogeneity. The political support that Akbar (1556-1604)

provided to the process by abolishing the pilgrim tax (1563),the Jaziya (1564) and by issuing the mazhar (1579)

was remarkable. It was refreshingly a new approach to a historically mishandled problem. Had the policy been

well executed successively, remarkable changes would have followed. His successors failed to maintain his

policy. Thus a great opportunity to bring about the social cohesion was lost.

Social Mobility

Varna Mobility

The varna –ashram dharma was the social structure based on this understanding that social

mobility is a social necessity. This pluralistic arrangement was expected to facilitate the social mobility of

individual or of a group on the Varna basis, which meant choosing one’s vocation according to one’s

qualification. It was open also to the people outside the structured system who had to be brought within the

social order. There was thus a two fold social mobility, the internal and external: from lower to the higher

varna and from non- varna order. It was obviously expected. To be a contiguous process.

The arranged sublime hierarchy or varna was well conditioned. It was initiated with the promice of

equal status for all. While all may be equal; the less equal had the opportunity to try for more equality. While

the Brahmans, within the hierarchy were recognized as the Dharma knowing; those, who” studied and teach

the sacred lore are the human gods, were yet challenged from time to time”. There were “declarations to the

effect that the Kshatriyas were no superior and that the priest was only a follower of the King”. Jainism and

Budhims ay be religious revolts against the Brahmanical ritulism yet these were also the social revolts. Bothe

of these movements were leadered by men from Kshatriya varna. They had the support of the Vaishayas, the

trader.

De- Tribalization

The process of de-tribalization was conextensive with the development of the structural society. It

gained momentum during the Magdhan – Mauryan – Satvahana period, when great urbanization was in

progress. It may have been more at some, an all India movement. The process began by merely insisting on

personal moral conduct, the svadharma; on the social ethical system, the ethical system of the Varna, the

Varna dharma, and on the submission to the eternal and the universal, the Santan Dharma. The Brahanical

insistence was on structure in the interest of totality and not an the acceptance of a particular ritualism. The

purpose was not to convert, but to assimilate. In the process, therefore, several tribal practices and rituals

came to be the part of religious order by holistic Brahman sanction It set everything straight.

Aryanization, Brahmanization or Culturalization and Sanskritization

This continuous process of caste mobility and the detrubalization has been variously described as

the Aryanization. Brahmanization or Culturalization. Each one of these expressions do not convert the

comprehensiveness that the process involved. In view of the fact, that much of our culture is of pre- vedic

origin, the use of the expression Aryanization would be inadequate. The Brahmanization is a narrow

expression as the impression given is that the detribalized had to accept fully the Brahmanical system. It is not

fully true. Moreover, as indicated by M.N. Srinivas, Brahmans alone did not work in the direction. The use of

culturalisation is too vague as the effort was not to enforce a well defined system the pluralism was never

intended to be eliminated. The intension was not to enforce uniformity but to effect harmony. Sanskritization

has come to be accepted as the suitable term. It is coined by M.N.Srinivas . He points out “All India Hinduism

was synonymous with Sanskritic Hinduism coorg customs had undergone a process of Sankritization over the

centuries, the two important agents of the process being Lingayast and Brhmins. An awareness of the influence

of Lingayatsim on the life style of the Coorgs was an important factor in my preferring “sanskritization” to

narrow “Brahmanization”. The expression has since gained currency. It is according to him “the process by

which a ‘Low’ Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its customs, ritual ideology, and way of life in the

direction of a high, and frequently the twice born caste”. This sankritization occurs, “among tribal and

semitribal groups such as the Bhils of western India, the Gonds and Oraons of Central India, and the Pahadis of

this Himalayas. This usually results in the tribal undergoing Sankritization, claiming to be a caste, and therefore,

Hindu”. It is the moving upward in caste hierarchy not of an individual or of a family but of the group. Thus,

while the source of mobility lay in the political and economic systems, “Sanskritization provided a traditional

idom for the expression of such mobility”.

There does not exist any fixed models for Sanskritization. It proceeds in termsof reference group.

The local dominant cate is mediated by the non- Brahman caste. The “life style of the marchant and peasant

have been taken as models in localities where these groups are dominant”. “At times, the groups enjoying the

political patronage and power may be mediated”. In “secular matters the Mughals and the British at various

times have provided a standard by which secular prestige is gauged”. In this process of mobility, the cultural

content which secular prestige is gauged”. In this process of mobility, the cultural content which secular

differs form caste to caste, is the attraction. Among the twice born, Bharmans are the most particular about

the performance of Vedic ritual and donning of the sacred thread and “they may therefore, be regarded as

“better” models of Sanskritization than the other”.

The ambitious castes were keen at Sanskritization. The process, however may not have remained

easy one. The growing rigidities that came up with the time and changing conditions rendere the entire process

difficult in later time. In the traditional Society, the Sanskritizaiton may have been considered to cause dilution

of the accepted religious and social sanctions. The powers that be were not ready for it. They were interested

in the maintenance of the traditional system, as the life style of the twice- born was dependent on it. The

British did not support this orthodox approach.

2.8: Ashram Vyavastha

Traditional Hindu Social Organization

The traditional social organization is based on varnashrrama- dharma and the Purushartha. The Indological approach to the Indian society directly brings us to analyse and to understand the Varnashramadharma and the Purushartha system which is the foundation of our social order. It deals with individuals and society in all its comprehensiveness. Compartmental approach to matters, social, temporal and spiritual was not favoured for their very inter- connectedness. Varna is a functional class; and no class exists by itself. But one class could exploit another; and this possibility, the varna system completely eliminated. It also eliminated the

possibility of the class struggle. That an individual as the constituent of social whole, must contribute his best to it is recognized and is assured by the ashrama. But his role, as the constituent of the whole is not the end of his doings. Hi is not just to be scarified for the social order. He must have also his inner fulfillment. The way to it is by Purushartha.

The Purusasukta hymn of rigveda referring to the origin of the chaturvama, compares the Society with giant organism having the Brahman, the Kshatriya, the vaish and the Sudra as its head, arms, trunk and feet respectively; each Varna being functional like each organ, and all make together the society as the organs make the organism. All like the organs perform the co-equal functions, “It is expressly stated in the text that no part of the whole ay claim exclusive importance and superiority over the others; collaboration and exchange of services are the essence of this organismic theory. The various organs of the projected Purusha body- image are related in structural consistency.

The varnas system is thus the specification of the function and rewards according to the qualitative character of the classes. The inter- relation of the Dvijas becomes clear in the terms of the power arrangement; one in not free to dominate the other the Brahman is spiritually supreme but is materially dependent; Kshatriya, is materially the master but is spiritually dependent upon Brahman. This stratification has created and interdependent relationship. The monopolization of power in any form has been eliminated. The Sociological functions were to be performed in co- operation. Varna system is a successful effort in establishing the social equilibrium.

The four Ashramas

The Ashrama system is a later development. It concerns the four stages of life the Brahmacharya, the Grahastha, the Vanaprastha and the sanyas, one following the other in succession. Literally Ashrama means “making an effort”. It implies therefore, that for the fulfillment of ones life, one has to make an effort, at every stage to have the best of it. Success in the succeeding stage was held to be based on efforts made in the preceding. On average, life span was taken to be hundred year; and each Ashrama was assigned a period of twenty- five years.

The Braharcharya

It is also known as the Indriyasamyama –the period of self- control. It is the first of the Ashramas. It began with the Upanayana that is, with the investure of the sacred thread, the yajnopavita. Initiating the pupil, the Brahamchari, the Acharya, the teacher, whispered in the cars of the movie, the great Gayatri Mantra:

Ta’t savitu’r V’areniam

Bhargo deva’sya dhimahi

Dhiyo yo’nah pracodayat

“May we attain that excellent glory of Savitur the God that he may stimulate our thoughts”. With it, the Brahmacharya entered upon the second birth, which it was assumed, he got endowed with in consequence of the ceremony, as distinguished from the physical, given to him by his parents. With this spiritual birth, the twice- born now began his educational career. It commenced for the Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaish in the eighth, eleventh and the twelfth yeare respectively. During , the

Brahmacharya, a pupil lived with his teacher, to study. The period of studentship varied from individual to individual. One could cease to be a student after acquiring a particular standard; or after acquiring proficiency in a particular discipline; or one could remain a student all one’s life.

Brahmacharya that is acquiring learing became essential, to avoid getting ostracized by the Brahmans, as they would not perform the sacrifice and ceremony unless, one were a divija, the twice- born. Social expediency, thus demanded a sort of compulsory education. Education imparted was both literary, technical and spiritual. The aim was, to prepare one, to play ones role in life.

The Grihastha

It began with the marriage of a novice; and with he consequent family responsibilities. It demanded the fulfillment of obligations to ones parents, to children and to the society in general. The three rinas (debts) assumption implied that one should release one self from the “debt of gods by yajna (Sacrifice), to pitas (ancestors) by raising off spring and to the rishis by observing continence on parvan days”. It was the period of fulfillment of social responsibilities. One was expected to acquire wealth and remain engaged in all activities incidental to one’s varna. It has for this been described as the most important to the Ashrama”. Hinduism does not demand withdrawal from life in to mountain tops or gloomy caves as an essential condition for spiritual life. The way to a higher life is normalcy through the world”.

The Vanaprastha

It is the stage of progressive retirement. After children had got settled and needed no more parental care and attention, one left every thing to the care of his son and entered upon the Vanapratha stage. He retired, probably with his wife to a quiet place in the country to lead a life of inquiry and meditation and work out within himself the truth of his being, in and atmosphere of freedom from social strife. He lived a simple life to subsist on corn, fruit and vegetable.

The Sanyasa

According to Apastamba Sanyasi is one who “abandoning truth and falsehood, pleasure and pain, the Vedas this world and the next, seeks only the Atan”. “The sanyasin is” according to S. Radhakrishnan, “a super social man a privrajaka, a wandering teacher who influences spiritual standard though he may live apart form Society”. This supreme ideal of life has been described by Kalidas as “owning the whole world while disowning one –self”. “His mission is to teach his highest spiritual experience.

The scheme of the ends of life, classes, and stages has for its aim the development of the individual. It helps him to order and organize his life instead of leaving it as bundle of incompatible desires. It looks upon him not as a mere specimen of a Zoological species but as a member of a social group which reflects in its organization the scheme of values for the realization of which the group exists. By education and social discipline the individual is helped to develop the inner conviction essential for social stability”.

The Four Purusarthas

The full scope of the varnashramadharma would be more clear, once the underlying aims of life as signified by the Purusarthas: Kama, Artha, Dharma and Moksha are taken into consideration:

they are intended to guide one to achieve a high standard of living and also a high standard of life. Hindu social order kept positive ends in view. Fulfillment of desire, the Kama; and economic enrichment. The Artha were the aims to be realized in accordance with the Dharma, the righteous way of living. The Trivarga, the triple pursuit, as it is called, were recognized to be interdependent. Their fulfillment alone could make the Moksha possible. Social action for this was to be tested on the touchstone of Dharma the highest aim set before an individual was the realization of moksha, the spiritual freedom.

The Dharma

It means the righteous way of living. One is expected to live and act in a manner that is good for all. It is recognized as the foundation of all good action and hence the stabilizing factor in life. It is intended to provide guidelines, in all social action, and to harmonise relation between Kama and Artha, to work as a check on self indulgence and to eliminate exploitation of weak and helpless. It is corrective of social evils. “Dharma tells us that while our life is in the first instance for our own satisfaction, it is more essentially for the community and most of all for that universal self which is in each of us and all beings. Ethical life is the means to spiritual freedom, as well as its expression on earth”.

The Artha

It means acquiring wealth by honest means. Without Artha, no desire (Kama) can be satisfied. The object of Kama would not be achieved and the purpose of life would remain unrealized without economic well being. Living, means living well. It is no mere existence. Poverty is no ideal. Living is not embracing squalor. Hungry stomach knows no virtue. Economic insecurity and individual attainments do not go together. Economic security is the basis of social stability, individual advancement and spiritual attainment.

The Karma

It means desire for enjoyment. It springs in humane mind, the moment one is born. It is the essence of life. With the passing of time desires increase. These influence and determine social action in various ways. The desire to live and enjoy becomes foremost and remains, all one’s life, the strongest. Without it living would end in complete alienation and total isolation. Varnashramadharma provides the direction to the Kama, the fulfillment of desire. It is and erroneous belief that the pleasure of living need be discarded for the other world.

The ancient sociologists and men of religion, appreciating the purpose of life, studied it in all its aspects. For success in life and goodness, sacrifice was given importance. It remained with them the motivating force. Desire to have children and riches was always prayed for; emphasis on home décor, use of ornaments, celebration of festivals, and going on pilgrimage to the distant places for pleasure and success in life respectively was most cherished. To this end they gave social character.

The Moksha: It means self realization

Life is not the grant to prepare for the next world. We do not live only to die. “To be shut up in one’s own ego, to rest in the apparent self and to mistake it for the real, is the root of all unrest to which man is exposed by reason of his mentality”. The Sociologists have held that there is nothing higher than individual. The aim of living is to enjoy and to attain fulfillment and at the same time to

inquire into the truth of life, its purpose and aim. It is the transcendental movement from approach to real, from ignorance to bliss of enlightenment, and from destruction of death to eternal living. One has to give one’s best to draw the maximum pleasure. It is “owning the whole while disowning oneself”. This dispels the possibility of frustration in life, and the alienation from society. Moksha is the ‘freedom’.

Asrama as a Place and as a Way of life

Ancient Indian literature reveals two meanings of two term asrama. The first is that of a residence where holy people live and perform religious austerities. When it refers to such a residence, the term is commonly translated as “hermitage”. This is by far its most common meaning; it is so used in Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain literary sources, as well as in what might be called non- religious texts such as drama, poetry, and fables. The second meaning of the term is that of a religious or holy way of life. The latter is, in all likelihood, a technical usage, as it occurs exclusively in Brahmanical literature and mainly within the context of the asrama system.

Although there appears to be a scholarly consensus that asrama refers to a place or a mode of life associated with religious exertion, there is a minority opinion which takes asrama to mean a place of rest. Under this hypothesis the prefix “a” would have to be construed as the strong vowel grade (vrddhi) of the privative prefix “a”. Srama, moreover, would have to be taken in its first meaning, namely fatigue, which has no religious connotation. According to this hypothesis, therefore, asrama is derived from a – srama (“lack of fatigue”). The Ramayana (4.13.16) appears to support this derivation when it calls the hermitage (asrama) of the Saptajanah sages “a place that destroys fatigue” (sramasana). In all likelihood, however, the poet is here only attempting to draw a picture of one aspect of a hermitage, the peace and quiet of its surroundings and inhabitants, by the use of what I would call “phonetic etymology,” a frequent practice in Indian literature, often amounting to nothing more than a play on the phonetic similarity between words. If this were the original meaning it is difficult to explain how the term could have been used with reference to religious modes of life which the tradition considers as entailing ceaseless effort and toil. The Indian grammatical tra-

35. Gonda 1960- 63, 1, 287 n. 11; Sprokhoff 1976, 5; Wintermitz 1926, 227; Sharma 1939,14-15; Deussen 1909, 128; Rhys Devids 1903, 249; Kane 1974, II.I, 425.

36. Macdonell and Keith 1912, 1,68, translate it as “resting place,” and they are followed by Prabhu 1954, 83. Miller and Wertz. (1976, 6) more explicitly regard the word as a negative: “Asrama, the negative of the Sanskrit root sram (to exert oneself), means ‘a place of peace.’ Strictly it could not be the negative, since the privative suffix is not “a” but the short “a”.

37. A similar expression occurs also in the MBh 3.82. *423: asramam sramasokavinasanam- “an asrama that destroys fatigue and sorrow.”

38. Quite frequently Indian authors draw etymological relationships between words that have phonetic similarities. They then proceed to uncover semantic equivalences based on such phonetic etymologies. This is clearly a pedagogical strategy, and the authors intent is not to teach etymologies but to draw out what they regard as the innermost and the most significant meaning of a term. Given the advances made by Indian grammarians, it is quite likely that these authors usually know the grammatically correct etymologies of the terms whose meanings they seek to elucidate though phonetic equiva- lences.

39. Those who wish to exalt the householder often use the argument that the householder’s life is far more difficult (duskara) than those of the other asramas: MBh 12.20.6-14; 12.23.6; 12.261.58. Renouncers have an easy life (sramasyoparama MBh 12.261.10), whereas the householders toil (srama:MBh 12.261.59). See also Mdh 2.168 where srama as “religious etertion or toil” is used probably with reference to the asramas. Dition moreover, clearly consider the suffix to be the particle “a” rather than the privative.

The exact modification of meaning that the prefix “a” imparts to the term srama, however, is unclear. The modification is certainly not as radical as, for example, when this prefix is used before verbs of motion. Indeed, outside the lexicons I have not found a single example of the prefix “a” used with a verbal form of sram. The compound occurs only in the nominal form asrama and in its derivatives such as asramin. The only explanation of the prefix “a” to be found among commentators is that it indicates exphasis and intensity. The lexicographers, moreover, are unanimous in explaining asrama as religious exertion.