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CHAPTER - I
Item inside
1.1 Chandas : the word
1.1.1 Etymology of the word
1.1.2 Use of the word in d ifferent context
1.1.3 Definition of Chandas
1.1.4 Essence of the study of Chandahsastra
1.2 Origin and development of Chandahsastra referring
im portant works
1.3 Vedic and Classical Sanskrit metres : the ir varieties
1.4 Elements of Chandas
1.4.1 Gana (Mnemonic) and M atra (Mora)
1.4.2 Yati (Pause or Caesura or Haitus)
1.4.3<
Other elements of metre - Devata, Varna
Svara and Gotra
2
1.1 Chandas : the word
1.1.1 Etymology of the word
The chandas or the metre is an essential element of
versified poetry. The knowledge of metre is regarded as a Vidya i.e. a systematic study ; it is essentially a Prayogasastra (i.e.
applied science) arranged in assemblage (i.e. c/Y/ ) 1 and hence
the science is termed Chandoviciti.
The word chandas may be derived from several
roots - ( i) cad, (ii) chad, (iii) r, (iv) canid and (v )
chand. The root *cad’ indicates ‘ delight’ or ‘ joy’ 2. However,
V. S. Apte holds other meanings also viz. to ask, to beg etc. 3
Then, the suffix ‘num’ is added after ‘cad’4. Then, it
becomes ‘chanda’ . Here, ‘ca’ is replaced by ‘cha* as per
1 citi sarrruhe I —STM, P.1832 cadi ahlade I —CV, P.33 Apte, V.S., The practical Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.4274 'cadi ahlade' iti dhatoh asun pratyaye krte cakarasya
chakaradese numagame ca krte chanda iti bhavati I—Chandovicitivrtti of HrsIkesaSarma on CV, P.3
3
the Unadisutra - ‘ canderadesca cha h ’ 5. Thus, the word
‘ chandas ’ is formed.
Secondly, it is said to have been derived from the
root 1cha d ’ ( t ° c o v e r)6. In the Vaiyakaranasiddhantakaumudi
(V S K ) of Bhattojidlksita , the root *cha d ’ is explained in the
Curadiprakarana two times viz. ( i ) chadi samvarane ( dhatu
- 1 5 7 7 )7 and ( i i ) chad apavarane ( dhatu - 1 8 3 4 )8. Here,
the firs t explanation carries the sense of ‘ to concea l’ or ‘ to
cove r’ and the second one bears the sense of ‘ restraint or
restriction ’ . It is stated that the chandas covers or envelops or
removes the sin of men and therefore called so9. Sayana, the
VSK, Vol-IV, Unadisutra-658, P.604
PS, P.51
VSK, Vol.-Ill, P.269
Ibid. Vol.-Ill, P.279
Again,
apavarakatvam tu chandojhanavatam papebhyahchadanat
— CV, P.4
chadayanti ha va enam chandamsi papatkarmanah I
— (AA-2.1.6 as quoted in the GV, P.4
Again,
4
commentator derives the word ‘ chandas’ from the root
‘ c/7ad’ ( to cover i.e. samvarana")10. H a la yu d h a , the
commentator on the Chandahsutra ( C S ) of P irigalanaga states
that four types of conjugation namely - ( i ) chadayati, ( i i )
chadati, i i i ) chadayati, ( i v ) chadayanti can be noticed in
respect of the said roo t11. H ow ever, there is no difference in
meaning for the forms - chadayati and chadayanti as the first
one remains in singular number and the rest is in plural number
of present tense. On the other h a n d , Yaska in his Nirukta
derives the word from the root - chad’ ( t o cover i.e, chadi
acchadane) 12. It means that the chandas is something that
covers. D u rg a ca ryya , the com m entator, has substituted the
chadayati enasah papat karmmanah iti srutlh I — CM, ed.
by Gurunatha Vldyanidhi, Nivedyam (Preface), P.2 (3) purusasya papasambandham varayitumacchadakatvat chanda
ityucyate I — As quoted in the PS, P.51
nisItasarasahasraiSchadayatyantarlksam
chadati samarabhumim vldvisam mundakhandaih I
chadayati suraiokam yo gunairyatra yuddhe
surayuvativimuktaschadayanti srajasca II
— Kavirahasya, SL. No. 16 as quoted in the VLCP, P. 22
chandamsi chadanat I — NR, Daivatakanda, 12.2
5
word ‘ chadanat’ by ‘ bandhanat’ ™. The word ‘ bandhana’ again denotes the sense of ‘ binding ’ . The chandas has tied up
all the syllables of any Vedic hymn in such manner that ail the
Vedic mantra-s have to remain in certain metres of their own.
Nothing or none can untie this binding. Loss of a single syllable
even in reciting may cause harm to a person14. So, it is nothing
but chandas that gives a binding to each syllable of a Vedic
hymn. Therefore, it is called chandas.
Regarding the act of covering (i.e. acchadana) by
chandas as derived from the root chad, some arguments in
favour of can be traced from some Vedic texts i.e, Samhita-s, Brahmana-s, Aranyaka-s, Upanisad-s , Pratisakhya-s and
others. Firstly, in the Aitareya Aranyaka (A A ) 1.5.2, the
mention of metre is available where various types of meditation
of 'prana* are illustrated15. Therein, it is noted that the
13 —Durgabhasya on NR, Dalvatakanda, 7.12.2
14 dustah Sabdah svarato varnato va mithya prayukto rtatamarthamaha I sa vagbajro yajamanam hinastl yathendrasatruhsvaratoparadhat II — MB, Paspasa Ahnika, P.19 ;
But §!ksa reads 'mantro hlnah' In place of 'dustah sabdah'.
15
— Ibid. Udyota com. P.19
AA, 1.5.2 as quoted in the PS, P.52
6
‘ prana* (G o d ) is to be meditated as covered by the metres.
For this act of covering with m etres, these are termed chandas.
One who knows metres as the cover of the ‘ prana* (G o d ) is
sure to be rescued from ones sins16. Secondly, as the story
goes, once Lord Prajapati performed agnicayana in connection
with a sacrifice. B ut, at that time Agni disguised himself as
‘ ksurapavi* which means a thunderbolt as sharp as a knife.
Having seen Agni in such a dangerous fo rm , no god dared to
reach Him. Then the gods covered their bodies with various
metres and went to Agni. Thus, these elements which covered
the bodies of the gods, came to be known as chandas. The
Taittiriya Samhita (T S ) too holds a similar s tory17. It can thus
be opined that the root ‘ chad* in respect of the word
‘ chandas* , is used in the sense of ‘ covering ’ . Th ird ly, it is
stated in the Chandogyabrahmana (C B r.) that once gods,
chadayantl ha va enam chandam sl papatkarm ano yasyarn c it apt
kamayate ya evam etacchandasam chandastvam veda It! I
— PS. P.52
prajapatiragnim acinuta / sa ksurapavirbhutvattshat, tarn deva
vibhyato nopayante chandobhiratmanam chadayitvopayan, ta t
chandasam chandastvam I — TS, 5. 6. 6. 1
7
having got frightened of death, entered into the ‘ traylvidya’ ™.
Then, they covered themselves with various mantras endowed
with metres and got rid of untimely death. For this act of
covering these are designated as chandas. Hence, there should
be no hesitation in accepting the meaning of the root ‘ chad'
as ‘ to cover’ , in the context of the word ‘ chandas’ .
The third derivation of the word ‘ chandas ’ is taken
from the root ‘ r ’ 19. The root ‘ r ’ means ‘ to move’ . All the
Vedic hymns possess some short of movement at the time of
recitation and therefore the root ‘ r ’ may significantly be
treated as responsible for formation of the word ‘ chandas’ 20.
The fourth derivation of the word ‘ chandas’ that
comes from the root ‘ cand’ is based on PaninS’ s grammar.
18 deva val mrtyorvibhyatastraylm vidyam pravlsamstechandobhiracchadayan, yadebhiracchadayamstacchandasarp
chandastvam t — CBr,, 3.4.2 as quoted in the VLCP,
P.27
caderatestacchandasi I chadayatiti va i —
{Devatadhyaya Brahmana 3.20 ) as quoted in the CV, P.4
pSdavaddhesu sarvesu mantresu gamanat
artidhatuvyutpattirupapadyate I — Ibid. P.4
20
8
Here, ‘ c a n d ’ means ‘ to please ’ 21. Harsata, the commentator
on Jayadeva’s Chandahsastra, also accepts this root
‘ c a n d ’ . He speaks of two acts viz. ‘ pleasing’ and ‘ shining’ 22.
As c h a n d a s pleases or shines forth by its melodious nature it is
called so .
Again the root ‘ c h a n d ’ is also supposed to have
formed the word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ 24. Here the root ‘ c h a n d ’ is said
to have two meanings viz. ‘ gladdening ’ and ‘ covering’ 25.
It is no denying the fact that there may be many
etymological explanations in respect of the formation of' the
word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ . However, almost all the scholars are found
to be agreeing with regard to the two roots - ( i ) ‘ c a n d ’
c a n d a y a t i h l a d a y a t l i t i c h a n d a h , c a n d e r a d e s c a c h a h I
— CM, ed.by Gurunatha Vidyarsldhi, N i v e d y a m (Preface), P.=(3)
Also PS, P.51
c a n d - a h l a d a n e d i p t a u c a I — VP, P.33
c a n d a t i h l a d a r n k a r o t l d l p y a t e v a S r a v y a t a y a I t i c h a n d a h I
— Ibid. P.33
Ibid. P.33
a h l a d a n e , s a m v a r a n e c a I — Ibid. P.33
9
and ( i i ) ‘ chad’ as responsible for its formation. In the light
of the foregoing discussion, it can easily be understood, as
observed by Prof. A. C. Sastrl26also, that the root 'chad*
(to cover) is mostly applicable to the Vedic derivation of the/
word ‘ chandas' as held by Yaska in his Nirukta and the root
‘ cand* (to please) is mostly applicable to the Laukika
derivation of the word as found in Paninian system of grammar.
1.1.2 Use of the word in different context
The word ‘ chandas’ is found to have used in
various senses more particularly in Vedic literature. Sometimes
the word *chandas’ is used to carry the conventional
meaning, sometimes attributive meaning and sometimes
figurative meaning. Conventionally the word *chandas’ means
the science of metrics or any metre in general or any hymn
composed in any metre. Again, this word is attributed to
28 cf. There are two kinds of derivations of the word 'chandas' :
'laukika' and 'alaukika'. In the Nirukta of Yaska the derivation
given is chandarpsi chadanat iti, i.e., 'chandas' comes from the
root ‘chad' (Curadi). In Panlni's grammar the word comes from
the root 'cand'. PS. P.51
10
represent the Veda-s. In addition to this, the word ‘ chandas’
is employed in various figurative meanings such as-
pasavo vai chandamsi27, raso vai chandamsi28,
viryam vai chandamsi29, chandamsi vai disah30, chandamsi vai
gnahm, chandamsi vai lomani32, chandamsi daivah33,
chandamsi vai pranah34, chandamsi vai vraj'o gosthanah35 and
so on.
In ail these expressions, the chandas is
metaphorically identified with cattle (pasava/?) , soma
juice ( r a s a /? ) , energy (v /ry a ) , quarters (cf/sa/7) ,
women (pna/7) , hairs Qlomani') , divine beings
( daivah) , life (prana/7) and the, region of Sun (vrajo
gosthanah) respectively.
27 S.Br, 7.5.2.4128 Ibid. 7.1.1.3729 Ibid. 9.5.1.3930 Ibid. 8.3 .1 .1231 Ibid. 9.5.4.732 Ibid. 6.4.1.633 Ibid. 9.5.1.3934 KBr. 7.9.11.835 TBr. 3.2.9.3
11
The word * chandas ’ has been used in the sense of
l vayu’ also. In the Atharvaveda (A V ) , it is found that the
word ‘ chandas’ indicates water, air and herbs30. However, in
all these cases, that word is employed to denote some sentient
as well as insentient objects of the Universe. Needless to say,
such metaphorical meanings are aimed at to serve certain
contextual purposes. In some Vedic texts, reasons for such
figurative meanings are also stated.
Of the attributed meanings of the word ‘ chandas ’
the Aksarasamamnaya (i.e. displayed letters) comes first. All
the letters under the Aksarasamamnaya and even sounds
uttered by beasts were designated as chandas . Then the word
‘ chandas ’ comes to denote various mantra-s viz. - the rk , the
saman and the yajus. The chandas becomes absolutely the
symbol of mantras as Yaska in his Nirukta declares
trlni chandamsI kavayo apo vata osadhayah
— AV.18.1.27
chandah purusa iti yam avocam aksarasamanyaya evam
tasyaltasyakaro rasah I — TS. 3.2.3.4
1 2
“ c h a n d o b h y a h s a m a h r t y a s a m a h r t y a ,l38 etc. Here Durgacaryya,
the commentator, opines that m a n t r a - s are termed c h a n d a s .
Again, in the CBr. as well as in the Satapathabrahmana (SBr.) the word ‘ c h a n d a s '1 means m a n t r a 4 0 .
The word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ is found to be in use as an
equivalent for the Vedas. Panini, too has used the word in that
sense41. In his Astadhyayl (AD), the word ‘ c h a n d a s ’ is found
112 times in the aforesaid sense. Katyayana in his Vartika and
Patanjali in his Mahabhasya(MB) have also employed this word
to denote the Vedas. In the Pratisakhya-s too, this word is
used frequently to mean the V edas in general42. Sayanacaryya
NR. NaighantukakandaA .6
chandamsl mantrlkhya I —Durgabhasya on the NR,NaighantukakandaA .6 G.Br. 3,4.2Also, cf. yad ebhiratmanam acchadayat deva mrtyorvibhyatah tat chandasam chandastvam it! I — S.Br. 4.5.1.1
bahularp chandasi I — AD.2.4.39
Also, chandasi ca I — Ibid.5.1.67
svarasamskarayoSchandasi niyamah I —Sukta YajuhPratisakhya, 1.1
also applied the word ‘ ch a n d as ' in the sense of the Vedn
Maxmuller holds tha t the Vedic hymns com posed in earlier
t im es may be taken as chandas and o f later t im es are named
m antra-s. A cco rd in g to a mantra o f the Purusasukta of the
Rgveda, the w ord ‘ ch a n d a s ’ deno tes the poet ical
c o m p o s it io n s of the Yajurveda while the prose part is known by
the w ord ‘ y a ju s ’ 44. But “ m an fra b ra h m a na yo rve d an a m a dh e ya
m ” is one of the de fin it io ns of the Veda, which means that the
m ixture of the mantra and the Brahmana is called Veda. Again ,
it is genera lly a ccep ted tha t the word * chandas ' s tands for the
word ‘ V e d a In tha t c a s e , not only the mantra port ion but
also the Brahmana p o rt ion of Vedic lite ra tu re would
a u tom atica lly be inc luded into the dom ain of the word
‘ c h a n d a s ’ . H ere , it will not be out of co n te x t to record that
Panini did not like to a ccep t such a p o s i t io n , as he is found to
have used the w ord in the sense of mantra only . The chandas
43 yah pranavah chandasam m adhye rsabhah sreshah e tc .
— S ayana 's c o m m e n ta ry on TS. as q u o te d in th e PS, P.54
tasm ad ya jna t sarvahutah rcah sam ani ya jn ire I
chandarpsi yajn ire tasm at ya justam adajayata II
— RV, 10.90.9
chandobrahm anani tadvisayan i I — AD, 4.2.66
14
and the Brahmana are mentioned here separately where
chandas means mantra only. There are some scholars who
believe that the origin of chandas is the ‘ kantikarma’ of the
Nighantu. According to some other scholars, the chandas is
derived from the ‘arcatikarma’ of the Nighantu as observed by
Prof. A.C. Sastri48. In the Nighantu, the word ‘ chandas’ is
seen in the names of the stotra-s. Again, the rk mantra-s of
the Samasamhita (ss) are also named ‘ chandas’ 47.
SadguruSisya considers that the word ‘ chandas’ is used to
mean primarily the gayatrl and also other metres48. He further
opines that the Vedas are also known as ‘ chandas ’ , because
they are composed in these metres49. Thus the word
‘ chandas ’ is attributed to mean the entire Vedic literary works.
This attributed meaning of the word ' chandas ’ is well accepted
in the Sanskrit literature.
PS, P.55
rcah samani chandamsi puranam yajusa sahaucchistanjajhire sarve I — AV, il.4.2.4
chando gayatryadi, tadyogadhi vedah I — VD, P.58 as
quoted in the VP, P.28
chandamsi vedah I — VD, P.59 as quoted In Ibid. P.28
15
Finally, the word ‘chandas ’ conventionally refers
to the entire prosodical science or any metre in general. That
the ‘ chandas’ has a significant role to play, can easily be
evidenced not only in the Vedic texts but in Classical literature
as well. In the Ramayana of Valmlki, the word is employed in
the sense of ‘ desire*50.
The Amarakosa (AK) furnishes two types of
meanings of the word *chandas ’ - one for Vedic context51
and the other for the use of Classical Sanskrit52. Here,
Amarasimha states that in the Classical context, the poetry
(i.e. padya') itself is metre. Again, in the
Sabdastomamahanidhi (STM) of Taranatha Tarkavacaspati
almost same explanation is there. In STM, two words are
noticed viz. ( i ) chanda and (ii) chandas55. The first one is of
mayocyamanam yadt te srotum chandovitasini I
— VR, Bhumika ed. by Madhusudana §astrf, P.5
51 gayatrfpramukham chando I — AK. P.122,
52 chandah padye’bhilase ca I — Ibid. P.23653 STM. P.187
16
masculine gender (i.e . pumlinga) which stands for abhilasa54
etc. The rest one is of neuter gender Q.e.napumsakalinga')
R C
which denotes several meanings including metrics . However,
both the words are shown therein to have derived from the root
‘ chad’ . But the second form i.e ., chandas only is stated to
have indicated the science of metre .
1.1.3 Definition of Chandas
There are found so many derivative meanings of the
word ‘ chandas’ through its semantic analysis. But, normally it
indicates some numerical arrangement of syllables57.
54 chanda (pumlinga) = abhllase, va6atayam, vlsabhede ca I
— Ibid. P.187
55 chandas (napurpsakalihga) = vede, svairacare, abhllase.
niyataksaravarnamatradisannlveiavaiat catuscaranadauukthadibhede gayatryadau chandasi, padye ca I
— Ibid. P.187«
56 chanda (purn.) = chad! sarpvarane dhatoranekarthatvat iha icchayam ghah I
And, chandas (napum.) = chadi-asi I — Ibid. P.187
57 yadaksaraparimanam tacchandah I —RgvedasarvanukramanI of
17
Again, the AV defines that the chandas is the thing
which is distinguished by the number of syllables58.
SadguruSisya, in his commentary of the Sarvanukramani of
katyayana on the Rgreda (R V ) , refers to the chandas as
something which envelopes or protects one from sms . Prof.
R.S.Murty refers to a definition60 in his Vedic Prosody as being
found in the Introduction to the CS. The definition under
reference means that the speech that is regulated by the
number of syllabic instant it contains, is termed chandas.
Halayudha in his commentary on CS-II.1 states that
the word ‘ chandas ’ refers to the item which is particularised
by the number of syllables61,
Harsata, the commentator on Jayadevacchandah
Katyayana as quoted in the VP. P.33
58 chando aksarasahkhyavacchedakam I — Ibid. P.34
59 chandayantlha va enam papatkarmanatlti sreteh I
And. papebhyaichadanat I — Ibid. P.35
60 matraksarasahkhya niyatavak chandah I — Ibid. P.34
61 chandaSsabdenaksarasahkhyavacchando'trabhidhfyate I
— MS, under Plhgala-sutra -"chandah" (11.1)
18
states that the chandas is the base-word of metres having the
entire treasure of syllables62.
Several other definitions are also can be had of in
this context for both the Vedic and Classical prosody. All such
definitions have their acceptability on occasions suitable to
them.
In the domain of versified poetry, the word
1chandas ’ indicates the harmonious arrangement of syllables in
a verse. A poet always depends on some sets of chosen words
with particular syllables, so that these become appealing to the
reader as well as the listener. At the same time, the poet is
expected to remain cautious of the fact that the spontaneous
flow of the letters he proposes to use, is not getting
interrupted. That flow of syllables should have an agreeable
progression so that it generates some short of harmony. Any
arbitrary succession of syllables is not harmonious. That
harmony again creates a rhythm. Anundoram Borooah has used
62 chandaSSabdo vrttadharavacanah aksarakosatmakatvat I
— Harsata In Jayadeva's Chandoviciti, Chap.II as quoted In the
VP, P.34
19
the word rhythm as synonymous to the Sanskrit word ‘ vrtta’ 63. The form of such succession of syllables in agreeable
progression is termed chandas.
1.1.4 Essence of the study of Chandahsastra
In the Vedic literature, the science of metrics was
regarded as one of the Vedanga-s. In the Mundakopanisad
(M U ) , the chandas figures in the list of the six Vedanga-s54.
That the chandas is one of the six Vedanga-s is mentioned
elsewhere aiso in some couplets65. In both cases, the chandas
occupies the fifth position. The objectives of all these Vedanga-
s are the proper interpretation of the Vedic texts. Traditionally,
it is believed that the Vedic hymns are some revelation made
possible by the god to the seers. Unlike the mantra-s, the
63 Prosody, P.xcv64 tatrapara rgveda yajurvedah samavedosrtharvavedah Siksa kalpo
vyakaranam niruktam chando jyotisamlti I —MU, 1.1.565 siksa kalpo vyakaranam niruktam chando ityapi I
jyotisamayanahcaiva sadahgo veda isyate II—CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, Nivedyam (Preface), P.=(2)
20
Vedanga-s are having no divine origin. However, it is rightly felt
that a thorough knowledge of all the Vedanga-s is a prerequisite
for understanding the Vedic hymns. Patanjali, refers to the
Vedanga-s as obligatory especially for the Brahminm. A study of
prosody is essential specially for Vedic literature because
without the knowledge of the metre contained in a Vedic
mantra, the reading of the same is useless and even very
dangerous for the reader87. Similarly, SrIhrsTkeSa§arma in his
commentary to the Chandoviciti (cv) of Patanjali quotes aC Ocouplet , the authorship of which is ascribed to Vidyaranya, a
commentator of the Arseyabrahmana (ABr.). The verse under
reference states that one who applies a mantra without proper
66 brahmanena nlskarano dharmo sadarigo vedo 'dhyeyo jneyasca I
— MB, PaspaSa Ahnika, P.15
87 avldltva rsim chando daivatam yogameva eva ca I
yo'dhyapayedyapedvapl paptyan jay ate tu sah II
— Brhaddevata, 8.13.6 as quoted In the PS, P.59
68 rsicchandodaivatani brahmanartharp svaradyapi I
avldltva prayunjano mantrakanaka ucyate II
— CV, P.8
Prof. A.C.Sastri holds that this couplet is mentioned in the com.
of the SarvanukarmanI of Sadgurusisya. — PS, P.59
21
knowledge of the rsi, the chandas and the devata, is called
mantrakantaka. Similar view is also found to be expressed in
another stanza of Vidyaranya69. SadguruSisya too says that
one performs a sacrifice with insufficient knowledge of the
devata, the chandas, the nirukta, the brahmana, the rsi,
the krt suffix and the taddhit suffix etc. of the mantra is
called yagakantaka70. In the Paninlyasiksa (P N S ) ,as mention
ed by Gurunatha Vldyanidhi in the Preface of the Chando- manjarl (C M ) of Gangadasa, the essence of the knowledge
of metre is cited71. It is stated that a Brahmin should specially
endeavour to acquire proper knowledge of the rsi, the
aviditva rslrp chando daivatarp yogameva ca I
yodhyapayejjapetsnayanna sa tatphalamapnuyat II
— (1.1.6) as quoted in the GV, P.8
70 mantranarp daivatarp chando niruktarp brahmanan rsln I
krtaddhitadi cajhatva yajanto yagakanaka II
— (1.1.2) Ibid. P.8
71 arsarp chandasca daivatarp viniyogah punah punah I
veditavyarp prayatnena brahmanena visesatah II — CM, ed.
by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, Nivedyam (Preface). P.3 ; also PS. P.59-60 ; also VLGP, P.33 : But this couplet is not seen in the PNS ed. by Pramodabardhan Kaundinnyayan, Chowkhamba Vidhyabhavan, Varanasi-1, 2004
22
chandas, the devata, the viniyoga (application) etc. In the
Chandovicitivrtti, SrihrsTke§a§arma quotes a line from the
ABr., wherein also the importance of chandas is clearly
stated72. Again, the negative effect caused due to uttering a
Vedic mantra without knowing its metre is stated in the verse
rserhlna73 etc. It was held that the violation of metrical rules in
Vedic hymns might cause harm to the preceptor as well as the
sacrificer. So, the knowledge of metrics was considered to be
of sufficient priority.
The prime necessity of the chandas is to understand
the meaning of Vedic verses. All the Vedic mantra-s are
72 — — _yo ha va aviditarseyacchandodaivata brahmanena mantrena
yajayati vadhyapayati, va sthanum va rrcchati gartta va padyatl
pra va miyate paplyan bhavatni I
— ABr.1.1.6 as quoted in the GV, P.8 ; But Prof. R.S.Murty in his
VP quotes these lines with slight variation and the source is
mentioned there as the Chandogyabrahmana of.
yo ha va aviditarseyacchando daivata viniyogena brahmanena
mantrena yajayati vadhyapayati va, sa sthanum varcchati, gartam
va padyate, pramiyate va, paplyan bhavati, yatayamanyasya
chandasim bhavanti I — VP, P.19
73 rserhinamanayusyam chandobhirvyadhyupadravah I
devatabhisca maranam varnaigodhananaSanam II — CV, P.9
23
metrical. A mantra without metre cannot be thought of.
Therefore, there exists a close relationship between the mantra
and the chandas. Prof. A.C. Sastrl in his
1 Pingalacchandahsutra - A Study ’ (P S ) expresses “ In some
doubtfu l cases metre makes a correct meaning o f the Vedic
verses. So metres are called the mouth o f the Veda”74. Further, he states - “ According to the sastra-s this reading
o f the Veda-s is positively no t be ended till the sense o f
meaning becomes dear. Metre is the limb o f the Veda and so
learning o f metre is mandatory. ‘By anustup you should
perform ritu a l, you are to sing by b rha ti m etre , you are to
praise by g a ya trl m e tre ’ . These are the injunctions regarding
rituals. S o , i f a man is willing to perform rituals he should know
the metres properly” 75. As grammar is meant for removing
doubts76, so also the science of metrics is needed to remove
the doubt of Vedic m antra-s in certain occasion77. As the
Nirukta helps in deciphering the meanings of the words in a
74 chando vai vedasya mukham I — PS, P.46
75 Ibid. P.114
76 raksoragamalaghvasandehah prayojanam I
— MB, Paspasa Ahnika, P.13
77 asandehartham ca adhyeyam chandah I — VLGP, P.34
24
mantra, so also the particular metre applied in a certain mantra
can be a determinant of its meaning.
The Veda-s are regarded as the Aparavidya78, and
so also the metre. Therefore, as one of the branches of
Aparavidya, the Chandahsastra is also a subject to be pursued
for.
The chandas bears the capability of granting a birth
in the heaven for a sacrificer79. Being one of the main
components of the Vedic hymns, the chandas aims at
deciphering knowledge in general. This knowledge can lead a
person towards immortality. So, the ethical power of the
chandas leading to spiritual uplift is sung in the RV . Similar
view is expressed in the verse chandasam vicayamm etc.
MU. 1.1.5gayatrau svistakrtah sarpyajye kurvita tejaskamo brahmavarcakamah I —ATBr.5.1 as quoted in the PS, P.66 Again cf.gayatryam praugam kuryad ityahus tejo vai brahmavarcam gayatrt tejasvf brahmavarcasf bhavatfti etc.
80—AA. 1.11.111 as quoted Ibid. P.67 yada gayatre adhi gayatram ahitam
25
It is to be noted here that the scope for the study of
metrics is not confined within the Vedic literature only, the
knowledge of metre is rightly felt to be a must in the Classical
Sanskrit as well. The Vedic metres are determined by counting
the number of syllables and there is no division of gana-s as in
the Classical Sanskrit. In the Classical Sanskrit, metres are
mainly based upon gana-s. The maximum possible number of
syllables that can remain in one pada of a Vedic metre is twelve
only but in the Classical Sanskrit, metres having more than
twelve syllables in each pada are enumerable. Thus several
aspects of difference are there in both Vedic and Classical
metres ; and usually the essence of the knowledge of metrics
in Classical Sanskrit is also different from Vedic context.
For assessment of the importance of the knowledge
of metre in the Classical Sanskrit, it is necessary to discuss the
traistubhad va traistubham nlrataksata I
yad va jagajagatyahitam padam
ya It tad v/dus te amrtattvam anaiuh II — RV, 1.164.23
81 chandasam vicayam janan yah sariradvimucy ate I
chandasameti salokyamanantyayasnute sriyam II
CV, P.175
26
structural pattern of poetry in general. It is the chandas which
differentiates a poem from prose. Any common reader or even a
listener can feel the effect of metre in a poem with the least of
attention even. It is. the metre in a poem that has a melting
effect upon the heart of the reader. Lucidity is the main
characteristic feature of a poem. Successful poets are always
aware of choosing the suitable words for their composition in
conformity with the harmonious arrangement leading to that
lucidity. Such lucidity creates a rhythm. That rhythm is, in
reality, nothing but the. metre. So knowledge of metrics is
essential for a poet to compose an effective and successful
poem. That knowledge is also essential for the reader too. If a
reader doesnot possess the requisite knowledge of the metre
concerned with a particular poem, a proper reading can neveri
be expected. Without a proper reading, the proper rhythmic
lucidity as well as poetic taste of the poem also can not be
realised. So knowledge of metrics is quite necessary for a
reader.
Not only the versified forms, some passages of the
great prose-writers also exhibit some sort of rhythmic form.
Such a rhythm creates a sense of movement to one while one
27
goes on reading a literary piece. In the PNS, this movement is
compared with the movement of feet82. A man can walk or go
ahead with the help of feet. Similarly, with the help of metres,
one line of a poem or a prose even, attains its movement
generating some poetic charm at the time of reading. Again for
a manuscriptologist also, a practical acquaintance with the
chandas enables one to detect successfully all faults of
omission, insertion and alteration of syllable. Hence, A.
Borooah has properly justified the essence of the study of
metrics - “A thorough knowledge of prosody appears therefore
to be essential for all linguistic and historical examination of
Sanskrit” 85.
1.2 Origin and development of Chandahsastra referring
important works
The history of Sanskrit metrics is to be compared
with the discovery of mathematical perspective in the
82 chandah padau tu vedasya I — PNS, V.4183 Prosody, Preface, P.xci
2 8
development of occidental pictorial dots as observed by Prof.
A. C. Sastri84. The beginning of the science of metre in Sanskrit
can be traced to the Vedic literature. It has been already
discussed that the word ‘ chandas ’ is seen in various mantra-s
of the RV, the earliest specimen of human intellect in India.
However, the sense of the word *chandas’ in those Vedic
texts is not only metre which is called prosody at present day.
In many occasions, the word ‘ chandas ’ stands for the Veda
itself as has been hinted at earlier.
The science of metre is considered as
supplementary to the Veda and the age of this Vedanga is
difficult to ascertain. After considerable deliberations the
Vedanga s are accepted to be written somewhen before the 5th
century B.C.85 However, this date can help very little in fixing
the age of the chandas.
The Rksamhita (RS) , being completely a metrical
work, is also known to be the earliest source book on prosody.
84
85
PS, Preface, P.V
Ibid. P.50
2 9
“ What is meant by chandas” m - is an enquiry for the first time
in the RS. The names of the seven prime metres with their
characteristics are mentioned in brief there in a few text of that
Samhita. After the RV, the Taittiriya Samhita (TS) is known
to have laid down many references on prosody wherein on more
than twenty occasions, the importance of chandas in sacrificial
rites, some metaphorical expressions and some deified
characteristics of prosody are stated .
Taking into consideration of the Brahmanic
sources, it is evident that the contextual references of prosody
are made in almost all Brahmana-s. But the Aitareyabrahmana (ATBr.) , the SBr., and Daivatabrahmana have dealt with this
topic more elaborately. Then in the Sutra literature, prosody
which is found in a scattered way in the Samhita-s and the
Brahmana-s, has attained the status of a science as shown by
Dr. R. S. Murty88. The Rk-pratisakhya of §aunaka has a great
importance on the growth of prosody. The last three patala-s of
88 chandasim klmasit ? — RV, X.130.3
87 gayatrl chandah (TS, IV.3.7.10), usnih chandah (TS., IV.3.7.70),
anustubh chandah (TS, IV.3.7.8 ) etc. are some citations and
many other citations alongwith passages are also there.
88 VP, P.152
30
this Pratisakhya are exclusively devoted to explanation of the
nature of Rigvedic prosody which is really a concise but
complete work on prosody. Again, there is a book on Vedic
prosody called Rgvedachando’ nukramani (RCK) , the
authorship of which goes to Saunaka where an index of
different metres employed in the RV is corroborated with. The
Sarvanukramani of Katyayana gives considerable information
about the metres of Rigvedic hymn systematically in accordance
with the Sakala recension of the RV. The main part of this
treatise is preceded by an Introduction in twelve paragraphs
where except the first, the second and the twelfth paragraphs,
all the rest deal with the nature of Vedic prosody. One
Rgvedanukramani, which has been extracted from the
commentary of Venkatamadhava on the RV is regarded as the
latest as well as the authentic text on the Rigvedic indices
where alongwith other matters, the metres are also dealt with.
This work is of historical value as the names of almost all the
exponents on prosody like Saunaka, Katyayana, Patanjali,
Pihgalanaga, YIska, Bodhayana, Apastamba, ASvalayana,
Jaimini, SkandasvamI, Narayana, Udglta, Kautsa, Susrta
etc. are resorted to. Again, the Nidanasutra of the Samaveda
comprises prosodial matters which is called Chandoviciti^CV).
31
The authorship of this work is ascribed to Patanjali, a disciple
of Katyayana. There is another work on Vedic prosody which is
called Chandovicaya or Samaganam Chandah or ChandahParisista. Like the R CK , this is also an Index of the metres and
other related items used in the SS. The SankhyayanaSrautasutra also discusses some elements on Vedic prosody.
The valued contribution of several commentators on the above
discussed treatises is also to be taken note of. The commentary
of SadguruSisya on the Katyayana ’ s SarvanukramanI on the
RV called Vedarthadlpika (V D ) is recordable here. On the
commentaries of the C V , the Tattvabodhini of Tataprasada
and the Chandovicitivrtti of Hrslke6a §arma alias Petta §astrl• • • • •
are worth mentioning.
The works mentioned above have considered the
Vedic metres sometimes in fragmentary manner with other items
of Vedic text and sometimes independently but comprehensive
manner which helps to acquire an overall idea on various
metres. Of course, these are not acknowledged as full-fledged
Chandovedanga in the true sense of the term. While the
Chandahsutra ( C S ) of Piiigala has come into existence which
32
has initiated discussions on ail the required topics on metrical
science applicable for both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit, the
scholars have become very much pronounced to recognise this
book as the systematic text on metrics. It deserves mention
here that the name of Pingala in many occasions is found as
Pingaianaga. Prof. A. C. Sastri89 cites that Pingala may be
somehow associated with the ' naga' dynasty who ruled from
fifth century B.C. Again, Patanjali is also stated to be an
incarnation of Sesanaga. On the basis of this consideration,
some scholars opine that Patanjali wrote the work on prosody
under the name of Pirtgaiacaryya90. Anyway, Pingaianaga is
credited to shape the prosody into an independent science for
the first time. Regarding the date and antiquity of Pingaianaga,
the scholars are of different views. Still he is placed in the
fourth century B.C. At present, two treatises are found as
attributed to the authorship of pingaianaga - viz.
( i) Pingalacchandahsutra and ( ii) Prakrtapaingala. Of these
89 PS, Introduction, P.vi
90 patanjalesca namantaram pingala asidltyapi sruyate I at ah
patanjallreva pihgalacaryanamna chando'nuiasanamldam
vyaracayaditi I — VM, Bhumlka, P.14
91 PS, P.81
33
two works on prosody, the first one is on both Vedic and
Classical Sanskrit ; and the second one is mainly on Prakrta
language. Pingalanaga has cited many writers on metrics as
his predecessors books such as Tandl, Saitava, KaSyapa,
Katyayana, Mandavya, Rati, Nylnku, Kraustuka, Yaska,
Sakatayana etc. But their works on prosody are not found. Of
the commentators on the CS of Pingalanaga, the following are
worthmentioning :
1. Pingalabhavodyata of CandraSekhara
2. Pingalatika of Citrasena
3. Pingalasaravikasini of Ravikara
4. Pingalatattvaprakasini of Rajendrada&avadhana
5. Pingaladipa of Laksmlnatha
6. Pingalaprakasa of VamSldhara
7. Pingalaprakasa of Vamanacarya
8. Pingalamataprakasa of Vi§vanatha
9. Mrtasanjfvani(MS) of Haiayudha
10. Pingalabhasya
11. Pingalavartika
34
12, Chandahsutra-vaidika-bhasya o f Akhilananda
Sarmma
13. Vratimangalavrtti o f Medhavrata
A g a in , nam es o f Padm aprabhasuri, PaSupati,
Vanlnatha, S rlp a tl, Mathuranatha Sukla, YadavaprakaSa,
Bhaskararaya, Srihrsikesa Sarm m a, Damodara and
Manoharakrsna are co m m e n ta to rs on the CS . It shou ld be
no ted here th a t Halayudha has o u tb la ze d all o th e r
co m m e n ta to rs on the CS by his m a je s tic e ru d itio n and p e rfe c t
u rb a n ity in his com m en tary ca lled M rtasanjivani ( M S ) .
P ingalanaga’ s b o o k is a tu rn in g p o in t to the
d e ve lo pm e nt o f S a n skrit m e trics . A fte r Pingalanaga, so m any
books have com e to be w ritte n in d iffe re n t ages by d iffe re n t
a u tho rs p e rta in in g to the m etres on C lass ica l S a n skrit on ly.
H o w e ve r, som e o f them have tre a te d bo th Vedic and C lass ica l
m etres. On bo th Vedic as w ell as C lass ica l p ro s o d ie s , the
Jayadevacchandah o f Jayadeva is re m arka b le . This is com posed
The names of these seventeen commentators have been enlisted
by Prof. A.C.Sastri . — Ibid. PP.74, 111-112
35
in eight chapters in both sutra and verse form. Among the
eighteen Mahapurana-s , the A gni, the Garuda and the
Naradapurana-s deal with prosody in some sections. Again
among these th re e , the Agnipurana93 deals with chandas of
both Vedic and Classical groups in nine chapters (from 327 to
33 5 ) , but the other two hold discussion only on Classical
prosody.
Bharatamuni in his Natyasastra has discussed
metres in two chapters with definitions and illustrations. There
is a treatise called Chandoviciti, the authorship of which goes
to JanaSraya who flourished in between 580 A.D. and 615 A.D.
The ChandosnuGasana of Hemacandra is regarded as a notable
contribution to the science of Sanskrit metrics. Another
Chandosnusasana is authored by Jayakirti, a Jain writer.
Ksemendra, the famous rhetoric ian, has composed a prosodial
treatise named Suvrttatilaka (S V T ). This book gives a new
light to the history of Sanskrit metrical science as the last
The discussion of metrics in the Agnipurana starts from the last
portion of the chapter 327. Of course the whole chapter is not
devoted to chandas. From that portion of that chapter till the
end of the chapter 335, a separate book is published and named
Agneyaschandahsara(AC) .
93
36
chapter of this book called rrttariniyoga, has dealt with the
propriety of employment of metres in various occasions. The
next important work on Sanskrit prosody is the Vrttaratnakara
(V R ) of Kedarabhafta C15th century A .D .). This is one of the
popular treatises in six chapters. Of the commentators on this
book, the following ones are mentioned by M.
Krishnamacharlar94 - Pandltaclntamani, Narayana, Srlnltha,
Haribhaskara, Divakara, KavigardGla, Trivikrama,
Nrslmha, Taranatha, Devaraja etc.
Another work called Vrttaratnakaraparisista of
unknown author is seen in the Chandomanjari (C M ) of
Gangadlsa which gives the definitions of some metres. A.
Borooah also referred to it95. The Srutabodha (S B ) , the
authorship of which is ascribed to Kalidasa, is really a useful
work on Sanskrit prosody. Several commentaries have been
written on the SB. Among those commentators the names of
Harsakirti Upadhyaya, Manohara Sarma, Taracandra,
Hamsaraja etc. are worthmentioning. The next popular treatise
on chandas is the Chandomanjari of Gahgadasa (1 5th or 16th
94 HGSL, P.90895 Prosody, Preface, P.VI
37
century A .D .). In six chapters, the author describes various
metres on Classical Sanskrit and illustrates them by verses in
praise of Lord Krsna. Jagannatha, CandraSekhara,
D ataram a, G ovarddhana, Vam Sidhara, Krsnavarm a and
Gurunatha V idyanidhi are the some of the commentators on the
CM. Again, G a n g ld asa 96 has mentioned Purusottam a, his
m aster, as author of another prosody called Chandogovinda.Another work named Vagvallabha97 by Dukhabhanjanakavi is
(
also mentioned which is composed in 16th century A.D. The
Vanibhusana (V B ) of D lm odaram isra is a valued prosody
which is mentioned in the Vrttam anjarl (V M ) of
Dhire§varacaryya several times. Another Damodara is stated
as one of the commentators on the CS98. In the 16th century
A .D ., Kavikarnapura of Assam composed the Vrttamala (V M L ) which deals with a few varieties of selected metres of
frequent use in Classical Sanskrit.
A Vedic prosody called Vrttam uktavatl authored by
§ r!k rsn a b h a tta (1 7 th century A .D .) is considered as the
98
97
CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, P.13
Preface by Pundit Brajamohana Jna on the SVT, P.18
HCSL, P.903, F.N.8
38
latest work dealt only on Vedic part of metres. Another
Vrttam uktavali is referred to by A bhinavagupta , the famous
commentator of the Dhvanyaloka , the authorship of which goes
to one BhattaSarikara.
The V fttam anjari (V M ) of D hlre£varacaryya is
the relatively modern work on prosody from Assam next to the
VML of Kavikarnapura. This book came to be published in 1961
A.D. by the Department of Historical and Antiquarian S tudies,
Govt, of Assam, Guwahati. The author has made the text
understandable for the readers by adding a commentary of his
own. Acaryya M anoranjana§astrI has written a scholarly
Preface to the book which throws a light on the development of
Sanskrit prosody. Acaryya S a s tr l quotes there the famous
sch o o ls " of Chandahsastra from the commentary called
Yadavaprakasa on the CS.
chandojnanamidam bhavad bhagavato lebhe suranam pati- stasmad dusvyavanastatah suraguru mandivyanama tatah I mandavyadapi saitavastatah rsi ryaskastatah piiigalah tasyedam yasasa gurorbhuvi dhrtarp prapyasmadadyaih krtam II—VM, Preface, P.13
39
A gain , there is a process in the Sanskrit metrical
science called p r a s t a r a , a mathematical calculations which
gives the highest possible number of any class of metre.
Prosodists like Pingalanaga, Kedarabhatta, Dhlre§varacaryya
have discussed it along with other topics in their works. But
there are treatises on p r a s t a r a only. The P r a s t a r a c i n t a m a n i of
Clntamani in three chapters consisting, of a code of rules in a
variety of metres accompanied by a prose commentary is
worthmentioning here. A gain, there are P r a s t a r a r i c a r a of
anonymous w rite r, P r a s t a r a s e k h a r a of Srinivasa,
P r a s t a r a p a t t a n a of Krsnadeva100. The L i l a v a t / of
Bhaskaracarya, a work on m athem atics, also cites some rules
of calculating p r a s t a r a .
101M. Krishnamachariar has mentioned the names of
several manuscripts as he found them in different
catalogues , which may be listed as :
01. V r t t a k a u m u d i of Ramacarana
02. V r t t a c a n d r i k a of Ramadayalu
100 Ibid. P.910101 Ibid. P.910-912
40
03. Vrttaramaspada of K se m a k a ra n a M isra
04. Vrttaramayana of anon.
05. Kavyajivana of P rlt ik a ra
06. Karaasantosa of M u d ga la
07. Vrttamuktavali of D u rgad a ta
08. Chandoratnakara of anon.
09. Chandomala of S a rn g a d h a ra
10. Vrttaratnakarasutratika of T riv ik ram a• •
11 . Chandahkosa of R a tn a ie k h a ra* •
12. Chandassloka of anon.
13. Vrttakatpadruma of Ja y a g o v in d a
14. Vrttakautuka of V iS van a th a
15. Vrttakaumudi of J a g a d g u ru
16. V rtta cand rodaya of B h a sk a ra d d h a r in
17. Vrttatarangini of anon.
18. Vrttadipika of K r sn a
19. Vrttapratyaya of S a n k a ra d a y a lu
20. Vrttapradipa of J a n lrd a n a
21. Vrttapradipa of V a d a r ln a th a
22. Vrttamala of Va llabha ji
23. Vrttalaksana of anon.• * •
41
24. Vrttavartika of Umapati
25. Vrttavartika of Vaidyanatha
26. Vrttavinoda of Bhaiehagiri
27. Vrttavivecana of Durgasahaya
28. Vrttasudhodaya of Mathuranatha Sukla
29. Vrttasudhodaya of VenTvillsa
30. Vrttasara of Bharadvaja
31. Vrttasiddhantamanjari of Raghunatha
32. Vrttabhirama of Ramacandra
33. Vrttadyumani of Ya§vanta
34. Vrttavinoda of anon.
35. Rangaratchandas of anon.
36. Karnananda of Krsnadasa« • • •
37. Samavrttasara of Nllakanthlcarya
38. Vrttamuktavali of Harivyasami&ra
39. Chandahprakasa of Sesacintamani
40. Chandasudhakara of Krsnarama
41. Chandabkalpaiata of Mathuranatha
42. Chandasankhya of anon.
43. Chandascudamani of Hemacandra
44. Chandassudhacillaharl of anon.
42
45. Vrttaratnavali of D urgldata
46. Vrttaratnavali• of MiSrasananda
47. Vrttaratnavali of SadaSivamuni
48. Vrttakarika of• Narayana purohita
49. Vrttamanim alika of Srinivasa• •
50. Vrttamanikosa • • • of Srinivasa
51. Chandakaustubha of Radhadamodara
52. Chandovyakhyasara of Krsnabhatta
53. Chandassudha of Ganastakavyakhya
54. Vrttacintaratna* of Sanatarajapandita
55. Vrttadarpana of Bhlsmacandra
56. Vrttaratnavali• of VeiikateSa
57. Vrttaratna vali of Krsnaraja
58. Vrttam uktavali• of Kfsnarama
59. Vrttam uktavali of Mallari
60. Vrttam uktavali• of Gangadasa
61. Chandosnusasana of JineSvara
62. Chandassundara of Narahari
63. Vrttaratnavali of Narayana
64. Vrttaratna vali • of Ravikara
65. Vrttaratnavali of Ya^vantasimha
43
66. Vrttaratnavali of Ramasvami Sant!
67. Ramastutiratna of Ramasvami Santi
Thus, it is seen that from the Vedic period to the
Classical period, so many works on the science of metre have
been written, but a few have remained easily available and in
published form. Many manuscripts on chandas are in several
libraries of India and abroad ; some of them are only in the
citation of the catalogues. Hence, the entire works on metre
deserve a systematic study in present days for a historical build
up of metrical science. All the works mentioned above, both
published and unpublished, have contributed a lot for the
growth of Sanskrit prosody.
In the development of metrics, it is noticed that
many metre owe their origin more or less to the Veda-s. For
instance, the anustup metre as exhibited in the Upanisad-s as
well as in RS has attained the form as Sloka in the epics. The
unconscious effusion of sage ValmTki’ s grief caused by the
sight of killing of a kraunca by a hunter generates a verse in the
44
metre called Slokam. It is said that the words ma, prama,
pratima etc. in the portion ma cchandah etc. of the
Yajurveda are termed in the CS as ukta, atyukta, madhya
etc104. The seven principal Vedic metres from gayatri to jagati
are also there in the prosody of Classical Sanskrit as the
representative names of seven classes of metres. Prof. A. C.
Sastri has shown that the origin of the metre called
vidyunmala108 used in Classical Sanskrit can be traced in the
hymn dyava ksama etc. 106 of the RV. Some other examples can
also be cited in this context. Prof. Sastri opines _ “ It is
proved that Classical metres are originated from Vedic mantras.
In fact, all the Classical metres can be traced in some form or
amnayadanyatra nutanacchandasamavatarah I—URC, Speech of Vanadevata after V.il.5ma cchandah prama cchandah pratima cchandosasrfvayaschandahpahktlichanda'usnlk chando brhatl chando'nustup chando vlrat chando gayatri chandastristup chando jagati chandah I—Yajurveda 14.18Preface by Akhilananda §arma on the CS, P.6 vidyunmala mau gau I —CS, 6.6
106 dyava ksama rukmo antah I PS, P.96
—RKS.1.96.5 as quoted in the
45
other in the Vedic text"™7. He also holds - “ Thus Vedic
metres along with the gradual changes o f time and society and
the tastes and mind o f the people also underwent drastic
changes side by side. As a result o f this evolution the metres o f
the Veda-s were transformed into the Classical forms o f
m etres” 108. Dr. R. S. Murty also holds - “ Thus the prosody has
undergone several stages o f development finding its ultimate
fulfillm ent In kavya Literature. In this p rocess , Vedic prosody
has transformed its structure into Classical prosody. In the
classical ag e , the purpose o f prosody has been shifted from the
Vedic altars to the poetic fields. The sanctity o f the subject has
been transformed into a literary charm ” 109.
Great poets have used metres in accordance with
their necessity leading to poetic excellence. While doing so
some new forms of metres come into existence. With the rolling
of tim e , the number of metres are increasing. Valmlki used
only thirteen Varieties of metres in the Ram ayana, while in the
107
108
109
Ibid. P.96
Ibid. P.61
VP. P.166
46
Mahabharata, eighteen varieties of metres are seen . Later
writers have employed innumerable metres in their
compositions. A thorough study is expected to be capable of
showing this fact that there are many verses in the entire
Sanskrit literature, especially in the Classical Sanskrit
literature, the metres of which have remained undefined or
undetermined by the prosodists. Hence, the calculation of the
total number of metres in Sanskrit literature appears a never-
ending task. As literary works go on growing, the probability of
the rise of newer metres cannot be ruled out, and here lies the
importance and interest of the study of prosody.
110
1.3 Vedic and Classical Sanskrit metres : their
varieties
The Vedic metres are different from that of the
Classical metres in some aspects as has already been hinted at.
The number of syllables in each foot of a mantra is of primary
concern in the Veda-s ; while in Classical Sanskrit the number
as well as the quality (i.e. laghu and guru etc.) are taken into
110 CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhl, Nivedyam (Preface), P.=(3)
47
account. In Vedic metre, there exists no consideration of gana.
Again in the Veda-s, there are mantra-s from one foot to eight
feet. Even there are compound metres ( aticchandas) like
sakkari in Vedic text when a mantra possesses two or more
verses which comes to be known as pragatha'n. But in
Classical prosody, there must be four feet in a sloka or stanza
of a poetry . Again in Vedas , no metre can be had of with
more than twelve syllables in a foot but in Classical Sanskrit,
there exists so many metres containing more than twelve
syllables in a foot. However, there are certain Vedic texts, as
noticed by A. Borooah , which rarely consist of fourteen,
fifteen, sixteen and even eighteen syllables in a foot. But these
feet are so imperfect that it is doubtful whether their rhythm
111 Prosody, P.9
112 padyarp padanibaddham syaditl I — VM, P.17
Again,
padyarp catuspadityuktam I — Ibid. P.18
Again,
padasca padyate dhatoScaturbhaga it! smrtah I
— NS, 15.90
113
Again,
padaScaturbhagah I
Prosody, P.11
CS, VI.11
48
was known to any Vedic poet. But in Classical Sanskrit very
correctly there are metres containing twenty six syllables in a
foot like apabaha under the utkrti class of metre. Again, in
Classical prosody the jati is a class of metre where a metre is
determined by syllabic instant or mora (i.e. matra"). This mora
is considered from the standpoint of short (i.e. hrasva) and
long (i.e. dlrgha') type of vowel (i.e. svara) only. No such
considerations are there in Vedic prosody.
The short and long of vowel are the regulators of a
metre in Classical prosody. The status of consonant appears to
be auxiliary as they are supposed to follow the vowels. Hence,
it is stated in the RudrayamaIanA, that the consonants follow
the vowels and vowels alone are syllables.
There are seven principal metres in the Veda-s viz.-
( i) gayatri, (ii) usnik, (iii) anustup, (iv) brhati
( vrhati) , (v ) pahkti, (vi) tristup and (vii) jagatl. The
metre called gayatri is of twenty-four syllables and the other six
114 svara aksarasankhya syuh hatastadanuyayinah iti I
— As quoted in the PS, P.63
49
metres from usnik to jaga tl have an increment of four syllables
respectively. This can be shown with the help of the following
table :
SI. No Metre Syllables
1 gayatri 24
2 usnik 28
3 anustup 32
4 brhati 36
5 pahkti 40
6 tristup 44
7 jaga tl 48
Table : 1.1
The Vedic metres are broadly divided into two
classes - ( i ) chandas and ( i i ) aticchandasn5. When a verse
atikrantah chandah vrttanusarivarnavinyasabhedam I
— Apte.V. S. The Practical Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.29
Anundoram Borooah replaces the word 'chandas' in this context
by 'Ordinary metre'. Similarly he puts the word 'aticchandas' once
as ‘long metre' and in another occasion as 'compound metre'.
— Prosody, Part-ll, Sec.I, Preliminary P.9
50
does not exceed forty-eight Cor sometimes irregularly fifty)
syllables, it is called chandas. On the other hand, if a verse
consists of syllables from fifty-two (or sometimes irregularly
fifty) to one hundred and four (or sometimes one hundred and
six) , it is called aticchandas.
Again, the first class (i.e . chandas) is divided into
two sub-groups v iz .- ( i ) sacchandas, e.g. gayatri and ( i i )
vicchandas e.g. mahabrhatf.
Similarly, the second class (i.e. aticchandas) is
also divided into two sub groups - ( j ) madhyamavarga and
('\\)trtiyavarga. If a verse consisting of syllables from fifty-two
to seventy-six it is called madhyamavarga. On the other hand, a
verse consisting of syllables from eighty to hundred and four, is
called trtlyavarga. It can be shown in the following way :
rchandas
l
vaidikacchandas11 1 6
' i
iaticchandas
AI ‘ A
sacchandas vicchandas madhyamavarga trtiyavarga
Table : 1.2
This table is based on the observation of A. R. Borooah. Prosody,
P.9
51
Prof. A. C. Sastri117 shows the division of Vedic metres as
follows:
0 ) chandah 0 0 aticchandah O n ) vicchandasah
gayatri-24 syllables atijagati- 52syllables krti - 80 syllables
usnik - 28 „ sakvarl - 56 „ prakrti - 84 „
anustup - 32 „ atisakvari-60 „ akrti - 88 „
b fhatl - 36 „ asp - 64 „ vikrti - 92 „
pankti - 40 „ atyasti - 68 „ sahkrti - 96 „
tristup - 44 „ dhrti - 72 „ atikrti - 100 „
jagati - 48 „ atidhrti - 76 „ utkrti - 104 „
T ab le :1.3
The above metrical set again sub-divided into eight
groups viz. ( i ) a / 's / , ( ii)c /a /V /, (\Y\)asurI, ( i v ) prajapatya,
Qsf^yajusi, (v i)s a m n /, ( v i ipa rce l and (viii)6ra/?/77/118.
Again, the chandas from gayatrl to ja g a t l, the aticchandas
117 VLCP. P.72118 atra deva-asura-prajapatl-rsl-yajuh-sama-rk-brahmachando-
bhedena gayatryadlni chandamsyastavldhant bhavanti I—-CV, P.4
52
from atijagatl to atidhrti and the vicchandas from krti to utkrti
as shown in the 'Table : 1.3 ’ may be divided into five types of
each from the standpoint of syllabic deficiency viz. ( i ) virat,
( i i ) nicrta, ( i i i ) suddha, ( iv ) bhurik and ( v ) svarat.
Thus 7 x 5 = 35 in chandas, 7 x 5 = 35 in aticchandas and 7 x
5 = 35 in vicchandas can be had of.
Even there are some irregular or unusual metres in
Vedic prosody such as sahkumati, kakudmati, nagi,
pipilikamadhya, yavamadhya etc.
Bharatamuni refers to divyagana, divyetaragana
and divyamanusagana of metres. From gayatrl to jagatl, the
metres are called divyagana, from atijagati to atidhrti,
divyetaragana and from krti to utkrti, divyamanusagana are the
categories120. Again, from the standpoint of foot ( i .e . , pads') ,
sarvesameva vrttanam tajjnaijheya ganastrayah I divyo .divyetarasvaiva divyamanusa eva ca II —NS, XV.99, P.115
120 gayatryusniganustupca brhati pahktireva ca I
53
the Vedic metres are broadly divided into three classes viz. -
( j ^ s a m a c c h a n d a s (i.e. the even metre) , (ii " ) v i s a m a c c h a n d a s
(i.e ., the uneven metre) and (iii^ a t i c c h a n d a s (i.e. the
compound metre). When number of syllables is the same in
each foot, it is called s a m a c c h a n d a s , e.g. j a g a t l . When
number of syllables is not the same in each foot, it is called
visamacc h a n d a s , e.g. b r h a t i . When a verse is consisting of two
or more verses, it is called a t i c c h a n d a s , e.g. s a k v a r i . That
indicates that the a t i c c h a n d a s is what is known as p r a g a t h a
(i.e. the compound verse). A. Borooah shows this special
division of Vedic metres . Thus, Vedic prosody refers to
several varieties of Vedic metres.
Some other specialities are also to be observed in
determining a metre of a Vedic m a n t r a . Again, the a v a s a n a
t r i s t u p c a j a g a t l c a l v a d i v y o ' y a m p r a t h a m o g a n a h II
t a t h a t i j a g a t l c a i v a s a k k a r i c a t i s a k k a r i I
a s t i r a t y a s t i r a p l c a d h r t i s c a t l d h r t i g a n a h ||
k r t i s c a p r a k r t i i c a i v a h y a k r t i r v i k r t i s t a t h a I
s a h k r t y a t i k r t l s c a l v a u t k r t i r d i v y a m a n u s a h II
— NS, XV.99-102, P.115-116121 Prosody, P.9
54
(i.e. end) of a foot in some mantra-s are very difficult to draw
out. The rules about avasana in Vedic metre are also somewhat
arbitrary. There exist ample instances of the mantras being
differently marked in different works on prosody. So division,
subdivision and also other specialities are observed to be
lacking in uniformity in Vedic metres. For example, the metre
called gayatri generally comprises three feet and total number
of syllable is twenty-four. But in Vedic text, there are some
mantras, called of gayatri also, which contain five feet with
five syllables in every foot. Thereby the total number of syllables
of that gayatri becomes twenty-five. Such irregularities are
there in the Vedic metre which give a peculiar character to it.
Such irregularities in the case of Vedic metres, are accepted by
some scholars with a moderate spirit . Thus, the Vedic metres
have certain peculiarities, rather inexplicable so to say, and
hence requires a detailed discussion.
The vedic hymns were composed long before any rules of
poetry were thought of. As a consequence, they abound in the
greatest irregularities. Some of them may be due to a difference
of pronunciation in the vedic days, but most of them are traceable
to artificial pronunciation such as is even now common with
reference to old songs and ballads. — Prosody. Preface, P.iv
55
The metres of Classical Sanskrit are broadly divided
into two types viz. ( i ") vrtta and (ii)y 'a f/123. That metre wherein
the number of syllables contained in each foot or quarter (i.e .
pada) alongwith their position of short and long vowels are
counted, is called vrtta . On the other hand, that one which
is regulated by the number of syllabic instants or mora
contained in each foot is called y'af/125. As the word 1 v rtta ' in
many occasions indicates the metre ( i.e . chandas') in general,
it is accepted by many scholars that the vrtta is aksaracchandas
and the ja t i is m atracchandas126. It is interesting to note here
that Pingalanaga does not give any name for matracchandas or
ja t i in his work. It is doubtful whether there was such a name for
this class of mefre during Pingalanaga ’ s tim e, as observed by
127A. Borooah
tacca loke dvidhaivestam vrttijatiprabhedatah I —VM.P.17 nibaddhamaksaraganaih padyam vrttarn pragiyate I —Ibid. P.17matraganairnibaddhantu padyam jatirihesyate I —Ibid. P.17
127
Prosody ; P.9 Ibid. Preface, P.xiv
56
The Vfttachandas or aksaracchandas is divided into
three classes128 viz. (j)samavrtta (i.e. the even or equal
metre) , QQardhasamavrtta (i.e. the half-equal metre) and
( ii i) visamavrtta (i.e. the odd or unequal metre)
When all the four quarters of a stanza show
similarity, the metre is called samavrtta13°. Here ‘ similarity’
does not indicate the affinities in respect of the number of
syllables only, but also that of the quality of syllable in each of
the four quarters. The positions of the short syllable and the
long syllable as in the first quarter of a samavrtta metre should
be same also in the remaining three quarters.
Again each quarter of a samavftta metre may vary
from one to twenty six in each syllabic strength. On the basis of
vrttantrividhamakhyatam samamarddhasamamantatha I
visamahcetyathaitesam srrtu laksanamucyate II — VM, P.18
padyam catuspadl... I — CM, 1.4, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhivrttantrividhamakhyatam samamarddhasamamantatha I
visamahcetyathaitesam irnu laksanamucyate II — Ibid. P.18
57
this consideration, the samavftta metres are broadly classified
1*31in twenty-six groups :
(l)u/cf/?a class (having only one syllable in every
quarter) , (’2")atyuktha class (having two syllables in every
quarter) , ( 3 ~)madhya class (having three syllables in every
quarter) , (4 ~)pratistha class (having four syllables in every
quarter) , (5)supraf/sf/7a class (having five syllables in every
quarter) , ( 6 ")gayatrJ class (having six syllables in every
quarter) , (J ^u s n ik class (having seven syllables in every
quarter) , ( 8 ")anustup class ( having eight syllables in every
quarter) , (9 ^b rh a tl class (having nine syllables in every
quarter), (1 0 ")pankti class (having ten syllables in every
quarter), (11 ")tnstup class (having eleven syllables in every
quarter) , (12 ")}agatl class (having twelve syllables in every
quarter), (1 S')atijagatf class (having thirteen syllables in
every quarte r), (1 4 ) sakvarl class (having fourteen syllables
in every quarte r), (1 S^atisakvari class (having fifteen
syllables in every quarter) , (1 6 )as f/ class (having sixteen
syllables in every quarter) , (1 l^ a ty a s ti class (having
131 Ibid. VV.II.1 -10.(Gha), P.24
58
seventeen syllables in every quarte r), (18 ̂ dh rti class
(having eighteen syllables in every quarter) , (1 9 ~)atidhrti
class (having nineteen syllables in every quarter) , (20)/c/T/
class (having twenty syllables in every quarter) , (21 ^prakrti
class (having twenty one syllables in every quarter) ,
(22 )a/rrf/ class (having twenty two syllables in every
quarter) , ( 2 3 )vikrti class (having twenty three syllables in
every quarter) , (2 4 ")sahkrti class (having twenty four
syllables in every quarter) , (25)af/7crf/ class (having twenty
five syllables in every quarter) , (2 6 ) utkrti class (having
twenty six syllables in every quarter).
The samavrtta metres having more than twenty six
syllables in every quarter come under the domain called
dan daka.
The word ardhasamavrtta denotes a metre which is
similar in half of its quarters. While the alternate quarters of a
stanza are similar, the metre of that stanza is called
ardhasamavrtta. Obviously, in an ardhasamavrtta type of
59
metre, the first and the third quarters are similar, and also the
second and the fourth quarters are similar132.
The word v i s a m a v r t t a means unequal metre. That is
called v i s a m a v r t t a where ail the quarters of a stanza are
dissimilar133. The dissimilarity here means both quality and
quantity of syllables. In v i s a m a v f t t a , the number of syllables
in each quarter is unequal. Again, the qualities of syllables from
the standpoint of short and long vowel are also dissimilar./
On the basis of the movement underlying a metre,
the division of metre may also be made as Q Q d r u t a (i.e .
q u ic k ), Q Q m a d h y a (i.e . m ean), ( i i i ) v i l a m b i t a (i.e .
s low ) , ( i v ) d r u t a m a d h y a (i.e . partly quick and partly mean) ,
(y ^ d r u t a v i l a m b i i a (i.e . partly quick and partly s low ) and
( v \ ) m a d h y a v i l a m b i t a ( i.e . partly mean and partly s low ) as
adyasyanghrestrtiyena yatra padena tulyata I
dvitiyasya caturthena tadardhasamamucyate II — Ibid. P.18
caturnamapi padanam parasparamatulyata I
yatra tadvisamam jneyarp sampurnendunibhanane II— Ibid. P.18
60
shown by A. Borooah134. The movement underlying a metre at
the time of reading a verse may vary from one metre to another.
That difference of movement is also observed by
DhlreSvaracaryya as he declares various patterns of reading of
a verse composed in a certain metre135. For instance, the
reading of a metre called aryya is said to be sometimes slow
like the movement of a duck139, sometimes raised like the steps
of a lion , sometimes playful like the movement of the
elephants of the directions and sometimes unsteady like the
movement of a snake139.
Prosody, Preliminary, P.2
prathamam maralagativadyatim dvitlyantu simhavikramam I
dlgibhagativattrtlyamiha phanigativatpathetturyyam II
— VM, V. 13, P.205
maralagatlvat hamsagatlvat mantharam pathet I
— Ibid. com. on V.13, P.205
slmhavlkramavat uddhatam pathet I — Ibid. com. on V.13, P.205
dlgibhagativat diggajagativat satham pathet I
— Ibid. com. on V.13, P.205
139 phanivaragativat cahcalam pathet I— Ibid. com. on V.13,P.205
6 1
The doha is a special variety of metre under the jati
class140. It is perhaps noticed by Mahamahopadhyaya
Dhlre§varacaryya for the first time.
In the context of Sanskrit prosody, both Vedic and
Classical, there is topic known as prastarau\ As stated earlier,
it is a tabular representation of short and long vowels through
which highest possible number of a particular class of metre
can be determained. Of course, some prosodists are noticed to
have remained silent on this issue.
DhlreSvaracaryya as a prosodist has discussed all
the above items related to the prosody on Classical Sanskrit in
his work entitled Vrttam anjari to make it a complete treatise on
metrics. However, he has confined his discussions on the
Classical metres only, and avoided the Vedic ones, with the
apparent justification that women are debarred from the14Pexercise of the Vedic texts and his work on prosody does not
140 Ibid. P .226
141 Ibid. P .27 6
142 slmantininamadhunatanlnam yacchandase chandasi nadhikarah\
tatte purastatkila laksananl sulaksane tasya na laksitani II
62
aim at prohibiting the women from studying the VM. Of course,
this justification appears to be purely poetical, not real and
hence cannot be considered convincing.
1.4 Elements of Chandas
1.4.1 Gana (Mnemonic) and Matra (Mora)
The gana is the most important element for
determining a metre in Classical Sanskrit. The word ‘gana * is
formed from the root ‘ gan’ meaning ‘ to enumerate. The word
is formed from the said root into the addition of the suffix ac143.
The gana in prosody indicates ‘ a series’ or ‘ a class’ or ‘ a
group’ etc. The use of the word gana can be seen from the
time of Vedic literature. Even, in Sanskrit grammar, there are
ganasutra-s ascribed to Panini. Again bhvadigana, adadigana
etc. are the gana-s in the Paninian system of Sanskrit grammar.
By the bhvadigana, the group of similar dhatu-s are combined
— Ibid. V.62, P.274
gan karmani kartari va ac I — Apte.V. S. The Practical
Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.395
63
together taking the root ‘ bhu’ in the first position of that
series. Thus gana is a technical term of a mnemonic device
specially applicable in sutra style of writing.
In the history of Sanskrit prosody, the gana-s are
undoubtedly wonderful findings of Pingalanaga144. As Pinini
has used gana in the grammatical sutra-s of his A sta d h ya y l, so
also Pingalanaga has used gana in the sutra-s of his CS.
It is noticed that the composers or compilers of
Sanskrit Sastra-s have inclination towards the sutra style of
writings. The purpose of a sutra is to denote maximum
meanings by minimum words, of course, with accuracy148. It is
said in jest that a Sutrakara rejoices at minimising half a
cf. "Piiigala is undoubtedly the earliest prosodist who had used
this unit and was very probably the originator of it.”
—The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.V, P.306
alpaksaramasandigdham saravadvisvato mukham I
astobhamanavadyahca sutram sutravido vlduh II
—Visnudharmottara and Parasaraupapurana as found in the PS,
P.96
64
syllable as he does at the birth of a son146. So sutra writers
always try to find out such a means of mnemonics where many
items can be combined in a group. Then, they give a
terminology to that group, where in, by that terminology the
whole items included therein, are understood.
The gana-s as enumerated in the CS runs - m a ,
y a , ra , s a , fa, ja , bha , na, la , and gaur. These ten syllables
have been symbolically taken ; and used for considering the
metres. Each of these ten syllables is known as gana-s. Again,
from ma-gana to na-gana, ail are having three syllables in each
while la-gana denotes a short syllable and the ga-gana indicates
a long syllable. Thus —
1. The ma-gana possesses all guru syllables,
2. The ya-gana possesses first laghu syllable and other
two guru syllables,
laghvartham hi sahjhakaranam I ardhamatralaghavena putrotsava iva manyate I — VSK, Vol.-Ill (Prlsista), P.2
147 CS, i.1-10
65
3. The ra-gana possesses middle laghu syllable and other
two guru syllables,
4. The sa-gana possesses last guru syllable and other two
laghu syllables,
5. The ta-gana possesses last laghu syllable and other
two guru syllables,
6. The ja-gana possesses middle guru syllable and other
two laghu syllables,
7. The bha-gana possesses first guru syllable and other
two laghu syllables,
8. The na-gana possesses all laghu syllables,
9. The la-gana possesses a laghu syllable,
10. The ga-gana possesses a guru syllable. It may be at
the end of a foot148.
148 CS, 1.1-10
66
The following table shows the gan a -s alongwith
their symbolic representation :
Name of the gana(s) Symbol149 (s)
[ \=laghu ,S = gu ru ]
Example150(s)n
ma S S S d h l s r l s t r !
ya I S S va ra sa
ra S I S ka gu ha
sa I I S va su dha
ta S S I sa te kva
ja I S I ka da sa
bha S I I kim va da
na I I I na ha sa
la I 9 f
ga S Ga { nte)
Tab le : 1.4
Some commentators endeavour to find out certain justifications of selecting these ten syllables and not other
149 rjurekha laghurn vakrarekha gurutn bodhayati itl bhavah I
— VM, com on V-9, P.201150 Examples are taken from the CS, 1.1-10
67
syllable from the whole alphabet of Sanskrit language181. The
justification or efficacy of gana-s described in the karika-s
under reference may be shown in the following way :
gana (mnemonics) devata (basing deity) Phala (effect)
ma prthvf laksmi (w ea lth )
ya jala vrddhi (p rosperity)
ra agni mrtyu (dea th )
sa pavana paradeSa (foreign-land)
ta akasa sunya (v o id )
Ja surya roga (d isease)
bha candra yaia (fam e)
na s varga sukha (happiness)
Table : 1.5
mo bhumlh sriyamatanotl yam-jalam vrddhlm ra-vahnimrtlm
so vayuh paradesaduragamanam ta-vyoma sunyam phalam I
jah suryo rujamadadati vlpularp bhenduryaSo nlrmalam
no nakaSca sukhapradah phalamldam prahurgananam budhah II
— SV. Preface, P.ii
Prof. A.C. Sastri reads this verse slight differently, cf.
mo bhumlh Sriyamatanotl satatam toyahca yo ro'nalah
so vayuh paradesaduragamanam ta-vyoma sarvvam phalam I
jah suryo rujamadadati vlpularp bhenduryaso nlrmalam
no nakaica sukhapradah phalamldam prahurgananam budhah II
— VLCP, Preface, P.vii
68
It is noticed here that in the above table, only eight
gana-s are enumerated. The ‘ /a’ and the ‘g a ’ are not
considered here for the apparent reason of being single syliabic
ones. It may also be noted here that some scholars162 call these
gana-s by the name trika-s ( triple) for being some units of
three letters. Then eight trika-s are counted and not the ‘ l a ’
and the ‘ ga ’ for having single syllable each.
Akhillnanda Sarnia cites the efficacy of the eight
gana-s a bit differently153. However, irlvirajananda
Daivakarani, in his Hindi commentary on Akhilananda Sarma
expresses that this has no purport at all154. But many scholars
are found to have put due importance to the efficacy of these
gana-s in association with their deities. Eventually, their
interpretations appear to be acceptable for no other reason than
the fact that Pihgalanaga could have singled out other letters
also from the entire alphabet of Sanskrit literature in lieu of
The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.V, P.306
manau mitre, bhayau bhrtyau, jaravudasinau tasau nicau I
— Chandahsutrabhasya of Akhilananda Sarmrna on the CS P.239154 Ibid. P.235
69
those ma, ya, ra etc. ; because he had not got them from any
divine authority like the mahesvarasutra-s of Panini .
Even Mailinatha, in his commentary called
Sanjlvani on the RaghuvamSa (RG) of kalidasa elaborates
the justification of using ma-gana at the first position of the firsti*ifl 157verse that ma-gana indicates something auspicious .
The Mahesvarasutra-s are said to have been attained by sage
Panini in his meditation from the sound of the drum of Lord £iva and so called them as Mahedvarasutra-s. cf.
nrtyavasane natarajarajo nanada dhakkam navapancavaram I
uddhartukama sanakadisiddhanetadvlmarse sivasutrajalam II
— Laghusiddhantakaumudlcandrika, §astri Vijayakrsna, P.6,
Reprint, 2003
vagarthaviva samprktau vagarthapatipattaye I
jagatah pitarau vande parvatlparameivarau II — RG. 1.1
prathamam bhudevatakasya sarvaguromarganasya prayogat
subhalabhah sucyate I taduktam-" iubhado mo bhumimayah" itl l
— Mallinatha's com.on RG, 1.1
70
it may be cited here that Kavlkarnapura168, the
author of the VML enumerates other two gana-s namely 1va ’
and ‘ ka ’ apart from the established ten gana-s.
For determining a laghu or a guru syllable, the
vowels concerned are counted. This means the vowel that is
associated with a particular consonant is taken for
consideration. No consonant without vowel is counted169 here as
syllable as has been already discussed earlier. Vowels are of
three types160 - viz. (i)ftrasva, Q Q dirgha and (iii")pluta.
This division of vowels is based on the syllabic instant (i.e.
matra') they possess. Thus a hrasva vowel possesses single
syllabic instant161. A dlrgha vowel possesses double syllabic
guruvarno gasanjnah syat laghuvarno iasanjhakah I .
yatlvantau dfrghahrasvau vakau vyacaksate budhah II
— VML, V.13
acah sarvatra sahkheyah padyesu na punarhalah I
— VM, V.3 (1st line), P.17
ukalo’hrasvadfrgbaplutah I — AD, 1.2.27
ekamatra bhavedhrasva I —As quoted by Gurunatha
Vldyanidhi in his com. on the CM, 1.4, P.3
71
instant162. A pluta vowel possesses triple syllabic instant163 but it
does not carry so much relevance in metre. The pluta vowel is
regarded as dlrgha only164 however its application is rarely
noticed. On the other hand, a consonant possesses half
syllabic instant and for this reason also it is not counted in
prosody165. Thus syllabic instant or matra determines a vowel.
The word matra grammatically stands for kata i.e. time for
pronunciation. Regarding the knowledge of that time i.e. matra,
the PNS166 says that the sound of a blue jay (i.e. casa')
denotes one matra and that of a crow (i.e. vayasa) two matra-
s. The peacock (i.e. sikhi'), s sound indicates three matra-s
and that of a mongoose (i.e. nakula') half a matra.
dvimatrastu dlrgha ucyate I — Ibid. P.3
trimatrastu pluto jneyo I — Ibid. P.3
gurudirgham plutascalva I — NS. XV.87
ato halo'rddhamatratvasvfkare natra yujyate I
— VM, V.3{2nd line), P.17
casastu vadate matraip dvtmatram caiva vayasah I
slkhl rauti trlmatram tu nakulastvardhamatrakam II
— PNS. V.49
72
Generally, a hrasvasvara makes a laghu syllable167
while a dirghasvara makes a guru syllable108. Regarding the
formation of a guru syllable, there are certain other special
rules put forward by the prosodists apart from the above eight
dlrgha syllables. DhIregvaraclryya also in his first chapter of
the VM has discussed those rules very clearly .
It is evident that a gana is generally the combination
of laghu or guru syllables. Again, a laghu is nothing but a
hrasvasvara. while a guru is a dirghasvara. A svara or vowel is
determined from matra. So all these elements form the core part
of the metrics.
DhlreSvaracaryya has not resorted to the gana
scheme for defining the metres in his V M , and therefore avoids
the discussion on the formation of any gana. However, in the
sixth chapter of his book, he has elaborated the gana as
required for determining a jati class of metre170, viz. -
167 hrasvam laghu l — AD, 1.4.10
168 samyoge guru I dlrgham ca t — Ibid. 1.4.11-12169
170
VM, V.6-9, P.14-15
gana ekakalo nirupyate dvfkalasca trikalascatuskalah I
73
('\)ekakaiagana , ( iQdvikalagana, (iii) trikalagana ,
Qv^catuskalagana, ( v ) pancakalagana and ( vQsatkalagana.
How these gana-s are formed by DhireSvaracaryya in his VM
is proposed to discuss later in another context,
1.4.2 Yati (Pause or Caesura or Haitus)
The pause (i.e. yaf/) is the divisional mark in a
metrical verse. There are several synonymous words for yaf/'171
viz, Q^chinna, (ii)avasana, (iii) visrama, (iv ) virama,
(y^virati (v'^cheda and (vii)as/as/'f/172 as found in the VM.
The Natyasastra of Bharatamuni takes the words
yati and virama differently. He states, whenever there comes a
apt pancakalo'tha satkalah sadime jatyupayogineh priye
— Ibid. V.1, P.199
chinrtavasanavisramavirama viratistatha I
chedascetyadibhiSSabdaihsa vacya svecchaya tvaya II
— Ibid. V. 12, P.19172 Ibid. V.19, P.230
74
spontaneous break of the flow of words, is called yati .
Again, where the meaning comes to an end is called wrama174.
Pingala’ s definition of pause is “yativicchedah” n5, i.e. pause
is separation. Halayudha, explains the word ‘ viccheda ’ of
the aforesaid sutra as 1 viSramasthalam,n6 , i.e. the point of
break. Here, he is clear in pointing out the fact that the place
(i.e.sf/?a/a) of taking rest in reading the words of a verse is
termed yati. Otherwise, it is rather difficult to extract from the
definition of Pirigalanaga as to what was his intention to denote
by viccheda. Garigadasa, in the like manner, defines pause as
the place where the tongue of a reader likes to have a break177.
Dhire§varacaryya in his VM defines thus - sa yati
padapathastu yatra vicchidyatem. This definition follows the
view of Halayudha. Another important issue is noticed in the
173
173
174
175
176
177
niyatah padavicchedo yatirityabhidh!yate\ — NS, XV.86 (2nd
line)
yatharthasya samaptih syat sa virama it! smrtah I
— NS, XV.90 (2nd line)
CS, VI.1
vicchidyate vibhajyate padapatho'sminniti vicchedah
viSramasthanam, sa ca yatlrityucyate I — MS on CS, VI. 1
178yatlrjihvestavidramasthanam kavibhirucyate I
VM, V.11 (2nd line), P.19
CM, 1.18
75
VM, that in one occasion the author states the pause of a
metre to be at any place which gives pleasure to the ear of a
reader179. This aspect supports the definition of pause given by
Garigadlsa where the word *istavirama* is found. Anyway, in
the definition of pause given by DhfreSvaracaryya the word
‘yatra1 suggests ‘ a place’ only. In the gloss also
Dhlre§varacaryya elaborates - “yatra sthane padapathah
vicchidyate vibhajyate sa yatirucyate ”180. The word
‘padapatha1 is generally used in the Vedic context of reading.
In the Veda-s, the padapatha is one type of reading out of
several readings like - samhitapatha , jatapatha , ghanapatha
etc. But DhTre&varacaryya ’ s implication by using the word
‘padapatha1 may be taken in the sense of slokapatha (i.e.
‘ reading of the verse ’ ) . Again , the word * vicchidyate 1 refers
to ‘ vibhajyate1 as mentioned in the commentary. Therefore,
that is called pause where reading of words in a verse is
bifurcated. Thus it can be derived that mere separation is not a
179 viratih sravye I — Ibid. V.1, P.220
Again,
Sravye sravanasukhasampadakasthane I — Ibid. com. on
V.1, P.220180 Ibid. com. on V.11, P.19
76
pause, nor the process of such separation is known as pause ;
but the place of separation is regarded as pause. It is very
much clear from the definition of pause given by
DhfreSvaracaryya. The famous rhetorician Vamana also spends
a considerable space on the discussion on the topic of yatim.
— -JQODr. Brahmananda Trlpath I , in his Preface to the
CM, speaks of two groups of prosodists earlier to Pingalanaga
from the standpoint of acceptance or non-acceptance of pause.
One group does not accept pause. Bhara, Kohala, Mandavya,
Aivatara and Saitava belong to this group. Gangadasa also
quotes his teacher Purusottamabhatta who in his prosody
called Chandogovinda enumerates §veta, Mandavya etc. in
this group183.The other group accepts pause. This group!
includes the prosodists namely Vasistha, Kaundinya,
Kapila, Kambaiamuni and Pingalanaga.
virasaviramam yatlbhrastam I — Kavyalankarasutra, ll.il.3
CM, ed. by TripathI, Brahmananda, Preface, P.10
gvetamandavyamukhyasu necchanti munaye yatim I
ityaha bhattah svagranthe gururme purusottamah II
— CM, ed. by Gurunatha Vidyanidhi, Chap.-I, V.20
77
It may be noted that the prosodians are found to
have kept mum on the issue of prescription of a fixed duration
for yati. The matra-s denoted by the sounds of various birds like
casa (i.e. a blue jay) vayasa (i.e. a crow) etc. as in the case
with consideration of hrasva, dirgha and pluta in the PNS184
cannot be said to be applicable in respect of the yati. Nothing
specific is found to be mentioned by any prosodist regarding
the duration of pause.
The pause is mainly divided into two types viz.
(j^padanta yati (i.e. foot pause) and QQpadamadhya yati
(i.e. section pause). The metrical pause existing at the end of
a pada is called padanta yati. The metrical pause introduced in
a specific place of a pada is called padamadhya yati..
Halayudha refers to some couplets collected from his
predecessors wherein certain rules are there for proper
application of pause . Dhire§varacaryya too, in his second
chapter of the VM, has elaborately discussed some of those
rules186.
PNS, V.49
MS on the CS-VI.1
VM, Chap.- II {Ga) yatibhedakusumam, V.1-4
78
It is rather difficult to work out rules for application
of pause, as an accepted phenomenon, since poets of high
repute also can never maintain such hard and fast rules of
prosody in composing their verses ail the time. Even instances
are there, where prosodians are found to have violated such
rules, while composing verses as rightly pointed out by A.
Borooah187. DhlreSvaracaryya also, is found to have tendered
unconditional apology from the learned readers for not being■jOOable to maintain pause properly in certain places . But mere
violation of any rule of pause in composing a verse due to some
difficulties even by great poets or prosodists does not
necessarily lead to declare that there is no pause at all in the
domain of poetry, like the anti group of prosodians on pause
headed by Sveta, Mandavya etc. as has been referred to
earlier. Most of the prosodists who accept pause in poetry,
have also noted the position or place of that pause at the time
A.R. Borooah shows that Halayudha too has violated certain rules
of yatl In some illustrations on the metres of the CS . — Prosody,
P.153
ksantavyo yatidoso'tra dhlrairduskaralaksane I — VM, V.15
{1st line), P.20
79
of defining a metre in all possible cases. The best poets are
always expected to observe those rules regarding the position
of pause in their compositions. However, violations of such
rules in maintaining a pause are also not rare. Even for the
same metre, the position of pause is stated differently by
different prosodists. For example, there is metre called
vatormm! in the tristup class (i.e. having eleven syllables in
each quarter). Pingaianaga is quite silent about the pause of
this metre . But Dhire§varacaryya notes that there should
have pause in vatormm! at the fourth and then at the seventh
syllable in each quarter which are indicated by the words
‘ vec/a’ and ‘ asva’ respectively190. Similarly, the different
views on the employment of pause of the metre kumaralalita
under the usnik class of samavrtta metre are clearly shown by
the Acaryya191. A comparative study of the characteristic
feature of various metres of two or more works on prosody is
expected to bring out such irregularities in some other cases.
189 vatormf mbhau tgau g I — CS-VI.26
190 satinya§cedaguruh pancamah syanmlstalape dhrtabhusakalape I
vedaira§vairvtratt§vapt yasyam vatormm! sa manasalocanfya II
— VM. V.7, P.56191 VM, com. under V.4, P.37
80
Not in Classical Sanskrit but in Vedic metres as well, many
irregular pauses are noticed. Generally, if a verse is imperfect
due to the succession of syllables not being harmonious then
the metre concerned is said to be non-metrlcal192 (i.e.
bhagnachandas"). Again, if a verse is imperfect due to the
selection of words not being conformable to metrical pauses
called discordant193 (i.e. yatibhrasta') .Another important issue
for realisation of pause in a verse lies in proper reading of that
verse. Because, the reading of a verse is sometimes fixed by
the pause. Akhillnanda Sarma, a commentator on the CS
shows how a single verse can be served for being the example
of the three metres namely - candravartta, manigunanikara
and mala under the atiSakkarl class. If a reader reads a verse
maintaining different pauses in every time of readings, the
metre of that verse may attain different names in every phase of
such readings.In Chandahsastra-s, there are certain words to
indicate the position of pause in a verse. Those words have
been conventionally treated as equivalents to certain numerals.
Not only in prosody, but also in some other Sanskrit treatises
like Mathematics, Astronomy etc., this practice is found to be
H Q O
Prosody, Preliminary, Para-8(a), P.3
193 ibid. P.3
81
followed. Dhlre§varacaryya also has adopted this technique
and the words used by him in this context may be listed below:
Numeral (s) Word (s)
2 dos
3 guna
4 veda, yuga, druhinavadana , S ru ti, vidhimukha ,
sagara J a la d h l, abdhi
5 kh a , vana, is u , ind riya , Sara, visikha, bhu ta ,
Sivavaktra
6 svada , rasa , rtu , tarka , grahamukha , Sakhivahanasya
vadana, kumaravaktra
7 haya, aSva, m uni, tu raga, svara, r s i , v a ji, vara,
loka , vahnibhuja , turanga , am budhi, dvlpa
8 ibha , vasu , stamberamah , naga , naga , gaja , diggaja ,
d igdan ti, dihmatanga
9 grab a , amka , randhra
10 dig , daSamukhamukha , harit
11 rudra , mahesvara , mahesa , Siva
12 masa , aditya , mihira , tapana , ina
14 manu
15 tith i
Table : 1.6
82
It may be noted that the use of the above listed
words with their indicated numerals, is purely conventional. It is
seen that the word ‘ambudhi’ 194 refers to ‘ seven’ in the above
table; on the other hand, the words ‘ sagara ’ 195, ‘jaladhi ’ 196
and ‘ abdhi’ m indicate ‘four’ in the above table. But, the
meanings of all these words are similar. Again, the word ‘ kha’
generally stands for ‘ zero’ indicating ‘the sky’ . But the author
of the VM is found to have used this word to indicate the
numeral' ‘ five’ meaning to ‘ five sense organs’ 198. Similarly,
sometimes the word ‘ rasa’ is used to denote the numeral
‘ six’ 199, on the other hand, in certain occasion it is employed
to hint the numeral ‘ nine’ 200 aiso. In such cases, it is difficult
for a reader to understand the motive of the author to what he
wishes to mean. Of course, the practice of using such words
instead of numerals, bears a background of various pauranika
facts and fictions.
VM, V.5, P.149
Ibid. V.12, P.127
Ibid. V.5, P.130
Ibid. V.3, P.74
Ibid. V.15, P.53
Ibid. V.34, P.85
Ibid. V.1, P.159
83
' The necessity of the knowledge of pause can be
called a requisite for both Vedic and Classical verses. Even the
pause in metrical lines has helped the formation of many
different metrico-musical units of different length . In Veda-s, meaning of a mantra is most important in determining a pause.
When the meaning stands complete, there only pause can fall.
The RgvedanukramanI of Veiikatamadhava and the
Nidanasutra clearly state that there should not be pause in the
middle of a word .So, in a Vedic hymn, the pause helps to
know the nature of a mantra. In Classical Sanskrit, the pause
plays a vital role. Even some metres are differentiated only with
the help of pause. For instance in VM, the metres called
avitatha (or narkataka or narkutaka") , narddataka, kokilaka
(two varieties) under the atyasti class (i.e. having seventeen
syllables in each foot) possess similar syllables from the
standpoint of short and long. All they have fifth, seventh,
tenth, eleventh, fourteenth, and seventeenth long syllables
and the remaining ones are short . For this, they bear no
difference at all. But, the difference lies in the positions of
201 202203
The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol.-V, P.306
VP, P.144
VM, V .11-12, P.126
84
pause. The metre called avitatha has pause at the end of the
foot ; the metre narddataka has at the seventh syllable first
and the tenth syllable next ; the metre kokilaka (the first
variety) has at the eighth, then at the fifth and thereafter at
the fourth syllables and kokilaka (the second variety) has at
the seventh, sixth and fourth syllables respectively. Thus from
the employment of pause these metres are different and so they
are named differently. Similarly the metres yamuna and varatanu
under the jagatl class are called by two different names due to
the caesuras. They do not have any difference in consideration
of short and long syllables. Same is the case of the metre called
kutila and madhyaksama under the sakkarl class which are
named differently considering the pauses they possess. Again,
the author of the VM has shown several names like sarabha,
sasikaia, manigunanikara and srag having similar syllables in
respect of short and long with different pauses under the
atisakkarl class. There are some other metres like amrtagati,
tvaritagati etc. in the VM which are named considering the
difference of pause only. As such the essence of the pause can
easily be realized.
85
1.4.3 Other elements of metre - Devata, Varna,
Svara and Gotra
Some other elements are there associated with
different metres specially in Vedic hymns. They deserve also to
be taken note of. Among them, devata (i.e. de ity), varna
(i.e. colour) , svara (i.e. accents or tune) and gotra (i.e.
race or clan) are worth mentioning. For the first time, the RV204
names the seven deities of seven metres, it is generally seen
that, the hymns invoking Fire God (i.e. Agni) are composed
in the metre gayatri, the hymns invoking Indra are in the metre
tristup etc. This may be one of the reasons for associating a
particular deity to a particular metre. Again Saunaka mentions
that the Prajapati is the deity of the aticchandas and Vayu is the
deity of the vicchandas. Again, Brahma and Purusa are the
deities of ekapada and dvipada respectively. However,
Pingalanaga does not say anything about the deities of the
aticchandas and the vicchandas.
204 RV-X.130.4-5
86
A colour is assigned to a particular metre. In the
Rkpratisakhya of §aunaka, the colours pisariga, krsna, nila,
lohita and suvarna are associated with anustup, brhatl,
pankti, tristup and jagati respectively. Pingalanaga also, holds
the same view excepting the jagati. According to him, the
colour of jagati is gaura. In the Pratisakhya, the colour of the
aMcchandas is said to be syama while the colour of the
vicchandas is gaura. Similarly, ekapada is of nakulavarna and
dvipada is of babhruvarna.
The svara and gotra of the metres are also
discussed in prosody. However, the Pratisakhya has not said
anything about it. It is Pingalanaga only who states that the
seven svara-s are in fact, the influence of the SS viz.
(j'ysadaja, QQfsabha , (\Y\)gandhara, Qv^madhyama,
(v)pancama, (vi)d/?a/Vafa and (vii)n/'sac/a. Again, the gotra
of those seven principal metres are (i)agm/Vesa,
( i i")kasyapa, QlQgautama, ( iv^angirasa , (y^bhargava ,
(y ‘\)kausika and (v ii) vasistha.
In this context, the observations of Bharatamuni on
the elements of metres may be taken note of.The Natyasastra205
speaks of nine varieties of components of metres. These are -
(i)sampada (ii)Wrama, (iii)pada , (iv)da/Vafa, (v )s fM n a ,
(vi)a/rsara, (vii)vam a, (viii)svara and ( adhikavrtta.
All these elements mentioned above, statutorily are
not connected with the Classical Sanskrit metres, but their
importance lies in identification of the metre of a Vedic hymn.
As the Vedic prosody undoubtedly is the first stage of Classical
metres also, a discussion on these issues deems proper in our
present study.
87
sampadviramapadasca daivatasthanamaksaram I
varnah svaro'dhikam vrttamiti chandogato vldhih II
—NS. XV.88