The Somatic Arts and Sciences Institute www.sasionline.com

3-Hours Continuing Education

SASI Course: EMS001

The Somatic Arts and Sciences Institute P.O. Box 3181 Merced, CA 95344 (209) 777-6305 www.sasionline.com

NCBTMB Approved

Provider #450872-08

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Table of Contents Instructions…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……… 3 Educational Objectives……………………………………………………………………….………………….… 3 Chapter 1: Introduction to Aromatherapy Massage……....………………………………………..…………….4 Chapter 2: The Extraction of Essence…………………………..…..………………………………………....….9 Chapter 3: The Science of Aromatherapy and its efficacy…...……………………………………...……….119 Chapter 4: The Aromatherapy Massage Application…………………....………..…………………………..122 Chapter 5: Contraindications and Safety Concerns…………………………………………..……………….132 Summary of Aromatherapy Massage ………………………..………………………………………………...134 Course Completion: Certificate of Completion and Transcript…………………………………………….…152 Course Evaluation and Errata.………………………………………………………………….……….………153 Help and Technical Support Line……………………………………………………………………….….……153 Bibliography (Sources)…………………………………………………………………………………………...154

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Fundamentals of Aromatherapy Massage

Instructions Thanks for downloading this Somatic Arts and Sciences continuing education course. You are looking at the plain text version of the course, which can be printed out if you like. Target Audience This continuing education course has been designed to meet the educational needs of massage therapists. Degree of Difficulty Beginner/Entry Level Course Description This course is designed to offer detailed information about aromatherapy massage applications, safety guidelines, blending tips, and essential oil descriptions. This course will enable you to safely incorporate aromatherapy into your existing massage practice. Educational Objectives Upon completion of this home study continuing education course, the massage practitioner should be able to: � List all relevant methods of essential oil extraction. � Describe the correct methods of application and use of essential oils. � List the means by which essential oil constituents are absorbed into

the body during an aromatherapy massage. � Demonstrate knowledge of basic aromatherapy safety.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Aromatherapy Massage This course is presented for educational purposes only. It was developed and marketed specifically for massage therapists that are required to obtain continuing education hours for licensing purposes. The author is not giving medical, legal or other professional advice. This course is classified as “Cognitive” learning, meaning that there is no hands on portion. While the application of aromatherapy to massage is presented in this material, it assumed that the student will already be familiar with the massage terms used, such as Effleurage, and no practical demonstration needs to be provided. The Somatic Arts and Sciences Institute strives to provide the most up to date and accurate material possible, however research and new discoveries continue daily and we assume no responsibility for errors or omissions due to the rapid advancement of science. Aromatherapy Massage defined Aromatherapy is the use of essential oils (defined below) from plants for healing. The word “aroma” implies that they are all taken in through inhalation, and that is largely true, but they can also be massaged into the skin, which is why massage therapists like to add it to their practice. Essential Oils Essential oils are the aromatic essences found in many plants. They are highly concentrated and volatile- meaning that they are readily vaporizable at a relatively low temperature. Essential oils play many roles in plants, from attracting beneficial insects to protecting from harmful bacteria.1 Many of these properties have been harnessed by aromatherapists for medicinal purposes throughout the centuries. The essential oils are stored in special reservoirs, or cells, inside the plant. These oils may be found in the root, leaf, flower, seed or fruit of a plant, depending on its type. Peppermint oil has a distinctive smell. If you take a fresh peppermint leaf in your hands and gently lift it to your nose and smell it, you will probably not detect anything.

1 Worwood, Valerie Ann. The Complete Book of Essential Oils and Aromatherapy. New World Library, 1991.

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If you crush the leaves, or rip them in half it releases the oils from the reservoirs. As the cell walls release the oil you will be able to smell the strong, familiar peppermint scent. A short history of Aromatherapy Aromatherapy dates back to prehistoric times when Juniper berries were used as an antiseptic and to flavor food. Evidence shows that plants and herbs for medicinal, culinary and cosmetic purposes have been used by civilizations throughout for centuries. The Egyptians The Egyptians used plant resins and oils during the mummification process. Myrrh was used during the embalming process and jars of Frankincense have also been found in tombs. They also used a number of fragrant oils for cosmetics and rituals. The Kyphi incense included fragrant oils such as, Juniper, Frankincense, Myrrh, Lemongrass and Cardamom. Frankincense, benzoin and myrrh were regarded so highly that in some cases they were considered more valuable than gold. The Ancient Greeks The ancient Greeks obtained much of their knowledge on the use of plants in medicine from the Egyptians. The Greek physician Hippocrates used chamomile as a way of reducing fever and recommended daily massage with aromatic herbs for general good health. Another Greek physician Galen recommended the use of cypress to ease stomach complaints. The Medieval Period During the Medieval period a Persian physician and philosopher Avicenna discovered the process of distillation. Not only is he acknowledged as contributing a great deal to both past and present medicine but he documented detailed instructions on massage and how to use plants and essential oils to aid good health. Essential oils were an important part of Roman culture and were used to fragrance public baths. China and India Both China and India have a long history of using plants and herbs as medicine. Chinese physicians used sandalwood to treat cholera and

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courtiers held clove buds in their mouth when addressing the Chinese emperor to ensure their breath was sweet. The earliest record the Yellow Emperors Book of Internal Medicine dates back more than 2000 years B.C. Chinese medicine is still used today throughout the world ranging from Herbalism to Shiatsu. Traditional Indian herbal medicine - Ayurvedic medicine is aimed at treating the whole body - body, mind and spirit. History shows us that India used sandalwood to heal wounds and it was also burned for exorcism rites. European knights returning from the Crusades brought back information and the benefits of using plants and herbs to treat ailments. People began to experiment and use plants as remedies. Bergamot was used in Italian folk medicine and in England frankincense and benzoin was used to make Friar's Balsam for respiratory and skin conditions. During the Middle Ages people protected themselves against infections by wearing herbal bouquets known as "tussy-mussies" and threw herbs on the floor to not only ward off infection but perfume their homes. Herbal remedies and essential oils were classed as the medicine of the people as the women of the household would make these remedies for their families. In 1649, the English physician Nicholas Culpeper published his herbal that became a standard reference for plant remedies. Later during the Great Plague, physicians, and apothecaries wore masks filled with herbs and spices to protect then from the disease. In the 18th Century apothecaries started to add essential oils to there herbal remedies and eau de Cologne was invented containing rosemary, bergamot, neroli and lavender essential oils. Bridal headdresses in Victorian England were made of neroli blossom to calm the brides nerves and also represent purity. In 1910, a French chemist and perfumier Rene Maurice Gattefosse was working in his laboratory when he burnt his hand and stuck it in a vat of lavender oil and rediscovered the healing properties of lavender oil. Following this Gattefosse went on to treat soldiers with essential oils in military hospitals during World War 1. He began to research and

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experiment using essential oils and reported his findings in a scientific paper in 1928. This is where the term "Aromatherapy" was first used. Another scientist Dr Jean Valnet continued the research into the antiseptic and healing properties of essential oils by using the oils to treat battle wounds during the Indochina War. Valnet's work established aromatherapy as a therapy. An Austrian biochemist, Marguerite Maury followed the work of Valnet and discovered that when she applied the essential oils to the skin, the oils were absorbed. Maury brought massage treatments using essential oils to the UK and in 1961 the Secret of Life and Youth was published that pioneered the modern use of essential oils in massage. Aromatherapy did not become popular in the United States until the 1980s. Today, many lotions, candles, and beauty products are sold as "aromatherapy." However, many of these products contain synthetic fragrances that do not have the same properties as essential oils. But is it scientifically valid? A lot of this course is dedicated to the efficacy (effectiveness) of aromatherapy. We at the Somatic Arts and Sciences Institute are big believers in evidenced based treatment, so when covering a subject like Aromatherapy we like to provide as much data as possible. The truth is that most researchers are not entirely clear how aromatherapy works, if does work at all. Some believe our sense of smell may play a bigger role in the release of hormones and chemicals in the body than conventional medical sciences have come to understand. The "smell" receptors in your nose communicate with parts of your brain (the amygdala and hippocampus) that serve as storehouses for emotions and memories. When you breathe in essential oil molecules, some researchers believe they stimulate these parts of your brain and influence physical, emotional, and mental health. We are going to go into this in more detail in Chapter 3. Most massage therapists (and the average massage client) believes that aromatherapy massage works through skin absorbsion of the essential oils, but as you will learn in this course the majority of the benefit occurs when you breathe them in. While some of the essential oil constituents can penetrate the membrane of the skin, most of them can’t.

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Incorporating Aromatherapy into your practice You will read in this course some simple and easy to adopt methods of introducing Aromatherapy to your massage practice. Please remember that you should always ask your client about their medical history and symptoms, as well any scents they may like or, more importantly, strongly dislike. In this course we will elaborate on ways you can add Aromatherapy blends to your massage oil or crèmes and rub them directly on the skin, as well as using simple steam inhalations, vaporizers, or sprays in your massage room. While these sound technical, they are really very simple. Aromatherapy is used treat a variety of conditions. In general, it seems to relieve pain, improve mood, and promote a sense of relaxation. In fact, several essential oils -- including lavender, rose, orange, bergamot, lemon, sandalwood, and others -- have been shown to relieve anxiety, stress, and depression. If you have no experience with Aromatherapy I think you will discover very quickly that many massage therapy businesses you may have visited have a recognizable “smell”-typically lavender, a favorite in the massage industry. Massage therapy with essential oils (combined with medications or therapy) may benefit people with depression. The scents are thought by some to stimulate positive emotions in the area of the brain responsible for memories and emotions, but the benefits seem to be related to relaxation caused by the scents and the massage. In one study, Neroli oil helped reduce blood pressure and preprocedure anxiety among people undergoing medical procedures2. In test tubes, chemical compounds from some essential oils have shown antibacterial and anti fungal properties. Some evidence also suggests that citrus oils may strengthen the immune system and that peppermint oil may help with digestion. Fennel, aniseed, sage, and clary sage have estrogen like compounds, which may help relieve symptoms of premenstrual syndrome and menopause.

2 Effects of Aromatherapy on the Anxiety, Vital Signs, and Sleep Quality of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Patients in Intensive Care Units

Mi-Yeon Cho, Eun Sil Min,, and Myeong Soo Lee

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Chapter 2: The Extraction of Essence There are many processes by which essential oils are removed from plant materials. Some of these methods have been practiced for centuries, while others are relatively new. All of them involve capturing the essential oil in a medium of some sort, from which it is later isolated and removed. Below is a description of the most common forms of essential oil extraction. Distillation The first evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the 1st century AD3. Distilled water has been known since at least c. 200, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process. We know that distillation in China began some time during the Eastern Han Dynasty (1st–2nd centuries), but archaeological evidence indicates that actual distillation of beverages began in the Jin and Southern Song dynasties4. Obviously that was the more fun dynasty. A still that was used for making alcoholic beverages was found in an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei province dating to the 12th century. Historians believe that the Arabs learned the process of distilling from the Egyptians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments-including the making of medicinal oils that were inhaled or applied to the skin. Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century. Fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation)5 the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics and retorts are forms of

3 Forbes, Robert James (1970). A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of

Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. pp. 57, 89. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1. Retrieved 29 June 2010. 4 Stephen G. Haw (10 September 2012). "Wine, women and poison". Marco Polo in China. Routledge. pp. 147–148.

5 Magnum Opus Hermetic Sourceworks Series

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glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which acted as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented-which is what you think of when you picture a “moon shine” distillery. These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called pot stills. In the modern age retorts and pot stills have been largely replaced by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols that are too expensive for me to buy, like cognac, Scotch whisky, tequila and some vodkas. Small pot stills are still used for the production of flower water or essential oils used in many cosmetics and direct to market sale. It may surprise you to know that the most common use of distilled essential oils is in Perfume, which is a form of Aromatherapy-possibly the most common form practiced on the planet. In 1994 I took a tour of Guerlain, a French perfume house in Paris. It is among the oldest perfumeries in the world. It has a large customer

Distillation by Alembic 1910-Public Domain

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following, and has traditionally been held in high esteem in the perfume industry. Guys, if you think women wear Perfume just to smell pretty, think again! The scents they wear so innocently are designed to affect your brain in very sophisticated ways-it truly is chemical warfare! The application of distillation can roughly be divided in four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinctively different from the former two in that in the processing of beverages, the distillation is not used as a true purification method but more to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate. You haven’t learned what volatiles are yet, but you will in this module. The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms (remaining least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated. In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material

Perfume is Aromatherapy Fluid preparation used for scenting, composed of natural essences or synthetics and a fixative. Perfumes are concocted by the artful blending of certain fragrant substances in appropriate proportions. The art of perfumery was apparently known to the ancient Chinese, Hindus, Egyptians, Israelites, Carthaginians, Arabs, Greeks, and Romans; references to perfumes are found in the Bible. Raw materials used in perfumery include natural products, of plant or animal origin, and synthetic materials. Fine perfumes may be blends of more than 100 ingredients.

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and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process. Idealized distillation model The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure in the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. It is a common misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure and the vapors of each component will collect separately and purely. This, however, does not occur even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law, and assume that vapor-liquid equilibria are attained. Raoult's law assumes that a component contributes to the total vapor pressure of the mixture in proportion to its percentage of the mixture and its vapor pressure when pure, or succinctly: partial pressure equals mole fraction multiplied by vapor pressure when pure. If one component changes another component's vapor pressure, or if the volatility of a component is dependent on its percentage in the mixture, the law will fail. Dalton's law states that the total vapor pressure is the sum of the vapor pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. Note that a mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure, when the components are mutually soluble. An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and thus are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily evaporate also, albeit being less concentrated in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch

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distillation, the batch evaporates, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures. The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is a composition with a boiling point higher or lower than the boiling point of each separate liquid. Virtually all liquids, when mixed and heated, will display azeotropic behaviour. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor-liquid equilibrium data is by measurement. It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is evaporated and the other component, e.g. a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler and is called evaporation in engineering. Batch distilation Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances A and B (with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point) in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid which contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid: the ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This in turn means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e. more enriched in B than the starting liquid). The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which in turn results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is

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an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio A : B in the distillate. If the difference in vapor pressure between the two components A and B is large (generally expressed as the difference in boiling points), the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B. Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams as time passes during the operation. Continuous distillation produces at least two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor. Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time. For any source material of specific composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages (practically, the number of trays or the height of packing). Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor-liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column. Steam Distillation The majority of essential oils are obtained through the process of steam distillation. In steam distillation water is heated and the steam moves through fresh plant materials, like the rose petals. This causes the cell walls to break down and release the oil, which is then captured in the water vapor.

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As the water vapor passes through a cooler it condenses into a liquid. The oil is then separated from the water. Most oils are collected from the surface of the water, as they are less dense than the water and rise to the top. Some oils are heavier and sink to the bottom of the collector. Many organic compounds tend to decompose at high sustained temperatures. Separation by normal distillation would then not be an option, so water or steam is introduced into the distillation apparatus. By adding water or steam, the boiling points of the compounds are depressed, allowing them to evaporate at lower temperatures, preferably below the temperatures at which the deterioration of the material becomes appreciable. If the substances to be distilled are very sensitive to heat, steam distillation can also be combined with vacuum distillation. After distillation the vapors are condensed as usual, usually yielding a two-phase system of water and the organic compounds, allowing for decantation. When a mixture of two practically immiscible liquids are heated while being agitated to expose the surfaces of both the liquids to the vapor phase, each constituent independently exerts its own vapor pressure as a function of temperature as if the other constituent were not present. Consequently, the vapor pressure of the whole system increases. Boiling begins when the sum of the partial pressures of the two immiscible liquids just exceeds the atmospheric pressure (approximately 101 kPa at sea level). In this way, many organic compounds insoluble in water can be purified at a temperature well below the point at which decomposition occurs. For example, the boiling point of bromobenzene is 156 °C and the boiling point of water is 100 °C, but a mixture of the two boils at 95 °C. Thus, bromobenzene can be easily distilled at a temperature 61 C° below its normal boiling point. Steam distillation is employed in the manufacture of essential oils, for use in perfumes, for example. In this method, steam is passed through the plant material containing the desired oils. Eucalyptus oil and orange oil are obtained by this method. Steam distillation is also sometimes used to separate intermediate or final products during the synthesis of complex organic compounds. Direct Distillation Some stills mix the plant material directly with boiling water to produce a similar effect. Direct Distillation brings the plant material into direct contact

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with water within the retort (tank, vessel) of the still. It is often employed for plant materials such as flower petals, which will float on the water inside the tank. Expression Some plant material, such as citrus peels (lemon, lime, orange and grapefruit) can be pressed to remove their essential oils. This technique is known as expression. This method often leaves behind trace elements of the fruit itself, typically coloration and waxes. Absolutes Absolutes are made by adding a solvent to extract the essential oils from the plant material. The mixture is then washed with alcohol to separate the solvent from the essential oil. This method is used when the application of heat, such as in steam and direct distillation, would damage the oils. Some plant materials produce such a low quantity of oil that this is the only effective method of obtaining it. Oils that are obtained by this method include carnation, hyacinth, violet and jasmine. Enfleurage Enfleurage is a costly and labor-intensive method of extracting oils from delicate flowers like roses and jasmine. In Enfleurage sheets of glass are coated with purified fat. Freshly cut flower petals are layered on top of the fat and are left there for 24 hours. After that the flowers are removed and another layer of flower petals replace them. This is repeated every day for 2-3 weeks. Once the fat has reached its saturation point (can absorb no more oil) it is mixed with alcohol and shaken for another 24 hours to separate the fat from the essential oil. Carbon dioxide extraction A relatively new but efficient method, Carbon dioxide extraction uses highly pressurized CO2 to remove the essential oils. The extremely low temperatures used produces oils with aromas very true to the plant. This process is very efficient, but is still too costly to be practical for most producers of essential oils.

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The most commonly used essential oils There are hundreds, if not thousands, of essential oils available and choosing the best one for your clients can be overwhelming. Fortunately, there are a handful of commonly-used oils that cover most of needs and can be found easily at local heath-food stores or specialty shops. Agar oil, distilled from Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis) Agarwood, also known as oud, oodh or agar, is a dark resinous heartwood that forms in Aquilaria and Gyrinops trees (large evergreens native to southeast Asia) when they become infected with a type of mould. Prior to infection, the heartwood is relatively light and pale coloured; however, as the infection progresses, the tree produces a dark aromatic resin in response to the attack, which results in a very dense, dark, resin embedded heartwood. The resin embedded wood is commonly called gaharu, jinko, aloeswood, agarwood, or oud (not to be confused with 'Bakhoor') and is valued in many cultures for its distinctive fragrance, and thus is used for incense and perfumes. The odour of agarwood is complex and pleasing, with few or no similar natural analogues. As a result, agarwood and its essential oil gained great cultural and religious significance in ancient civilizations around the world, being mentioned throughout one of the world's oldest written texts – the Sanskrit Vedas from India. As early as the third century AD in ancient China, the chronicle Nan zhou yi wu zhi (Strange things from the South) written by Wa Zhen of the Eastern Wu Dynasty mentioned agarwood produced in the Rinan commandery, now Central Vietnam, and how people collected it in the mountains. Agarwood’s use as a medicinal product has been recorded in the Sahih Muslim, which dates back to approximately the eighth century, and in the Ayurvedic medicinal text the Susruta Samhita. Starting in 1580 after Nguyễn Hoàng took control over the central provinces of modern Vietnam, he encouraged trade with other countries, specifically China and Japan. Agarwood was exported in three varieties: Calambac (kỳ nam in Vietnamese), trầm hương (very similar but slightly harder and slightly more abundant), and agarwood proper. A pound of Calambac bought in Hội An for 15 taels could be sold in Nagasaki for 600 taels. The Nguyễn Lords soon established a Royal Monopoly over the sale of

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Calambac. This monopoly helped fund the Nguyễn state finances during the early years of the Nguyen rule. Xuanzang's travelogues and the Harshacharita, written in seventh century AD in Northern India, mentions use of agarwood products such as 'Xasipat' (writing-material) and 'aloe-oil' in ancient Assam (Kamarupa). The tradition of making writing materials from its bark still exists in Assam Ajwain oil, distilled from Bishop's weed (Carum copticum) Oil contains 35-65% thymol. Ajwain, ajowan or ajwan, also carom (Trachyspermum ammi) is an annual herb in the family Apiaceae. It originated in the eastern Mediterranean, possibly Egypt, and spread up to India from the Near East. Both the leaves and the fruit pods (often mistakenly called seeds) of the plant are used for human consumption. The plant is also called bishop's weed, but this is a common name it shares with some other different plants. The 'seed' (i.e., the fruit pod) is often confused with lovage seed. The small fruit pods are pale brown and have an oval shape, resembling caraway and cumin. It has a bitter and pungent taste, with a flavor similar to anise and oregano. They smell almost exactly like thyme because it also contains thymol, but is more aromatic and less subtle in taste, as well as slightly bitter and pungent. Even a small amount of fruit pods tend to dominate the flavor of a dish. The plant is mainly cultivated in Iran and northern India.Rajasthan produced about 55% of India's total output in 2006. The fruit pods are rarely eaten raw, they are commonly dry-roasted or fried in ghee, clarified butter. This allows the spice to develop a more subtle and complex aroma. It is considered to be an antiflatulent, a spice which reduces the gaseous effects of beans and other legumes. In Afghanistan the fruit pods are sprinkled over bread and biscuits. Angelica root oil, distilled from the Angelica archangelica Angelica is a genus of about 60 species of tall biennial and perennial herbs in the family Apiaceae, native to temperate and subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere, reaching as far north as Iceland and Lapland. They grow to 1–3 m tall, with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels

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of white or greenish-white flowers. Some species can be found in purple moor and rush pastures. Angelica species grow to 1–3 m tall, with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels of white or greenish-white flowers. Their large, sparkling, starburst flowers are pollinated by a great variety of insects (the generalist pollination syndrome), the floral scents are species-specific, and even specific to particular subspecies. The active ingredients of angelica are found in the roots and rhizomes and contains furocoumarins in its tissues which make the skin sensitive to light. Anise oil, from the Pimpinella anisum Anise Pimpinella anisum, also called aniseed, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to the eastern Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia. Its flavor has similarities with some other spices, such as star anise, fennel, and liquorice. Anise is a herbaceous annual plant growing to 3 ft (0.9 m) or more tall. The leaves at the base of the plant are simple, 3⁄8–2 in (1–5 cm) long and shallowly lobed, while leaves higher on the stems are feathery pinnate, divided into numerous leaves. The flowers are white, approximately 1⁄8 inch (3 mm) in diameter, produced in dense umbels. The fruit is an oblong dry schizocarp, 1⁄8–1⁄4 in (3–6 mm) long, usually called "aniseed". Anise is a food plant for the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths), including the lime-speck pug and wormwood pug. Anise plants grow best in light, fertile, well-drained soil. The seeds should be planted as soon as the ground warms up in spring. Because the plants have a taproot, they do not transplant well after being established, so they should be started either in their final location or transplanted while the seedlings are still small. Western cuisines have long used anise to flavor some dishes, drinks, and candies, and the word is used for both the species of herb and its licorice-like flavor. The most powerful flavor component of the essential oil of anise, anethole, is found in both anise and an unrelated spice called star anise (Illicium verum) widely used in South Asian, Southeast Asian, and East Asian dishes. Star anise is considerably less expensive to produce, and has gradually displaced Pimpinella anisum in Western markets. While formerly produced in larger quantities, by 1999 world production of the

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essential oil of anise was only 8 tonnes, compared to 400 tonnes from star anise. Anise has rich odor of licorice. Asafoetida Asafoetida or asafetida (Ferula assa-foetida) is the dried latex (gum oleoresin) exuded from the rhizome or tap root of several species of Ferula, a perennial herb that grows 1 to 1.5 m tall. The species is native to the deserts of Iran, mountains of Afghanistan, and is mainly cultivated in nearby India. As its name suggests, asafoetida has a fetid smell (see etymology below) but in cooked dishes it delivers a smooth flavor reminiscent of leeks. It is attributed a variety of uses (some, like being taken orally, are out of the scope of practice for massage therapy. We have included them here just to be thorough). Antiflatulent (that means “anti-farting” medicine LOL!) Asafoetida reduces the growth of indigenous microflora in the gut, reducing flatulence. In the Jammu region of India, asafoetida is used as a medicine for flatulence and constipation by 60% of locals. A digestion aid. In Thailand and India, it is used to aid digestion and is smeared on the abdomen in an alcohol or water tincture known as mahahing. Assafoetida in this tincture form was evidently used in western medicine as a topical treatment for abdominal injuries during the 18th and 19th centuries, although when it came into use in the West and how long it remained in use is uncertain. One notable case in which it was used is that of Canadian Coureur des bois Alexis St. Martin, who in 1822 suffered a severe abdominal injury from an accidental shooting that perforated his right lung and stomach and shattered several ribs. St Martin was treated by American army surgeon William Beaumont, who subsequently used St Martin as the subject of a pioneering series of experiments in gastric physiology, thanks to the fact that when St Martin's wounds fully healed, it left an open fistula into the stomach that enabled Beaumont to insert various types of food directly into St Martin's stomach and record the results. In his account of his treatment of and later experiments on St Martin, Beaumont recorded that he treated the suppurating chest wound with a combination of wine mixed with diluted muriatic acid and 30-40 drops

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of tincture of asafoetida applied three times a day, and that this appeared to have the desired effect, helping the wound to heal. Fighting influenza: Asafoetida was used in 1918 to fight the Spanish influenza pandemic. In 2009, researchers reported that the roots of Asafoetida produce natural antiviral drug compounds that demonstrated potency against the H1N1 virus in vitro and concluded that "sesquiterpene coumarins from F. assa-foetida may serve as promising lead compounds for new drug development against influenza A (H1N1) viral infection". Remedy for asthma and bronchitis. It is also said to be helpful in cases of asthma and bronchitis. A folk tradition remedy for children's colds: it is mixed into a pungent-smelling paste and hung in a bag around the afflicted child's neck. An antimicrobial: Asafoetida has a broad range of uses in traditional medicine as an antimicrobial, with well documented uses for treating chronic bronchitis and whooping cough, as well as reducing flatulence. Antiepileptic: Asafoetida oleo-gum-resin has been reported to be antiepileptic in classical Unani, as well as ethnobotanical literature. Balancing the vata and kapha. In India according to the Ayurveda, asafoetida is considered to be one of the best spices for balancing the vata dosha. It mitigates vata and kapha, relieves flatulence and colic pain. It is pungent in taste and at the end of digestion. It aggravates pitta, enhances appetite, taste and digestion. It is easy to digest. Antidote for opium. Asafoetida has only been speculated to be an antidote for opium. Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon Balsam of Peru, also known and marketed by many other names, is a balsam derived from a tree known as Myroxylon, which is grown in Central America (primarily in El Salvador) and South America. The natural resinous balsam that comes from the trunk of the tree contains a mix of a number of substances that are generally related to cinnamon, vanilla, and clove fragrances and flavorings.

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Balsam of Peru is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items for healing properties. It has a sweet scent. In some instances, Balsam of Peru is listed on the ingredient label of a product by one of its various names, but it may not be required to be listed by its name by mandatory labeling conventions. It can cause allergic reactions. A number of surveys have identified Balsam of Peru as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics. It may cause inflammation, redness, swelling, soreness, itching, and blisters, including allergic contact dermatitis, stomatitis (inflammation and soreness of the mouth or tongue), cheilitis (inflammation, rash, or painful erosion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or angles of their mouth), pruritis, hand eczema, generalized or resistant plantar dermatitis, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis. Balsam of Peru is an aromatic viscous resin obtained by scorching or inflicting V-shaped wounds on the bark of the trunk of the tree Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae. In response, the Balsam of Peru oily, resin-like, aromatic fluid exudes, to heal the tree's lesions, and the liquid is collected. An essential oil is distilled from the balsam. 'Balsam of Peru' is a misnomer. In the early period of Spanish dominion in Central and South America the balsam was collected in Central America and shipped to Callao and Lima in Peru, then shipped onward to Europe. It acquired the name of Peru because it was shipped from there. Its export to Europe was first documented in the seventeenth century in the German Pharmacopedia. Today it is extracted under a handicraft process, and is mainly exported from El Salvador. Balsam of Peru smells of vanilla and cinnamon because it contains – among its 25 or so different substances – cinnamein, cinnamic acid, cinnamyl cinnamate, benzyl benzoate, benzoic acid, and vanillin. It also contains cinnamic acid alcohol and aldehyde, farnesol, and nerolidol. A minority of it, approximately 30–40%, contains resins or esters of unknown composition. It also contains essential oils similar to those in citrus fruit peel. These are all potential allergens. Balsam of Peru is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items for

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healing properties. It has aromatic and fixative (i.e., delays evaporation) properties, and mild antiseptic, antifungal, and antiparasitic attributes. In some cases, it is listed on the ingredient label of a product by one of its various names. Naturally occurring ingredients may contain substances identical to or very closely related to Balsam of Peru. It is commonly used in perfumes and toiletries, such as perfumes, colognes, deodorants, soaps, shampoos, conditioners, after-shave lotions, cosmetics, lipsticks, creams, lotions, ointments, baby powders, sunscreens, and suntan lotions; and healing properties in medicinal products, such as hemorrhoid suppositories and ointment (e.g., Anusol), cough medicine/suppressant and lozenges, diaper rash ointments, oral and lip ointments, tincture of benzoin, wound spray (it has been reported to inhibit Mycobacterium tuberculosis as well as the common ulcer-causing bacteria H. pylori in test-tube studies), calamine lotion, surgical dressings, dental cement, eugenol used by dentists, some periodontal impression materials, and in the treatment of dry socket in dentistry. It also can be found in toothpaste, mouthwash, scented tobacco, cleaning products, pesticides, insect repellants, air fresheners and deodorizers, scented candles, and oil paint. Allergy warning A number of national and international surveys have identified Balsam of Peru as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics. A study in 2001 found that 3.8% of the general population patch tested was allergic to it. Many flavorings and perfumes contain components identical to Balsam of Peru. It may cause redness, swelling, itching, and blisters. People allergic to Balsam of Peru, or other chemically related substances, may experience typical allergic contact dermatitis reactions to it. If they have oral exposure, they may experience stomatitis (inflammation and soreness of the mouth or tongue), and cheilitis (inflammation, rash, or painful erosion of the lips, oropharyngeal mucosa, or angles of their mouth). If they ingest it, they may experience pruritis and contact dermatitis in the perianal region, possibly due to unabsorbed substances in the feces. If they use or consume products containing Balsam of Peru or related allergens, they may experience a flare-up of hand eczema. Among the

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other allergic reactions to Balsam of Peru are generalized or resistant plantar dermatitis, rhinitis, and conjunctivitis, In a case study in Switzerland, a woman who was allergic to Balsam of Peru was allergic to her boyfriend's semen following intercourse, after he drank large amounts of Coca Cola. Before 1977, the main recommended marker for perfume allergy was Balsam of Peru, which is still advised. The presence of Balsam of Peru in a cosmetic will be denoted by the INCI term Myroxylon pereirae. Because of allergic reactions, since 1982 crude Balsam of Peru has been banned by the International Fragrance Association from use as a fragrance compound, but extracts and distillates are used up to a maximum level of 0.4% in products, and are not covered by mandatory labeling. In March 2006, the European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection Directorate-General, Scientific Committee on Consumer Products, issued an Opinion on Peru Balsam. It confirmed that crude Peru Balsam should not be used as a fragrance ingredient, because of a wide variety of test results on its sensitizing potential, but that extracts and distillates can be used up to a maximum level of 0.4% in products. Basil oil Basil, Thai basil, or sweet basil, is a common name for the culinary herb Ocimum basilicum of the family Lamiaceae (mints), sometimes known as Saint Joseph's Wort in some English-speaking countries. Basil is native to India, China, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea. It was originally domesticated in India, having been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years, but was thoroughly familiar to Theophrastus and Dioscorides. It is a half-hardy annual plant, best known as a culinary herb prominently featured in Italian cuisine, and also plays a major role in Southeast Asian cuisines of Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and the cuisine of Taiwan. Depending on the species and cultivar, the leaves may taste somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, often sweet smell. There are many varieties of Ocimum basilicum, as well as several related species or species hybrids also called basil. The type used in Italian food is typically called sweet basil, as opposed to Thai basil (O. basilicum var. thyrsiflora), lemon basil (O. X citriodorum) and holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), which are used in Asia. While most common varieties of basil

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are treated as annuals, some are perennial in warm, tropical climates, including holy basil and a cultivar known as 'African Blue'. The various basils have such different scents because the herb has a number of different essential oils that come together in different proportions for various breeds. The strong clove scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol, the same chemical as actual cloves. The citrus scent of lemon basil and lime basil reflects their higher portion of citral, which causes this effect in several plants including lemon mint, and of limonene, which gives actual lemon peel its scent. African blue basil has a strong camphor smell because it contains camphor and camphene in higher proportions. Licorice basil contains anethole, the same chemical that makes anise smell like licorice, and in fact is sometimes called "anise basil." Recently, there has been much research into the health benefits conferred by the essential oils found in basil. Scientific studies in vitro have established that compounds in basil oil have potent antioxidant, antiviral, and antimicrobial properties, and potential for use in treating cancer. In addition, basil has been shown to decrease the occurrence of platelet aggregation and experimental thrombus in mice. It is traditionally used for supplementary treatment of stress, asthma and diabetes in India. Basil, like other aromatic plants such as fennel and tarragon, contains estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in rats and mice. While human effects are currently unstudied, extrapolation using body weight from the rodent experiments indicates that 100–1000 times the normal anticipated exposure still probably produces a minimal cancer risk. Bay oil Bay leaves were used for flavoring by the ancient Greeks. It is a fixture in the cooking of many European cuisines (particularly those of the Mediterranean), as well as in the Americas. They are used in soups, stews, meat, seafood, vegetable dishes, and sauces. The leaves also flavor many classic French dishes. The leaves are most often used whole (sometimes in a bouquet garni) and removed before serving (they can be abrasive in the digestive tract). Thai cuisine employs bay leaf (Thai name bai kra wan) in a few Arab-influenced dishes, notably massaman curry. In Indian and Pakistani cuisine, bay laurel leaves are sometimes used in place of Indian bay leaf, although they have a different flavor. They are

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most often used in rice dishes like biryani and as an ingredient in garam masala. Bay (laurel) leaves are frequently packaged as tejpatta (the Hindi term for Indian bay leaf), creating confusion between the two herbs. In the Philippines, dried bay laurel leaves are added as a spice in the Filipino dish Adobo. Bay leaves can also be crushed or ground before cooking. Crushed bay leaves impart more of their desired fragrance than whole leaves, but are more difficult to remove, and thus they are often used in a muslin bag or tea infuser. Ground bay laurel may be substituted for whole leaves, and does not need to be removed, but it is much stronger due to the increased surface area and in some dishes the texture may not be desirable. Bay leaves have been used in entomology as the active ingredient in killing jars. The crushed, fresh, young leaves are put into the jar under a layer of paper. The vapors they release kill insects slowly but effectively, and keep the specimens relaxed and easy to mount. The leaves discourage the growth of molds. They are not effective for killing large beetles and similar specimens, but insects that have been killed in a cyanide killing jar can be transferred to a laurel jar to await mounting. It is not clear to what extent the effect is due to cyanide released by the crushed leaves, and to what extent other volatile products are responsible. Bergamot oil Citrus bergamia, the Bergamot orange, is a fragrant fruit the size of an orange, with a yellow colour similar to a lemon. Genetic research into the ancestral origins of extant citrus cultivars found bergamot orange to be a likely hybrid of Citrus limetta and Citrus aurantium. Citrus bergamot is commercially grown in southern Calabria (province of Reggio), southern Italy, where more than 80% are produced. It is also grown in southern France and in Côte d'Ivoire for the essential oil and in Antalya in southern Turkey for its marmalade. The fruit is not grown for juice consumption. Citrus bergamia is a small tree that blossoms during the winter. The juice tastes less sour than lemon, but more bitter than grapefruit. The distinctive aroma of bergamot is most commonly known for its use in Earl Grey tea. The juice of the fruit has also been used in Calabrian indigenous medicine

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to treat malaria, and its essential oil is popular in aromatherapy applications. The bergamot orange is unrelated to the herbs known as bergamot or wild bergamot, Monarda didyma and Monarda fistulosa, which are in the mint family, and are named for their similar aroma. The active ingredients in bergamot juice are neoeriocitrin, naringin, neohesperidin, ponceritin, melitidin, and brutieridin. Melitidin and brutieridin, only recently discovered, exist only in citrus bergamot, and exhibit statin-like properties. Synephrine is not present in citrus bergamot. Citrus bergamia has also been classified as Citrus aurantium subsp. bergamia (i.e. a subspecies of bitter orange). In terms of food and drink, Bergamot orange is used to make dessert items such as Turkish Delight in the Americas and the Middle East especially, adding flavour. Citrus bergamia is sometimes confused with (but is not the same as) Citrus medica (citron, the yellow fruit of which is also known as etrog) Citrus limetta, the "sweet lemon" or "sweet lime" In several patch test studies, application of some sources of bergamot oil directly to the skin was shown to have a concentration-dependent phototoxic effect of increasing redness after exposure to ultraviolet light (due to the chemical bergapten, and possibly also citropten, bergamottin, geranial, and neral). This is a property shared by many other citrus fruits. Bergapten has also been implicated as a potassium channel blocker; in one case study, a patient who consumed four liters of Earl Grey tea per day suffered muscle cramps. Bergamot contains extremely large amounts of polyphenols, as compared to other citrus species. Two of these, brutieridin and melitidin, directly inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis in a similar way to statins and they are not found in any other citrus derivatives. Bergamot is also a source of bergamottin which, along with the chemically related compound 6',7'-dihydroxybergamottin, is believed to be responsible

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for the grapefruit juice effect in which the consumption of the juice affects the metabolism of a variety of pharmaceutical drugs. Bergamot is used in many skin care creams. In the past, psoralen extracted from bergamot oil has also been used in tanning accelerators and sunscreens. These substances were known to be photocarcinogenic since 1959, but they were only banned from sunscreens in 1995. These photocarcinogenic substances were banned years after they had caused many cases of malignant melanoma and deaths. Psoralen is now used only in the treatment of certain skin disorders, as part of PUVA therapy. There is no good evidence bergamot oil is of any medical benefit for a variety of claimed uses. Use on the skin can be unsafe, particularly for children and pregnant women. Potential side effects of drinking bergamot oil can include convulsions and death. Black Pepper This essential oil is distilled from the berries of Piper nigrum. Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used. Black Pepper (or perhaps long pepper) was believed to cure illness such as constipation, diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heart disease, hernia, hoarseness, indigestion, insect bites, insomnia, joint pain, liver problems, lung disease, oral abscesses, sunburn, tooth decay, and toothaches. Various sources from the 5th century onward also recommend pepper to treat eye problems, often by applying salves or poultices made with pepper directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging. Nevertheless, Black pepper, either powdered or its decoction, is widely used in traditional Indian medicine and as a home remedy for relief from sore throat, throat congestion, cough etc. Pepper is known to cause sneezing. Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing; Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question. It has been shown that piperine can dramatically increase absorption of selenium, vitamin B, beta-carotene and curcumin as well as

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other nutrients. As a medicine, pepper appears in the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta, chapter five, as one of the few medicines allowed to be carried by a monk. Pepper contains small amounts of safrole, a mildly carcinogenic compound. Also, it is eliminated from the diet of patients having abdominal surgery and ulcers because of its irritating effect upon the intestines, being replaced by what is referred to as a bland diet. However, extracts from black pepper have been found to have antioxidant properties and anti-carcinogenic effects, especially when compared to chili. Piperine present in black pepper acts as a thermogenic compound. Piperine enhances the thermogenesis of lipid and accelerates energy metabolism in the body. Piperine and other components from black pepper may also be helpful in treating vitiligo, although when combined with UV radiation should be staggered due to the effect of light on the compound. The warm, soothing effect makes it ideal for treating muscle aches, pains and strains and promoting healthy digestion. Camphor Camphor is a waxy, flammable, white or transparent solid with a strong aromatic odor. It is a terpenoid with the chemical formula C10H16O. It is found in Zam-Buk, the wood of the camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora), a large evergreen tree found in Asia (particularly in Sumatra, Borneo and Taiwan) and also of Dryobalanops aromatica, a giant of the Bornean forests. It also occurs in some other related trees in the laurel family, notably Ocotea usambarensis. Dried rosemary leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis), in the mint family, contain up to 20% camphor. It can also be synthetically produced from oil of turpentine. It is used for its scent, as an ingredient in cooking (mainly in India), as an embalming fluid, for medicinal purposes, and in religious ceremonies. A major source of camphor in Asia is camphor basil. Norcamphor is a camphor derivative with the three methyl groups replaced by hydrogen. Camphor is readily absorbed through the skin and produces a feeling of cooling similar to that of menthol, and acts as slight local anesthetic and antimicrobial substance. There are anti-itch gels and cooling gels with

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camphor as the active ingredient. Camphor is an active ingredient (along with menthol) in vapor-steam products, such as Vicks VapoRub. It is used for cold, cough, fever, rheumatism, and arthritis Camphor may also be administered orally in small quantities (50 mg) for minor heart symptoms and fatigue. Through much of the 1900s this was sold under the trade name Musterole; production ceased in the 1990s. Camphor was used in ancient Sumatra to treat sprains, swellings, and inflammation. Camphor is a component of paregoric, an opium/camphor tincture from the 18th century. Also in the 18th century, camphor was used by Auenbrugger in the treatment of mania. Based on Hahnemann's writings, camphor (dissolved in alcohol) was also successfully used to treat the 1854-1855 cholera epidemics in Naples. Camphor was the original compound used in the development of convulsive therapies for psychiatric illness. It was quite successful, but was supplanted by other chemicals and later electricity as the inducing agent Cannabis flower oil Cannabis flower essential oil, also known as hemp essential oil, is obtained by steam distillation from the flowers and upper leaves of the Cannabis plant. It should not be confused with hemp oil which is a vegetable oil that is expeller pressed from the seeds of low-THC varieties of hemp like Anka, Crag, Finola, and USO. A pale yellow to light green liquid, cannabis flower essential oil is a volatile oil that is a mixture of volatile compounds, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and other terpenoid-like compounds. It is manufactured primarily in France and Switzerland from both low-THC and high-THC varieties of Cannabis while having little to no THC content at all. This essential oil is used as a scent in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, and candles. It is also used as a flavoring in foods, primarily candy and beverages. Caraway oil Caraway (Carum carvi), also known as meridian fennel,or Persian cumin,is a biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to western Asia, Europe and Northern Africa.

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The plant is similar in appearance to other members of the carrot family, with finely divided, feathery leaves with thread-like divisions, growing on 20–30 cm stems. The main flower stem is 40–60 cm tall, with small white or pink flowers in umbels. Caraway fruits (erroneously called seeds) are crescent-shaped achenes, around 2 mm long, with five pale ridges. The fruits, usually used whole, have a pungent, anise-like flavor and aroma that comes from essential oils, mostly carvone and limonene. Anethole, generally regarded as a minor product in the essential oil of this species, has also been found to be a major component. They are used as a spice in breads, especially rye bread. Caraway is also used in desserts, liquors, casseroles, Indian cuisine rice dishes such as pulao and biryani, and other foods. Caraway is also used as a breath freshener and other medicinal purposes. It is more commonly found in European cuisine. For example, it is commonly used in British caraway seed cake and is also added to sauerkraut. In Serbia, it is commonly sprinkled over home-made salty scones (pogačice s kimom). It is also used to add flavor to cheeses such as bondost, pultost and havarti. Akvavit and several liqueurs are made with caraway. In Middle Eastern cuisine, caraway pudding is a popular dessert during Ramadan. Caraway is also added to flavor Harissa, a Maghrebian chili pepper paste. Also it is typically made and served in Levant area in winter and in the occasion of having a new baby, Also in Aleppian, Syrian cuisine it is used to make sweet scones named Keleacha, and used in combination with habbet al-baraka, or nigella seeds, although these names are often cited as misleading. the Nigella and Caraway seeds are extolled as being "A cure for every disease except death." Indeed, traditional Syrian medicinal uses of black seed are extensive, including the treatment of skin conditions, respiratory infections, intestinal disorders and parasites, headaches, toothaches and more. Caraway fruit oil is also used as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions, and perfumes. Caraway also has a long tradition of medical uses, primarily for stomach complaints. Emerging and ongoing research from Arabic regional studies suggest Carum carvi use as an endocrine function support agent,

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specifically related to thyroid disorders and autoimmune disease (see Hashimoto's thyroiditis) Cardamom seed oil Cardamom refers to several plants of the similar genera Elettaria and Amomum in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bhutan; they are recognised by their small seed pods, triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin, papery outer shell and small black seeds. Guatemala, where the German coffee planter Oscar Majus Kloeffer introduced Indian cardamom before World War I, has become the biggest producer and exporter of cardamom in the world, followed by India. Some other countries, such as Sri Lanka, have also begun to cultivate it. Elettaria pods are light green, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown. It is the world's third-most expensive spice by weight, outstripped in market value only by saffron and vanilla. Green cardamom is broadly used in South Asia to treat infections in teeth and gums, to prevent and treat throat troubles, congestion of the lungs and pulmonary tuberculosis, inflammation of eyelids, and digestive disorders. It also is used to break up kidney and gall stones, and was reportedly used as an antidote for both snake and scorpion venoms. Amomum is used as a spice and as an ingredient in traditional medicine in systems of the traditional Chinese medicine in China, in Ayurveda in India, Pakistan, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Among other species, varieties, and cultivars, Amomum villosum cultivated in China, Laos, and Vietnam is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat stomach problems, constipation, dysentery, and other digestion problems. Tsaoko cardamom, Amomum tsao-ko, is cultivated in Yunnan and northwest Vietnam, both for medicinal purposes and as a spice. The content of essential oil in the seeds is strongly dependent on storage conditions, but may be as high as 8%. In the oil were found α-terpineol 45%, myrcene 27%, limonene 8%, menthone 6%, β-phellandrene 3%, 1,8-cineol 2%, sabinene 2% and heptane 2%. Other sources report 1,8-cineol (20 to 50%), α-terpenylacetate (30%), sabinene, limonene (2 to 14%), and borneol.

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Carrot seed oil (essential oil) Carrot seed oil is the essential oil extract of the seed from the carrot plant Daucus carota. The oil has a woody, earthy sweet smell and is yellow or amber-coloured to pale orange-brown in appearance. The pharmocologically active constituents of carrot seed extract are three flavones: luteolin, luteolin 3'-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, and luteolin 4'-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside. Rather than the extract the distilled (ethereal) oil is used in perfumery and food aromatization. The main constituent of this oil is carotol. Pressed carrot seed oil is extracted by cold-pressing the seeds of the carrot plant. The properties of pressed carrot seed oil are quite different from those of the essential oil. Chamomile oil Chamaemelum nobile commonly known as chamomile (also spelled camomile), Roman chamomile, English chamomile, garden chamomile, ground apple, low chamomile, or whig plant, is a low perennial plant found in dry fields and around gardens and cultivated grounds in Europe, North America, and Argentina. C. nobile is, along with Matricaria chamomilla, an important source of the herbal product known as chamomile. The plant is used to flavor foods, in herbal teas, perfumes, and cosmetics. It is used to make a rinse for blonde hair, and is popular in aromatherapy; its practitioners believe it to be a calming agent to reduce stress and aid in sleep. It is believed by some to sooth skin rashes and moiturize the skin. There are many varieties of chamomile but only two are used in aromatherapy- Roman and German. Both have similar healing properties but German chamomile contains a higher level of azulin (an anti-inflammatory agent). Calamus Root Acorus calamus (also called Sweet Flag or Calamus, among many common names) is a tall perennial wetland monocot of the Acoraceae family, in the genus Acorus. In spite of common names that include the words "rush" and "sedge," it is neither a rush nor sedge. The scented leaves and more strongly scented rhizomes have traditionally been used

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medicinally and to make fragrances, and the dried and powdered rhizome has been used as a substitute for ginger, cinnamon and nutmeg. Sweet flag has a very long history of medicinal use in Chinese and Indian herbal traditions. The leaves, stems, and roots are used in various Siddha and Ayurvedic medicines. It is widely employed in modern herbal medicine as its sedative, laxative, diuretic, and carminative properties. It is used in Ayurveda to counter the side effects of all hallucinogens. Sweet Flag, known as "Rat Root" is one of the most widely and frequently used herbal medicines amongst the Chipewyan people. Cinnamon oil Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several trees from the genus Cinnamomum that is used in both sweet and savoury foods. While Cinnamomum verum is sometimes considered to be "true cinnamon", most cinnamon in international commerce is derived from related species, which are also referred to as "cassia" to distinguish them from "true cinnamon". Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae. Only a few of them are grown commercially for spice. Cinnamon has a long history of use in traditional medicine but there is no evidence it useful to treat any medical condition. Really smells good though. Citronella oil Citronella oil is one of the essential oils obtained from the leaves and stems of different species of Cymbopogon (lemongrass). The oil is used extensively as a source of perfumery chemicals such as citronellal, citronellol and geraniol. These chemicals find extensive use in soap, candles and incense, perfumery, cosmetic and flavouring industries throughout the world. Citronella oil is also a plant-based insect repellent, and has been registered for this use in the United States since 1948. The United States Environmental Protection Agency considers oil of citronella as a biopesticide with a non-toxic mode of action. However, since citronella

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insect repellant effects were not proven within the EU, the use of citronella as an insecticide is prohibited under the Biocidal Product Directive 2006. Research also shows that citronella oil has strong antifungal properties, is effective in calming barking dogs, and has even been used as a successful spray-on deterrent against pets destroying household items. Direct application of citronella oil has been found to raise the heart rate of some people. Health Canada is in the process of phasing out citronella entirely, as an insect repellent. The EPA, on the other hand, finds no known toxicity for citronella. Citronella oil is popular as a 'natural' insect repellent. Its mosquito repellent qualities have been verified by research, including effectiveness in repelling Aedes aegypti (dengue fever mosquito). To be continually effective most citronella repellent formulas need to be reapplied to the skin every 30–60 minutes. Research also indicates that citronella oil is an effective repellent for body louse, head louse and stable flies. The US Environmental Protection Agency states that citronella oil has little or no toxicity when used as a topical insect repellent, with no reports of adverse effects of concern over a 60 year period. Because some products are applied to human skin, EPA requires proper precautionary labeling to help assure safe use. If used according to label instructions in the US, citronella is not expected to pose health risks to people, including children and other sensitive populations. The US Food & Drug Administration considers citronella oil as generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Canadian regulatory concerns with citronella as an insect repellent are primarily based on data-gaps in toxicology, not on incidents. In Europe, Ceylon type citronella oil is placed on the category 3 list, with some safety concern regarding methyl eugenol. In the UK, E.U. legislation governing insect repellents came into force in September 2006, which banned citronella as an active ingredient in any insect repellent products. This applied to both insect repellent for humans and animals. It can still be sold as a perfume, but must not be sold as an insect repeller.

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Clary Sage Salvia sclarea, clary, or clary sage, is a biennial or short-lived herbaceous perennial in the genus Salvia. It is native to the northern Mediterranean, along with some areas in north Africa and Central Asia. The plant has a lengthy history as a medicinal herb, and is currently grown for its essential oil. S. sclarea reaches 3 to 4 ft (0.91 to 1.22 m) in height, with thick square stems that are covered in hairs. The leaves are approximately 1 ft (0.30 m) long at the base, .5 ft (0.15 m) long higher on the plant. The upper leaf surface is rugose, and covered with glandular hairs. The flowers are in verticils, with 2-6 flowers in each verticil, and are held in large colorful bracts that range in color from pale mauve to lilac or white to pink with a pink mark on the edge. The lilac or pale blue corolla is approximately 1 in (2.5 cm), with the lips held wide open. The cultivar S. sclarea 'Turkestanica' bears pink stems, petiolate leaves, and white, pink-flecked blossoms on spikes to 30 inches tall (75 cm). Clary seeds have a mucilaginous coat, which is why some old herbals recommended placing a seed into the eye of someone with a foreign object in it so that it could adhere to the object and make it easy to remove. This practice is noted by Nicholas Culpeper in his Complete Herbal (1653), who referred to the plant as "clear-eye". The distilled essential oil is used widely in perfumes and as a muscatel flavoring for vermouths, wines, and liqueurs. It is also used in aromatherapy for relieving anxiety and fear, menstrual-related problems such as PMS and cramping, and helping with insomnia. Clove leaf oil Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka—and the largest producer, Pemba Island, just off the coast of Tanzania. The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 m tall, with large leaves and sanguine flowers grouped in terminal clusters. The flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1.5–2.0 cm long, and

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consist of a long calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals, and four unopened petals that form a small central ball. Cloves are used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and western herbalism and dentistry where the essential oil is used as an anodyne (painkiller) for dental emergencies. Cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural anthelmintic. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for digestive problems. Topical application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the digestive tract. Applied to a cavity in a decayed tooth, it also relieves toothache. In Chinese medicine, cloves or ding xiang are considered acrid, warm, and aromatic, entering the kidney, spleen and stomach meridians, and are notable in their ability to warm the middle, direct stomach qi downward, to treat hiccough and to fortify the kidney yang. Because the herb is so warming, it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms and according to classical sources should not be used for anything except cold from yang deficiency. As such, it is used in formulas for impotence or clear vaginal discharge from yang deficiency, for morning sickness together with ginseng and patchouli, or for vomiting and diarrhea due to spleen and stomach coldness. Cloves may be used internally as a tea and topically as an oil for hypotonic muscles, including for multiple sclerosis. This is also found in Tibetan medicine. Some recommend avoiding more than occasional use of cloves internally in the presence of pitta inflammation such as is found in acute flares of autoimmune diseases. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has reclassified eugenol (one of the chemicals contained in clove oil), downgrading its effectiveness rating. The FDA now believes not enough evidence indicates clove oil or eugenol is effective for toothache pain or a variety of other types of pain. Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent, and to prevent premature ejaculation have been inconclusive. It remains unproven whether clove may reduce blood sugar levels.

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In addition, clove oil is used in preparation of some toothpastes and Clovacaine solution, which is a local anesthetic used in oral ulceration and inflammation. Eugenol (or clove oil generally) is mixed with zinc oxide to form a temporary tooth cavity filling. Clove oil can be used to anesthetize fish, and prolonged exposure to higher doses (the recommended dose is 400 mg/l) is considered a humane means of euthanasia. Coriander Coriander (Coriandrum sativum), also known as cilantro, Chinese parsley or dhania, is an annual herb in the family Apiaceae. Coriander is native to regions spanning from southern Europe and North Africa to southwestern Asia. It is a soft plant growing to 50 cm (20 in) tall. The leaves are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant, and slender and feathery higher on the flowering stems. The flowers are borne in small umbels, white or very pale pink, asymmetrical, with the petals pointing away from the centre of the umbel longer (5–6 mm or 0.20–0.24 in) than those pointing toward it (only 1–3 mm or 0.039–0.118 in long). The fruit is a globular, dry schizocarp 3–5 mm (0.12–0.20 in) in diameter. Although sometimes eaten alone, the seeds often are used as a spice or an added ingredient in other foods. Coriander can produce an allergic reaction in some people. Costmary oil Tanacetum balsamita, or Balsamita vulgaris, is a perennial temperate herb known as costmary, alecost, balsam herb, bible leaf, or mint geranium. In medieval times, costmary was used for menstruation problems. In the 18th century, it was classified as laxative, against stomach problems and as astringent. It was recommend against melancholy and hysteria as well as dysentery and against gallbladder disease. Leaves of the plant have been found to contain a range of essential oils. A Spanish study found the oil includes carvone as the main component (51.5%, 41.0% and 56.9% in three samples), together with minor amounts of beta-thujone, t-dihydrocarvone, c-dihydrocarvone, dihydrocarveol isomer c-carveol and t-carveol. It is noteworthy that levels of beta-thujone, a toxic ketone, were 9.8%, 12.5% and 12.1% in the respective samples.

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Costus Root Costus is a genus of perennial tropical herbaceous plants from the costus family (Costaceae). They are often characterized and distinguished from relatives such as Zingiber (true ginger) by their spiraling stems. The genus as a whole is thus often called spiral gingers, but this can also refer to C. barbatus specifically. Costus spectabilis is the floral emblem of Nigeria; its flowers are represented (erroneously in red instead of yellow color) on its coat of arms. It is important not to confuse "Costus speciosus, C. spectabilis etc. with the herb known by the common name 'costus'. Some species are of importance to herbivores, such as caterpillars of the Restricted Demon (Notocrypta curvifascia) which feed on Crape Ginger (C. speciosus). The Crape Ginger is also a source of diosgenin, a compound used for the commercial production of various steroids, such as progesterone. In Trinidad and Tobago, a mix of Costus scaber juice and crushed Renealmia alpinia berries is used to treat dogs bitten by snakes. Cranberry seed oil Cranberries are a group of evergreen dwarf shrubs or trailing vines in the subgenus Oxycoccus of the genus Vaccinium. In some methods of classification, Oxycoccus is regarded as a genus in its own right. They can be found in acidic bogs throughout the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere. Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 metres (7 ft) long and 5 to 20 centimetres (2 to 8 in) in height; they have slender, wiry stems that are not thickly woody and have small evergreen leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with very distinct reflexed petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by bees. The fruit is a berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially white, but turns a deep red when fully ripe. It is edible, with an acidic taste that can overwhelm its sweetness. Cranberries are a major commercial crop in certain American states and Canadian provinces (see cultivation and uses below). Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, jam, and sweetened dried cranberries, with the remainder sold fresh to consumers. Cranberry sauce is a traditional accompaniment to turkey at Thanksgiving dinners in the United States.

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Since the early 21st century within the global functional food industry, raw cranberries have been marketed as a "superfruit" due to their nutrient content and antioxidant qualities. Two reviews of available research concluded that there is no evidence that cranberry compounds are effective in treating urinary tract infections. Long-term tolerance is also an issue. Raw cranberries have moderate levels of vitamin C, dietary fiber and the essential dietary mineral, manganese, (each nutrient having more than 10% of the Daily Value per 100 g serving; see right table) as well as other essential micronutrients in minor amounts. Raw cranberries are a source of polyphenols which are under active research for possible benefits to the cardiovascular system and immune system, and as anti-cancer agents,such as in isolated prostate cancer cells. However, it is uncertain whether polyphenols account for the benefits of diets rich in plant foods like cranberries. Cranberry juice contains a high molecular weight non-dializable material that is under research for its potential to affect formation of plaque by Streptococcus mutans pathogens that cause tooth decay. Cranberry juice components are also being studied for possible effects on kidney stone formation. Raw cranberries and cranberry juice are abundant food sources of polyphenols such as proanthocyanidins, flavonols and quercetin. These compounds have shown possible activity as anti-cancer agents in vitro. However, their effectiveness in humans remains unknown, and is limited by poor absorption into cells and rapid excretion. Cranberry tannins may interact with proteins and possibly digestive enzymes, α-amylase and glucoamylase, which in turn may affect starch hydrolysis, as shown in one in vitro study. An autumn 2004 caution from the Committee on Safety of Medicines, the UK agency dealing with drug safety, advised patients taking warfarin not to drink cranberry juice after adverse effects (such as increased incidence of bruising) were reported, possibly resulting from the presence of salicylic

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acid native to polyphenol-rich plants such as the cranberry. However, during 2006–08, several reviews of case reports and pilot studies failed to confirm this effect, collectively indicating no statistically significant interaction between daily consumption of 250 mL cranberry juice and warfarin in the general population. A gene (VKORC1, CYP2C9) has been shown to change warfarin sensitivity. This gene may also contribute to bruising susceptibility as a result of cranberries for carriers of the gene. A couple of possible cases of warfarin interaction with cranberry have been reported. Cubeb Cubeb (Piper cubeba), or tailed pepper, or shital chini / kabab chini in Hindi is a plant in genus Piper, cultivated for its fruit and essential oil. It is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra, hence sometimes called Java pepper. The fruits are gathered before they are ripe, and carefully dried. Commercial cubebs consist of the dried berries, similar in appearance to black pepper, but with stalks attached – the "tails" in "tailed pepper". The dried pericarp is wrinkled, and its color ranges from grayish-brown to black. The seed is hard, white and oily. The odor of cubebs is described as agreeable and aromatic and the taste as pungent, acrid, slightly bitter and persistent. It has been described as tasting like allspice, or like a cross between allspice and black pepper. Cubeb came to Europe via India through the trade with the Arabs. The name cubeb comes from Arabic kabāba, which is of unknown origin, by way of Old French quibibes. Cubeb is mentioned in alchemical writings by its Arabic name. In his Theatrum Botanicum, John Parkinson tells that the king of Portugal prohibited the sale of cubeb in order to promote black pepper (Piper nigrum) around 1640. It experienced a brief resurgence in 19th-century Europe for medicinal uses, but has practically vanished from the European market since. It continues to be used as a flavoring agent for gins and cigarettes in the West, and as a seasoning for food in Indonesia. The dried cubeb berries contain essential oil consisting monoterpenes (sabinene 50%, α-thujene, and carene) and sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene, copaene, α- and β-cubebene, δ-cadinene, germacrene), the oxides 1,4- and 1,8-cineole and the alcohol cubebol. About 15% of a volatile oil is obtained by distilling cubebs with water. Cubebene, the liquid portion, has the formula C15H24. It is a pale green or

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blue-yellow viscous liquid with a warm woody, slightly camphoraceous odor. After rectification with water, or on keeping, this deposits rhombic crystals of camphor of cubebs. Cubebin (C10H10O3) is a crystalline substance existing in cubebs, discovered by Eugène Soubeiran and Capitaine in 1839. It may be prepared from cubebene, or from the pulp left after the distillation of the oil. The drug, along with gum, fatty oils, and malates of magnesium and calcium, contains also about 1% of cubebic acid, and about 6% of a resin. The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains, and the British Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture with a dose of 4 to 1 dram. In India, Sanskrit texts included cubeb in various remedies. Charaka and Sushruta prescribed a cubeb paste as a mouthwash, and the use of dried cubebs internally for oral and dental diseases, loss of voice, halitosis, fevers, and cough. Unani physicians use a paste of the cubeb berries externally on male and female genitals to intensify sexual pleasure during coitus. Due to this attributed property, cubeb was called "Habb-ul-Uruus". In traditional Chinese medicine cubeb is used for its alleged warming property. In Tibetan medicine, cubeb (ka ko la in Tibetan) is one of bzang po drug, six fine herbs beneficial to specific organs in the body, with cubeb assigned to the spleen. Arab physicians of the Middle Ages were usually versed in alchemy, and cubeb was used, under the name kababa, when preparing the water of al butm. The Book of One Thousand and One Nights mentions cubeb as a main ingredient in making an aphrodisiac remedy for infertility. The modern use of cubeb in England as a drug dates from 1815. There were various preparations, including oleum cubebae (oil of cubeb), tinctures, fluid extracts, oleo-resin compounds, and vapors, which were used for throat complaints. A small percentage of cubeb was commonly included in lozenges designed to alleviate bronchitis, in which the antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug are useful. The most important therapeutic application of this drug, however, was in treating gonorrhea, where its antiseptic action was of much value. William Wyatt Squire wrote in 1908 that cubebs "act specifically on the genito-urinary mucous membrane. (They are) given in all stages of gonorrhea". As compared with copaiba in this connection cubeb has the advantages of being less

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disagreeable to take and somewhat less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in prolonged administration. The volatile oil, oleum cubebae, was the form in which cubeb is most commonly used as a drug, the dose being 5 to 20 minims, which may be suspended in mucilage or given after meals in a wafer. The drug exhibited the typical actions of a volatile oil, but exerted some of these to an exceptional degree. As such, it was liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in the course of its excretion by the skin, had a marked diuretic action, and was a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary passages. Its administration caused the appearance in the urine of a salt of cubebic acid which was precipitated by heat or nitric acid, and was therefore liable to be mistaken for albumin, when these two most common tests for the occurrence of albuminuria were applied. The National Botanic Pharmacopoeia printed in 1921 tells that cubeb was "an excellent remedy for flour albus or whites." Cumin oil/Black seed oil Cumin sometimes spelled cummin; Cuminum cyminum), also known as Jeera, is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to India. Its seeds (each one contained within a fruit, which is dried) are used in the cuisines of many different cultures, in both whole and ground form. In addition, it is also used as a medicinal plant, serving as a digestant, as well as being used to treat anemia and the common cold. In Sanskrit, Cumin is known as Jira. Jira means “that which helps digestion". In Ayurvedic system of medicine, dried Cumin seeds are used for medicinal purposes. The dried cumin seeds are powdered and used in different forms like kashaya (decoction), arishta (fermented decoction), vati(tablet/pills), and processed with ghee (a semi-fluid clarified butter). It is used internally and sometimes for external application also. It is known for its actions like enhancing appetite, taste perception, digestion, vision, strength, and lactation. It is used to treat diseases like fever, loss of appetite, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal distension, edema and puerperal disorders. A popular drink in southern India such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu is called jira water, made by boiling cumin seeds in water. It is believed that cumin is

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beneficial for heart disease, swellings, tastelessness, vomiting, poor digestion and chronic fever. Ahmad Reza Gohari and Soodabeh Saeidnia have reviewed the phytochemistry of Cuminum cyminum seeds and its standards. They have reported many pharmacological effects such as anti-diabetic, immunologic, anti-epileptic, anti-tumour and antimicrobial activities.' A study by researchers at Mysore University in India reports the potential anti-diabetic properties of cumin. Efraim Lev and Zohar Amar have reported several medicinal properties and health benefits of cumin seeds. According to the authors, cumin seeds and warm jeera water is believed to improve saliva secretion, provide relief in digestive disorders. Cypriol Cyperus scariosus, also known in English as cypriol and in Hindi as Nagarmotha, is a plant of the Cyperaceae family, that grows wild in the Madhya Pradesh region of India. It is highly prized in India for its roots and is used in aromatherapy, as a perfume and for many other purposes. A number of potential pharmacological effects have been studied in animals, but its effects in humans are unknown. The methanol extract of C. scariosus leaves has shown pain relieving effects and has reduced the elevated blood glucose levels of hyperglycemic mice. Aqueous-methanolic extract of Cyperus scariosus showed hepatoprotective properties in mice. An oil isolated from Cyperus scariosus showed anti-inflammatory activity C. scariosus causes immunosuppression by inhibiting Th1 cytokines in mice. Steam distillation of the tubers of cypriol yields 0.075–0.080% of an essential oil, the principal content of which is cyperine. Curry leaf The curry tree (Murraya koenigii) is a tropical to sub-tropical tree in the family Rutaceae, which is native to India and Sri Lanka. Its leaves are used in many dishes in India and neighbouring countries. Often used in curries, the leaves are generally called by the name "curry

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leaves", though they are also translated as "sweet neem leaves" in most Indian languages (as opposed to ordinary neem leaves which are bitter). The leaves are highly valued as seasoning in southern and west-coast Indian cooking, and Sri Lankan cooking especially in curries, usually fried along with the chopped onion in the first stage of the preparation. They are also used to make thoran, vada, rasam and kadhi. In their fresh form, they have a short shelf life & do not keep well in the refrigerator. They are also available dried, though the aroma is largely inferior. The leaves of Murraya koenigii are also used as an herb in Ayurvedic medicine. They are believed to possess anti-diabetic properties, but there is absolutely no evidence of this. Although most commonly used in curries, leaves from the curry tree can be used in many other dishes to add flavor. In Cambodia, Khmer toast the leaves in an open flame or roast it until crispy and then crush it into a soured soup dish called Maju Krueng. In the absence of tulsi leaves, curry leaves are used for rituals and pujas. Seeds must be ripe and fresh to plant; dried or shrivelled fruits are not viable. One can plant the whole fruit, but it is best to remove the pulp before planting in potting mix that is kept moist but not wet. A 2011 study of girinimbine, a carbazole alkaloid isolated from this plant, found that it inhibited the growth and induced apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma, HepG2 cells in vitro. Davana oil Artemisia pallens, Dhavanam is an aromatic herb, In genus of small herbs or shrubs, xerophytic In nature. The flowers are racemose panicles bear numerous small yellow flower heads or capitula, but the silvery white silky covering of down gives the foliage a Grey or white appearance. Davanam has alternate pinnasect leaves (leaf which is divided into opposite pairs of lobes cut almost to the midrib In narrow divisions) or palmatisect leaves (the green tissue is divided into several segments not fully separated At the base).

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It is commercially cultivated for its fragrant leaves and flowers. It has two distinct morphological types, one in which the plants are short in stature and flowering sets in early, and the other in which plants are tall and flowering sets in later. It grows from seeds and cuttings and reaches maturity in four months. The plant is woody in the lower part of the stem, but with yearly branches. Seen mostly grown in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu states in India. Artemisia pallens is a preferred food for the larvae of a number of butterfly species. Davanone, davan ether, davana furan and linalool are the major constituents of davana oil. Methyl cinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, bicyclogermacrene, 2-hydroxyisodavanone, farnesol, geranyl acetate, sesquiterpene lactones, and germacranolides are also found. The amount of davanone and linalool decreased while those of (Z)− and (E)−methyl cinnamate, (E)−ethyl cinnamate, bicyclogermacrene, davana ether, 2-hydroxyisodavanone, and farnesol increased from flower heads emergence stage to the initiation of seed set stage. Five compounds, (Z)− and (E)−methyl cinnamates, (Z)− and (E)−ethyl cinnamates, and geranyl acetate, were identified for the first time in davana oil. The leaves and flowers yield an essential oil known as oil of Davana. Several species yield essential oil and some are used as fodder, some of them are a source of the anthelmintic chemical santonin. Davana blossoms are offered to Shiva, the God of Transformation, by the faithful, and decorate his altar throughout the day. Oral administration of high doses aqueous/methanolic extract from the aerial parts of the plants was observed to reduce blood glucose levels in glucose−fed hyperglycemic and alloxan-treated rabbits and rats. Elecampane Elecampane also called horse-heal or marchalan (in Welsh) is a perennial composite plant common in many parts of Great Britain, and ranges throughout central and Southern Europe, and in Asia as far eastwards as the Himalayas. It is naturalized in North America. Other common names include elfdock; aunee (French); énula campana (Spanish); echter alant (German); and enula campana (Italian).

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It is a rather rigid herb, the stem of which attains a height of from 90 cm to 150 cm (3 to 5 feet); the leaves are large and toothed, the lower ones stalked, the rest embracing the stem; the flowers are yellow, 5 cm (2 inches) broad, and have many rays, each three-notched at the extremity. The root is thick, branching and mucilaginous, and has a warm, bitter taste and a camphoraceous odor with sweet floral (similar to violet) undertones. In France and Switzerland it is used in the manufacture of absinthe. For medicinal purposes, the roots should be procured from plants not more than two or three years old. Besides the storage polysaccharide inulin (C6H12O6[C6H10O5]n), a polymer of fructose, the root contains helenin (C15H20O2), a stearoptene, which may be prepared in white acicular crystals, insoluble in water, but freely soluble in alcohol. When freed from the accompanying inula-camphor by repeated crystallization from alcohol, helenin melts at 110 °C. Susan O'Shea, a research student at Cork Institute of Technology (CIT), Ireland, has shown that extracts from the herb kill methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as well as a broad spectrum of other bacteria. The plant's specific name, helenium, derives from Helen of Troy; elecampane is said to have sprung up from where her tears fell. It was sacred to the ancient Celts, and once had the name "elfwort". The root was employed by the ancients, mentioned in Pliny, Natural History 19.29 both as a medicine and as a condiment, and in England it was formerly in great repute as an aromatic tonic and stimulant of the secretory organs. As a drug it is still used by herbalists being very useful in respiratory cases. It loosens phlegm and is good in cases of colds, bronchitis and emphysema. It is also useful during the menopause to help allay night sweats. John Gerard recommended elecampane for "the shortness of breath". Today herbalists prescribe it as an expectorant and for water retention. It has minor applications as a tonic and to bring on menstruation.

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Eucalyptus oil Eucalyptus oil is the generic name for distilled oil from the leaf of Eucalyptus, a genus of the plant family Myrtaceae native to Australia and cultivated worldwide. Eucalyptus oil has a history of wide application, as a pharmaceutical, antiseptic, repellent, flavouring, fragrance and industrial uses. The leaves of selected Eucalyptus species are steam distilled to extract eucalyptus oil. The cineole-based oil is used as component in pharmaceutical preparations to relieve the symptoms of influenza and colds, in products like cough sweets, lozenges, ointments and inhalants. Eucalyptus oil has antibacterial effects on pathogenic bacteria in the respiratory tract. Inhaled eucalyptus oil vapor is a decongestant and treatment for bronchitis. Cineole controls airway mucus hypersecretion and asthma via anti-inflammatory cytokine inhibition. Eucalyptus oil also stimulates immune system response by effects on the phagocytic ability of human monocyte derived macrophages. Eucalyptus oil also has anti-inflammatory and analgesic qualities as a topically applied liniment ingredient. Eucalyptus oil is also used in personal hygiene products for antimicrobial properties in dental care and soaps. It can also be applied to wounds to prevent infection. Fennel seed oil Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is a flowering plant species in the celery family Apiaceae or Umbelliferae. It is the sole species in the genus Foeniculum. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized in many parts of the world, especially on dry soils near the sea-coast and on riverbanks. It is a highly aromatic and flavorful herb with culinary and medicinal uses and, along with the similar-tasting anise, is one of the primary ingredients of absinthe. Florence fennel or finocchio is a selection with a swollen, bulb-like stem base that is used as a vegetable.

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Fennel is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the mouse moth and the anise swallowtail. Fennel contains anethole, which can explain some of its medical effects; it, or its polymers, act as phytoestrogens. The essence of fennel can be used as a safe and effective herbal drug for primary dysmenorrhea, but could have lower potency than mefenamic acid at the current study level. Fenugreek oil Fenugreek is an annual plant in the family Fabaceae with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semi-arid crop, and its seeds are a common ingredient in dishes from the Indian Subcontinent. The main bioactive compounds are protodioscin, trigoneoside, diosgenin and yamogenin, which have anticarcinogenic potential in animal models through inhibition of cell proliferation and inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. Fenugreek oil (aromatic component) contains neryl acetate (17.32%), camphor (16.32%), β-pinene (15.05%), β-caryophyllene (14.63%), 2,5-dimethylpyrazine (6.14%), geranial (4.81%), 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (4.48%), 3-octen-2-one (4.32%), α-selinene (4.04%), α-terpineol (2.77%), α-campholenal (2.63%), α-pinene (2.61%), and γ-terpinene (2.08%). Fenugreek sprouts, cultivated from contaminated seeds imported from Egypt in 2009 and 2010, were implicated but not definitively linked to outbreaks of Escherichia coli O104:H4 in Germany and France. The E. coli outbreak caused 50 deaths in 2011. Fir Fir (Abies) is a genus of 48–55 species of evergreen coniferous tree in the family Pinaceae. It is found through much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, occurring in mountains over most of the range. Firs are most closely related to the genus Cedrus (cedar). Douglas firs are not true firs, being of the genus Pseudotsuga.

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All native species reach heights of 10–80 m (30–260 ft) tall and trunk diameters of 0.5–4 m (2–12 ft) when mature. Firs can be distinguished from other members of the pine family by the unique attachment of their needle-like leaves and by their different cones. Identification of the species is based on the size and arrangement of the leaves, the size and shape of the cones, and whether the bract scales of the cones are long and exserted, or short and hidden inside the cone. Frankincense oil Frankincense, also called olibanum, is an aromatic resin obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia, particularly Boswellia sacra, B. carteri, B. thurifera, B. frereana and B. bhaw-dajiana (Burseraceae). The English word is derived from Old French "franc encens" (i.e., high quality incense) and is used in incense and perfumes. There are four main species of Boswellia that produce true frankincense and resin from each of the four is available in various grades. The grades depend on the time of harvesting. The resin is hand-sorted for quality. Frankincense is mentioned in the Bible as one of the three types of gifts the wise men gave to the young child Jesus. Frankincense is used in perfumery and aromatherapy. It is also an ingredient that is sometimes used in skincare. The essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of the dry resin. Some of the smell of the frankincense smoke are products of pyrolysis. Frankincense is used in many Christian churches including the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Catholic churches. According to the gospel of Matthew 2:11, gold, frankincense, and myrrh were among the gifts to Jesus by the biblical magi "from out of the East." The Judaic, Christian and Islamic Abrahamic faiths have all used frankincense mixed with oils to anoint newborn infants, initiates, and members entering into new phases of their spiritual lives. Conversely, the spread of Christianity depressed the market for frankincense during the 4th century AD. Desertification made the caravan routes across the Rub' al Khali or "Empty Quarter" of the Arabian Peninsula

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more difficult. Additionally, increased raiding by the nomadic Parthians in the Near East caused the frankincense trade to dry up after A.D. 300. Frankincense resin is edible and is used in traditional medicines in Africa and Asia for digestion and healthy skin. For internal consumption, it is recommended that frankincense be translucent, with no black or brown impurities. It is often light yellow with a (very) slight greenish tint. It is often chewed like gum, but it is stickier. In Ayurvedic medicine frankincense (Boswellia serrata), commonly referred to in India as "dhoop," has been used for hundreds of years for treating arthritis, healing wounds, strengthening the female hormone system and purifying the air. The use of frankincense in Ayurveda is called "dhoopan". In Somali, Ethiopian, Arabian, and Indian cultures, it is suggested that burning frankincense daily in the house brings good health. The essential oil of frankincense is produced by steam distillation of the tree resin. The oil's chemical components are 75% monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, monoterpenoles, sesquiterpenols, and ketones. It has a good balsamic sweet fragrance, while the Indian frankincense oil has a very fresh smell. Steam or hydro distilled frankincense oil does contain a number of boswellic acids (triterpenoids) which represents a method of validating the authenticity of the essential oil. The chemistry of the essential oil is mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes with small amounts of diterpenoid components being the upper limit in terms of molecular weight. Analysis of frankincense from various Boswellia species with inhibitory activity on human drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry after automated on-line extraction. Galangal Galangal is a rhizome of plants in the ginger family Zingiberaceae, with culinary and medicinal uses originating in Indonesia. The rhizomes are used in various Asian cuisines (for example in Thai and Lao tom yum and tom kha gai soups, Vietnamese Huế cuisine (tré) and throughout Indonesian cuisine, for example, in soto). Galangal is related to and resembles ginger, and has a similar flavor but is much more potent.

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In its raw form, galangals have a stronger taste than common ginger. They are available as a whole rhizome, cut or powdered. The whole fresh rhizome is very hard, and slicing it requires a sharp knife. A mixture of galangal and lime juice is used as a tonic in parts of Southeast Asia. In the Indonesian language, the greater galangal and lesser galangal are both called lengkuas or laos, while Kaempferia galanga is known as kencur. It is also known as galanggal, and somewhat confusingly galingale, which is also the name for several plants of the unrelated Cyperus genus of sedges (also with aromatic rhizomes Galbanum Galbanum is an aromatic gum resin, the product of certain umbelliferous Persian plant species, chiefly Ferula gummosa (synonym F. galbaniflua) and Ferula rubricaulis. Galbanum-yielding plants grow plentifully on the slopes of the mountain ranges of northern Iran. It occurs usually in hard or soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or greenish-yellow colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a peculiar, somewhat musky odour, an intense green scent, and a specific gravity of 1.212. It contains about 8% terpenes; about 65% of a resin which contains sulfur; about 20% gum; and a very small quantity of the colorless crystalline substance umbelliferone. It also contains a-pinene, b-pinene, limonene, cadinene, 3-carene, and ocimene. It is occasionally used in the making of modern perfume, and is the ingredient which gives the distinctive smell to the fragrances "Must" by Cartier, "Vent Vert" by Balmain, "Chanel No. 19" and "Vol De Nuit" by Guerlain. The debut of Galbanum in fine modern perfumery is generally thought to be the origin of the "Green" family of scents, exemplified by the scent "Vent Vert" first launched by Balmain in 1945. Hippocrates employed it in medicine, and Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that "the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill a serpent." The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a volatile oil. Galbanum oil is steam-distilled to yield a green, fruity-floral odor reminiscent of fine malt.

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Geranium oil The true Pelargonium graveolens is an uncommon species in the Pelargonium genus, which is native to South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique, while the plants cultivated under this name (spelled P. 'Graveolens') differ from the wild specimens and are of hybrid origin (a probable cross between Pelargonium graveolens, P. capitatum and / or P. radens, or other closely related species). Often called a geranium, as it falls within the plant family Geraniaceae, and was previously categorised under the same genus. The common P. 'Graveolens' or P. 'Rosat' has great importance in the perfume industry. It is cultivated on a large scale and its foliage is distilled for its scent. P. 'Graveolens' cultivars have a wide variety of smells, including rose, citrus, mint, coconut and nutmeg, as well as various fruits. However, the most commercially important varieties are those with rose scents. Pelargonium distillates and absolutes, commonly known as "geranium oil", are sold for aromatherapy and massage therapy applications. They are also sometimes used to supplement or adulterate more expensive rose oils. The essential oil is an ingredient in a "natural" haemorrhoid treatment. As a flavoring, the flowers and leaves are used in cakes, jams, jellies, ice creams, sorbets, salads, sugars, and teas. A modern analysis listed the presence of over 50 organic compounds in the essential oil of P. graveolens from an Australian source. Analyses of Indian geranium oils indicated a similar phytochemical profile, and showed that the major constituents (in terms of % composition) were citronellol + nerol and geraniol. Ginger oil Ginger or ginger root is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale, consumed as a delicacy, medicine, or spice. It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other notable members of this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal. The distantly related dicots in the Asarum genus have the common name wild ginger because of their similar taste. Ginger is indigenous to southern China, from whence it spread to the Spice Islands and other parts of Asia, and subsequently to West Africa and the

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Caribbean. Ginger appeared in Europe, via India, in the 1st century CE as a result of the lucrative spice trade. The traditional medical form of ginger historically was called Jamaica ginger; it was classified as a stimulant and carminative and used frequently for dyspepsia, gastroparesis, slow motility symptoms, constipation, and colic. It was also frequently employed to disguise the taste of medicines. Some studies indicate ginger may provide short-term relief of pregnancy-related nausea and vomiting. Studies are inconclusive about effects for other forms of nausea or in treating pain from rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, or joint and muscle injury. Side effects, mostly associated with powdered ginger, are gas, bloating, heartburn, and nausea. Tea brewed from ginger is a common folk remedy for colds. Ginger ale and ginger beer are also drunk as stomach settlers in countries where the beverages are made. In Burma, ginger and a local sweetener made from palm tree juice (htan nyat) are boiled together and taken to prevent the flu. In China, ginger is included in several traditional preparations. A drink made with sliced ginger cooked in water with brown sugar or a cola is used as a folk medicine for the common cold. "Ginger eggs" (scrambled eggs with finely diced ginger root) is a common home remedy for coughing. The Chinese also make a kind of dried ginger candy that is fermented in plum juice and sugared, which is also commonly consumed to suppress coughing. Ginger has also been historically used to treat inflammation, which several scientific studies support, though one arthritis trial showed ginger to be no better than a placebo or ibuprofen for treatment of osteoarthritis. In Congo, ginger is crushed and mixed with mango tree sap to make tangawisi juice, which is considered a panacea. In India, ginger is applied as a paste to the temples to relieve headache, and consumed when suffering from the common cold. Ginger with lemon and black salt is also used for nausea.

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In Indonesia, ginger (jahe in Indonesian) is used as a herbal preparation to reduce fatigue, reducing "winds" in the blood, prevent and cure rheumatism and control poor dietary habits. In Nepal, ginger is called aduwa and is widely grown and used throughout the country as a spice for vegetables, used medically to treat cold and also sometimes used to flavor tea. In the Philippines, ginger is known as luya and is used as a throat lozenge in traditional medicine to relieve sore throat. It is also brewed into a tea known as salabat. In the United States, ginger is used to prevent motion and morning sickness. It is recognized as safe by the Food and Drug Administration and is sold as an unregulated dietary supplement. Ginger water is also used to avoid heat cramps. In Peru, ginger is sliced in hot water as an infusion for stomach aches as infusión de Kión. In Japan it is purported to aid blood circulation. Scientific studies investigating these effects have been inconclusive. Goldenrod Solidago, commonly called goldenrods, is a genus of about 100 to 120 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae. Most are herbaceous perennial species found in open areas such as meadows, prairies, and savannas. They are mostly native to North America, and a few species are native to Mexico, South America, and Eurasia. Some American species have also been introduced into Europe and other parts of the world. Solidago virgaurea is used in a traditional kidney tonic by practitioners of herbal medicine to counter inflammation and irritation caused by bacterial infections or kidney stones. Goldenrod has also been used as part of a tincture to aid in cleansing of the kidney or bladder during a healing fast, in conjunction with potassium broth and specific juices. Native Americans chewed the leaves to relieve sore throats and chewed the roots to relieve toothaches.

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Grapefruit oil The grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi) is a subtropical citrus tree known for its sour to semi-sweet fruit, an 18th-century hybrid first bred in Barbados. When found, it was named the "forbidden fruit"; and it has also been misidentified with the pomelo or shaddock (C. maxima), one of the parents of this hybrid, the other being sweet orange (C. × sinensis). Grapefruit has also been investigated in cancer medicine pharmacodynamics. Its inhibiting effect on the metabolism of some drugs may allow smaller doses to be used, which can help to reduce costs. Grapefruit can have a number of interactions with drugs, often increasing the effective potency of compounds. Researchers have identified 85 drugs with which grapefruit is known to have an adverse reaction. Grapefruit contains a number of polyphenolic compounds, including the flavanone naringin, alongside the two furanocoumarins bergamottin and dihydroxybergamottin. These inhibit the drug-metabolizing enzyme isoform CYP3A4 predominantly in the small intestine, but at higher doses also inhibit hepatic CYP3A4. It is via inhibition of this enzyme that grapefruit increases the effects of a variety of drugs by increasing their bioavailability. In particular grapefruit and bitter oranges are known to interact with statins. When drugs are taken orally, they enter the gut lumen to be absorbed in the small intestine and sometimes, in the stomach. In order for drugs to be absorbed, they must pass through the epithelial cells that line the lumen wall before they can enter the hepatic portal circulation to be distributed systemically in blood circulation. Drugs are metabolized by drug-specific metabolizing enzymes in the epithelial cells. Metabolizing enzymes transform these drugs into metabolites. The primary purpose for drug metabolism is to detoxify, inactivate, solubilize and eliminate these drugs. As a result, the amount of the drug in its original form that reaches systemic circulation is reduced due to this first-pass metabolism. Grapefruit juice contains furanocoumarins. Furanocoumarins irreversibly inhibit a cytochrome P450 metabolizing enzyme called CYP3A4, as stated above. CYP3A4 is a metabolizing enzyme for almost 50% of drugs, and is found in the liver and small intestinal epithelial cells. As a result, many drugs are impacted by consumption of grapefruit juice. When the metabolizing enzyme is inhibited, less of the drug will be metabolized by it in the epithelial cells. A decrease in drug metabolism means more of the original form of the drug could pass unchanged to systemic blood

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circulation. An unexpected high dose of the drug in the blood could lead to fatal drug toxicity. The furanocoumarins found in grapefruit juice are natural chemicals. Thus, they are present in all forms of the fruit, including freshly squeezed juice, frozen concentrate, and whole fruit. All these forms of the grapefruit juice have the potential to limit the metabolizing activity of CYP3A4. One whole grapefruit, or a glass of 200 mL of grapefruit juice can cause drug overdose toxicity. According to a review done by the Canadian Medical Association, there is an increase in the number of potential drugs that can interact with grapefruit juice. From 2008 to 2012, the percentage of drugs that interact with grapefruit juice and cause serious harmful effects (gastrointestinal bleeding, nephrotoxicity) has increased from 17 to 43 percent. The interaction between grapefruit juice and other medication depends on the drug, and not the class of the drug. Drugs that interact with grapefruit juice share 3 common features: they are taken orally, normally only a small amount enters systemic blood circulation, and they are metabolized by CYP3A4. Inhibition of the CPA 3A4 enzyme is irreversible and lasts a significant period of time. It takes around 24 hours to regain 50% of the enzyme activity and it can take 72 hours for the enzyme to completely return to activity. For this reason, simply separating grapefruit consumption and medication taken daily does not avoid the interaction. For medications that interact due to inhibition of OATP (organic anion-transporting polypeptides), a relative short period of time is needed to avoid this interaction. A 4-hour interval between grapefruit consumption and the medication should suffice. For drugs recently sold on the market, drugs have information pages (monographs) that provide information on any potential interaction between a medication and grapefruit juice. Because there is a growing number of medications that are known to interact with grapefruit juice, patients should consult a pharmacist or physician before planning to take grapefruit juice with their medications. Grapefruit juice may be the first drug-interacting fruit juice documented, but apple and orange juices have been also implicated in interfering with etoposide, a chemotherapy drug, some beta blocker drugs used to treat

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high blood pressure, and cyclosporine, taken by transplant patients to prevent rejection of their new organs. Some citrus-based carbonated beverages (e.g., “Sun Drop”) also contain enough grapefruit juice to cause drug interactions, particularly in patients taking cyclosporine. Unlike other fruits, grapefruit contains a large amount of naringin, and it can take up to 72 hours before the effects of the naringin on the CYP3A4 enzyme are seen. This is particularly problematic due to the fact that only 4 oz of grapefruit contain enough naringin to inhibit the metabolism of substrates of CYP3A4. Helichrysum The genus Helichrysum /hɛlɨˈkraɪsəm/ consists of an estimated 600 species, in the sunflower family (Asteraceae). The type species is Helichrysum orientale. The name is derived from the Greek words helisso (to turn around) and chrysos (gold). It occurs in Africa (with 244 species in South Africa), Madagascar, Australasia and Eurasia. The plants may be annuals, herbaceous perennials or shrubs, growing to a height of 60–90 cm. The genus was a wastebasket taxon, and many of its members have been reclassified in smaller genera, most notably the Everlastings, now in the genus Xerochrysum. Their leaves are oblong to lanceolate. They are flat and pubescent on both sides. The bristles of the pappus are scabrous, barbellate, or plumose. The receptacle (base of the flower head) is often smooth, with a fringed margin, or honey-combed, and resemble daisies. They may be in almost all colors, except blue. There are many capitula and generally flat-topped corymbs or panicles. The corolla lobes show glandular hairs at the abaxial surface. Several species are grown as ornamental plants, and for dried flowers. When cut young and dried, the open flowers and stalks preserve their colour and shape for long periods. Helichrysum species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the bucculaticid leaf-miners Bucculatrix gnaphaliella (which feeds exclusively on Helichrysum arenarium) and

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Bucculatrix helichrysella (feeds exclusively on H. italicum) and the Coleophora case-bearers C. caelebipennella, C. gnaphalii (feeds exclusively on H arenarium) and C. helichrysiella (feeds exclusively on H. italicum). Helichrysum italicum (synonym Helichrysum angustifolium) is steam distilled to produce a yellow-reddish essential oil popular in fragrance for its unique scent, best described as a mixture of burnt sugar and ham. Angustifolium means narrow leaved. The name is commonly misspelled as "augustifolium". Horseradish oil Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana, syn. Cochlearia armoracia) is a perennial plant of the Brassicaceae family (which also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, and cabbage). The plant is probably native to southeastern Europe and western Asia. It is now popular around the world. It grows up to 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) tall, and is cultivated primarily for its large, white, tapered root. The intact horseradish root has hardly any aroma. When cut or grated, however, enzymes from the now-broken plant cells break down sinigrin (a glucosinolate) to produce allyl isothiocyanate (mustard oil), which irritates the mucous membranes of the sinuses and eyes. Grated mash should be used immediately or preserved in vinegar for best flavor. Once exposed to air or heat it will begin to lose its pungency, darken in color, and become unpleasantly bitter tasting over time. Compounds found in horseradish have been widely studied for a plethora of health benefits. Horseradish contains volatile oils, notably mustard oil, which has antibacterial properties due to the presence of allyl isothiocyanate. Fresh, the plant also contains average 79.31 mg of vitamin C per 100 g of raw horseradish. The enzyme horseradish peroxidase (HRP), found in the plant, is used extensively in molecular biology and biochemistry. Hyssop Hyssopus officinalis, hyssop is a herbaceous plant of the genus Hyssopus native to Southern Europe, the Middle East, and the region surrounding the

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Caspian Sea. Due to its properties as an antiseptic, cough reliever, and expectorant, it is commonly used as an aromatic herb and medicinal plant. As a medicinal herb, hyssop has soothing, expectorant, and cough suppressant properties. The plant also includes the chemicals thujone and phenol, which give it antiseptic properties. Its high concentrations of thujone and chemicals that stimulate the central nervous system can provoke epileptic reactions when taken in high enough doses. The oil of hyssop can cause seizures and even low doses (2–3 drops) can cause convulsions in children. It has been also used in the formulation of eye drops and mouthwash. Herb hyssop has also been observed to stimulate the gastrointestinal system. Jasmine oil Jasmine is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family (Oleaceae). It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Jasmines are widely cultivated for the characteristic fragrance of their flowers. A number of unrelated plants contain the word "Jasmine" in their common names (see Other plants called "Jasmine") Jasmine is considered an absolute and not an essential oil as the petals of the flower are much too delicate and would be destroyed by the distillation process used in creating essential oils. Other than the processing method it is essentially the same as an essential oil. Absolute is a technical term used to denote the process of extraction. It is in common use. Its flowers are either extracted by the labour-intensive method of enfleurage or through chemical extraction. It is expensive due to the large number of flowers needed to produce a small amount of oil. The flowers have to be gathered at night because the odour of jasmine is more powerful after dark. The flowers are laid out on cotton cloths soaked in olive oil for several days and then extracted leaving the true jasmine essence. Some of the countries producing jasmine essential oil are India, Egypt, China and Morocco. Jasmine absolute used in perfume and incense.Many species also yield an absolute, which is used in perfumes and incense. Its chemical constituents include methyl anthranilate, indole, benzyl alcohol, linalool, and skatole.

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Jasmine scent and (R)-(–)-linalool (licareol), one of its major odor components, has been reported to have sedative properties now being investigated for medical applications. Laurus nobilis Laurus nobilis is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with green, glossy leaves, native to the Mediterranean region. It is one of the plants used for bay leaf seasoning in cooking. It is known as bay laurel, sweet bay, bay tree (esp. United Kingdom), true laurel, Grecian laurel, laurel tree or simply laurel. Laurus nobilis figures prominently in classical Greek, Roman, and Biblical culture. Worldwide, many other kinds of plants in diverse families are also called "bay" or "laurel", generally due to similarity of foliage or aroma to Laurus nobilis, and the full name is used for the California bay laurel (Umbellularia), also in the family Lauraceae. Aqueous extracts of bay laurel can also be used as astringents and even as a reasonable salve for open wounds. In massage therapy, the essential oil of bay laurel is reputed to alleviate arthritis and rheumatism, while in aromatherapy, it is used to treat earaches and high blood pressure. A traditional folk remedy for rashes caused by poison ivy, poison oak, and stinging nettle is a poultice soaked in boiled bay leaves. The chemical compound lauroside B isolated from Laurus nobilis is an inhibitor of human melanoma (skin cancer) cell proliferation at high concentrations. Bay is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in regions with Mediterranean or oceanic climates, and as a house plant or greenhouse plant in colder regions. It is used in topiary to create single erect stems with ball-shaped, box-shaped or twisted crowns; also for low hedges. Together with a gold form, L. nobilis 'Aurea', it has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

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Lavender oil Lavender oil is an essential oil obtained by distillation from the flower spikes of certain species of lavender. Two forms are distinguished, lavender flower oil, a colorless oil, insoluble in water, having a density of 0.885 g/mL; and lavender spike oil, a distillate from the herb Lavandula latifolia, having density 0.905 g/mL. Lavender flower oil is a designation of the National Formulary and the British Pharmacopoeia. Like all essential oils, it is not a pure compound; it is a complex mixture of naturally occurring phytochemicals, including linalool and linalyl acetate. Kashmir Lavender oil is famous for being produced from lavender at the foothills of the Himalayas. As of 2011, the biggest lavender oil producer in the world is Bulgaria. Lavender oil, which has long been used in the production of perfume, can also be used in aromatherapy. The scent has a calming effect which may aid in relaxation and the reduction of anxiety and stress. Lasea capsules containing lavender oil with a high amount of linalool and linalyl acetate, termed Silexan by the manufacturer, are approved as an anxiolytic in Germany. The approval is based on a finding that the capsules are comparable in effect to low-dose lorazepam. According to advocates of alternative medicine, lavender oil can be used as an antiseptic and pain reliever to be applied to minor burns and insect bites and stings. It is also said to treat a variety of common ailments, such as sunburn and sunstroke. It can also be used in massage oil mixtures, which may be effective in the relief of joint and muscle pain, or in chest rub mixtures for the relief of asthmatic and bronchitic spasm. It is also said to treat head lice when used in a hair rinse mixture, or on a fine comb to eliminate nits.One study suggests application of lavender essential oil instead of povidone-iodine for episiotomy wound care. In vitro, lavender oil is cytotoxic as well as photosensitizing. A study demonstrated that lavender oil is cytotoxic to human skin cells in vitro (endothelial cells and fibroblasts) at a concentration of 0.25%. Linalool, a component of lavender oil, reflected the activity of the whole oil, indicating that linalool may be the active component of lavender oil. The result of another study showed that aqueous extracts reduced mitotic index, but induced chromosome aberrations and mitotic aberrations in comparison

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with control, significantly. Aqueous extracts induced breaks, stickiness, pole deviations and micronuclei. Furthermore, these effects were related to extract concentrations. However, according to a 2005 study "although it was recently reported that lavender oil, and its major constituent linalyl acetate, are toxic to human skin cells in vitro, contact dermatitis to lavender oil appears to occur at only a very low frequency. The relevance of this in vitro toxicity to dermatological application of Lavandula oils remains unclear." In terms of phototoxicity, a 2007 investigative report from European researchers stated that, "Lavender oil and sandalwood oil did not induce photohaemolysis in our test system. However, a few reports on photosensitivity reactions due to these substances have been published, e.g. one patient with persistent light reaction and a positive photo-patch test to sandalwood oil." Oil of spike lavender has also occasionally been used as a solvent in oil painting, mainly before the use of distilled turpentine became common. For instance Francisco Pacheco mentions the use of lavender oil in his book "Arte de la pintura" (1649). Lavender oil was implicated in gynecomastia, the abnormal development of breasts in young boys. Denver endocrinologist Clifford Bloch hypothesized the link after three boys presented with enlarged breasts. Subsequently, Derek Henley and Kenneth Korach of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences in Research Triangle Park, N.C., discovered in lavender and tea tree oil the presence of compounds which both suppress male hormones and mimic female hormones. Because sex hormone levels normally are low prior to puberty, young boys and girls particularly are sensitive to estrogenic and androgenic compounds. The discovery of the gynecomastia link in boys has led some researchers to suspect lavender and tea tree oils, which are present in various personal care products including shampoos and lotions, may also contribute to the increased incidence of early breast development in girls. Discontinuation of use of these products resulted in reversal of gynecomastia in Bloch’s young patients.

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The conclusion that the gynecomastia actually was caused by the essential oils in the products used by the three boys is disputed by the Natural Artisan Perfumers Guild and Cropwatch on the claimed basis of insufficient evidence. Work testing lavender oil using the model regarded as the gold-standard in vivo test for estrogenic activity "gave no evidence of estrogenic activity". The conclusion that gynecomastia was caused by lavender was disputed by Valerie T. Politano et al., Research Institute for Fragrance Materials and published in the International Journal of Toxicology. Based on the data from her study, lavender oil, at dosages of 20 or 100 mg/kg, was not active in the rat uterotrophic assay. Ledum Ledum was a genus in the family Ericaceae, including 8 species of evergreen shrubs native to cool temperate and subarctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and commonly known as Labrador Tea. It is now recognised as a subsection of section Rhododendron, subgenus Rhododendron, of the genus Rhododendron. Some species (e.g. L. groenlandicum) have been used to produce Labrador Tea. Other species have varying levels of toxicity (e.g. L. glandulosum). Evergreen Labrador Tea grows slowly, but retains its leaves year-round. Users should take care not to over-harvest leaves from any single plant. Ledum sp. often grows together with poisonous plants such as Bog-laurel and Bog-rosemary, but certain species (e.g. L. groenlandicum and L. palustre) are easily distinguished by the distinctive rust coloured fuzz on the bottom of leaves. According to a Russian study from 1991, Ledum was able to almost completely inactivate the tick-borne bacterial infection caused by Borrelia, involved in the pathogenesis of Lyme Disease. Lemon oil Similar in fragrance to the fruit. Unlike other essential oils, lemon oil is usually cold pressed. Used medicinally, as an antiseptic, and in cosmetics.

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Lemon oil may be used in aromatherapy. Lemon oil aroma does not influence the human immune system, but may enhance mood. The low pH of juice makes it antibacterial, and in India, the lemon is used in Indian traditional medicines (Siddha medicine and Ayurveda). Lemongrass Cymbopogon, commonly known as lemongrass is a genus of about 45 species of grasses, (of which the type species is Cymbopogon citratus, a natural and soft tea anxiolytic) native to warm temperate and tropical regions of the Old World and Oceania. It is a tall perennial grass. Common names include lemon grass, lemongrass, barbed wire grass, silky heads, citronella grass, cha de Dartigalongue, fever grass, tanglad, hierba Luisa, or gavati chaha, amongst many others. Lemongrass is native to Australia and tropical Asia. It is widely used as a herb in Asian cuisine. It has a subtle citrus flavor and can be dried and powdered, or used fresh. It is commonly used in teas, soups, and curries. It is also suitable for use with poultry, fish, beef, and seafood. It is often used as a tea in African countries such as Togo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Latin American countries such as Mexico. Lemongrass oil is used as a pesticide and a preservative. Research shows that lemongrass oil has antifungal properties. Despite its ability to repel insects, its oil is commonly used as a "lure" to attract honey bees. "Lemongrass works conveniently as well as the pheromone created by the honeybee's Nasonov gland, also known as attractant pheromones. Because of this, lemongrass oil can be used as a lure when trapping swarms or attempting to draw the attention of hived bees." Citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus and Cymbopogon winterianus) grow to about 2 m (6.6 ft) and have magenta-colored base stems. These species are used for the production of citronella oil, which is used in soaps, as an insect repellent (especially mosquitoes) in insect sprays and candles, and in aromatherapy, which is famous in Bintan Island, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Therefore, its origin is assumed to be Indonesia. The principal chemical constituents of citronella, geraniol and citronellol, are antiseptics, hence their use in household disinfectants and soaps. Besides oil production, citronella grass is also used for culinary purposes, as a flavoring.

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Citronella is usually planted in home gardens to ward off insects such as whitefly adults. Its cultivation enables growing some vegetables (e.g. tomatoes and broccoli) without applying pesticides. Intercropping should include physical barriers, for citronella roots can take over the field. Lemongrass oil, used as a pesticide and preservative, is put on the ancient palm-leaf manuscripts found in India as a preservative. It is used at the Oriental Research Institute Mysore, the French Institute of Pondicherry, the Association for the Preservation of the Saint Thomas Christian Heritage in Kerala, and many other manuscript collections in India. The oil also injects natural fluidity into the brittle palm leaves, and the hydrophobic nature of the oil keeps the manuscripts dry so the text is not lost to decay due to humidity. East Indian lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus), also called Cochin grass or Malabar grass (Malayalam: (inchippullu), is native to Cambodia, Vietnam, India, Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand, while West Indian lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) is native to maritime Southeast Asia. It is known as serai in Malaysia and Brunei, serai or sereh in Indonesia, and tanglad in the Philippines. While both can be used interchangeably, C. citratus is more suitable for cooking. In India, C. citratus is used both as a medical herb and in perfumes. C. citratus is consumed as a tea for anxiety in Brazilian folk medicine, but a study in humans found no effect. The tea caused a recurrence of contact dermatitis in one case. Lemon grass is also known as gavati chaha in the Marathi language (gavat = grass; chaha = tea), and is used as an addition to tea, and in preparations such as kadha, which is a traditional herbal 'soup' used against coughs, colds, etc. It has medicinal properties and is used extensively in Ayurvedic medicine. It is supposed to help with relieving cough and nasal congestion. Lemongrass is a highy fragrant grass from India. In India, it is used to help treat fevers and infections. The oil is very useful for insect repellent. Lime Lime (from Arabic and French lim) is a term referring to a citrus fruit which is typically round, green, 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) in diameter, and containing sour (acidic) pulp. There are several species of citrus trees whose fruits are called limes, including the Key lime, Persian lime, kaffir

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lime, and desert lime. Limes are a good source of vitamin C, and are often used to accent the flavours of foods and beverages. They are grown year-round and are usually smaller and less sour than lemons, although varieties may differ in sugar and acidic content. As compared to lemons, limes contain less vitamin C and carbohydrates (sugars) per 100 grams. When human skin is exposed to ultraviolet light after lime juice contact, a reaction known as phytophotodermatitis can occur, which can cause darkening of the skin, swelling or blistering. Bartenders handling limes and other citrus fruits when preparing cocktails may develop phytophotodermatitis due to the high concentration of furocoumarins in limes. The main furanocoumarin in limes is lemitti. Mandarin The Mandarin orange, also known as the mandarin or mandarine (both lower-case), is a small citrus tree (Citrus reticulata) with fruit resembling other oranges. Mandarin oranges are usually eaten plain or in fruit salads. Specifically reddish-orange mandarin cultivars can be marketed as tangerines, but this is not a botanical classification. When exporting began, local Mandarin oranges were named after their port of origin. The tree is more drought-tolerant than the fruit. The mandarin is tender and is damaged easily by cold. It can be grown in tropical and subtropical areas. According to molecular studies, the mandarin, the citron, the pomelo, and the papeda were the ancestors of all other citrus species and their varieties, through breeding or natural hybridization; mandarins are therefore all the more important as the only sweet fruit among the parental species. In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried peel of the fruit is used in the regulation of ch'i, and also used to treat abdominal distension, to enhance digestion, and to reduce phlegm. Mandarins have also been used in ayurveda (traditional medicine of India). Marjoram Marjoram (Origanum majorana, syn. Majorana hortensis Moench, Majorana majorana (L.) H. Karst) is a somewhat cold-sensitive perennial herb or undershrub with sweet pine and citrus flavors. In some Middle-Eastern

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countries, marjoram is synonymous with oregano, and there the names sweet marjoram and knotted marjoram are used to distinguish it from other plants of the genus Origanum. The name marjoram (Old French majorane, Medieval Latin majorana) does not directly derive from the Latin word maior (major). Marjoram is indigenous to Cyprus and southern Turkey, and was known to the Greeks and Romans as a symbol of happiness. Considered a tender perennial (USDA Zones 7-9), marjoram can sometimes prove hardy even in zone 5. Marjoram is cultivated for its aromatic leaves, either green or dry, for culinary purposes; the tops are cut as the plants begin to flower and are dried slowly in the shade. It is often used in herb combinations such as herbes de Provence and za'atar. The flowering leaves and tops of marjoram are steam-distilled to produce an essential oil that is yellowish in color (darkening to brown as it ages). It has many chemical components, some of which are borneol, camphor and pinene. Oregano (Origanum vulgare, sometimes listed with marjoram as Origanum majorana) is also called wild marjoram. It is a perennial common in southern Europe in dry copses and on hedge-banks, with many stout stems 30–80 cm high, bearing short-stalked, somewhat ovate leaves and clusters of purple flowers. It has a stronger flavor than marjoram. Pot marjoram or Cretan oregano (Origanum onites) has similar uses to marjoram. Hardy marjoram or French marjoram, a cross of marjoram with oregano, is much more resistant to cold, but is slightly less sweet. Origanum pulchellum is known as showy marjoram or showy oregano. Marjoram is used for seasoning soups, stews, dressings and sauce. Majorana hortensis herb has been used in the traditional Austrian medicine for treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract and infections. Melaleuca Melaleuca is a genus of plants in the myrtle family Myrtaceae known for its natural soothing and cleansing properties. There are well over 200

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recognised species, most of which are endemic to Australia. A few species occur in Malesia and 7 species are endemic to New Caledonia. Scientific studies have shown that tea tree oil made from M. alternifolia may have some promise for mild cases of acne and athlete's foot, however there are many health claims made for it that are not backed by medical evidence. The oils of Melaleuca can be found in organic solutions of medication that claim to eliminate warts, including the Human papillomavirus. No scientific evidence proves these claims. Melaleuca oils are the active ingredient in Burn-Aid, a popular minor burn first aid treatment. M. leucadendra oil, cajeput tree, is also used in many pet fish remedies such as Melafix and Bettafix to treat bacterial and fungal infections. Bettafix is a lighter dilution of cajeput tree oil, while Melafix is a stronger dilution. It is most commonly used to promote fin and tissue regrowth. The remedies are often associated with Betta fish (Siamese Fighting Fish) but are also used with other fish. Melissa oil Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), also known as balm or balm mint, is a perennial herb in the mint family Lamiaceae, native to south-central Europe, North Africa, the Mediterranean region, and Central Asia. It grows to 70–150 cm tall. The leaves have a gentle lemon scent, related to mint. During summer, small white flowers full of nectar appear. It is not to be confused with bee balm (which is genus Monarda). The white flowers attract bees, hence the genus name Melissa (Greek for 'honey bee'). Its flavour comes from citronellal (24%), geranial (16%), linalyl acetate (12%) and caryophyllene (12%). In the traditional Austrian medicine, M. officinalis leaves have been prescribed for internal (as tea) or external (essential oil) application for the treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, nervous system, liver, and bile.

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Lemon balm is the main ingredient of Carmelite Water, which is still for sale in German pharmacies. Lemon balm essential oil is very popular in aromatherapy. The essential oil is commonly codistilled with lemon oil, citronella oil, or other oils. High doses of purified lemon balm extracts were found to be effective in the amelioration of laboratory-induced stress in human subjects, producing "significantly increased self-ratings of calmness and reduced self-ratings of alertness." The authors further report a "significant increase in the speed of mathematical processing, with no reduction in accuracy" following the administration of a 300-mg dose of extract. Lemon balm is believed to inhibit the absorption of the thyroid medication thyroxine. Recent research found a daily dose of the tea reduced oxidative stress status in radiology staff who were exposed to persistent low-dose radiation during work. After only 30 days of taking the tea daily, consuming lemon balm tea resulted in a significant improvement in plasma levels of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase, and a marked reduction in plasma DNA damage, myeloperoxidase, and lipid peroxidation. The crushed leaves, when rubbed on the skin, are used as a mosquito repellent. Lemon balm is also used medicinally as an herbal tea, or in extract form. It is used as an anxiolytic, mild sedative, or calming agent. At least one study has found it to be effective at reducing stress, although the study's authors call for further research. Lemon balm extract was identified as a potent in vitro inhibitor of GABA transaminase, which explains anxiolytic effects. The major compound responsible for GABA transaminase inhibition activity in lemon balm was then found to be rosmarinic acid. Lemon balm and preparations thereof also have been shown to improve mood and mental performance. These effects are believed to involve muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Positive results have been achieved in a small clinical trial involving Alzheimer patients with mild to moderate symptoms. Essential oils obtained from Melissa officinalis leaf

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showed high acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase co-inhibitory activities. Its antibacterial properties have also been demonstrated scientifically, although they are markedly weaker than those from a number of other plants studied. The extract of lemon balm was also found to have exceptionally high antioxidant activity. Lemon balm is mentioned in the scientific journal Endocrinology, where it is explained that Melissa officinalis exhibits antithyrotropic activity, inhibiting TSH from attaching to TSH receptors, hence making it of possible use in the treatment of Graves' disease or hyperthyroidism. Mentha arvensis oil Mentha arvensis, wild mint or corn mint) is a species of mint with a circumboreal distribution. It is native to the temperate regions of Europe and western and central Asia, east to the Himalaya and eastern Siberia, and North America. Wild mint is a herbaceous perennial plant generally growing to 10–60 cm (3.9–23.6 in) and rarely up to 100 cm (39 in) tall. It has a creeping rootstock from which grow erect or semi-sprawling squarish stems. The leaves are in opposite pairs, simple, 2–6.5 cm (0.79–2.56 in) long and 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) broad, hairy, and with a coarsely serrated margin. The flowers are pale purple (occasionally white or pink), in whorls on the stem at the bases of the leaves. Each flower is 3 to 4 mm (0.12 to 0.16 in) long and has a five-lobed hairy calyx, a four-lobed corolla with the uppermost lobe larger than the others and four stamens. The fruit is a two-chambered carpel. In ayurveda, Pudina is considered as appetizer and useful in gastric troubles. In Europe, wild mint was traditionally used to treat flatulence, digestional problems, gall bladder problems and coughs. The Aztecs used it for similar purposes and also to induce sweating and they used the infusion to cure insomnia. The oil was extracted and rubbed into the skin for aches and pains. The Native Americans also used it in several traditional ways. Nowadays it is used in many countries for various ailments. Mint extracts and menthol-related chemicals are used in food, drinks, cough medicines, creams and cigarettes.

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Chemical substances that can be extracted from wild mint include menthol, menthone, isomenthone, neomenthol, limonene, methyl acetate, piperitone, beta-caryophyllene, alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, tannins and flavonoids. Mountain Savory Mountain savory (Satureja montana) (Satureja montana) is a perennial herb in the family Lamiaceae, native to warm temperate regions of southern Europe. It is a semi-evergreen, semi-woody subshrub growing to 16 in (41 cm) tall. The leaves are opposite, oval-lanceolate, 1–2 cm long and 5 mm broad. The flowers are white. Easy to grow, it makes an attractive border plant for any culinary herb garden. It requires six hours of sun a day in soil that drains well. S. montana 'Nana' is a dwarf cultivar. In temperate climates it goes dormant in winter, putting out leaves on the bare stems again in the spring – do not cut the plant back, all those stems which appear dead will leaf out again. It is hardy and has a low bunching habit. Mountain savory was used for hundreds of years. Both it and summer savory have been grown and used, virtually side by side. Both have strong spicy flavour. It goes particularly well with any type of mushroom, or in white sauces, and is very good in potato salads. Small amounts spice a regular salad well. It has a rich herbaceous aroma when crushed. It is used as a companion plant for beans, keeping bean weevils away, and also roses, reducing mildew and aphids. Mountain savory has been purported to have antiseptic, aromatic, carminative, and digestive benefits. It has also been used as an expectorant and in the treatment of stings. The plant has a stronger action than the closely related summer savory. Taken internally, it is said to be a remedy for colic and a cure for flatulence, whilst it is also used to treat gastro-enteritis, cystitis, nausea, diarrhea, bronchial congestion, sore throat and menstrual disorders. It should not be prescribed for pregnant women. A sprig of the plant, rubbed onto bee or wasp stings, brings instant relief.

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Therapeutic-grade oil has been determined to inhibit growth of Candida albicans. The plant is harvested in the summer when in flower and can be used fresh or dried. The essential oil forms an ingredient in lotions for the scalp in cases of incipient baldness. An ointment made from the plant is used externally to relieve arthritic joints. In traditional herbal medicine, Mountain savory was believed to be an aphrodisiac, while winter savory was believed to inhibit sexual desire. Mugwort oil Mugwort is a common name for several species of aromatic plants in the genus Artemisia. In Europe, mugwort most often refers to the species Artemisia vulgaris, or common mugwort. While other species are sometimes referred to by more specific common names, they may be called simply "mugwort" in many contexts. For example, one species is often called "mugwort" in the context of traditional Asian medicine Artemisia argyi but may be also referred to by the more specific name "Chinese mugwort" Mugworts are used medicinally, especially in Chinese, Japanese and Korean traditional medicine, and are used as an herb to flavor food. In Korea, mugworts were also used for plain, non-medicinal consumption; in South Korea, mugworts, called Ssuk, are still used as a staple ingredient in many dishes including rice cakes and soup. The mugwort plant contains essential oils (such as cineole, or wormwood oil, and thujone), flavonoids, triterpenes, and coumarin derivatives. It was also used as an anthelminthic, so it is sometimes confused with wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). The plant, called nagadamni in Sanskrit, is used in Ayurveda for cardiac complaints as well as feelings of unease, unwellness and general malaise. In Traditional Japanese, Korean and Chinese Medicine, Chinese mugwort (Folium Artemisiae argyi) is used for moxibustion, for a wide variety of health issues. The herb can be placed directly on the skin, attached to acupuncture needles, or rolled into sticks and waved gently over the area to be treated. In all instances, the herb is ignited and releases heat. Not only is it the herb which is believed to have healing properties in this

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manner, but it is also the heat released from the herb in a precise area that heals. There is significant technique involved when the herb is rolled into tiny pieces the size of a rice grain and lit with an incense stick directly on the skin. The little herbal fire is extinguished just before the lit herb actually touches the skin. In Traditional Chinese medicine there is a belief that moxibustion of mugwort is effective at increasing the cephalic positioning of fetuses who were in a breech position before the intervention. A Cochrane review in 2012 found that moxibustion may be beneficial in reducing the need for ECV, but stressed a need for well-designed randomised controlled trials to evaluate this usage. Since it also causes uterine contractions, it has been used to cause abortion. A study of 260 Chinese women at 33 weeks of pregnancy demonstrated cephalic version within two weeks in 75% of fetuses carried by patients who were treated with moxibustion, as opposed to 48% in the control group. It has also been shown that acupuncture plus moxibustion slows fetal heart rates while increasing fetal movement. Two recent studies of Italian patients produced conflicting results. In the first, involving 226 patients, there was cephalic presentation at delivery in 54% of women treated between 33 and 35 weeks with acupuncture and moxibustion, vs. 37% in the control group. The second was terminated prematurely because of poor compliance with treatment, but found no difference between moxibustion and control groups. In rats, Mugwort shows efficacy against trichinellosis. Mugwort pollen is one of the main sources of hay fever and allergic asthma, in North Europe, North America and in parts of Asia. Mugwort pollen generally travels less than 2,000 meters. The highest concentration of mugwort pollen is generally found between 9 and 11 am. The Finnish allergy association recommends tearing as method of eradicating mugwort. Tearing mugwort is known to lessen the effect of the allergy, since the pollen flies only short distance. Mustard oil Mustard oil is an essential oil resulting from grinding the seeds, mixing them with water, and extracting the resulting volatile oil by distillation. Based on studies done on laboratory animals in the early 1970s, erucic acid appears to have toxic effects on the heart at high enough doses. While

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no negative health effects of any exposure to erucic acid have been documented in humans, publication of those studies led to governments worldwide moving away from oils with high levels of erucic acid, and tolerance levels for human exposure to erucic acid have been established based on the animal studies. Mustard oil is not allowed to be imported or sold in the U.S. for use in cooking, due to its high erucic acid content. Including oils in the diet that are high in alpha-linolenic acid has been thought to protect the heart and to prevent cardiovascular disease, but recent reviews have cast doubt on this, finding only slightly positive outcomes or even negative outcomes. Two studies on health effects of mustard oil have been conducted in India, which had conflicting results. One found that mustard oil had no protective effect on the heart, and the authors reckoned that the benefits of alpha-linolenic acid were outweighed by the harm of erucic acid, while another study found that mustard oil had a protective effect, and the authors reckoned that the benefits of alpha-linolenic acid outweighed the harm of erucic acid. The use of mustard oils in traditional societies for infant massage has been identified by one study as risking damaging skin integrity and permeability. Other studies over larger samples have shown that massaging with mustard oil improved the weight, length, and midarm and midleg circumferences as compared to infants without massage, although sesame oil is a better candidate for this than mustard oil. The pungency of the condiment mustard results when ground mustard seeds are mixed with water, vinegar, or other liquid (or even when chewed). Under these conditions, a chemical reaction between the enzyme myrosinase and a glucosinolate known as sinigrin from the seeds of black mustard (Brassica nigra) or brown Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) produces allyl isothiocyanate. By distillation one can produce a very sharp-tasting essential oil, sometimes called volatile oil of mustard, containing more than 92% allyl isothiocyanate. The pungency of allyl isothiocyanate is due to the activation of the TRPA1 ion channel in sensory neurons. White mustard (Brassica hirta) does not yield allyl isothiocyanate, but a different and milder isothiocyanate.

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Allyl isothiocyanate serves the plant as a defense against herbivores. Since it is harmful to the plant itself, it is stored in the harmless form of a glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme. Once the herbivore chews the plant, the noxious allyl isothiocyanate is produced. Allyl isothiocyanate is also responsible for the pungent taste of horseradish and wasabi. It can be produced synthetically, sometimes known as synthetic mustard oil. Because of the contained allyl isothiocyanate, this type of mustard oil is toxic and irritates the skin and mucous membranes. In very small amounts, it is often used by the food industry for flavoring. In northern Italy, for instance, it is used in the fruit condiment called mostarda. It is also used to repel cats and dogs. It will also denature alcohol, making it unfit for human consumption, thus avoiding the taxes collected on alcoholic beverages. The CAS number of this type of mustard oil is 8007-40-7, and the CAS number of pure allyl isothiocyanate is 57-06-7. Myrrh oil Myrrh from the Arabic, is the aromatic resin of a number of small, thorny tree species of the genus Commiphora, which is an essential oil termed an oleoresin. Myrrh resin is a natural gum. It has been used throughout history as a perfume, incense and medicine. It can also be ingested by mixing it with wine. When a tree wound penetrates through the bark and into the sapwood, the tree bleeds a resin. Myrrh gum, like frankincense, is such a resin. When people harvest myrrh, they wound the trees repeatedly to bleed them of the gum. Myrrh gum is waxy, and coagulates quickly. After the harvest, the gum becomes hard and glossy. The gum is yellowish, and may be either clear or opaque. It darkens deeply as it ages, and white streaks emerge. Myrrh gum is commonly harvested from the species Commiphora myrrha, which is native to Yemen, Somalia, Eritrea and eastern Ethiopia. Another commonly used name, Commiphora molmol, is now considered a synonym of Commiphora myrrha. The related Commiphora gileadensis, native to Eastern Mediterranean and particularly the Arabian Peninsula, is the biblically referenced Balm of Gilead, also known as Balsam of Mecca. Several other species yield bdellium and Indian myrrh.

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The oleo gum resins of a number of other Commiphora species are also used as perfumes, medicines (such as aromatic wound dressings), and incense ingredients. These myrrh-like resins are known as opopanax, balsam, bdellium, guggul and bisabol. Fragrant "myrrh beads" are made from the crushed seeds of Detarium microcarpum, an unrelated West African tree. These beads are traditionally worn by married women in Mali as multiple strands around the hips. The name "myrrh" is also applied to the potherb Myrrhis odorata, otherwise known as "cicely" or "sweet cicely". Myrrh is also found in the Christian Bible as one of the three gifts the wise men presented to baby Jesus. In traditional Chinese medicine, myrrh is classified as bitter and spicy, with a neutral temperature. It is said to have special efficacy on the heart, liver, and spleen meridians, as well as "blood-moving" powers to purge stagnant blood from the uterus. It is therefore recommended for rheumatic, arthritic, and circulatory problems, and for amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, menopause, and uterine tumors. Myrrh's uses are similar to those of frankincense, with which it is often combined in decoctions, liniments and incense. When used in concert, myrrh is "blood-moving" while frankincense moves the Qi, making it more useful for arthritic conditions. It is combined with such herbs as notoginseng, safflower petals, angelica sinensis, cinnamon, and salvia miltiorrhiza, usually in alcohol, and used both internally and externally. Myrrh is used more frequently in Ayurveda and Unani medicine, which ascribe tonic and rejuvenative properties to the resin. It (daindhava) is utilized in many specially processed rasayana formulas in Ayurveda. However, non-rasayana myrrh is contraindicated when kidney dysfunction or stomach pain is apparent, or for women who are pregnant or have excessive uterine bleeding.

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A related species, called guggul in Ayurvedic medicine, is considered one of the best substances for the treatment of circulatory problems, nervous system disorders and rheumatic complaints. In Western medicine, myrrh is used as an antiseptic in mouthwashes, gargles, and toothpastes for prevention and treatment of gum disease. Myrrh is currently used in some liniments and healing salves that may be applied to abrasions and other minor skin ailments. Myrrh has also been recommended as an analgesic for toothaches, and can be used in liniment for bruises, aches, and sprains. Myrrh is a common ingredient of tooth powders. Myrrh and borax in tincture can be used as a mouth-wash. A compound tincture, or horse tincture, using myrrh is used in veterinary practice for healing wounds. Meetiga, the trade-name of Arabian Myrrh, is more brittle and gummy than that of the Somalian variety and does not have the latter's white markings. Liquid Myrrh, or Stacte, spoken of by Pliny, also an ingredient of Jewish holy incense, was formerly obtainable and greatly valued but cannot now be identified in today markets. Myrrh gum is used for indigestion, ulcers, colds, cough, asthma, lung congestion, arthritis pain, and cancer. "As part of a larger search for anticancer compounds from plants, the researchers obtained extracts from a particular species of myrrh plant (Commiphora myrrha) and tested it against a human breast tumor cell line (MCF-7) known to be resistant to anticancer drugs. Research data indicated that the extract killed all of the cancer cells in laboratory dishes.". In an attempt to determine the cause of its effectiveness, researchers examined the individual ingredients of a herbal formula used traditionally by Kuwaiti diabetics to lower blood glucose. Myrrh and aloe gums effectively improved glucose tolerance in both normal and diabetic rats. Myrrh was shown to produce analgesic effects on mice which were subjected to pain. Researchers at the University of Florence showed that furanoeudesma-1,3-diene and another terpene in the myrrh affect opioid receptors in the mouse's brain which influence pain perception. Mirazid, an Egyptian drug made from myrrh, has been investigated as an oral treatment of parasitic ailments, including fascioliasis and schistosomiasis.

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Myrrh has been shown to lower cholesterol LDL (bad cholesterol) levels, as well as to increase the HDL (good cholesterol) in various tests on humans done in the past few decades. One recent (2009) documented laboratory test showed this same effect on albino rats. In studies done on mice, myrrh has been shown to have significant inhibiting effects on certain types of cancer. The active constituents of myrrh accredited with this property are sesquiterpenes. These tests were done using the myrrh species Commiphora molmol, and were also found to inhibit tumor growth. Myrtle Myrtus communis, the common myrtle or true myrtle, is native across the northern Mediterranean region (especially in the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, where it is locally known by the name of murta). The plant is an evergreen shrub or small tree, growing to 5 metres (16 ft) tall. The leaf is entire, 3–5 cm long, with a fragrant essential oil. The star-like flower has five petals and sepals, and numerous stamens. Petals usually are white. The flower is pollinated by insects. The fruit is a round berry containing several seeds, most commonly blue-black in colour. A variety with yellow-amber berries is also present. The seeds are dispersed by birds that eat the berries. Myrtle occupies a prominent place in the writings of Hippocrates, Pliny, Dioscorides, Galen, and the Arabian writers. In several countries, particularly in Europe and China, there has been a tradition for prescribing this substance for sinus infections. A systematic review of herbal medicines used for the treatment of rhinosinusitis concluded that the evidence that any herbal medicines are beneficial in the treatment of rhinosinusitis is limited, and that for Myrtus there is insufficient data to verify the significance of clinical results.

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Neroli Neroli oil is a plant oil produced from the blossom of the bitter orange tree (Citrus aurantium subsp. amara or Bigaradia). Its scent is sweet, honeyed and somewhat metallic, whereas bergamot, being rich in linalool (which is the main component in lavender), has more of an aromatic, soft floralcy. The blossoms are gathered, usually by hand, in late April to early May. The oil is produced by water distillation, as the blossom is too fragile to endure distillation with direct steam. By the end of the 17th century, Anne Marie Orsini, duchess of Bracciano and princess of Nerola, Italy, introduced the essence of bitter orange tree as a fashionable fragrance by using it to perfume her gloves and her bath. Since then, the term "neroli" has been used to describe this essence. Neroli has a refreshing and distinctive, spicy aroma with sweet and flowery notes. It is one of the most widely used floral oils in perfumery. It is a nontoxic, nonirritant, nonsensitizing, nonphototoxic substance. It blends well with any citrus oil, various floral absolutes, and most of the synthetic components available on the market. Neroli oil is a classic element in fragrance design and one of the most commonly used in the industry. It is also has a limited use in flavourings. Neroli oil is reportedly one of the ingredients in the closely guarded secret recipe for the Coca-Cola soft drink. It is a flavoring ingredient of open source cola recipes, although some variants consider it as optional, owing to the high cost. Due to its linalool content, neroli is considered to have a soothing effect on the nervous system. Traditionally, neroli oil was used not only to relieve tension and anxiety, but also to increase circulation. A solution is made by adding three or four drops of the essential oil to one cup of either sweet almond oil or wheat germ oil. If the solution is to be used on children or pregnant women, only half the quantity of essential oil should be used. Nutmeg The essential oil obtained by steam distillation of ground nutmeg is used widely in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. This volatile fraction typically contains 60-80% d-camphene by weight, as well as quantities of d-pinene, limonene, d-borneol, l-terpineol, geraniol, safrol, and myristicin. In its pure form, myristicin is a toxin and consumption of excessive amounts of

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nutmeg to induce heightened awareness can result in myristicin poisoning. The oil is colourless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest to the chemical industry, and is used as a natural food flavoring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance, in toothpaste, and as a major ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine, nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used for disorders related to the nervous and digestive systems. After extraction of the essential oil, the remaining seed, containing much less flavour, is called "spent". Spent is often mixed in industrial mills with pure nutmeg to facilitate the milling process, as nutmeg is not easy to mill due to the high percentage of oil in the pure seed. Ground nutmeg with a variable percentage of spent (around 10% w/w) is also less likely to clot. To obtain a better running powder also a small percentage of rice flour can be added. Nutmeg has been used in medicine since at least the seventh century. In the 19th century it was used as an abortifacient, which led to numerous recorded cases of nutmeg poisoning. Although used as a folk treatment for other ailments, unprocessed nutmeg has no proven medicinal value today. One study has shown that the compound macelignan isolated from Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae) may exert antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans, and another that a methanolic extract from the same plant inhibited Jurkat cell activity in human leukemia, but these are not currently used treatments. In low doses, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response, but in large doses, raw nutmeg has psychoactive effects. In its freshly ground form (from whole nutmegs), nutmeg contains myristicin, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and psychoactive substance. Myristicin poisoning can induce convulsions, palpitations, nausea, eventual dehydration, and generalized body pain. It is also reputed to be a strong deliriant. Fatal myristicin poisonings in humans are very rare, but three have been reported: one in an 8-year-old child and another in a 55-year-old adult, the latter case attributed to a combination with flunitrazepam. In Korea, about

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thirty people were reported to have been paralyzed after eating a lamb curry dish in an Indian restaurant, of which one of the spices was nutmeg. In case reports raw nutmeg produced anticholinergic-like symptoms, attributed to myristicin and elemicin. In case reports intoxications with nutmeg had effects that varied from person to person, but were often reported to be an excited and confused state with headaches, nausea and dizziness, dry mouth, bloodshot eyes and memory disturbances. Nutmeg was also reported to induce hallucinogenic effects, such as visual distortions and paranoid ideation. In the reports nutmeg intoxication took several hours before maximum effect was reached. Effects and after-effects lasted up to several days. Myristicin poisoning is potentially deadly to some pets and livestock, and may be caused by culinary quantities of nutmeg harmless to humans. For this reason, it is recommended not to feed eggnog to dogs. Orange oil Orange oil is an essential oil produced by cells within the rind of an orange fruit (Citrus sinensis fruit). In contrast to most essential oils, it is extracted as a by-product of orange juice production by centrifugation, producing a cold-pressed oil. It is composed of mostly (greater than 90%) d-limonene, and is often used in place of pure d-limonene. D-limonene can be extracted from the oil by distillation. Limonene gives citrus fruit their familiar aroma, and is therefore used in perfume and household cleaners for its fragrance. It is also an effective, environmentally friendly, and relatively safe solvent, which makes it an active ingredient of choice in many applications, such as, adhesive and stain removers, cleaners of various sorts, and strippers. Limonene is also highly useful in agriculture. The compounds inside an orange oil varies with each different oil extraction. Composition variety happens as a result of regional and seasonal changes as well as the method used for extraction. Several hundred compounds have been identified with gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry. Most of the substances in the oil belong to the terpene group with limonene being the dominant one. Long chain aliphatic hydrocarbon

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alcohols and aldehydes like 1-octanol and octanal are second important group of substances. Oregano oil Oregano is a common species of Origanum, a genus of the mint family (Lamiaceae). It is native to warm-temperate western and southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region. Oregano is a perennial herb, growing from 20–80 cm tall, with opposite leaves 1–4 cm long. Oregano will grow in a pH range between 6.0 (mildly acidic) and 9.0 (strongly alkaline) with a preferred range between 6.0 and 8.0. The flowers are purple, 3–4 mm long, produced in erect spikes. It is sometimes called wild marjoram, and its close relative O. majorana is known as sweet marjoram. Hippocrates used oregano as an antiseptic, as well as a cure for stomach and respiratory ailments. A Cretan oregano (O. dictamnus) is still used today in Greece as a palliative for sore throat. Oregano is high in antioxidant activity, due to a high content of phenolic acids and flavonoids. In test-tube studies, it also has shown antimicrobial activity against strains of the food-borne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. In the traditional Austrian medicine Origanum vulgare herb has been used internally (as tea) or externally (as ointment) for treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and nervous system. In 2005, the US Federal Trade Commission brought legal action against a firm that had claimed oil of oregano treated colds and flu, and that oil of oregano taken orally treated and relieved bacterial and viral infections and their symptoms, saying the representations were false or were not substantiated at the time the representations were made, and that they were therefore a deceptive practice and false advertisements. The final stipulation on the matter said no representation as to any health benefit could be made without "…competent and reliable scientific evidence…". The essential oil of oregano is composed primarily of monoterpenoids and monoterpenes, however the concentrations of the specific compounds vary widely depending on geographic location and other varying factors. Over 60 different compounds have been identified with the primarily ones being

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carvacrol and thymol ranging from 0 over 80% while lesser abundant compounds include p-cymene, γ-terpinene, caryophyllene, spathulenol, germacrene-D, β-fenchyl alcohol and δ-terpineol. Drying of the plant material affects both quantity and distribution of volatile compounds, with methods using higher heat and longer drying times having greater negative impact. A sample of fresh whole plant material found to contain 33g/kg dry weight (3.1g/kg wet) decreased to below a third after warm air convection drying. Much higher concentrations of volatile compounds are found to be towards the end of the growing season. Orris oil Orris oil is extracted from the roots of the Florentine iris (Iris florentina) and used as a flavouring agent, in perfume, and medicinally. Once important in western herbal medicine, it is now used mainly as a fixative and base note in perfumery, the most widely used fixative for potpourri. Orris is also an ingredient in many brands of gin. Fabienne Pavia, in her book L'univers des Parfums (1995, ed. Solar), states that in the manufacturing of perfumes using orris, the scent of the iris root differs from that of the flower. After preparation the scent is reminiscent of the smell of violets. After an initial drying period, which can take five years or more depending on the use, the root is ground. For potpourri, this powder is used without further processing. For other uses, it is dissolved in water and then distilled. One ton of iris root produces two kilos of essential oil, also referred to as orris root butter, making it a highly prized substance. Its fragrance has been described as tenaciously flowery, heavy and woody (paraphrasing Pavia, Dutch translation, page 40). Typical iris perfumes (where orris prevails over the other components) are: "Orris Noir" by the London-based perfume house Ormonde Jayne Perfumery, "Infusion d'iris" (Prada*); "Iris Silver Mist" (Serge Lutens*); "Tumulte" (Christian Lacroix*); "Aqua di Parma"* and "Iris nobile" (Aqua di Parma*); "Irisia"(Creed*); "Y" (Yves Saint Laurent*) and "Vol de nuit" (Guerlain*). "Orris Noir" contains regular orris root oil, not the oil of Iris nigricans, which is an endangered species.

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Orris root is often included as one of the many ingredients of Ras el hanout, a blend of herbs and spices used across the Middle East and North Africa, primarily associated with Moroccan cuisine. Orris root has been used in tinctures to flavour syrups; its taste is said to be indistinguishable from raspberry. Palo Santo Bursera graveolens, known in Spanish as palo santo ("holy wood") is a wild tree native from Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula to Peru and Venezuela that inhabits the South American Gran Chaco region (northern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia and the Brazilian Mato Grosso). It is also found in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and on the Galapagos islands. The tree belongs to the same family (Burseraceae) as frankincense and myrrh. It is widely used in folk medicine for stomach ache, as sudorific, and as liniment for rheumatism. Aged heartwood is rich in terpenes such as limonene and α-terpineol. Palo Santo (or Palosanto) is used for crafting objects and to produce burning sticks; however, production of essential oil is attracting most of the modern interest. Chemical composition, as reflected by aroma, is variable. The essential oil of Palosanto is generally termed "Palo Santo Oil", and has received the Chemical Abstract Services number, 959130-05-3. When used as an ingredient in cosmetics the INCI name "Bursera graveolens wood oil" should be listed. Parsley oil Parsley or garden parsley (Petroselinum crispum) is a species of Petroselinum in the family Apiaceae, native to the central Mediterranean region (southern Italy, Algeria, and Tunisia), naturalized elsewhere in Europe, and widely cultivated as a herb, a spice, and a vegetable. Where it grows as a biennial, in the first year, it forms a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10–25 cm long with numerous 1–3 cm leaflets, and a taproot used as a food store over the winter. Parsley is widely used in Middle Eastern, European, and American cooking. Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. In central and eastern Europe and in western Asia, many dishes are served with fresh

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green chopped parsley sprinkled on top. Root parsley is very common in central and eastern European cuisines, where it is used as a snack or a vegetable in many soups, stews, and casseroles. Parsley is a source of Flavonoid, and Antioxidants (especially luteolin), apigenin, folic acid, vitamin K, vitamin C, and vitamin A. Half a of tablespoon (a gram) of dried parsley contains about 6.0 µg of lycopene and 10.7 µg of alpha carotene as well as 82.9 µg of Lutein+Zeaxanthin and 80.7 µg of beta carotene. Excessive consumption of parsley should be avoided by pregnant women. It is safe in normal food quantities, but large amounts may have uterotonic effects. Patchouli oil Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth; also patchouly or pachouli) is a species of plant from the genus Pogostemon. It is a bushy herb of the mint family, with erect stems, reaching two or three feet (about 0.75 metre) in height and bearing small, pale pink-white flowers. The plant is native to tropical regions of Asia, and is now extensively cultivated in China, Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Taiwan, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam, as well as West Africa. The heavy and strong scent of patchouli has been used for centuries in perfumes and, more recently, in incense, insect repellents, and alternative medicines. Pogostemon cablin, P. commosum, P. hortensis, P. heyneasus and P. plectranthoides are all cultivated for their essential oil, known as patchouli oil. Patchouli grows well in warm to tropical climates. It thrives in hot weather but not direct sunlight. If the plant withers due to lack of water, it will recover well and quickly after rain or watering. The seed-producing flowers are very fragrant and blossom in late fall. The tiny seeds may be harvested for planting, but they are very delicate and easily crushed. Cuttings from the mother plant can also be rooted in water to produce additional plants.

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Extraction of patchouli's essential oil is by steam distillation of the leaves, requiring rupture of its cell walls by steam scalding, light fermentation, or drying. Leaves may be harvested several times a year and, when dried, may be exported for distillation. Some sources claim a highest quality oil is usually produced from fresh leaves distilled close to where they are harvested; others that baling the dried leaves and fermenting them for a period of time is best. Patchouli is used widely in modern perfumery and modern scented industrial products such as paper towels, laundry detergents, and air fresheners. Two important components of its essential oil are patchoulol and norpatchoulenol. One study suggests that patchouli oil may serve as an all-purpose insect repellent. More specifically, the patchouli plant is claimed to be a potent repellent against the Formosan subterranean termite. During the 18th and 19th century, silk traders from China traveling to the Middle East packed their silk cloth with dried patchouli leaves to prevent moths from laying their eggs on the cloth. It has also been proven to effectively prevent female moths from adhering to males, and vice versa. Patchouli is an important ingredient in East Asian incense. Both patchouli oil and incense underwent a surge in popularity in the 1960s and 1970s in the US and Europe, mainly as a result of the hippie movement of those decades. NOTE: Patchouli is a very strong scent, many people love it, but just as many people HATE it, so go easy on it in your massage business. Peppermint oil Peppermint extract is an herbal extract of peppermint (Mentha x piperita) made from the essential oils of peppermint leaves. It is commonly used in cooking, as a dietary supplement, and as an herbal or alternative medicine. The liquid is obtained by extracting the oils from dried or fresh leaves and the flowering tops of the plant using alcohol. It is commonly sold in 1 oz. or 4 oz. bottles.

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Peppermint extract can be used to add a peppermint flavor to baked goods, desserts, and candy, particularly candy canes, mints, and peppermint patties. Extracts for cooking may be labeled as pure, natural, imitation, or artificial. While pure and natural extracts contain peppermint oil specifically, imitation and artificial extracts generally use a mix of ingredients to achieve a flavor resembling peppermint. Peppermint extract can be substituted in recipes with peppermint oil (a stronger ingredient primarily used in candy-making), crème de menthe, or peppermint schnapps. Please note: if the recipe does not call for heating, the alcoholic properties of liqueurs may remain present in the finished product. Peppermint extract may also be added to hot water to create peppermint tea. Medicinal uses of peppermint extract are now well documented (see main peppermint article). Peppermint extract is also commonly used to soothe symptoms of the common cold and the flu, and as a digestive aid which may relieve bloating and flatulence. It may also be used to aid in the relief of pain from menstrual cramp and tension headaches. Because of its cooling properties, it may also relieve itching when applied topically. Additionally, peppermint extract is believed to have antiviral and medicinal properties which may help in the treatment of herpes and the disintegration of gallstones. Petitgrain Petitgrain is an essential oil that is extracted from the leaves and green twigs of the bitter orange plant (Citrus aurantium var. amara) via steam distillation. Its main regions of production are Paraguay and France, with the former's product being of higher odour tenacity. Petitgrain oil (fr. little grain) gains its name from the fact that it used to be extracted from the small unripe oranges of the plant. The oil has a greenish woody orange smell that is widely used in perfumery and found in colognes. Though distilled from the same botanical species as neroli and bitter orange, Petitgrain Essential Oil possesses its own characteristically unique aroma. Petitgrain Essential Oil is distilled from the leaves and sometimes the twigs and branches of the

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tree whereas neroli essential oil is distilled from the blossoms and Orange Essential Oil is typically cold pressed from the rinds of the fruits. The main constituents of petitgrain oil are geraniol, geranyl acetate, linalool, linalyl acetate, myrcene, nerol, neryl acetate, and terpineol. Pine oil Pine oil is an essential oil obtained by the steam distillation of needles, twigs and cones from a variety of species of pine, particularly Pinus sylvestris. It is used in aromatherapy, as a scent in bath oils, as a cleaning product, and as a lubricant in small and expensive clockwork instruments. It is naturally deodorizing, and antibacterial. It may also be used varyingly as a disinfectant, massage oil and an antiseptic. It is also used as an effective organic herbicide where its action is to modify the waxy cuticle of plants, resulting in desiccation. Pine oil is distinguished from other products from pine, such as turpentine, the low-boiling fraction from the distillation of pine sap, and rosin, the thick tar remaining after turpentine is distilled. Chemically, pine oil consists mainly of cyclic terpene alcohols. It may also contain terpene hydrocarbons, ethers, and esters. The exact composition depends on various factors, such as the variety of pine from which it is produced and the parts of the tree used. Pine oil is a phenolic disinfectant that is mildly antiseptic. Pine oil disinfectants are relatively inexpensive and widely available. They are effective against Brevibacterium ammoniagenes, the fungi Candida albicans, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Gram-negative enteric bacteria, household germs, Gram-negative household germs such as those causing salmonellosis, herpes simplex types 1 and 2, influenza type A, influenza virus type A/Brazil, influenza virus type A2/Japan, intestinal bacteria, Klebsiella pneumoniae, odor-causing bacteria, mold, mildew, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella choleraesuis, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella typhosa, Serratia marcescens, Shigella sonnei, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes.

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It will kill the causative agents of typhoid, gastroenteritis (some agents), rabies, enteric fever, cholera, several forms of meningitis, whooping cough, gonorrhea and several types of dysentery. It is not effective against spore related illneses, such as tetanus or anthrax, or against non-enveloped viruses such as poliovirus, rhinovirus, hepatitis B or hepatitis C. Ravensara Ravensara aromatica (sometimes called clove nutmeg) is a member of the Lauraceae (laurel) family, and originates in Madagascar. The name ravensara is a latinization of the Malagasy word ravintsara. Other Malagasy names include havozo, hazomanitra and tavolomanitra. The leaves and twigs of R. aromatica have a mildly camphorous aroma similar to eucalyptus. The essential oil of R. aromatica is used as a fragrance material in the perfumery industry, and as an antiseptic, anti-viral, antibacterial, expectorant, anti-infective in natural and folk medicine. Red Cedar Juniperus virginiana (Eastern Red-cedar, Red Cedar, Eastern Juniper, Red Juniper, Pencil Cedar, Aromatic Cedar) is a species of juniper native to eastern North America from southeastern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and east of the Great Plains. Further west it is replaced by the related Juniperus scopulorum (Rocky Mountain Juniper) and to the southwest by Juniperus ashei (Ashe Juniper). The Lakota Native American name is Chansha, "redwood" or Hante'. In its native range it is commonly called "cedar" or "red cedar," names rejected by the American Joint Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature as it is a juniper, not a true cedar. However, "Red Cedar" is the most used common name. Juniper oil is distilled from the wood, twigs and leaves. The essential oil contains cedrol which has toxic and possibly carcinogenic properties. The cones are used to flavor gin and as a kidney medicine. The pollen is a known allergen, although not as potent as that of the related Juniperus ashei (Ashe juniper), which sheds pollen a month earlier. People allergic to one are usually allergic to both. J. virginiana sheds pollen as early as late winter and through early spring. Consequently, what begins as an allergy to Ashe juniper in the winter may extend into spring, since the pollination of the eastern juniper follows that of the Ashe juniper.

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Contact with the leaves or wood can produce a mild skin rash in some individuals. Roman Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile, commonly known as chamomile (also spelled camomile), Roman chamomile, English chamomile, garden chamomile, ground apple, low chamomile, or whig plant, is a low perennial plant found in dry fields and around gardens and cultivated grounds in Europe, North America, and Argentina. C. nobile is, along with Matricaria chamomilla, an important source of the herbal product known as chamomile. Chamaemelum nobile has daisy-like white flowers and procumbent stems; the leaves are alternate, bipinnate, finely dissected, and downy to glabrous. The solitary, terminal flowerheads, rising 8-12 in above the ground, consist of prominent yellow disk flowers and silver-white ray flowers. The flowering time is June and July, and its fragrance is sweet, crisp, fruity and herbaceous. The plant is used to flavor foods, in herbal teas, perfumes, and cosmetics. It is used to make a rinse for blonde hair, and is popular in aromatherapy; its practitioners believe it to be a calming agent to reduce stress and aid in sleep. Chamomile soothes skin rashes and moiturize the skin. It also serves as the skin's shield against oxidation. An organic food information site considers chamomile to be an antiseptic, antibiotic, disinfectant, bactericidal and vermifuge. Roman chamomile is not recommended for use during pregnancy as it can cause uterine contractions and miscarriage. Rose oil Rose oil, meaning either rose otto (attar of rose, attar of roses) or rose absolute, is the essential oil extracted from the petals of various types of rose. Rose ottos are extracted through steam distillation, while rose absolutes are obtained through solvent extraction or supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, with the absolute being used more commonly in perfumery. Even with their high price and the advent of organic synthesis, rose oils are still perhaps the most widely used essential oil in perfumery. Two major species of rose are cultivated for the production of rose oil:

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Rosa damascena, the damask rose, which is widely grown in Bulgaria, Turkey, Russia, Pakistan, India, Uzbekistan, Iran and China Rosa centifolia, the cabbage rose, which is more commonly grown in Morocco, France and Egypt Bulgaria produces about 70% of all rose oil in the world. Other significant producers are Morocco, Iran and Turkey. The most common chemical compounds present in rose oil are: citronellol, geraniol, nerol, linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, farnesol, stearoptene, α-pinene, β-pinene, α-terpinene, limonene, p-cymene, camphene, β-caryophyllene, neral, citronellyl acetate, geranyl acetate, neryl acetate, eugenol, methyl eugenol, rose oxide, α-damascenone, β-damascenone, benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, rhodinyl acetate and phenyl ethyl formate. The key flavor compounds that contribute to the distinctive scent of rose oil, however, are beta-damascenone, beta-damascone, beta-ionone, and rose oxide. Beta-damascenone presence and quantity is considered as the marker for the quality of rose oil. Even though these compounds exist in less than 1% quantity of rose oil, they make up for slightly more than 90% of the odor content due to their low odor detection thresholds. Due to the labor-intensive production process and the low content of oil in the rose blooms, rose oil commands a very high price. Harvesting of flowers is done by hand in the morning before sunrise and material is distilled the same day. There are three main methods of extracting the oil from the plant material: � Steam distillation, which produces an oil called rose otto or attar of

roses. � Solvent extraction, which results in an oil called rose absolute. � Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, yielding an essential oil that

may be marketed as either an absolute or as a CO2 extract. In the process of distillation, large stills, traditionally of copper, are filled with roses and water. The still is fired for 60–105 minutes. The vaporized water and rose oil exit the still and enter a condensing apparatus and are then collected in a flask. This distillation yields a very concentrated oil, direct oil, which makes up about 20% of the final product. The water which

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condenses along with the oil is drained off and redistilled, cohobation, in order to obtain the water-soluble fractions of the rose oil such as phenethyl alcohol which are a vital component of the aroma and which make up the large bulk, 80%, of the oil. The two oils are combined and make the final rose otto. Rose otto is usually dark olive-green in color and will form white crystals at normal room temperature which disappear when the oil is gently warmed. It will tend to become more viscous at lower temperatures due to this crystallization of some of its components. The essence has a very strong odor, but is pleasant when diluted and used for perfume. Attar of roses was once made in India, Persia, Syria, and the Ottoman Empire. The Rose Valley in Bulgaria, near the town of Kazanlak, is among the major producers of attar of roses in the world. In India, Kannauj is an important city of fabrication of Rose Attar, Kannauj is nicknamed "The Grasse of East" or "The Grasse of Orient". Grasse (in France) is an important city of fabrication of rose fragance. Due to the heat required for distillation, some of the compounds extracted from the rose undergo denaturing or chemical breakdown. As such, rose otto does not smell very similar to "fresh" roses. The hydrosol portion of the distillate is known as rosewater. This inexpensive by-product is used widely as a food flavoring as well as in skin care. Rosehip oil The rose hip, also known as rose haw or rose hep, is the fruit of the rose plant, that typically is red-to-orange, but ranges from dark purple to black in some species. Rose hips begin to form after successful pollination of flowers in spring or early summer, and ripen in late summer through autumn. Rose hips are used for herbal teas, jam, jelly, syrup, rose hip soup, beverages, pies, bread, wine, and marmalade. They can also be eaten raw, like a berry, if care is used to avoid the hairs inside the fruit. A few rose species are sometimes grown for the ornamental value of their hips, such as Rosa moyesii, which has prominent large red bottle-shaped fruits.

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Rose hips are commonly used as an herbal tea, often blended with hibiscus, and also as an oil. They can also be used to make jam, jelly, marmalade, and rose hip wine. Rose hip soup, "nyponsoppa", is especially popular in Sweden. Rhodomel, a type of mead, is made with rose hips. Rose hips can be used to make Palinka, a traditional Hungarian alcoholic beverage, popular in Hungary, Romania, and other countries sharing Austro-Hungarian history. Rose hips are also the central ingredient of Cockta, the fruity-tasting national soft drink of Slovenia. The fine hairs found inside rose hips are used as itching powder. Dried rose hips are also sold for primitive crafts and home fragrance purposes. Rose hips are particularly high in vitamin C content, one of the richest plant sources available. However, RP-HPLC assays of fresh rose hips and several commercially available products revealed a wide range of L-ascorbic acid content, ranging from 0.03 to 1.3%. Rose hips of some species, especially Rosa canina (dog rose) and R. majalis, have been used as a source of vitamin C. During World War II, the people of Britain were encouraged through letters to The Times newspaper, articles in the British Medical Journal, and pamphlets produced by Claire Loewenfeld, a dietitian working for Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children, to gather wild-grown rose hips to make a vitamin C syrup for children. This advice arose because German submarines were sinking commercial ships, making it difficult to import citrus fruits. Rose hips contain the carotenoids, beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin and lycopene, which are under basic research for a variety of potential biological roles, such as inhibiting oxidation of low density lipoprotein. A meta-analysis of human studies examining the potential for rose hip extracts to affect arthritis pain concluded there was a small effect requiring further analysis of safety and efficacy in clinical trials. Rosemary oil Rosmarinus officinalis, commonly known as rosemary, is a woody, perennial herb with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the Mediterranean region. It is a member of the mint family Lamiaceae, which includes many other herbs. The name

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"rosemary" derives from the Latin for "dew" (ros) and "sea" (marinus), or "dew of the sea". The plant is also sometimes called anthos, from the ancient Greek word meaning "flower". Rosemary has a fibrous root system. Rosemary oil is used for purposes of fragrant bodily perfumes or to emit an aroma into a room. It is also burnt as incense, and used in shampoos and cleaning products. Rosemary has a very old reputation for improving memory and has been used as a symbol for remembrance during weddings, war commemorations and funerals in Europe and Australia. Mourners would throw it into graves as a symbol of remembrance for the dead. In Shakespeare's Hamlet, Ophelia says, "There's rosemary, that's for remembrance." (Hamlet, iv. 5.) In traditional medicine of India essential oil from flowers and leaves is used as anti-inflammatory agent, astringent, antiseptic, stomachic, carminative, and externally in circulatory disorders, in addition flowering tops and leaves are used as carminative and diuretic. Rosemary contains a number of potentially biologically active compounds, including antioxidants carnosic acid and rosmarinic acid. Other chemical compounds include camphor, caffeic acid, ursolic acid, betulinic acid, rosmaridiphenol and rosmanol. Rosemary antioxidants levels are closely related to soil moisture content. Rosewood oil Rosewood oil is a valuable essential oil, especially in perfumery. It contains the substance linalool, which has a number of uses. The oil is extracted from the wood of Aniba rosaeodora. When it arrives at the distillery, the wood is chipped, and then steam distilled. Each tree yields about 1% oil by weight of wood. After a history of massive over-harvesting, and species depletion, efforts are underway to cultivate Aniba rosaeodora, and to develop techniques for extracting the essential oil from leaves. Because many unrelated woods are called "Rosewood", some confusion has arisen about the origin of "Rosewood oil". Members of the genus Dalbergia (e.g. "Brazilian Rosewood"-Dalbergia nigra, and "Indian Rosewood"- Dalbergia latifolia) have never been a source of "Rosewood oil".

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Sage oil Sage oil is the essential oil made from the culinary herb sage, Salvia officinalis. In addition to its valuable flavoring characteristics, sage oil can contain as much as 50% thujone by weight. The exact amount varies based on the time in the season and which part of the plant is tested. Thujone is traditionally regarded as one of the active ingredients in absinthe, distinguishing it from "less controversial" alcoholic beverages. Sage oil has been suggested to boost short-term memory performance in many using it as a dietary supplement. Sage oils can be toxic and may trigger miscarriages, as well as "cause dizziness, rapid heartbeat, and provoke epileptic seizures". Sandalwood oil Sandalwood is the name of a class of woods from trees in the genus Santalum. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods for use. Both the wood and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that has been highly valued for centuries. Consequently, the slow-growing trees have been overharvested in many areas. Sandalwoods are medium-sized hemiparasitic trees, and part of the same botanical family as European mistletoe. Notable members of this group are Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) and Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum); others in the genus also have fragrant wood. These are found in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Australia, Indonesia, Hawaii, and other Pacific Islands. S. album is a threatened species indigenous to South India, and grows in the Western Ghats and a few other mountain ranges such as the Kalrayan and Shevaroy Hills. Although sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal are government-owned and their harvest is controlled, many trees are illegally cut down. Sandalwood oil prices have risen to $2,000 per kg recently. Sandalwood from the Mysore region of Karnataka (formerly Mysore), and marayoor forest in Kerala, southern India, is high in quality. New plantations were created with international aid in Tamil Nadu for economic exploitation. In Kununurra in Western Australia, Indian sandalwood is grown on a large scale.

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S. ellipticum, S. freycinetianum, and S. paniculatum, the Hawaiian sandalwood (ʻiliahi), were also used and considered high quality. These three species were exploited between 1790 and 1825 before the supply of trees ran out (a fourth species, S. haleakalae, occurs only in subalpine areas and was never exported). Although S. freycinetianum and S. paniculatum are relatively common today, they have not regained their former abundance or size, and S. ellipticum remains rare. Sandalwood is so expensive, unlike most trees, it is harvested by removing the entire tree instead of sawing it down at the trunk close to ground level. This way, wood from the stump and root can also be used. Sandalwood oil has a distinctive soft, warm, smooth, creamy, and milky precious-wood scent. It imparts a long-lasting, woody base to perfumes from the oriental, woody, fougère, and chypre families, as well as a fixative to floral and citrus fragrances. When used in smaller proportions in a perfume, it acts as a fixative, enhancing the longevity of other, more volatile, materials in the composite. Last but not least, sandalwood is a key ingredient in the "floriental" (floral-ambery) fragrance family – when combined with white florals such as jasmine, ylang ylang, gardenia, plumeria, orange blossom, tuberose, etc. Sandalwood oil in India is widely used in the cosmetic industry. The main source of true sandalwood, S. album, is a protected species, and demand for it cannot be met. Many species of plants are traded as "sandalwood". The genus Santalum has more than 19 species. Traders often accept oil from closely related species, as well as from unrelated plants such as West Indian sandalwood (Amyris balsamifera) in the family Rutaceae or bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense, Myoporaceae). However, most woods from these alternative sources lose their aroma within a few months or years. Sandalwood essential oil was popular in medicine up to 1920–1930, mostly as a urogenital (internal) and skin (external) antiseptic. Its main component, santalol (about 75%), has antimicrobial properties. It is used in aromatherapy and to prepare soaps. Due to this antimicrobial activity, it can be used to clear skin from blackheads and spots, but it must always be properly diluted with a carrier oil. It has a pleasant, woody fragrance.

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Savory oil Satureja is a genus of aromatic plants of the family Lamiaceae, related to rosemary and thyme. It is native to North Africa, southern + southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia. A few New World species were formerly included in Satureja, but they have all been moved to other genera (see below). Several species are cultivated as culinary or medicinal herbs, and they have become established in the wild in a few places. Satureja species may be annual or perennial. They are low-growing herbs and subshrubs, reaching heights of 15–50 cm. The leaves are 1 to 3 cm long, with flowers forming in whorls on the stem, white to pale pink-violet. Satureja species are food plants for the larva of some Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). Caterpillars of the moth Coleophora bifrondella feed exclusively on winter savory (S. montana). Savory may be grown purely for ornamental purposes; members of the genus need sun and well-drained soil. Both summer savory and winter savory are used to flavor food. The former is preferred by cooks but as an annual is only available in summer; winter savory is an evergreen perennial. Savory plays an important part in Bulgarian and Italian cuisine, particularly when cooking beans. It is also used to season the traditional Acadian stew known as fricot. Savory is also a key ingredient in sarmale, a stuffed cabbage dish in traditional Romanian cuisine. The modern spice mixture Herbes de Provence has savory as one of the principal ingredients. Yerba buena (Spanish: "good herb"; Satureja douglasii) is used to make a herbal tea in the western United States. In Azerbaijan, savory is often incorporated as a flavoring in black tea. Schisandra oil Schisandra chinensis is a deciduous woody vine native to forests of Northern China and the Russian Far East. It is hardy in USDA Zone 4. The plant likes some shade with moist, well-drained soil. The species itself is

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dioecious, thus flowers on a female plant will only produce fruit when fertilized with pollen from a male plant. However, there is a hybrid selection titled "Eastern Prince" which has perfect flowers and is self-fertile. Seedlings of "Eastern Prince" are sometimes sold under the same name but are typically single-sex plants. Schizandra is native to northern and northeastern China (Manchuria). Cultivation requirements are thought to be similar to those of grapes. Plants require conditions of moderate humidity and light, together with a wet, humus-rich soil. Tens of tons of berries are used annually in Russia in the Primorsky and Khabarovsky regions for the commercial manufacture of juices, wines, extracts and sweets. Its Chinese name comes from the fact that its berries possess all five basic flavors: salty, sweet, sour, pungent (spicy), and bitter. Sometimes it is more specifically called; literally "northern five flavor berry") to distinguish it from another traditionally medicinal schisandraceous plant Kadsura japonica that grows only in subtropical areas. Another variant of schizandra berry is that of Schisandra sphenanthera which has a similar but different biochemical profile; the Chinese pharmacopia distinguishes between Schisandra chinensis and Schisandra sphenanthera. Its berries are used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs. They are most often used in dried form, and boiled to make a tea. Chemical constituents include the lignans schizandrin, deoxyschizandrin, gomisins, and pregomisin, which are found in the seeds of the fruit. It should not be used by pregnant women. In China, a wine is made from the berries. In Korean the berries are known as omija. The cordial drink made from the berries is called omija cha meaning "omija tea"; see Korean tea. In Japanese, they are called gomishi. The Ainu people used this plant, called repnihat, as a remedy for colds and sea-sickness. In traditional Chinese medicine, Schisandra chinensis (known as wu wei zi is believed to: act as an astringent for the Qi of the lungs and kidneys, restrain the essence to treat diarrhea, arrest excessive sweating from

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deficiency of Yin or Yang, calm the spirit by refreshing the heart and kidneys, and generate body fluid and reduce thirst. The great interest in Limonnik (Schisandra chinensis) in Russia arises from results of ethnopharmacological investigations of Russian scientists in the Far East regions where the berries and seeds were used by Nanai (Goldes or Samagir) hunters to improve night vision, as a tonic and to reduce hunger, thirst and exhaustion since “it gives forces to follow a sable all the day without food”. "Pharmacological studies on animals have shown that Schizandra increases physical working capacity and affords a stress-protective effect against a broad spectrum of harmful factors including heat shock, skin burn, cooling, frostbite, immobilisation, swimming under load in an atmosphere with decreased air pressure, aseptic inflammation, irradiation, and heavy metal intoxication. The phytoadaptogen exerts an effect on the central nervous, sympathetic, endocrine, immune, respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal systems, on the development of experimental atherosclerosis, on blood sugar and acid-base balance, and on uterus myotonic activity." Two major lignans, schizandrin and gomisin A, have been shown to induce interleukin (IL)-8, macrophage inflammatory protein-1β, and granulocyte-macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) release by THP-1 cells. Therefore, S. Chinensis may be therapeutically beneficial in promoting the body's humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. Schizandrin is one of the main dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans present in the fruit of Schisandra chinensis. In vitro biological activities including hepatoprotective, antiviral and neuroprotective effects of schizandrin and other dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans have been reported. Recent studies have demonstrated that schizandrin exhibits anti-oxidative effects in mice. Other chemical constituents include schisandrin B, γ-terpinene, bisabolene (+)-gomisin K2, gomisin S, pregomisin, schisantherin A, schicantherin B, angeloylgomisin Q, and rubrildilactione. Spearmint oil Spearmint or spear mint (Mentha spicata) is a species of mint native to much of Europe and Asia (Middle East, Himalayas, China etc.), and

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naturalized in parts of northern + western Africa, North + South America, and various oceanic islands. It is a herbaceous, rhizomatous, perennial plant growing 30–100 cm tall, with variably hairless to hairy stems and foliage, and a wide-spreading fleshy underground rhizome. The leaves are 5–9 cm long and 1.5–3 cm broad, with a serrated margin. The stem is square-shaped, a trademark of the mint family of herbs. Spearmint produces flowers in slender spikes, each flower pink or white, 2.5–3 mm long, and broad. Hybrids involving spearmint include Mentha × piperita (peppermint; hybrid with Mentha aquatica), Mentha × gracilis (ginger mint, syn. M. cardiaca; hybrid with Mentha arvensis), and Mentha × villosa (large apple mint, hybrid with Mentha suaveolens). Spearmint grows well in nearly all temperate climates. Gardeners often grow it in pots or planters due to its invasive, spreading rhizomes. The plant prefers partial shade, but can flourish in full sun to mostly shade. Spearmint is best suited to loamy soils with abundant organic material. Spearmint leaves can be used fresh, dried, or frozen. They can also be preserved in salt, sugar, sugar syrup, alcohol, or oil. The leaves lose their aromatic appeal after the plant flowers. It can be dried by cutting just before, or right (at peak) as the flowers open, about one-half to three-quarters the way down the stalk (leaving smaller shoots room to grow). Some dispute exists as to what drying method works best; some prefer different materials (such as plastic or cloth) and different lighting conditions (such as darkness or sunlight). Spearmint is often cultivated for its aromatic and carminative oil, referred to as oil of spearmint. The most abundant compound in spearmint oil is R-(–)-carvone, which gives spearmint its distinctive smell. Spearmint oil also contains significant amounts of limonene, dihydrocarvone, and 1,8-cineol. Unlike peppermint oil, oil of spearmint contains minimal amounts of menthol and menthone. It is used as a flavoring for toothpaste and confectionery, and is sometimes added to shampoos and soaps. The cultivar Mentha spicata 'Nana', the nana mint of Morocco, possesses a clear, pungent, but mild aroma, and is an essential ingredient of Touareg tea.

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Spearmint is an ingredient in several mixed drinks, such as the mojito and mint julep. Sweet tea, iced and flavored with spearmint, is a summer tradition in the Southern United States. As a medicinal plant, spearmint is steeped as tea for the treatment of stomach ache. Spearmint tea may be used as a treatment for hirsutism in women. Its antiandrogenic properties reduce the level of free testosterone in the blood, while leaving total testosterone and DHEA unaffected. However, administration of spearmint tea to rats causes dose-dependent, temporary or permanent negative effects on the reproductive system of the male rat and leads to lipid peroxidation that results in histopathologies in the kidney, liver, and uterine tissues;more research into the toxic effects of the tea in humans is warranted. It can also be used to treat a variety of digestive ailments. Spearmint has been studied for antifungal activity; its essential oil was found to have some antifungal activity, although less than oregano. Its essential oil did not show any evidence of mutagenicity in the Ames test. It can have a calming effect when used for insomnia or massages. Spearmint has also been described as having excellent antioxidant activity, comparable to the synthetic BHT. Due both to its antioxidant activity and its common use to season lamb in Indian cuisine, it has been studied as an additive to radiation-processed lamb meat, and was found effective in delaying oxidation of fats and reducing formation of harmful substances, which can be detected using thiobarbituric acid as a reagent. Spikenard Spikenard; also called nard, nardin, and muskroot, is a historic class of an aromatic amber-colored essential oil derived from flowering plants, the identification of which is variable. The oil has, since ancient times, been used as a perfume, as a medicine and in religious contexts, across a wide territory from India to Europe. The identity of the plants used in manufacturing of historic spikenard is not certain; Nardostachys jatamansi from Asia (the modern definition of "spikenard"), lavender from the Middle East, Alpine spikenard from Europe and possibly lemongrass have been suggested as candidates, and it is likely that different plants were used in different times and places.

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The Bible contains several references to the spikenard, in both the Old Testament and the New Testament, and it is used in Catholic iconography to represent Saint Joseph. With this meaning, Pope Francis has included the spikenard in his coat of arms. Nardostachys jatamansi is a flowering plant of the Valerian family that grows in the Himalayas of Nepal, China, and India. The plant grows to about 1 m in height and has pink, bell-shaped flowers. It is found in the altitude of about 3000–5000 meters. Rhizomes (underground stems) can be crushed and distilled into an intensely aromatic amber-colored essential oil, which is very thick in consistency. Nard oil is used as a perfume, an incense, a sedative, and an herbal medicine said to fight insomnia, birth difficulties, and other minor ailments. Lavender (genus Lavandula) was also known by the ancient Greeks as nardos, nard, after the Sanskrit 'narada', or 'nalada'. The scent of spikenard attracts cats, a strange phenomenon in itself. Star anise Illicium verum, commonly called star anise, star aniseed, or Chinese star anise is a spice that closely resembles anise in flavor, obtained from the star-shaped pericarp of Illicium verum, a medium-sized native evergreen tree of northeast Vietnam and southwest China. The star-shaped fruits are harvested just before ripening. Star anise has been used in a tea as a traditional remedy for rheumatism, and the seeds are sometimes chewed after meals to aid digestion. As a warm and moving herb, star anise is used to assist in relieving cold-stagnation in the middle jiao, according to traditional Chinese medicine. Star anise is the major source of the chemical compound shikimic acid, a primary precursor in the pharmaceutical synthesis of anti-influenza drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu). Shikimic acid is produced by most autotrophic organisms, and whilst it can be obtained in commercial quantities from elsewhere, star anise remains the usual industrial source. In 2005, a temporary shortage of star anise was causedby its use in the production of Tamiflu. Later that year, a method for the production of shikimic acid using bacteria was discovered. Roche now derives some of the raw material it needs from the fermentation of E. coli bacteria. The 2009 swine flu

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outbreak led to another series of shortages as stocks of Tamiflu were built up around the world, sending prices soaring. Star anise is grown in four provinces in China and harvested between March and May. It is also found in the south of New South Wales. The shikimic acid is extracted from the seeds in a 10-stage manufacturing process which takes a year. Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum), a similar tree, is highly toxic and inedible; in Japan, it has instead been burned as incense. Cases of illness, including "serious neurological effects, such as seizures", reported after using star anise tea, may be a result of using this species. Japanese star anise contains anisatin, which causes severe inflammation of the kidneys, urinary tract, and digestive organs. The toxicity of I. anisatum, also known as shikimi, is caused by its containing potent neurotoxins (anisatin, neoanisatin, and pseudoanisatin), due to their activity as noncompetitive antagonists of GABA receptors. Tarragon oil Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) is a species of perennial herb in the family Asteraceae. One sub-species, Artemisia dracunculus var. sativa, is cultivated for use of the leaves as an aromatic culinary herb. In some other sub-species, the characteristic aroma is largely absent. The species is polymorphic. Informal names for distinguishing the variations include "French tarragon" (best for culinary use), "Russian tarragon" (typically better than wild tarragon but not as good as so-called French tarragon for culinary use), and "wild tarragon" (covers various states). Tarragon is found natively in a number of areas of the Northern Hemisphere. It grows to 120–150 cm tall, with slender branched stems. The leaves are lanceolate, 2–8 cm long and 2–10 mm broad, glossy green, with an entire margin. The flowers are produced in small capitulae 2–4 mm diameter, each capitulum containing up to 40 yellow or greenish-yellow florets. French tarragon, however, seldom produces any flowers (or seeds). Some tarragon plants produce seeds that are generally only sterile. Others produce viable seeds. Tarragon has rhizomatous roots and it readily reproduces from the rhizomes. The name "tarragon" is believed to have been borrowed from the Persian name for tarragon which is tarkhūn.

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French tarragon is the variety generally considered best for the kitchen, but is never grown from seed as the flowers are sterile; instead it is propagated by root division. It is normally purchased as a plant, and some care must be taken to ensure that true French tarragon is purchased. A perennial, it normally goes dormant in winter. It likes a hot, sunny spot, without excessive watering. Russian tarragon (A. dracunculoides L.) can be grown from seed but is much weaker in flavor when compared to the French variety. However, Russian tarragon is a far more hardy and vigorous plant, spreading at the roots and growing over a meter tall. This tarragon actually prefers poor soils and happily tolerates drought and neglect. It is not as strongly aromatic and flavorsome as its French cousin, but it produces many more leaves from early spring onwards that are mild and good in salads and cooked food. Russian tarragon loses what flavor it has as it ages and is widely considered useless as a culinary herb, though it is sometimes used in crafts. The young stems in early spring can be cooked as an asparagus substitute. Horticulturists recommend that Russian tarragon be grown indoors from seed and planted out in the summer. The spreading plants can be divided easily. A better substitute for French tarragon is Spanish tarragon (Tagetes lucida), also known as Mexican mint marigold, Mexican tarragon, Texas tarragon, or winter tarragon. It is much more reminiscent of French tarragon, with a hint of anise. Although not in the same genus as the other tarragons, Spanish tarragon has a stronger flavor than Russian tarragon that does not diminish significantly with age. Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) essential oil in a clear glass vial Tarragon has an aromatic property reminiscent of anise, due to the presence of estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in mice. The European Union investigation revealed that the danger of estragole is minimal even at 100–1,000 times the typical consumption seen in humans. Estragole concentration in fresh tarragon leaves is about 2900 mg/kg. Tea tree oil Tea tree oil (TTO), or melaleuca oil, is an essential oil with a fresh camphoraceous odor and a color that ranges from pale yellow to nearly colorless and clear. It is taken from the leaves of the Melaleuca alternifolia,

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which is native to Southeast Queensland and the Northeast coast of New South Wales, Australia. Tea tree oil should not be confused with tea oil, the sweet seasoning and cooking oil from pressed seeds of the tea plant Camellia sinensis (beverage tea) or the tea oil plant Camellia oleifera. Tea tree oil is toxic when taken by mouth, but is widely used in low concentrations in cosmetics and skin washes. Tea tree oil has been claimed to be useful for treating a wide variety of medical conditions. It shows some promise as an antimicrobial. Tea tree oil may be effective in a variety of dermatologic conditions including dandruff, acne, lice, herpes, and other skin infections. The name tea tree is used for several plants, mostly from Australia and New Zealand, from the family Myrtaceae, related to the myrtle. The use of the name probably originated from Captain Cook's description of one of these shrubs, that he used to make an infusion, to drink in place of tea. Tea tree oil is extracted from Melaleuca alternifolia commercially.Tea tree oil is defined by the International Standard ISO 4730 ("Oil of Melaleuca, Terpinen-4-ol type"), which specifies levels of 15 components which are needed to define the oil as "tea tree oil." The oil has been described as having a fresh, camphor-like smell. Tea tree oils contains over 98 compounds. Tea tree oil has six chemotypes, which are oils with different chemical compositions. These include a terpinen-4-ol chemotype, a terpinolene chemotype, and four 1,8-cineole chemotypes. Terpinen-4-ol is the major TTO component responsible for antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. A second component 1,8-cineole, is likely responsible for most allergies in TTO products. Adverse reactions to TTO diminish with minimization of 1,8-cineole content. In commercial production, TTO is prepared as a terpinen-4-ol chemotype. In vitro studies show that tea tree oil is capable of killing MRSA in a laboratory setting. Studies have shown that it demonstrated similar rates of eradication when compared to treatment with mupirocin. A 2005 review stated that there is insufficient evidence to recommend routine use for this purpose in a clinical setting. A 2008 article from the American Cancer Society says that studies have found some promise of a possible role for the topical application of tea tree oil as an antiseptic, but that "despite years

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of use, available clinical evidence does not support the effectiveness of tea tree oil for treating skin problems and infections in humans". A 2012 review by the NIH rates Tea tree oil as "possibly effective" for three applications, saying that "a 5% tea tree oil gel appears to be as effective as 5% benzoyl peroxide" for treating mild to moderate acne, that "topical application of 100% tea tree oil solution, twice daily for six months, can cure fungal toenail infection in about 18% of people who try it," and that "a 10% tea tree oil cream works about as well as tolnaftate 1% cream" in treating symptoms of athlete's foot, although being less effective than clotrimazole or terbinafine. A 2006 review of the toxicity of tea tree oil concludes that it may be used externally in its diluted form by the majority of individuals without adverse effect (provided oxidization is avoided). Tea Tree oil is poisonous when taken internally. Tea tree oil may be effective in a variety of dermatologic conditions including dandruff, acne, lice, herpes, and other skin infections. A 2012 review of head lice treatment recommended against the use of tea tree oil on children because it could cause skin irritation or allergic reactions, because of contraindications, and because of a lack of knowledge about the oil's safety and effectiveness. Tea tree oil is a commercially refined composition of several naturally occurring chemical compounds and is hazardous if misused. Available literature suggests that TTO can be used topically in diluted form by the majority of individuals without adverse effects. Topical application of TTO can cause adverse reactions at high concentration. Adverse effects including skin irritation, allergic contact dermatitis, systemic contact dermatitis, linear immunoglobulin A disease, erythema multiforme like reactions, and systemic hypersensitivity reactions. The National Pediculosis Association in the United States states pure tea tree oil is contraindicated for use by pregnant women and children. Tea tree oil is toxic when swallowed. According to the American Cancer Society ingesting tea tree oil has been reported to cause drowsiness, confusion, hallucinations, coma, unsteadiness, weakness, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach upset, blood cell abnormalities, and severe rashes. It should be kept away from pets and children. Tea tree oil should not be used in or around the mouth. There is at least one case of poisoning reported in medical literature.

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Exposure of tea tree oil to air and light results in oxidation of some of its components. Oxidized tea tree oil should not be used. Some people experience allergic contact dermatitis as a reaction to dermal contact with tea tree oil. Allergic reactions may be due to the various oxidation products that are formed by exposure of the oil to light and/or air. In vitro testing of tea tree oil shows that it contains chemicals which are weakly estrogenic causing particular concern for use with children. However in tests, the chemicals which show this effect failed to show absorption into the skin, and evidence of a hormonal effect is therefore considered implausible by an EU scientific committee. In dogs and cats, death or transient signs of toxicity (lasting 2 to 3 days), such as depression, weakness, incoordination and muscle tremors, have been reported after external application at high doses. In rats the LD50 is 1.9-2.4 ml/kg. Undiluted tea tree oil can cause some hearing loss when used in the ears of non-human animals; however, a 2% concentration has not been shown to have any lasting effect. It is not known whether the same is true for humans. Thyme oil Thyme is an herb with culinary, medicinal and ornamental uses. Thyme is of the genus Thymus, most commonly Thymus vulgaris. Ancient Egyptians used thyme for embalming. The ancient Greeks used it in their baths and burnt it as incense in their temples, believing it was a source of courage. The spread of thyme throughout Europe was thought to be due to the Romans, as they used it to purify their rooms and to "give an aromatic flavour to cheese and liqueurs". In the European Middle Ages, the herb was placed beneath pillows to aid sleep and ward off nightmares. In this period, women would also often give knights and warriors gifts that included thyme leaves, as it was believed to bring courage to the bearer. Thyme was also used as incense and placed on coffins during funerals, as it was supposed to assure passage into the next life. The name of the genus Thymallus first given to grayling (T. thymallus) described in the 1758 edition of Systema Naturae by Swedish zoologist

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Carl Linnaeus originates from the faint smell of the herb thyme, which emanates from the flesh. Oil of thyme, the essential oil of common thyme (Thymus vulgaris), contains 20–54% thymol. Thyme essential oil also contains a range of additional compounds, such as p-Cymene, myrcene, borneol and linalool. Thymol, an antiseptic, is the main active ingredient in various commercially produced mouthwashes such as Listerine. Before the advent of modern antibiotics, oil of thyme was used to medicate bandages. Thymol has also been shown to be effective against various fungi that commonly infect toenails. Thymol can also be found as the active ingredient in some all-natural, alcohol-free hand sanitizers. A tea made by infusing the herb in water can be used for coughs and bronchitis. One study by Leeds Metropolitan University found that thyme may be beneficial in treating acne. Tsuga Tsuga, the name of Tsuga sieboldii is a genus of conifers in the pine family Pinaceae. The common name hemlock is derived from a perceived similarity in the smell of its crushed foliage to that of the unrelated plant poison hemlock. Unlike the latter, Tsuga species are not poisonous. It is used as analgesic, antirheumatic, blood cleanser, and stimulant. It treats cough, respiratory conditions, kidney ailments, urinary infections. Turmeric Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. It is native in southeast India, and needs temperatures between 20 °C and 30 °C (68 °F and 86 °F) and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes, and propagated from some of those rhizomes in the following season. When not used fresh, the rhizomes are boiled for about 30–45 minutes and then dried in hot ovens, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as a spice in Indian cuisine and even curries, for dyeing, and to impart color to mustard condiments. One active

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ingredient in it is curcumin. It has a distinctly earthy, slightly bitter, slightly hot peppery flavor and a mustardy smell. Curcumin may treat cancer, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, allergies, arthritis and other chronic illnesses. Turmeric is a perennial herbaceous plant, which reaches a stature of up to 1 meter. There are highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes. The leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows . They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole and leaf blade. From the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm long. The simple leaf blades are usually of a length of 76 to 115 cm and rarely up to 230 cm. They have a width of 38 to 45 cm and are oblong to elliptic narrowing at the tip . The active compound curcumin is believed to have a wide range of biological effects including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour, antibacterial, and antiviral activities, which indicate potential in clinical medicine. In Chinese medicine, it is used for treatment of various infections and as an antiseptic. According to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, "there is little reliable evidence to support the use of turmeric for any health condition because few clinical trials have been conducted." Although trials are ongoing for the use of turmeric to treat cancer, doses needed for any effect are difficult to establish in humans. Some research shows compounds in turmeric to have anti-fungal and antibacterial properties; however, curcumin is not one of them. As of December 2013, turmeric is being evaluated for its potential efficacy against several human diseases in clinical trials, including kidney and cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, several types of cancer and irritable bowel disease. Turmeric is also being investigated for potential treatment of Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, and other clinical disorders. Valerian Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, Valerianaceae) is a perennial flowering plant, with heads of sweetly scented pink or white flowers that bloom in the

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summer months. Valerian flower extracts were used as a perfume in the sixteenth century. Valerian, in pharmacology and herbal medicine, is the name of an herb or dietary supplement prepared from roots of the plant. Crude extract of the root is often sold in the form of capsules. Valerian root has sedative and anxiolytic effects. It can also be classified as a drug since its consumption produces a sedative or medicinal effect, while it is not exclusively a type of food. These effects are suspected to be mediated through the GABA receptor. The amino acid valine is named after this plant. Valerian is most often used to treat insomnia. It can be considered an alternative treatment for hypnotic drugs. It is also sometimes used as an alternative for sedatives, such as benzodiazepines in the treatment of certain anxiety disorders. Whether or not valerian is an efficacious treatment for insomnia is still a very open question. Multiple recent systematic reviews of the medical research literature and meta-analyses have produced conflicting conclusions regarding the efficacy of the substance. One systematic review and meta-analysis published in 2006 in the American Journal of Medicine concluded that "The available evidence suggests that valerian might improve sleep quality without producing side effects." However, another systematic review, published in 2007 in the journal Sleep Medicine Review, concluded that valerian was safe but not clinically efficacious for insomnia. In the United States, valerian is sold as a nutritional supplement. Therapeutic use has increased as dietary supplements have gained in popularity, especially after the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act was passed in 1994. This law allowed the distribution of many agents as over-the-counter supplements and therefore allowed them to bypass the regulatory requirements of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In addition to being used for the treatment of insomnia and other sleep disorders, valerian has also been used to treat anxiety and gastrointestinal pain caused by irritable bowel syndrome. It has also been used in alternative medicine to treat symptoms such as nervous tension, excitability, and stress as well as intestinal colic or cramps and as a muscle relaxant.

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Oral forms are available in both standardized and unstandardized forms. Standardized products may be preferable considering the wide variation of the chemicals in the dried root, as noted above. When standardized, it is done so as a percentage of valerenic acid or valeric acid. Dosage is difficult to determine, due to the lack of standardization and variability in available forms. The United States Government's National Institutes of Health report that doses of 400–900 mg taken from 30 minutes to two hours before bed, or a lesser dose when combined with certain other supplements, have been researched. Few adverse events attributable to valerian have been reported. Large doses may result in stomach ache, apathy, and a feeling of mental dullness or mild depression. Because of the herb's tranquilizer properties, it may cause dizziness or drowsiness, effects that should be considered before driving or operating heavy or hazardous equipment. In rare cases, valerian may cause an allergic reaction, typically as a skin rash, hives, or difficulty breathing. Because the compounds in valerian produce central nervous system depression, they should not be used with other depressants, such as ethanol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, opiates, kava, or antihistamine drugs. Moreover, non-pregnant adult human hepatotoxicity has been associated with short-term use (i.e., a few days to several months) of herbal preparations containing valerian and Scutellaria (commonly called skullcap). Withdrawal after long-term use in a male has also been associated with benzodiazepine-like withdrawal symptoms, resulting in cardiac complications and delirium. The very limited animal and human data do not allow a conclusion as to the safety of valerian during pregnancy. Moreover, as a natural, unregulated product, the concentration, contents, and presence of contaminants in valerian preparations cannot be easily determined. Because of this uncertainty and the potential for cytotoxicity in the fetus and hepatotoxicity in the mother, the product should be avoided during pregnancy. Vetiver oil Chrysopogon zizanioides, commonly known as vetiver is a perennial grass of the Poaceae family, native to India. In western and northern India, it is

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popularly known as khus. Vetiver can grow up to 1.5 metres high and form clumps as wide. The stems are tall and the leaves are long, thin, and rather rigid; the flowers are brownish-purple. Unlike most grasses, which form horizontally spreading, mat-like root systems, vetiver's roots grow downward, 2–4 m in depth. Vetiver is most closely related to Sorghum but shares many morphological characteristics with other fragrant grasses, such as lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), citronella (Cymbopogon nardus, C. winterianus), and palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii). Though it originates in India, vetiver is widely cultivated in the tropical regions of the world. The world's major producers include Haiti, India, Java, and Réunion. The most commonly used commercial genotypes of vetiver are sterile (do not produce fertile seeds), and because vetiver propagates itself by small offsets instead of underground stolons, these genotypes are noninvasive and can easily be controlled by cultivation of the soil at the boundary of the hedge. However, care must be taken, because fertile genotypes of vetiver have become invasive. Vegetatively propagated, almost all vetiver grown worldwide for perfumery, agriculture, and bioengineering has been shown by DNA fingerprinting to be essentially the same nonfertile cultigen (called 'Sunshine' in the United States, after the town of Sunshine, Louisiana). Vetiver grass is grown for many different purposes. The plant helps to stabilise soil and protects it against erosion, but it can also protect fields against pests and weeds. Vetiver has favourable qualities for animal feed. From the roots, oil is extracted and used for cosmetics, aromatherapy , herbal skincare and ayurvedic soap . Due to its fibrous properties, the plant can also be used for handicrafts, ropes and more. Vetiver in recent years have been used to produce perfumes, creams and soaps. It is used for its antiseptic properties to treat acne and sores. Vetiver is mainly cultivated for the fragrant essential oil distilled from its roots. In perfumery, the older French spelling, vetyver, is often used. Worldwide production is estimated at about 250 tons per annum. Due to its excellent fixative properties, vetiver is used widely in perfumes. It is contained in 90% of all western perfumes. Vetiver is a more common ingredient in fragrances for men; some notable examples include Dior's Eau Sauvage, Guerlain Vetiver, Zizan by Ormonde Jayne and Vetiver by L'Occitane.

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Indonesia, China, Haiti are major producers. Vetiver processing was introduced to Haiti in the 1940s by Frenchman Lucien Ganot. In 1958, Franck Léger established a plant on the grounds of his father Demetrius Léger's alcohol distillery. The plant was taken over in 1984 by Franck's son, Pierre Léger, who expanded the size of the plant to 44 atmospheric stills, each built to handle one metric ton of vetiver roots. Total production increased in ten years from 20 to 60 tonnes annually, making it the largest producer in the world. The plant extracts vetiver oil by steam distillation. Another major operation in the field is the one owned by the Boucard family. Réunion is considered to produce the highest quality vetiver oil called "bourbon vetiver" with the next favorable being Haiti and then Java. Wintergreen Wintergreen is a group of plants. Wintergreen once commonly referred to plants that remain green (continue photosynthesis) throughout the winter. The term evergreen is now more commonly used for this characteristic. Most species of the shrub genus Gaultheria demonstrate this characteristic and are called wintergreens in North America, the most common generally being the Eastern Teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens). Wintergreen berries, from Gaultheria procumbens, are used medicinally. Native Americans brewed a tea from the leaves to alleviate rheumatic symptoms, headache, fever, sore throat and various aches and pains. During the American Revolution, wintergreen leaves were used as a substitute for tea, which was scarce. Wintergreen is a common flavoring in American products ranging from chewing gum, mints and candies to smokeless tobacco such as dipping tobacco (American "dip" snuff) and snus. It is also a common flavoring for dental hygiene products such as mouthwash and toothpaste. Wintergreen oil can also be used in fine art printing applications to transfer a color photocopy image or color laser print to a high-rag content art paper, such as a hot-press watercolor paper. The transfer method involves coating the source image with the wintergreen oil then placing it face-down on the target paper and pressing the pieces of paper together under pressure using a standard etching press.

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Artificial wintergreen oil, which is pure methyl salicylate, is used in microscopy because of its high refractive index. The Gaultheria species share the common characteristic of producing oil of wintergreen. Wintergreen oil is a pale yellow or pinkish fluid liquid that is strongly aromatic with a sweet woody odor (components: methyl salicylate (approx. 98%), a-pinene, myrcene, delta-3-carene, limonene, 3,7-guaiadiene, delta-cadinene) that gives such plants a distinctive "medicinal" smell whenever bruised. Salicylate sensitivity is a common adverse reaction to the methyl salicylate in oil of wintergreen; it can produce allergy-like symptoms or asthma. Wintergreen essential oil is usually obtained by steam distillation of the leaves of the plant following maceration in warm water. Methyl salicylate, the main chemical constituent of the oil, is not present in the plant until formed by enzymatic action from a glycoside within the leaves as they are macerated in warm water. Oil of wintergreen is also manufactured from some species of birch, but these deciduous trees are not called wintergreens. Spiraea plants also contain methyl salicylate in large amounts and are used similarly to wintergreen. But even though wintergreen has a strong "minty" odor and flavor, the Gaultheria-genus plants are not true mints, which belong to the genus Mentha. Wintergreen oil is used topically (diluted) or aromatheraputically as a folk remedy for muscle and joint discomfort, arthritis, cellulite, obesity, edema, poor circulation, headache, heart disease, hypertension, rheumatism, tendinitis, cramps, inflammation, eczema, hair care, psoriasis, gout, ulcers, broken or bruised bones. The liquid salicylate dissolves into tissue and also into capillaries, so overuse is as risky as overuse of aspirin. Wintergreen also is used in some perfumery applications and as a flavoring agent for toothpaste, chewing gum and soft drinks, confectionery, in Listerine, and in mint flavorings. One surprising application is rust removal and degreasing of machinery. Wintergreen is particularly effective for breaking through sea water corrosion. Strong warning labels are recommended for household salicylate-containing compounds such as oil of wintergreen.

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Ylang-ylang Cananga odorata, commonly called ylang-ylang,cananga tree, ilang-ilang, kenanga in Indonesian, fragrant cananga, Macassar-oil plant or perfume tree, is a tropical tree which originates from the Philippines and is valued for its perfume. The essential oil derived from the flowers is used in aromatherapy. Artabotrys odoratissimus, ylang-ylang vine, and Artabotrys hexapetalus, climbing ylang-ylang, are woody, evergreen climbing plants in the same family. A. odoratissimus is also a source of perfume. C. odorata is a fast-growing tree of the custard-apple family Annonaceae. Its growth exceeds 5 m (15 ft) per year and attains an average height of 12 m (40 ft) in an ideal climate. It grows in full or partial sun, and prefers the acidic soils of its native rainforest habitat. The evergreen leaves are smooth and glossy, oval, pointed and with wavy margins, and 13–20 cm (5–8 in) long. The flower is drooping, long-stalked, with six narrow, greenish-yellow (rarely pink) petals, rather like a sea star in appearance, and yields a highly fragrant essential oil. C. odorata var. fruticosa, dwarf ylang-ylang, grows as small tree or compact shrub with highly scented flowers. Ylang-ylang has been cultivated in temperate climates under conservatory conditions. Its clusters of black fruit are an important food item for birds, such as the Collared Imperial-pigeon, Purple-tailed Imperial-pigeon, Zoe's Imperial-pigeon, Superb Fruit-dove, Pink-spotted Fruit-dove, Coroneted Fruit-dove, Orange-bellied Fruit-dove, and Wompoo Fruit-dove. The name ylang-ylang is derived from Tagalog, either from the word ilang, meaning "wilderness", alluding to its natural habitat, or the word ilang-ilan, meaning "rare", suggestive of its exceptionally delicate scent. A common mistranslation is "flower of flowers". The plant is native to the Philippines and Indonesia and is commonly grown in Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Comoros Islands. The fragrance of ylang-ylang is rich and deep with notes of rubber and custard, and bright with hints of jasmine and neroli. The essential oil of the

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flower is obtained through steam distillation of the flowers and separated into different grades (extra, 1, 2, or 3) according to when the distillates are obtained. The main aromatic components of ylang-ylang oil are benzyl acetate, linalool, p-cresyl methyl ether, and methyl benzoate, responsible for its characteristic odor. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. It is believed to relieve high blood pressure, normalize sebum secretion for skin problems, and is considered to be an aphrodisiac. According to Margaret Mead, it was used as such by South Pacific natives such as the Samoan Islanders where she did much of her research. The oil from ylang-ylang is widely used in perfumery for oriental or floral themed perfumes (such as Chanel No. 5). Ylang-ylang blends well with most floral, fruit and wood scents. In Indonesia, ylang-ylang flowers are spread on the bed of newlywed couples. In the Philippines, its flowers, together with the flowers of the sampaguita, are strung into a necklace (lei) and worn by women and used to adorn religious images. Zedoary Curcuma zedoaria, zedoary, white turmeric or kentjur, is the name for a perennial herb and member of the genus Curcuma, family Zingiberaceae. The plant is native to India and Indonesia but now naturalized in other places including the US State of Florida. It was introduced to Europe by Arabs around the sixth century, but its use as a spice in the West today is extremely rare, having been replaced by ginger. Zedoary is a rhizome that grows in tropical and subtropical wet forest regions. The fragrant plant bears yellow flowers with red and green bracts and the underground stem section is large and tuberous with numerous branches. The leaf shoots of the zedoary are long and can reach 1 meter (3 feet) in height. The edible root of zedoary has a white interior and a fragrance reminiscent of mango; however, its flavour is more similar to ginger, except with a very bitter aftertaste. In Indonesia, it is ground to a powder and added to curry pastes, whereas in India, it tends to be used fresh or in pickling. In Thai cuisine it is used raw and cut in thin strips in certain Thai salads. It can also be served cut into thin slices together with other herbs and vegetables with certain types of nam phrik (Thai chilli pastes).

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The essential oil produced from the dried roots of Curcuma zedoaria is used in perfumery and soap fabrication, as well as an ingredient in bitter tonics. The curcuminoid 1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,4,6-heptatrien-3-one, and the sesquiterpenes procurcumenol and epiprocurcumenol can be found in C. zedoaria.

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Chapter 3: The Science of Aromatherapy and its Efficacy Man has known for centuries that certain plant extracts have a beneficial effect on the body. Modern science has allowed us to discover why essential oils are beneficial and exactly how they are absorbed into the body. The mechanics of scent In order for us to smell an odor, it must volatize or release molecules into the air where they can be inhaled. Once they enter the nose, the molecules bind with receptors that then send impulses to the olfactory bulbs located at the base of the brain (see the picture on the following page) where the messages are interpreted and transmitted to the limbic system. The primary olfactory cortex forms a direct link with several structures of the brain's limbic system6, which commands certain behaviors such as sex drive, sleep cycle, hunger and thirst and is the seat of emotion and feelings. This part of the brain also impacts long-term memory through a structure called the hippocampus. This close relationship is believed to be why we can have fond memories triggered so easily by smelling familiar scents associated with them.

6 Namely the Amygdale and Hippocampus: Schnaubelt, Kurt. Advanced Aromatherapy.

The Olfactory Bulbs

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We know that the structures of the limbic system are responsible for the release of different neurotransmitters. The pituitary gland, for example, releases endorphins, which help alleviate pain and promote a sense of happiness or well being. The Chemistry of essential oils Every essential oil is a unique combination of different chemicals known as constituents. Over 30,000 of these chemicals have been identified, and most essential oils on the market today have around 75-100. Variations in the ecology7 of the plant that produces the oil can result in a variety of different constituent compounds. Even a fairly simple essential oil may contain anywhere from 80 to 300 different chemical constituents. An essential oil like lavender is far more complex. Many of oil’s constituents occur in very minute quantities; but all contribute important qualities to the oil, having a synergistic impact on its therapeutic effects.8 Many of these chemical compounds have been identified; but many remain unknown, and the relationships between them are currently not well understood. However, these molecules can be grouped together into families, each with its own therapeutic properties. Representative of this is the chart on the following page.

7 Variations in seasonal growing conditions, climate, soil, harvesting methods and even handling

techniques can produce differing levels of constituents. 8 Aromatherapy for Health Professionals Churchill Livingstone; 2 edition (December 15, 1999)

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Key Constituents in Essential Oils and Their purported Effects

Constituent Representative Oil

Effect

Ketones Sage Mucolytic

Aldehydes Lemongrass Calming

Esters Lavender Balancing

Ethers Tarragon Balancing

Alcohols Ravensara Toning

Phenols Savory Stimulant

Terpenes Pine Stimulant

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Chapter 4: The Aromatherapy Massage Application The most common application of aromatherapy in massage is through inhalation and skin absorption. The degree of absorption through the skin is an issue of debate among experts. Inhalation With inhalation the essential oil enters the body through the nose, the chemical molecules are absorbed through the nasal mucosa and directly enter the bloodstream. Inhalation can be accomplished via a variety of methods. Diffusers are devices that assist in the rapid volatilization of oils, meaning that they allows the chemical molecules of the oil to enter the air rapidly. Once the constituent molecules are in the air they are easily absorbed into the bloodstream via the olfactory system. Diffusers come in many shapes and models, the most common and simple being an aromatherapy candle. If you plan on using a candle for an aromatherapy application you must insure that it is truly an essential oil product and not merely a fragrance candle. Essential oils can also be diffused by adding them to a bowl of hot water, which can be placed near the head of a massage table (as pictured on the cover). The massage practitioner must keep in mind that they will be exposed to the essential oils in diffusion as well.

Simple diffusers are an affordable and effective way of dispersing essential oil constituents into the air in a massage room. In the soapstone diffuser pictured here the essential oil is poured into the bowl on the top, and a small votive candle provides the heat necessary to volatize the molecules.

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Skin absorption Essential oils can be applied directly to the skin only when properly diluted. This dilution can be in the form of a carrier oil, compress or poultice. Using a Carrier Oil When applying an essential oil directly to the skin, as you would during a massage, you must first mix a small amount of the oil with a carrier. Once the essential oil has been added to the carrier in the correct proportion (this should be listed on the essential oil label) you can proceed to perform the massage as you normally would. There are some suggested formulas and application instructions at the end of this module. The aromatherapy massage using a carrier oil is best suited to the Swedish or Ayurvedic massage styles, as these makes the most use of a lubricating product on the skin. The essential oil constituents are absorbed both through the skin and are inhaled at the same time, maximizing the effectiveness. Some of the most commonly used carrier oils and their properties are listed below. Regardless of the type of carrier oil chosen it must be free of artificial fragrances. Even if they would seem to compliment the natural aroma of the essential oil, artificial fragrances can interfere with the absorption of the constituents. Sweet Almond Oil is cold-pressed from the same almonds we eat. It is neutral in color and aroma and is economical. It is also good for all skin types. Massage therapists like it because it provides just the right amount of glide. Apricot Kernel Oil is pressed from the pits of apricots. It is pale yellow in color and has a faint aroma. This nourishing oil is especially good for prematurely aged, sensitive or inflamed skin. Because it is a lighter oil than sweet almond, it is often used in body oils and lotions. Avocado Oil is a thick, luscious, penetrating oil, rich in vitamins and pressed from the avocado fruit. It is dark green in color, has a pleasant aroma and is used on all types of skin. It is best when blended at 10 to 20% with lighter oils.

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Cocoa Butter is made from the roasted cocoa bean and is solid at room temperature. It is used in cosmetics and body lotions as a thickener. It is skin softening and lubricating and melts on contact with skin, making it ideal for use in salves and balms. Coconut Oil is high in saturated fats and closely resembles the fat found under human skin. It is solid at room temperature so it's usually warmed on low heat until it melts and then blended with other oils at 10 to 50% concentration. Especially good on damaged, dry, itchy or sensitive skin. Grapeseed Oil is solvent extracted from the seed of grapes. Since this is one oil that is not available expeller pressed, some people may prefer to avoid using it. However, it is preferred by a number of massage therapists because it is a light, odorless oil and works well for all skin types. It is very penetrating, and its slight astringency helps to tighten and tone the skin. Jojoba Oil is actually a liquid wax rather than a fatty oil and is similar to the skin's own sebum. It forms a very thin, non-greasy protective layer upon application that rapidly penetrates the skin (without blocking pores), making it useful in nourishing formulas—but not by itself for massage. Jojoba is very healing and soothing when used on inflamed or irritated skin, and helpful in all sorts skin conditions. It is generally blended at levels of 10 to 20% with other oils. Because it's a wax, it is very stable when blended with other oils and helps extend their shelf life. Olive Oil is a wonderfully soothing oil—great for dry or inflamed skin. Olive oil is often blended with other oils at 10 to 50%. It's also a great oil to use as a base for making herb-infused oils for use in salves or medicinal oils. Olive oil is loaded with vitamin E, and it has the longest shelf life of any of the natural vegetable oils. Rosehip Seed Oil is very rich and often used on dry, scaly, burned or scarred skin. It should not be used on blemished, oily or acne-prone skin. Because of its high cost, it's generally blended with other oils at a rate of 10 to 20%. Sesame Seed Oil is a thick oil used for softening and rejuvenating all types of skin. It's often blended with other oils at 10 to 20%. Long used in Ayurveda as a base for medicinal preparations, sesame seed oil contains a natural preservative that helps prevent rancidity.

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Shea Butter is a semi-solid fat obtained from the seed of the fruit of the karate tree that grows in Western Africa. It's used as a cosmetic on ageing, sensitive and damaged skin. Using a Compress Herbal compresses are an easy and convenient way to apply healing herbs to the body. Compresses, either hot or cold can be very useful for treating certain body aches and pains, headache, sore throat and skin conditions. A simple compress is nothing more than a piece of cloth that is soaked in a tea or tincture of an herb and applied to the affected area of the body. More complicated herbal compresses use pastes of chopped and dried herbs bound in a cloth applicator. This simple “Thai” compress is just a mixture of herbs, lemongrass, prai (or plai), turmeric, kaffir lime, camphor and tamarind. They are warmed in a steamer, which releases the aroma and medicinal properties of the compress. They are then applied to the body by the therapist, holding them in place on acupressure points and moving them gently along the meridians.

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Popular Herbal Compresses Here are a few common herbs that can be used for compresses for minor injuries or ailments. Arnica: An antibiotic, anti-inflammatory and pain reliever, arnica is a wonderful herb to have on hand for minor aches and pains. It is particularly useful for those suffering from carpal tunnel syndrome, and it can prevent bruising and swelling when the skin has been injured. It can reduce pain and stiffness after a hard workout and may be effective at dulling postoperative pain. The tincture should be diluted three to 10 times before being used as a compress. It should not be taken internally and should not be used by pregnant women. It may cause eczema if used for long periods. Chamomile: Commonly used as a relaxant, chamomile is also an antihistamine that has anti-inflammatory properties. It is useful for treating minor cuts, scrapes and abrasions, as well as in managing eczema. German chamomile instead of Roman chamomile should be used, as Roman chamomile can cause allergic reactions.

Arnica flowers can be purchased at many nurseries and have long been used for homeopathic medicines.

Chamomile flowers

Chamomile is commonly found in tea bags. Make a tea using one or two bags in about half a cup of water and allow to steep for five or 10 minutes before making your compress. Chamomile has blood-thinning properties and should not be used by people on blood thinners.

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Lavender: Lavender essential oil is a wonderful treatment for headaches. It is believed to inhibit reactions that cause inflammation and pain. Lavender can also be helpful for treating burns, wounds, eczema and acne. Compresses can be made from lavender tea made from one or two teaspoons of lavender flowers steeped in a cup of water, or simply apply a few drops of lavender oil to the temples and apply a cold washcloth to ease headache pain. Lavender oil should not be taken internally. Because of its popularity with massage practitioners, many essential oil producing companies offer lavender oil in larger quantities than that of the other oils. It is typically more cost effective to purchase it this way, if you plan on using it frequently. Peppermint: Another good choice for the treatment of headaches, peppermint oil is also helpful in relieving pain from muscle sprains and strains. The easiest way to use peppermint oil is to massage a few drops onto the affected area and cover with a hot or cold compress.

Fresh Lavender should be available at a nursery or health food store. Note of interest… Because of it’s relaxing properties lavender is often used in candles employed by massage therapists. Many massage clients, if asked to describe a typical massage room, would mention the familiar scent of lavender.

Mint leaves

Using a Poultice The word "poultice' is derived from the Latin 'pultes', the plural of puls, meaning a porridge or pottage. A poultice, then, is a thick paste usually of chopped, ground or crushed fresh (or dried but remoistened) plant material sometimes with bran or flour added for thickening and stability, which is applied directly to the skin. Simple poultices can be made from a single herb or substance such as dandelion, used tealeaves or bran.

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More sophisticated poultices can include various herbs with other elements added, such as flour or bran for thickening and vinegar or witch hazel for astringency. Poultices work by drawing out pus and toxins, increasing blood flow or circulation, relaxing sore and tense muscles, healing and disinfecting wounds, and soothing inflamed tissue. Thus, they can be used to relieve the pain and inflammation associated with:

• Fractures, abscesses, ulcers, boils and cysts • Bruises and sprains • Carbuncles • Swelling from fractures • Enlarged lymph glands in the neck, breast, groin or underarm • Sunburn and other minor burns • Tumors

They are also used to break up congestion, and remove embedded particles, such as glass, thorns and slivers, from the skin. One of the reasons that poultices and compresses are so effective is that the skin, the largest organ of the body, and one of the first lines of defense against disease, has the ability of absorption. Applying an herbal poultice to the painful, inflamed or infected area of the skin absorbs the medicinal benefits of the substance almost immediately. Never put an irritating ingredient, such as mustard, capsicum, cinnamon or Arnica directly onto the skin; make a compress instead. Purported Effects of Essential Oil Essential oils are believed to have a profound affect on our emotions and our sense of well-being. The impact an essential oil will have varies on each individual. For instance, we may like or dislike a particular scent or have a memory (good or bad) associated with that scent—both of which can impact how an essential oil will affect us. When choosing oils from the list below, start with those that intuitively appeal to you the most.

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Counteracts Aggression:

cedarwood, jasmine, sandalwood, ylang ylang

Supports Confidence: allspice, basil, blue cypress, jasmine, marjoram, neroli, petigrain, rose, rosemary, vanilla

Counteracts Anger: German chamomile, geranium,jasmine, lavender, Roman chamomile, vanilla, ylang-ylang

Counteracts Anxiousness:

benzoin, bergamot, clary sage, geranium, German chamomile, grapefruit, juniper, lavender, mandarin, orange, patchouli, rose, sandalwood

Stabilizes Emotions: bergamot, eucalyptus, geranium, lavender, Roman chamomile, sandalwood

Counteracts Boredom/Apathy:

jasmine, juniper, peppermint, rosemary

Supports Calming/Soothing:

chamomile, coriander, hyssop, lavender, lemongrass, sandalwood

Supports Centering/Focusing:

Atlas cedar, cedarwood, coriander, frankincense, cinnamon leaf, myrrh, sandalwood

Counteracts Emotional stress:

basil, benzoin, bergamot, fennel, juniper, lavender, myrrh, rose, peppermint, sandalwood, ylang-ylang

Supports Euphoria: anise, clary sage

Counteracts Fear: lavender, marjoram, myrrh, Roman chamomile, neroli, rose otto, sandalwood, thyme, ylang ylang

Counteracts Grief: benzoin, clary sage, cypress, fennel seed, Roman chamomile, rose, sage, ylang ylang

Counteracts Impatience:

geranium, myrrh, rose

Invigorates/Energizes: basil, bay, cardamom, cinnamon, eucalyptus, lemongrass, rosemary

Counteracts Irritability:

fennel, lavender, orange, Roman chamomile

Supports Clarity: basil, clary sage, clove bud, juniper, hyssop, peppermint, rosemary

Supports Relaxation: anise, German chamomile, lemon eucalyptus, lavender

Stimulates: bay, black pepper, clove, fennel, ginger, peppermint

Counteracts Sorrow: bergamot, clary sage, grapefruit, orange, rose

Strengthens/Fortifies: cedarwood, frankincense, myrrh, tea tree

Uplifts: allspice, basil, balsam fir, clary sage, clove bud, lemon, orange

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Note: This list is by no means exhaustive; it is just a starting point. There are literally hundreds of different essential oils on the market today with many purported effects. You should do your own research if you plan on incorporating aromatherapy into your massage practice. Blending and Formulating The combining of essential oils is an art that is both creative and rewarding. The Nature of a Good Blend Before beginning blending essential oils it's important to understand a few facts about them. Essential oils are volatile, when you open a bottle and expose it to the air, its aroma profile immediately begins to change. The three main stages of these changes are known as the top note stage, middle stage, and dryout stage. These stages coincide with three characteristics of the aroma profile known as top notes, middle notes and base notes. Top Note stage The top note stage takes place first and corresponds with the most volatile, unstable aroma compounds of the oil. The aromas of these compounds can be very subtle and fleeting, sometimes lasting for only a few seconds before they dissipate. As the top notes evaporate the oil enters its middle stage in which the body is most developed and balanced. Some of the top notes remain, the middle notes are most apparent and the base notes are beginning to develop. Middle stage As the middle stage progresses the base notes become more and more noticeable because they consist of compounds that are slower to volatilize. Dryout stage When the base notes finally evaporate, a faint dryout note remains. The aroma of the dryout stage is thin, sometimes powdery and bittersweet, and suggests the presence of the oil. It can be thought of as the matrix or skeleton of the oil.

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Depending on their individual aroma characteristics, oils themselves can be categorized into top notes, middle notes and bottom notes. A very delicate, highly volatile oil like bergamot is considered a top note oil. A well balanced, somewhat tenacious oil like clary sage would be considered a middle note oil. A deep, rich, very tenacious oil like patchouli is considered a base note oil. When creating a blend, strive for balance between top, middle and base note oils. A well-balanced oil has a complex aroma profile and maintains the aromatherapy benefit throughout the various stages, although the characteristics of the scent may change.

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Chapter 5: Contraindications and Safety Concerns Do not apply essential oils directly on the skin. With few exceptions, oils need to be appropriately diluted before applying to skin. Undiluted oils can cause irritation, burning, redness or photosensitivity. Properly diluted oil maintains its effectiveness; you do not have to worry about potency. You must always perform a patch test for sensitivities. Some people will have adverse reactions to certain oils, and most will be unaware of the condition due to the relatively rare nature of the oils. To perform a patch test add 1 drop of oil to 1/2 tsp. vegetable oil and apply to the inside of the arm. Leave on for 24 hours, and if any redness or itching develops, don't use it on that person. Keep oils out of reach of small children. Always keep oils away from eyes. Do not use essential oils internally. Essential oils are highly concentrated and toxicity varies, so it is never a good practice to use any essential oil in foods or beverages. Use caution if pregnant. Avoid using oils altogether when pregnant or only use small amounts of the safest oils. Check the cautions on Essential Oil labels or a good reference book when determining what oils to use. Note: While there seem to be few, if any, cases of toxic effects to the fetus from aromatherapy, it is always best to err on the side of caution. Essential oils in the mother’s body may pass through to the baby. Beware of photosensitizing oils. Oils such as angelica and the citrus oils can cause burning when applied to skin and then exposed to the sun or sun lamps. Avoid using these oils on the skin for at least 4 hours before going out into the sun. (Note: bergamot is one of the most photosensitizing oils, however natural Bergamot BF (bergaptene-free) is an alternative that is safe to use in the sun. Read and follow all warning or cautions labels. Use the appropriate dilution for the situation. Children, the elderly, or those with serious health problems should dilute oils more than healthy adults. Don’t over expose yourself! Inhaling or applying too much oil at a time can cause headaches, irritation

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or discomfort. If overexposed, get some fresh air. It is also best to vary the oils used over time, to avoid build-up of any particular constituents. Pregnant women, people with severe asthma, and people with a history of allergies should only use essential oils under the guidance of a trained professional and with full knowledge of your physician.

Pregnant women and people with a history of seizures should avoid hyssop oil.

People with high blood pressure should avoid stimulating essential oils, such as rosemary and spike lavender.

People with estrogen dependent tumors (such as breast or ovarian cancer) should not use oils with estrogen like compounds such as fennel, aniseed, sage, and clary-sage.

People receiving chemotherapy should talk to their doctor before trying aromatherapy.

Most topical and inhaled essential oils are generally considered safe.

Rarely, aromatherapy can induce side effects, such as rash, asthma, headache, liver and nerve damage, as well as harm to a fetus.

Oils that are high in phenols, such as cinnamon, can irritate the skin. Add water or a base massage oil (such as almond or sesame oil) to the essential oil before applying to the skin. Avoid using near your clients eyes.

Essential oils are highly volatile and flammable so they should never be used near an open flame.

Animal studies suggest that active ingredients in certain essential oils may interact with some medications. Researchers don’t know if they have the same effect in humans. Eucalyptus, for example, may cause certain medications, including pentobarbital (used for seizures) and amphetamine (used for narcolepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) to be less effective.

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Summary of Aromatherapy Massage Aromatherapy has been a recognized discipline for as long as massage therapy, perhaps even longer. The two are synergistic, working together and complimenting each other in ways that few allied disciplines can. Review for the quiz: An essential oils is the distilled essence of a plant or herb. These oils are very volatile, which in the context of Aromatherapy means it can vaporize at a relatively low temperature. These oils are created by a variety of methods including steam distillation, enfluerage and expunging. Essential oils that are obtained by adding a solvent to plant material are called Absolutes. Essential oil constituents (chemical components) enter the body primarily through a process called inhalation, which occurs as the essential oil volatizes, air molecules enter the nose, binds with receptors and signals are sent to the Olfactory bulbs. These essential oils directly affect the limbic system, which is believed to influence the sex drive, appetite and emotions. This can be achieved in your massage room by burning aromatherapy candles, heating oils in a diffuser or adding oils to a bowl of steaming water and placing it under the massage table. Inhalation is often preferred to directly applying oils to the skin because experts disagree on the amount of constituents absorbed via the skin and some essential oils can cause skin to burn if exposed to sunlight after application. If you are treating a person for body aches and pains or your client has a skin condition or sore throat you can use an herbal compress. If you are applying oils to the skin you should mix it with a carrier oil, because some oils are too strong to apply directly to the skin and may cause irritation. Some essential oils are expensive and come in small quantities, so a carrier oil can make it stretch. A Coconut Oil carrier is especially good on damaged, dry, itchy or sensitive skin.

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Aromatherapy Massage Formulas Here are some simple Aromatherapy Massage Formulas you can use in your massage practice. All are taken from the book 500 Formulas for aromatherapy, by Carol and David Schiller, Sterling Publishing Company, New York. We recommend this text for anyone that plans on practicing Aromatherapy Massage. For Aches and Pains Apply this blend directly to the area affected during the massage. 1 tablespoon (15ml) Carrier oil 5 drops of rosemary 5 drops of nutmeg 5 drops of lavender For Sore Muscles Massage this formula into tight muscles and the surrounding tissues. 2 tablespoons (30ml) Carrier oil 10 drops of ginger 9 drops of Ylang-ylang 6 drops of black pepper For Anxiety (Sedating) Apply this blend to the shoulders, back and neck. 1 tablespoon (15ml) Carrier oil 6 drops of petitgrain 4 drops of neroli 5 drops of orange Relief from Fatigue (invigorating) Massage this blend into the chest, back of the neck shoulders and down the back. 1 tablespoon (15ml) Carrier oil 6 drops of peppermint 4 drops of grapefruit 5 drops of rosemary Emotionally Uplifting Massage this blend into the chest, back of the neck shoulders and down the back. 5 drops of melissa 5 drops of jasmine 5 drops of lemon

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An Aromatherapy Glossary A Adulterated - pure essential oils are used in aromatherapy for their healing properties and therefore pure essential oils should have no artificial substitutes or additional ingredients added to them. As some essential oils are difficult to extract, and thus costly, some aromatherapy suppliers are tempted to ‘add’ or ‘substitute’ (i.e. adulterate) another essential oil or fragrance oil in place of it to increase profits. Common adulterated essential oils include Rose Otto (Rosa damascena) and Melissa (Melissa officinalis) which may be adulterated with similar (but cheaper) alternatives which do not possess the same propertiesor, in the case of fragrance oils, any properties. The price usually dictates an essential oil's authencity - if it seems too good to be true it probably is! Aldehydes - one of the chemical components which make up an essential oil. Aldehydes usually have a powerful aroma and are therefore an important ingredient to a perfumer. Some aldehydes are a skin sensitizer in certain people. Aldehydes are anti-infectious, tonics, anti-inflammatory and calming to the nervous system. Antiseptic - preventing infection. Some essential oils are more effective in helping to prevent the spread of infection and are used specifically for this purpose; examples include tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia). Angelica (Angelica archangelica) - an ancient aromatic herb, native to Russia, Iceland and Lithuania. Angelica essential oil is steam distilled from the root, fruit or seed of the plant. It is digestive, expectorant and diuretic. Angelica essential oil is used to treat a number of skin problems, indigestion, muscle pain, coughs and colds and stress. Aphrodisiac - increases sexual desire. Almond (Sweet) (Prunis dulcis) - a carrier oil which helps heal and nourish for dry skin. Almond oil helps soothe inflammation and can help health conditions such as eczema, psoriasis, sunburn and dermatitis. Caution: some people may be allergic to sweet almond oil. Apricot Kernel (Prunis armeniaca) - a carrier oil which is useful for the management of pain and, in skin care; Apricot kernel oil is nourishing for sensitive, mature and dry skins.

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Aromatherapie - Aromatherapy in its original (French) form. Aromatherapist - a person who practices aromatherapy. A qualified, or certified, aromatherapist will have haven taken a course in aromatherapy and may be registered with a professional organization to gain accreditation. There are no set requirements for a person to set themselves up as an ‘aromatherapist’ in the USA and there is a huge variation in the courses available from online courses, one day seminars to one year diploma courses. The more in-depth a course a person has studied, who they studied with, length of experience and whether they belong to a professional organization should give you some idea of their expertise. The U.K. has stricter guidelines and is more 'advanced' than the U.S. in aromatherapy legislation but it still pays to check all of the above criteria too. Aromatherapy - Aromatherapy, in simple terms, is a therapy using the 'aromas' (essential oils) of the plants, and not the use of the plants themselves, to help ‘heal’ any number of ailments (such as back pain, asthma, arthritis, PMS etc) and induce certain moods. There are different types of aromatherapy including clinical/medical aromatherapy, cosmetic aromatherapy and aromatology. Astringent - causes contraction of organic tissue. B Bactericidal - preventing the growth of bacteria. Some essential oils have greater potential than others to prevent the growth of some bacteria and may be useful as a ‘defensive’ mechanism in preventative medicine. Basil (Ocimum basilicum) - an essential oil which is native to tropical Asia; Basil is now found throughout the Mediterranean region in a number of different species. A name familiar to people for its use as a culinary herb, basil essential oil is distilled from the flowers of the plant, for aromatherapy purposes. Basil essential oil is used for digestive complaints, skin care (including bites), respiratory ailments and is also good for headaches and mental fatigue.

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Bergamot (Citrus bergamia) - taking its name from an Italian town, from where Bergamot essential oil originated, the Bergamot tree is now to be found in Southern Italy and the Ivory Coast. It has been one of Italy’s best kept secrets, as little was known about this essential oil, outside of Italy, until recently. Bergamot essential oil is obtained from the rind of the Bergamot citrus fruit. It is a very useful essential oil for stress-related problems as it is a calming essential oil. Other uses of bergamot essential oil include skin care, digestive ailments and respiratory problems. It is also a photo-sensitive oil, so use with care in ultra-violet rays (such as sun light) because of this. Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) - used for centuries in the Far East, from where it is a native, Black Pepper is known for its culinary uses. The essential oil is extracted from its peppercorns and is useful in helping muscle pain and digestive ailments, in addition to combating colds. Blend - although each essential oil carries its own unique therapeutic properties, a combination of essential oils ‘blended’ together increases the capacity to heal. Essential oils are blended together with carrier oils, bubble bath, lotions, water and other carriers to make an aromatherapy blend. C Cacao - The kernel seeds of cacao produce theobroma oil (Theobroma cacao), also known as cocoa butter. The cacao tree is native to South and Central America and was first cultivated to make cocoa butter in 1695. Cacao seeds are fermented, washed, dried, hulled, roasted and hot expressed to make cacao oil, cocoa, cocoa butter - and ultimately chocolate! Camphoraceous - clean and medicinal. Carcinogenic - something which has the potential to cause cancer. Cardomon (Elettaria cardamom) - an essential oil extracted by steam distillation of the dried seeds of the herb. Used extensively as a domestic spice, cardomon has a long history in traditional Chinese medicine. Current aromatherapy use of cardomon essential oil includes indigestion, vomiting, cramp, anorexia, colic, flatulence, dyspepsia, mental fatigue and nervousness. Cardomon is native to the tropical region of Asia.

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Carrier - used to apply essential oils to the skin, as the majority of essential oils are too powerful to be applied directly to the body. Carrier oils have their own therapeutic properties; other carriers include shampoo, bubble bath, lotions and water. Cedarwood (Cedrus atlantica) - an essential oil distilled from the wood of the atlas cedarwood tree. It is antiseptic, astringent, anti-bacterial and sedative. Cedarwood essential oil is used to treat eczema, dry skin, arthritis and asthma. Atlas cedarwood is native to the Atlas mountains of Algeria. It was used by the ancient Egyptians for embalming and for cosmetic use. Chamomile - see Roman Chamomile Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) - there are two types of cinnamon essential oils - cinnamon leaf and cinnamon bark essential oils. Cinnamon bark essential oil is the more potent cinnamon essential oil, due to its chemical components. It is also a skin irritant, so it is more common to use cinnamon leaf essential oil for aromatherapy use. The Cinnamon tree is native to several countries including Sri Lanka, India and Madagascar. Cinnamon essential oil is known for its aphrodisiac properties as well as for digestive complaints, muscle pain, poor circulation, and infections and colds. Cicatrisant - capable of healing scar tissue. Citronella (Cymbopogon nardus) - native to Sri Lanka, citronella is now found in many tropical countries. Citronella essential oil is steam distilled from the tall, aromatic grass. It is antiseptic, a cicatrasant, bactericidal and an insecticide. Citronella essential oil is used to treat colds, flu headaches and to repel insects. Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea) - not to be confused with common sage (Salvia officinalis) or Spanish sage (Salvia lavandulifolia), Clary Sage is the preferred essential oil for use in aromatherapy, due to its low toxicity in comparison to other sage oils. Clary sage essential oil is extracted from the flowers and leaves of the herb. Clary Sage is a popular choice for ‘women’s problems’, skin care, nervous tension and is also an aphrodisiac! In addition, it is a bactericidal oil. Do not mix clary sage essential oil with alcohol as it may produce a ‘narcotic’ like state with nightmares.

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Clove Bud (Syzygium aromaticum) - the clove is thought to have originated from Indonesia. Clove essential oil is water distilled from the buds and leaves; clove is also steam distillation from the stalks and stems of the plant. Clove bud oil is the favored clove essential oil for aromatherapy use. It is used in skin care, digestive complaints and muscle and joint pain. Cold Expression - see distillation Cold Pressed - the best carrier oils are cold pressed because of the absence of excessive heat in the extraction process. Heat often removes some of the 'natural' properties of a carrier oil. Cornmint (Mentha arvensis) - a native plant of Europe and some parts of Asia, Cornmint essential oil is usually used in lesser preference to Peppermint essential oil for aromatherapy purposes. Cornmint essential oil is extracted by steam distillation of the flowering herb. It is usually dementholized (i.e. the menthol is removed), otherwise it would be solid at room temperature. Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) - the needles and twigs of the cypress tree are extracted to produce cypress essential oil. In ancient times, cypress was of great value as a medicine. It is native to the eastern Mediterranean region but can be found in various places in the world including England, France, Spain and North Africa. Cypress essential oil is useful for skin care, respiratory problems and nervous conditions. D Diuretic - some essential oils may increase the need to urinate more often. The body tries to eliminate any unnecessary ‘waste’ through diuretic essential oils and therefore improves health. Examples of diuretic essential oils include cypress, hyssop and marjoram essential oils. Distillation - a method by which the ‘essences’ of the plant are extracted and used to produce essential oils, flower waters or some other by-products. Methods of distillation include mainly steam distillation but some essential oils, such as those from the citrus family, are obtained by cold expression. In some instances, the stills used to distill the plants are really no different than those used centuries ago. Larger distilleries use more sophisticated equipment - but in either case the basic principles are still the same.

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E Eczema - a disease of the skin causing itching and inflammation, resulting in irritated ‘red’ patches which are subject to forming sores. Some essential oils have properties which help relieve eczema, such as rose and lavender essential oils. Emmenagogue - capable of aiding menstruation. Emollient - smoothes and softens the skin. Epilepsy - some essential oils are contra-indicated (i.e. advised against using) in the case of epileptics. The risk is minimal, in the majority of cases, but epileptics should consult a qualified professional before using. Rosemary essential oil is contra-indicated in epilepsy. Epsom salt - a white crystalline salt which takes its name from the town of Epsom in England which is famous for its mineral waters. Essential oil - the ‘life blood’ of a plant which is found in the glandular hairs, glands, vein or sacs. Extracted from flowers, leaves, trees, roots and fruit, it is these ‘essences’ or 'fragrances' which provide a plant’s ‘perfume’ or ‘flavor’ and, once distilled, the end product of an ‘essential oil’ contains the healing properties used in aromatherapy. Eucalyptus - distilled from the leaves and twigs of the native Australian Eucalyptus tree, Eucalyptus essential oil comes in many different varieties, including Eucalyptus Smithii, Eucalyptus citriodora (lemon scented eucalyptus), Eucalyptus dives var. Type (broad leaved peppermint eucalyptus) and Eucalyptus globulus var. globulus (blue gum eucalyptus). Eucalyptus Smithii is perhaps the most gentle of the eucalyptus oil. Eucalyptus essential oil is useful in treating colds and sinus complaints. Evening Primrose (Oenothera biennis) - a carrier oil which is useful for dry skin, psoriasis, eczema and wound healing. Expectorant - capable of clearing mucus from the respiratory system. Extraction - the process used to obtain both essential oils and carrier oils for aromatherapy use. There are various methods of extraction. Essential

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oils are usually obtained through distillation and cold expression. Carrier oils can be cold or hot pressed. F Febrifuge - combats fever. Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) - a herb which is native to the Mediterranean region, and particularly at home near the sea, Fennel essential oil is distilled from the seeds of the plant. Fennel was used in ancient times to ward off evil spirits but it does have more scientific and therapeutic uses in the modern world. Fennel essential oil is used to treat skin problems, digestive disorders and is used to help disorders of the female reproductive system. Fixed Oil - the name given to a vegetable oil used in aromatherapy. Fixed oils are non-volatile and non-soluble. Fragrance Oil - a synthetic substitute which is not a true essential oil. A fragrance oil has no therapeutic properties for aromatherapy use, although fragrance oils are used frequently in the perfumery industry for their scent alone. Frankincense (Boswellia carteri) - frankincense essential oil is extracted from an ancient tree. A favorite essential oil for meditation (due to its calming properties), frankincense is used in skin care particularly for the treatment of mature skin. G Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) - a favorite essential oil used to substitute/adulterate the more expensive rose oil. Geranium is a very aromatic herb. It is a favorite essential oil for women, not just due to its scent, but because its healing properties help with a variety of ‘women-related’ problems as well as an excellent essential oil for skin care problems. Geranium is native to South Africa but it is now cultivated worldwide. The ‘best’ Geranium essential oil reputedly comes from Egypt, Reunion (Bourbon) and Russia. Ginger (Zingiber officinale/officinalis) - Also commonly used as a spice, Ginger is a native of Asia. Ginger essential oil is extracted from the roots of the herb and is useful for digestive complaints, muscle pain and for colds. It has been used for centuries and is commonly used in Chinese medicine.

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Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) - grapefruit essential oil is extracted from the peel of a citrus fruit which has essentially being cultivated as a hybrid (citrus maxima and citrus sinensis). California is now the main producer of grapefruit essential oil and it is gentle enough to be used with children. Grapefruit essential oil is used in skin care, depression and colds and it is a useful antiseptic and bactericidal oil. Unlike a lot of other citrus oils, it is not phototoxic. Grapeseed (Vitis vineferia) - a versatile and popular carrier oil in aromatherapy due to its non-toxicity. However, grapeseed oil easily becomes rancid if not stored correctly; it is also a "hot pressed" oil and consequently may be refined. Grapeseed oil is excellent for skin care use and is relatively fragrance free. Green - an odor which resembles grass. H Hazelnut (Corylus avellana) - a carrier oil which is useful for dry skin, nourishment of the skin, astringent properties and stimulation to the circulation. It is thought to be absorbed by the skin very quickly. Helichrysum (Helichyrsum angustifolium italicum) - cultivated in Italy, France and Spain, the flowers of the helichrysum herb are steam distilled to produce essential oil. Helichrysum essential oil is antiseptic, astringent and anti-inflammatory. High Blood Pressure - some essential oils, due to their nature, may increase the risk of higher blood pressure. Although this risk is minimal, consult a qualified professional before using essential oils, if unsure. Hot Pressed - some plants are hot pressed to extract the carrier oil. However, hot pressed carrier oils have often been refined and some of the natural properties of the plant's oil are lost in the process. Cold pressed oils are the preference for true aromatherapy use. Hydrosol/Hydrolat - the by-product of the distillation process used in obtaining pure essential oils. Hydrosols/hydrolats are also known as flower or floral waters. Hypericum (Hypericum perforatum) - also known as St John’s Wort. Hypericum is a carrier oil used in aromatherapy. Its therapeutic properties

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include use on burns and inflammations, nerve conditions, wounds involving nerve damage, sores and ulcers. Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) - hyssop is a plant which is native to the Mediterranean region and parts of Asia. Hyssop essential oil is extracted by steam distillation from its leaves and flowers. It is useful for digestive and respiratory complaints and for skin care. However, it is a moderately toxic essential oil which is advised against in the case of pregnancy, epilepsy and with high blood pressure. J Jasmine (Jasminum officinale) - often mistaken as an essential oil, jasmine is not, in fact, a 'true' essential oil. The flowers of jasmine are subjected to a process of enfleurage or solvent extraction, which involves chemicals; therefore jasmine is actually an absolute or concrete and not a steam distilled essential oil. Jasmine oil is expensive, due to the complicated method of extraction, and is frequently adulterated. It is calming, sedative, an aphrodisiac and good for skin care. Juniper (Juniperus communis) - essential oil from the Juniper tree is obtained from its berries, needles (and wood, although not usually recommended for aromatherapy use). The Juniper tree is native to the ‘cooler climatic’ regions of the world (such as Scandinavia, Europe and Northern Asia). Juniper essential oil is useful as an antiseptic and diuretic, as well as an aid in detoxification. It has a number of other uses including skin care, treatment of colds and infection. Juniper was burned in French hospital wards to guard against disease and infection. L Lavender, true (Lavandula angustifolia or Lavandula officinalis) - an evergreen shrub, familiar to the majority of people, lavender has aromatic, purple/blue colored flowers from which the essential oil is distilled. Lavender is native to the Mediterranean region, but it should not to be confused with spike lavender (lavandula latifolia) and lavandin (lavandula x intermedia., Both of these plants produce different essential oils with their own, yet similar, therapeutic properties. Lavender is one of the most versatile of essential oils and can be used for a vast number of problems. Lemon (Citrus limon) - the essential oil obtained from the fruit of the lemon tree is extracted by cold expression, not steam distillation. The lemon tree is a familiar sight in the Mediterranean but it is also common in the warmer

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states of the USA, such as California and Florida. It is a good essential oil for colds and for skin care. Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) - an aromatic grass, native to Asia, lemongrass was traditionally used in Indian medicine. Lemongrass essential oil is distilled from the grass and is useful for skin care, muscle pain and to help lift headaches and stress-related conditions. Laurel (Bay) (Laurus nobilis) - a native of the Mediterranean region, laurel leaves were used by the Greeks and Romans to crown victories. The dried leaves and branches of laurel are distilled to produce laurel essential oil. Laurel essential oil is used in aromatherapy for digestive complaints and for the treatment of viral infections. Litsea (Litsea cubeba) - see May Chang M Macerated Oil - a carrier oil which is a vegetable oil mixed with plant material to produce greater therapeutic properties. Mandarin (Citrus reticulata) - extracted from the rind of the fruit of the tree, Mandarin essential oil is a citrus oil which is a favorite of children due to both its fragrance and its calming properties. Mandarin is a native of the Far East and probably takes its name from the ‘Mandarins of China’ to whom the fruit was traditionally presented as a gift. It is more commonly known by the name of Tangerine in the U.S., although the name Mandarin is in more common usage in Europe. Mandarin essential oil is used to treat digestive complaints, skin care problems and nervous system disorders. Due to its gentle nature (and effectiveness in certain areas of pregnancy), it is often used by pregnant women to help with pregnancy complaints. Marjoram (Origanum marjorana) - traditionally used as a culinary herb, Marjoram is a plant which is native to the Mediterranean region. Marjoram essential oil is derived from the flowers of the plant and it is useful to treat muscle pain, respiratory problems, digestive complaints and stress-related problems. May Chang (Litsea cubeba) - a native Asian beauty, May Chang essential oil is obtained from the fruits of the tropical tree. May Chang essential oil is used for skin care, digestive complaints and its uplifting fragrance makes it a good choice for nervous complaints.

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Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) - known to have been used in the ancient city of Pompeii, Myrrh is thought to have originated from north-east Africa and south-west Asia. Myrrh essential oil is obtained by the steam distillation of crude myrrh. It is used in skin care and for respiratory and digestive problems. Myrtle (Myrtus communis) - native to North Africa, Myrtle was used in the ancient city of Pompeii as a perfumery ingredient. Myrtle essential oil is distilled from the leaves and twigs of the Myrtle plant. Myrtle was used, in addition to other ingredients, to produce a skin care lotion in the sixteenth century, called ‘Angel’s water’. Myrtle essential oil is used in skin care, for the treatment of colds and flu, asthma and other respiratory conditions. N Niaouli (Melaleuca viridiflora) - is a large Australian tree with yellow flowers, related to tea tree. Niaouli essential oil is steam distilled from the leaves of the tree and is used to treat cystitis, sinusitis and asthma. It has strong anti-bacterial and antiseptic properties. Neroli (Orange Blossom) (Citrus aurantium var. amara) - it is the blossoms of the orange tree which produce neroli essential oil, also known as orange blossom essential oil. Neroli essential oil is named after a ‘princess of Nerola’ in Italy, who wore the scent of the orange tree as a perfume. Neroli essential oil is an aphrodisiac, in addition to being an anti-depressant, antiseptic, digestive and bacterical oil. Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) - nutmeg essential oil is obtained from the kernel of the fruit of the nutmeg tree. It is analgesic, digestive and an aphrodisiac. Nutmeg essential oil is used to treat arthritis, indigestion and anxiety. The nutmeg tree is native to the Molucca Islands. O Oleoresin - a mixture of resins and essential oils, which are naturally extracted from plants with solvents. Orange Sweet (Citrus sinensis) -sweet orange essential oil is obtained through cold expression of the fruit of the sweet orange tree, as with a lot of citrus essential oils. It should not be confused with bitter orange (Citrus aurantium var.amara) essential oil which is obtained from the same tree as neroli essential oil. It is native to the Far East, although the orange tree is now cultivated extensively throughout the world. Its sweet smelling

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fragrance is intoxicating and uplifting to the senses and it is a favorite oil of children. Sweet orange essential oil is used to treat digestive problems, in skin care and for colds and flu. Organic - relates to or derives from living matter; produced without using chemical fertilizers or artificial chemicals. The term organic is used quite loosely in the cosmetic and skincare industry with no set legal requirements within the U.S., which means that organic may not actually mean organic. P Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii) - a native of Pakistan and India, Palmarosa is often used as a substitute to adulterate the more expensive essential oil, such as rose (Rosa damascena), although its plant family is the same as that as Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus). The essential oil is extracted from the grass and its uses include skin care, digestive disorders and stress-related conditions. Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) - originally from the tropics of Asia, Patchouli essential oil is obtained from the leaves of the Patchouli herb. Patchouli essential oil is used in skin care and for stress-related conditions. An 'exotic' oil, made popular by the 'hippie' culture of the 1960's, Patchouli has a reputation as an aphrodisiac. Peppermint (Mentha piperita) - native to Europe, but now found world wide, the peppermint herb produces an essential oil, as well as being a popular culinary addition. Menthol is the dominant element of peppermint essential oil and in addition to its skin care qualities, it is a useful addition in dealing with gastric and stomach upsets. However, do not use on, or in the presence of, young children and babies. Petitgrain (Citrus aurantium var amara) - Petitgrain essential oil is distilled from the leaves of the orange tree, which gives also produces bitter orange (Citrus aurantium var.amara) and orange blossom (Citrus aurantium var. amara) oil. A native to the Far East, the orange tree is now found throughout the Mediterranean region; the best Petitgrain essential oil is obtained from the Mediterranean, in particular France. Petitgrain essential oil is used in skin care and it is a good oil for stress and depression. Pine (Scotch) (Pinus sylvestris) - pine essential oil is extracted from the needles of the pine tree and is used to help with respiratory problems and muscle pain. It is also used in ‘air fresheners’ and the true essential oil (not

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commercially produced synthetics) used in these products helps fight against bacteria, viruses and is antiseptic. Native Americans used the pine tree to fight against scurvy, lice and fleas. The pine tree is a ‘cold climate’ native to Eurasia but is now found in similar climatic regions such as Europe, eastern USA, Russia and Scandinavia. Phototoxic/photosensitive - some essential oils, particularly (but not all) those which belong to the citrus family, can increase sensitivity to sunlight and other forms of ultra-violet light (e.g. sun beds) and therefore increase the risk of sunburn and other related skin problems. Although this risk is extremely minute in the usual quantities of essential oil used, you should still be aware of the potential risk, particularly if you are susceptible to sunburn or skin problems. Phytotherapy - the treatment of diseases by plants. Pompeii - Pompeii is an ancient Italian town which was ‘buried’ under the lava flow of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Immaculately preserved for centuries as it lay undiscovered and forgotten about, until excavations began in earnest in the 1700s under Charles III, Pompeii was known to grow and use a lot of the herbs and flowers used in modern day aromatherapy. Pregnancy - some essential oils are advised against for use in pregnancy, although, in general, the use would have to be excessive to cause potential harm to mother-to-be and baby. In many cases, essential oils are very useful in pregnancy but it is advisable to learn which essential oils can be used safely in pregnancy (and in which trimester) and which essential oils to avoid in pregnancy. Phthalates - a group of chemical compounds used in plastics and health and beauty products. R Resins - natural resins are excuded from trees and prepared resins are oleoresins with the removal of essential oils. Resinoids - natural resinous material, for example resins and balsams,extracted through hydrocarbon solvents to produce perfumery material.

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Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) - roman chamomile essential oil is obtained from the flower heads of the chamomile herb. Used for over 2,000 years in Europe and the Mediterranean, it is a gentle oil which can be used with children. It has a variety of uses including insect bites, skin care, insomnia and toothache, amongst others. Rose Otto (Rosa damascena) - Rose is actually native to Asia, but is a familiar sight in English country gardens and gardens throughout the world. Rose is also believed to have been the first flower to be distilled and produce an essential oil (10th century Persia) - and is also one of the most expensive essential oils due to the difficulty in extracting the oil from its petals. Well-known for being the traditional ‘flower of love’, rose is aphrodisiac, used in skin care and for stress and depression. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) - the Latin name for rosemary translates as ‘the dew of the sea’ and it is traditionally found near the sea. Rosemary essential oil is distilled from the pale blue flowers of a herb. Rosemary is often found in herb gardens. Rosemary essential oil is good for skin conditions but is also known to aid mental fatigue. Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora) - the rosewood tree is a tropical tree which is native to the Amazon region. Roswood essential oil is steam distilled from the wood chippings. However, continuous felling of the South American rainforests and the production of the rosewood essential oil is contributing to damage to the environment. Rosewood essential oil is used in aromatherapy for skin care, nervous conditions and colds. S Saponified - the end result of turning (fat) into soap by a certain process. Sandalwood (Santalum album) - sandalwood essential oil is an expensive essential oil due to the fact it takes 30 years before the sandalwood tree is mature enough to produce true essential oil. The sandalwood tree is native to tropical Asia, but today India is the main essential oil producer. There has been some recent controversy over obtaining Sandalwood oil elsewhere due to the extraction of the essential oil leading to possible extinction of the tree in this area of the world. Sandalwood has been used for centuries as an incense, due to it’s calming qualities, and it is frequently used in meditation. Sandalwood essential oil is used in skin care and for respiratory complaints and is also an aphrodisiac!

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Silver Fir (abies alba) - silver fir essential oil is similar to scotch pine essential oil. Silver fir essential oil is extracted by steam distillation of the twigs and needles of a tree native to Northern Europe. It is antiseptic, analgesic, expectorant and a stimulant. Silver fir essential oil is used to treat colds and muscle pain. Steam distillation - see distillation Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) - a carrier oil which is moisturizing for the skin and useful for treatment of some skin disorders, such as acne. Sunflower oil, used in aromatherapy,should not be confused with sunflower oil used for culinary purposes (which is highly refined). Both sunflower oils should not be used interchangeably, as they have different properties and uses. Synthetic - a synthetic oil is one that has been 'made' in a scientific laboratory for commercial purposes from a variety of sources and sometimes passed off as the 'true' product. The perfume industry frequently uses synthetic fragrances to substitute as it is cheaper to do so, and therefore produces a higher profit margin. Synthetic oils may in fact contain chemicals that cause an allergic reaction. There is no substitute for a true essential oil for aromatherapy uses - a synthetic will not contain the healing properties of the plant from which it was ‘extracted’. T Tea Tree (melaleuca alternifolia) - tea tree is a native of Australia and from where the only true melaleuca alternifolia is still found; however, other varieties of the melaleuca family are found elsewhere in the world. The Aborigine people have used the properties of the tea tree for centuries. Tea tree essential oil is distilled from the leaves and twigs. It is used for respiratory problems, in skin care and to protect the immune system. Theobroma cacao (theobroma oil) - cocoa butter - see cacao Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) - native to the Mediterranean region but now found in other parts of the world including the U.S., Russia and Turkey. It is an ancient herb with highly fragrant leaves. Thyme produces both sweet thyme and red thyme essential oil from the dried leaves and flowers of the plant. Red thyme essential oil is the crude distillate whereas sweet thyme essential oil is produced from the second distillation. Sweet thyme essential oil is the less toxic and, in general, more used thyme oil.

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However both thyme oils have various uses and properties. To learn more click here. Toxicity - some essential oils are more toxic than others and therefore they possess a greater potential for harm. In simple terms ‘toxicity’ can be translated as ‘poisoning’ if used incorrectly or in large quantities. The majority of essential oils, when used correctly and responsibly by someone who knows what they are doing, are harmless and classed as non-toxic. However, in some instances, and with some essential oils, this needs to be considered more; for example lower quantities of essential oils are used for pregnant mothers, babies and children and the elderly and are contra-indicated for some medical situations such as epilepsy and high blood pressure. However, there are some essential oils which should never be used in aromatherapy because of their toxicity levels. V Vegetable Oil - a carrier oil used in aromatherapy. There are several types of vegetable oil including basic, advanced and organic vegetable oils. Vetiver (Vetiveria zinaniodes) - related to lemongrass and citronella. Vetiver is a scented grass, native to Sri Lanka, Indonesia and India. Vetiver essential oil is steam distilled from the roots of the plant. Some of the properties of vetiver essential oil include the treatment of wounds, acne and insomnia. Volatile - changing easily to vapor, as in the case of essential oils. W Water (distilled) - distilled water has no impurities or chemicals added to it. It has been purified by means of ‘distilling’ i.e. heating, vaporizing, cooling, condensing and collecting the ‘finished product’ to produce ‘distilled’ water. Y Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) - a native herb of Europe and Asia. The steam distilled essential oil is antiseptic, digestive and carminative, in addition to other properties. Its uses include the treatment of indigestion, arthritis and skin problems. Ylang Ylang (Cananga odorata) - Ylang Ylang is a tropical tree, native to Asia, and ylang ylang essential oil is distilled from the flowers of the tree. Ylang Ylang essential oil is used in skin care, and for depression and insomnia. It is also an aphrodisiac.

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Certificate of Completion and Transcript In order to receive your certificate of completion and an updated transcript for this course you must complete and pass the quiz. Once we have received your quiz we will generate your certificate and transcript and both will be emailed to you. If you completed the last quiz during our business hours (Monday-Friday 8:00 am-5:00 pm Pacific Standard Time) it should be emailed to you within a few minutes. If you complete the last quiz after business hours, or on a weekened it will still be emailed to you as quickly as possible. We check the system every hour until midnight most days so it should go out within an hour of you taking it. If you take the last quiz after midnight you will probably have to wait until the next morning, we do sleep. Please give us a full 24 hours before you call us if you have not received your certificate and transcript. We pride ourselves on being very fast, but if there is a condition beyond our control (the Internet Service Provider is down, etc) it may take us longer than usual. Also please be aware that many people wait until the last minute to do their courses. For this reason, the last few days of the month (28th, 29th, 30th, etc) are usually very, very busy times for us so our turn around time may be a little slower-but it should still be within 24 hours. If it has been more than 24 hours and you still have not received your emailed certificate, by all means call us! The number is (209) 777-6305. Lost Certificates and Transcripts If you need another copy of your documents emailed to you we will gladly do that for free at any time, just go to the contact page on our website and ask for it.

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Course Evaluation We would like to hear some feedback form you. You can complete the evaluation online by clicking this link: http://www.sasionline.com/courseevaluation.html If you are using the “embedded” version of this course you will not be able to click the link above but there should be one you can access on the webpage itself. Thanks for taking our course; we really appreciate your business and we hope you come back to us next time you need continuing education hours. We would also love it if you would “Like us” on facebook, you can find us at www.facebook.com/beyondmassageschool. Errata If you found a typo PLEASE LET US KNOW what page it is on and the paragraph and we will fix it ASAP. This book has 50,000 words in the course content alone. Some of those are going to be misspelled. We’re not perfect, but we strive to be- so help us out. Help and Technical Support We have worked hard to make this course as easy to use as possible, but it does rely on technology and sometimes there are factors that are out of our control (like your local internet provider, your computer, your browser version, the device you are using etc). If for some reason you are not able to access the quiz you can call us and let us know, and we will problem solve it for you. We have office hours, Monday-Friday 8:00 am-5:00 pm PST but you can call or email for help at any time after hours, I monitor the system every hour until I go to sleep, so call if you need to and I will do my best to help you. The number is (209) 777-6305.

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Bibliography Dodt, Colleen. The Essential Oils Book. Storey Publishing, LLC, 1996. Edwards, Victoria H. The Aromatherapy Companion. Storey Publishing, LLC, 1999). Gattefossé, René-Maurice. Gattefossé's Aromatherapy. The CW Daniel Company Limited, 1993. Lawless, Julia. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Element Books, Inc., 1995. Rose, Jeanne. 375 Essential Oils and Hydrosols. Frog Ltd., 1999. Schnaubelt, Kurt. Advanced Aromatherapy. Healing Arts Press, 1998. Tisserand, R. and Balacs, T. Essential Oil Safety. Churchill Livingstone, 1995. Carol and David Schiller 500 Formulas for aromatherapy, Sterling Publishing Company, New York. Worwood, Valerie Ann. The Complete Book of Essential Oils and Aromatherapy. New World Library, 1991. Cooke B, Ernst E. Aromatherapy: a systematic review. British Journal of General Practice 2000 June: 495. Vickers, A. Why aromatherapy works (even if it doesn’t) and why we need less research. British Journal of General Practice 2000 June:445. Thorgrimsen L et al. Aromatherapy for dementia. Cochrane Database Systematic Review 2003,(3):CD003150.

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