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30 Years on from Kangan: An Analysis of the Current
Policy Position of TAFE Queensland
GREG MCMILLAN
A/Dip. Bus (Retail), B. Bus. (Acc), Grad Dip (FET), MPET
Being a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Education within the
School of Learning and Professional Studies, Faculty of Education,
Queensland University of Technology
August 2007
i
KEY WORDS FOR CATALOGUING
Australia, policy, vocational education and training, TAFE, social service and economic utility roles, globalisation, economic rationalism, managerialism, human capital theory, case study, content analysis, constant comparative method.
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30 Years on From Kangan: An analysis of the
current policy position of TAFE Queensland.
ABSTRACT
Within Australia, Vocational Education and Training (VET) encompasses the
Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector, private providers, community
education and training, and work-based training. Additionally, some VET activities
are embedded within the secondary school and university sectors. As the major
provider of Government-funded vocational education and training, TAFE has
undergone significant change since its establishment in the 1970’s. Historically,
TAFE has provided broader education and social opportunities for individuals
beyond a narrower focus on the achievement of training outcomes for economic
benefits. However, shifts in policy direction in 1980’s and 1990’s have seen the
delineation between broader education and economic outcomes becoming less
distinct. While this is perhaps true of all education sectors, it has potentially
impacted more on TAFE than any other sector. This thesis investigated these
impacts within the context of TAFE’s social service and economic utility roles. This
was undertaken by analysing seven seminal Commonwealth and Queensland
documents and by analysing the findings of interviews with six senior executives
within Queensland’s Department of Employment and Training and TAFE. The key
findings of this thesis indicate that TAFE Queensland continues to perform a number
of functions or activities that can be associated with a social service role. However,
the findings also indicate that, for TAFE Queensland, there has been a shift towards
an economic utility role. Since the Kangan Report (1974), TAFE’s role has become
more focussed on meeting Queensland’s economic and industry needs within a broad
view that Australia needs a flexible workforce, qualified to industry standards of
competence and able to compete in a globalised world.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS:
KEY WORDS FOR CATALOGUING.............................................................. i
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS: ............................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................... ix
LIST OF APPENDICES................................................................................ ix
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................... x
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP............................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE: CONTEXT OF THE STUDY .............................................. 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH....................................................... 1
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................. 3
1.3 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE RESEARCH:................................................. 6
1.3.1 Importance of the area ............................................................................. 6
1.3.2 Practitioner Research ............................................................................... 7
1.3.3 Significant Research and Study Relevant to this Thesis ....................... 8
1.3.4 Gaps within Existing Research .............................................................. 10
1.4 POLICY: DEFINITION................................................................................ 11
1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY ..................... 12
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS........................................................................ 12
1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................. 15
2.1 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT FOR UNDERSTANDING TAFE IN
AUSTRALIA ........................................................................................................ 15
2.1.1 An Overview of the Australian Education System .............................. 15
2.1.2 The General Role and Purpose of Education ....................................... 17
2.1.3 The Role and Purpose of Technical and Further Education .............. 18
2.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IMPACTING ON EDUCATION
POLICY IN AUSTRALIA .................................................................................. 21
2.2.1 Globalisation and the influences of Liberalism .................................... 21
2.2.2 Economic Rationalism and Education Policy....................................... 22
2.2.3 Human Capital Theory........................................................................... 25
2.2.4 Corporate Managerialism ...................................................................... 27
2.2.5 Summary .................................................................................................. 28
2.3 THE VET MARKET AND THE MARKETISATION OF TAFE............ 29
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2.3.1 The Development of a VET market....................................................... 29
2.3.2 TAFE and VET ....................................................................................... 33
2.3.3 VET and TAFE’s Role from a Policy Perspective ............................... 34
2.3.4 VET and TAFE’s Role from a Research Perspective .......................... 35
2.3.5 Funding of VET and TAFE.................................................................... 37
2.3.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 37
2.4 KEY REPORTS AND MILESTONESS IMPACTING ON TAFE IN
AUSTRALIA ........................................................................................................ 38
2.4.1 The Kangan Era ...................................................................................... 38
2.4.2 TAFE in the 1980’s and 1990’s .............................................................. 41
2.4.3 TAFE in the Early 21st Century ............................................................ 44
2.4.4 TAFE Queensland ................................................................................... 45
2.4.5 Summary .................................................................................................. 48
2.5 A SOCIAL SERVICE AND ECONOMIC UTILITY ROLE OF TAFE..49
2.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 49
2.5.2 TAFE’s Role from a Social Service Perspective ................................... 51
2.5.3 TAFE’s Role from an Economic Utility Perspective............................ 53
2.5.4 Tensions between a Social Service and Economic Utility Perspective55
2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................ 57
CHAPTER THREE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................................61
3.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................. 61
3.2 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK........................................................ 63
3.2.1 Key Influences that Impact on the Conceptual Framework ............... 63
3.2.2 A Continuum View of a Social Service and Economic Utility Role.... 65
3.2.3 The Conceptual Framework .................................................................. 66
3.3 PRESENTING A POLICY POSITION: A MODEL.................................. 69
3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY ................................................................................ 72
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN ............................................................73
4.1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR THE STUDY.............................. 73
4.2 THE RESEARCH STRATEGY – A CASE STUDY .................................. 75
4.3 DATA COLLECTION .................................................................................. 76
4.3.1 Policy Documents .................................................................................... 76
4.3.2 Interview Participants............................................................................. 78
4.4 DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 83
4.4.1 Policy Documents .................................................................................... 83
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4.4.2 Interviews................................................................................................. 86
4.4.3 Relationship of Data to the Research Questions .................................. 88
4.5 TRUSTWORTHINESS AND CREDIBILITY............................................ 90
4.6 THE RESEARCHER AND RESEARCHER BIAS.................................... 92
4.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.................................................................. 93
4.8 LIMITATIONS .............................................................................................. 94
4.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................ 94
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS - A Policy Position............................................. 95
5.1 INTRODUCTION: ........................................................................................ 95
5.2 POLICY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS: DETERMINING A POLICY
POSITION ............................................................................................................ 96
5.2.1 National Policy Documents .................................................................... 97
5.2.2 State Policy Documents ........................................................................ 107
5.2.3 Summary and Discussion on all Policy Documents ........................... 119
5.3 INTERVIEW ANALYSIS: DETERMINING A POLICY POSITION.. 123
5.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 123
5.3.2 Interview Findings ................................................................................ 125
5.3.3 Summary and Discussion of Interviews .............................................. 135
5.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY.............................................................................. 137
CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS - A Policy Emphasis ........................................ 139
6.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 139
6.2 A LACK OF CLARITY OF TAFE QUEENSLAND POLICY............... 139
6.2.1 Policy: A Framework or an Explicit Position: ................................... 139
6.2.2 Policy Gaps ............................................................................................ 141
6.2.3 TAFE as a Public Provider .................................................................. 142
6.2.4 Individual Institutes or a TAFE Sector............................................... 144
6.2.5 TAFE as a Policy Arm of Government ............................................... 146
6.2.6 Summary ................................................................................................ 148
6.3 ROLE OF TAFE QUEENSLAND INSTITUTE DIRECTORS.............. 148
6.3.1 Policy Developers, Influencers or Implementers ............................... 149
6.3.2 Institute Director or Senior Bureaucrats ............................................ 150
6.3.3 Political Influences ................................................................................ 151
6.3.4 Summary ................................................................................................ 152
6.4 FOCUS ON KEY PERFORMANCE MEASURES (KPIs) ..................... 153
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY.............................................................................. 155
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CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND ISSUES CHAPTER..............................157
7.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 157
7.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES INFLUENCING POLICY:............ 158
7.2.1 A Social Service Emphasis.................................................................... 158
7.2.2 An Economic Utility Emphasis ............................................................ 161
7.2.3 Balancing Two Apparently Dichotomous views................................. 165
7.3 INFLUENCES ON A SOCIAL OR ECONOMIC EMPHASIS .............. 170
7.3.1 A Lack of Clarity of TAFE Queensland Policy .................................. 171
7.3.2 The Role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors: .......................... 174
7.3.3 Focus on Key Performance Measure................................................... 176
7.3.4 Summary:............................................................................................... 178
7.4 RELATED ISSUES...................................................................................... 178
7.4.1 The Politicising of the Australian VET System .................................. 179
7.4.2 VET-TAFE Reforms: integrating or disengaging social and economic
goals? ............................................................................................................... 182
7.4.3 Is there a Role for a Public Provider TAFE Sector in the Future? .. 186
7.4.4 The Limitations of VET research ........................................................ 190
7.5 SUMMARY................................................................................................... 192
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................195
8.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 195
8.2 THE STUDY................................................................................................. 195
8.2.1 The Purpose and Significance of the Study ........................................ 195
8.2.2 The Literature Review .......................................................................... 196
8.2.3 The Conceptual Framework and Methodology ................................. 196
8.2.4 Findings .................................................................................................. 197
8.2.4 Emerging Issues..................................................................................... 198
8.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY.............................................................. 199
8.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY................................................................ 202
8.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE .......................................................... 203
8.6 LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................ 204
8.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH........................ 204
8.8 CONCLUSION............................................................................................. 205
REFERENCES...........................................................................................224
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Features and Access Implications of Two Views of TAFE......................... 50
Table 2: Social Service and Economic Utility Conceptual Framework .................... 68
Table 3: Example of the alignment of ‘intent’ in the Data Collection Table............. 85
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Key Influences on a Social Service and Economic Utility Role ................ 64
Figure 2: Continuum View of Social Service and Economic Utility......................... 65
Figure 3: A Model for Visually Presenting a Policy Position.................................... 71
Figure 4: Relationship between Research Questions, Data Collection and Analysis 89
Figure 5: Data Collection Steps ................................................................................. 95
Figure 6: Policy Position - National Policy Documents .......................................... 105
Figure 7: Policy Position – State Policy Documents ............................................... 116
Figure 8: Policy Position – Combined Policy Documents....................................... 119
Figure 9: Policy Position – Interviews ..................................................................... 135
Figure 10: Policy Position - Documents and Interviews.......................................... 137
Figure 11: Policy Position - Documents and Interviews.......................................... 157
Figure 12: A TAFE System Model .......................................................................... 199
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: DET Structure ..................................................................................... 207
Appendix 2: Research Information Pack ................................................................. 208
Appendix 3: Interview Pre-Reading......................................................................... 212
Appendix 4: Data Collection Table.......................................................................... 215
Appendix 5: Data Collection Table – Kangan Report (1974).................................. 216
Appendix 6: Data Collection Table – A Bridge to the Future (1998 – 2003).......... 217
Appendix 7: Data Collection Table – Shaping our Future (2004 – 2010) ............... 218
Appendix 8: Data Collection Table – Skilling Queensland (2001 - 2004) .............. 219
Appendix 9: Data Collection Table – Education and Training Reforms (2002) ..... 220
Appendix 10: Data Collection Table – DET Strategic Plan (2003 – 2007)............. 221
Appendix 11: Data Collection Table – TAFE Queensland Strategic Plan (2003 - 2006) ............................................................................................ 222
Appendix 12: Policy Emphasis Table ...................................................................... 223
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACE Adult and Community Education
ACOTAFE Australian Committee on Technical and Further Education
ANTA Australian National Training Authority
AQF Australian Qualification Framework
AVTS Australian Vocational Training System
CAE’s Colleges of Advanced Education
CBT Competency Based Training
CEET Centre for the Economics of Education and Training
DET Department of Employment and Training
DETA Department of Education, Training and the Arts
DEET Department of Employment, Education and Training
DETIR Department of Employment Training and Industrial Relations
DEVET Department of Employment
DEVETIR Department of Employment, Vocational Education and Training and
Industrial Relations
ETRF Education and Training Reforms for the Future
ITAB’s Industry Training Advisory Boards
MCEETYA Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth
Affairs
MINCO ANTA Ministerial Council
NAS New Apprenticeship Schemes
NTF National Training Framework
NTP’s National Training Packages
QEVET Queensland Employment, Vocational Education and Training Board
RTO Registered Training Organisation
TAFE Technical and Further Education
TAFE*TEQ TAFE, Training and Employment Queensland
TDQ TAFE Directors Queensland
VET Vocational Education and Training
VOCED Vocational Education and Training Research Database
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To best
of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or
written by another person except where due reference is made.
Greg McMillan
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Morgan (1997) cites the allegory of the cave presented in Plato’s The Republic. In this allegory, people are chained inside a cave so they cannot move and the cave dwellers can only see themselves and their shadows. The cave dwellers equate the shadows with reality, naming them, talking about them and linking the outside sounds with their movements on the wall. As Socrates relates, if one of the inhabitants were allowed to leave, they would realise the shadows are of a more complex reality and the knowledge and perceptions of their fellow dwellers are distorted and flawed. If they were to leave and return to the cave, they would never be able to live in the old ways since for them the world would be a different place. I express my sincere appreciation to the following people who have encouraged and supported me in my journey that has allowed me to move outside my cave so I now view vocational education and training in Australia, and the TAFE sector, in a much more informed way than before. My supervisors have been appropriately demanding, yet incredibly supportive. Most significant has been Dr Lisa Ehrich (QUT) who has been with me throughout the entire journey. Mere words are inadequate to express my appreciation to Lisa for her support and guidance. Dr Neil Cranston (UQ) for his early contributions, particularly on the development of key diagrams and candid discussions; and more recently to Dr. Mary O’Keeffe (USQ), for her thoughtful and constructive contributions. To the elite interviewees, who remain unnamed, I express my appreciation for without their willingness to contribute, there is no thesis. Critical friends provided useful and insightful contributions to the development of this thesis. My thanks go to Andrew Walker for his support in the early days of researching the key issues and Pat Roche for her guidance and critical thinking. My thanks also go to many work colleagues across several institutes. In particular, I thank Nik Babovic, Mary Campbell, Andrea Harris and Kerrie Boyce who were often used to share ideas and concepts. I also express sincere appreciation to Bob McAulay as one who supported my endeavours and constantly encouraged me to think beyond the obvious. Personal friends are also important and, whether they realised it or not, they have played a vital role in helping me throughout this journey. I give my sincere appreciation to Steve and Ann Murray, Pam and Fred Bol, Mike and Beris Ludwig and Trish and Jes Kirk. A part-time study program of some 26 years can only be achieved with tremendous support from those closest to you. To my wife Gillian, I simply say ‘Thank you; with you by my side, anything is possible and everything is achievable’. To our daughters, Georgie, Cass and Alex, I say: “It is an honour and privilege to be your Dad and I wish you all the best for the future. Constantly step outside ‘your cave’; always with a desire to learn more so you can enrich your life and the lives of others with whom you come in contact”.
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CHAPTER ONE: CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
The Australian education system is a tiered system comprising primary, secondary
and post-secondary education. Within post-secondary education, there exists a
variety of public and private universities and colleges and a system broadly defined
as Vocational Education and Training (VET) that permeates through both the
secondary and post-secondary environs, and within the public and private provider
domains. The Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector resides within this
broader VET system with TAFE Institutes undertaking the role of the major public
provider within each State. TAFE had a monopoly on technical and further
education and training until the early 1990’s, when the concept of a VET market was
created to open up this emerging market to greater competition as part of Federal
Government policy (Goozee, 2001). In line with greater competition and other
economic and corporate shifts, the Australian TAFE sector underwent significant
reform in the decades following its inception in 1974 under the auspices of the
Kangan Report (1974). Major reform was triggered during the late 1980’s and early
1990’s by the influence of reports such as those by Dawkins and Holding (1987),
Dawkins (1988, 1989), Deveson (1990) and the development of the Australian
National Training Authority (ANTA) through the ANTA Act 1992.
Political, economic and education policy influences have created an environment
whereby the role and purpose of TAFE is less clear than ever before. As a result, a
number of key questions become important. Should the role of TAFE be to provide
a broader social service and education focus, or should it be an economic tool of
government established to achieve economic gains? Is it the role of government to
invest in education and training on behalf of individuals or should the individual
beneficiaries of education and training pay for themselves? Being the public
provider, does TAFE have a social service role to play beyond other providers within
the VET market? Has the policy influence of economic rationalism swung TAFE’s
policy emphasis toward an economic agenda? What combination of social and
economic imperatives should be a focus for the public provision of technical and
further education?
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From a social service perspective, TAFE’s role can be described as one in which ‘the
individual is TAFE’s primary focus and equity of access within a broad framework
of social concern is the guiding principle’ (Powles & Anderson, 1996, p.98). This
implies that, in addition to teaching specific vocational skills, the additional
acquiring of such knowledge and skills as the development of adaptability, social
responsibility and the personal development of a student should be supported.
Further, a social service view advocates the subsidising of the public provision of
education and training to support those who need additional assistance to overcome,
for example, affordability and accessibility barriers. The notion of social service
does not negate the focus on assisting a person to gain a job (Ferrier & Anderson,
1998; Kangan, 1974; Lloyd, 1976); rather, a social service view reflects positively on
the concepts of recurrent education and lifelong learning.
From an economic-utility perspective, TAFE is one channel through which to
promote economic development. The rationale is that the economy drives
enrolments, determines their social distribution and influences the nature of student
demand. In this way government can minimise ‘frivolous consumption’ through the
management of education and training as a commercial transaction rather than as a
process of social and cultural formation (Powles & Anderson, 1996). From a human
capital paradigm, education becomes skill formation, with the objective of boosting
industry productivity and competitiveness rather than contributing to social and
personal development (Marginson, 1993; Powles & Anderson, 1996).
The tensions that lie between the social service and economic functions of TAFE
have evolved in a globalised world where economic, political and associated
influences have developed in an education policy framework since the 1980’s
(Anderson, Brown, & Rushbrook, 2004; Marshall & Peters, 1999). These tensions
have influenced a paradigm shift expanding the concept of investment in education
to a broader concept of investment in human capital (Gough, 1994; Johnston, 1997;
Kenway, 1999; Marginson, 1993, 2000) that more directly relates the development of
human capital into an economic benefit. These influences also reflect broader
tensions between two notions of investment in human capital: a neo-liberal
perspective that seeks private investment in education by the education consumer
(Korton, 1995; Mander, 1996), and a liberal progressive view which mandates
3
government intervention as a means of maximising the benefit of investment into
human capital (Giddens, 1994; Thurrow, 1996). In the Australian context, reflective
of neo-liberal influences on national education agendas, there has been a
proliferation of private provider activities throughout all education sectors.
Adding further tension to education policy has been the phenomenon of globalisation
(Wells, Carnochan, Slayton, Allen, & Vasudeva, 1998) that, when associated with a
pervading international economic rationalist environment, has increasingly linked
with economic policy (Anderson et al., 2004; Kenway, 1999; Pusey, 1994; Taylor,
1996). Within this economic rationalist environment, corporate managerialism, that
is the influence of private sector management ideologies and practices on public
sector organisations, has impacted particularly on public sector management
practices throughout the western world. This has moved public sector management
toward corporate efficiencies and effectiveness more associated with broader
economic agendas than the core public, or social service functions that had arguably
been their primary charter (Poulson, 1996; Seddon & Lawrence, 1995; Self, 2000)
These issues become particularly important when identifying the current position of
TAFE within the broader global economy. Thus, it is timely for a review of current
TAFE policy to be undertaken as a basis for developing a future policy position
about the renewal, revitalisation and re-conceptualisation of TAFE’s role (Veenker &
Cummins 2001).
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The thesis uses the report that spearheaded the establishment of TAFE, the Kangan
Report (1974), and six other seminal Commonwealth and Queensland State
documents, to determine the current policy position of TAFE Queensland. The
following research questions are addressed:
• What is the current policy position of TAFE Queensland with respect to the
emphasis placed on a social service and economic utility role as evidenced by:
o strategic policy documents that impact on TAFE Queensland, and
o the views of senior executives who influence the development and
implementation of TAFE Queensland policy?
4
• What influences are shaping a TAFE Queensland policy emphasis towards
either a social service or economic utility role, as evidenced by the views of
these senior officers?
The complexity of issues that impact on a social service or economic utility role for
TAFE can be understood by considering the trends that have emerged over recent
years that have influenced the Vocational Education and Training agenda, and
specifically TAFE as a key provider in this market. Marginson (1993) has indicated
that some of these trends included:
• The linking of education to economic development;
• The introduction of the view that a key priority for the vocationalist/training
agenda is that workers need to be multi-skilled, flexible and responsive to labour
market changes;
• The implementation of centralised policy making and a decentralisation of
administration of policy (devolution);
• A shift to corporate managerialism in education reflecting commercial business
practices that focus on outcomes and outputs;
• An introduction of economic rationalism into education that has led to a
marginalisation of social justice/equity; and
• The implementation of privatisation and competition policy and practices across
government activities including traditional social services domains such as
education.
These trends can be seen in the way that an economic rationalist and a human capital
perspective have influenced Government policy on education (generally) and TAFE
(specifically) through the linking of educational activities directly to economic
performance measures. With these trends, there is the perception that education is
now seen as either an investment in the future or consumption of expenditure rather
than a social good; and a belief higher qualifications equate to greater economic
productivity (Gough, 1994; Johnson, 1997; Kenway, 1999; Marginson, 1993).
Furthermore, economic rationalism and corporate managerialism in the public sector
have influenced policy and management practices. These influences are evident
5
through the use of cost-efficiency justifications to meet democratically determined
ends, emphasising a focus on the ends, not the means; and a focus on outputs not
inputs by tying social justice to economic imperatives. A consequence of these
trends is the growth of the user pays concept, resulting from limited government
funding (Seddon & Lawrence, 1995; Self, 2000; Smith, Ferrier, & Burke, 1999).
Arguably, both for the VET system and TAFE, the focus now appears to be more on
the production of graduates to meet economic needs than on the social and cultural
development of individuals who can contribute more broadly to society. Other
important trends or policy shifts include the acknowledgement that lifelong learning
is an economic as well as a social imperative. There is also the issue of globalisation
and its impact on individuals, organisations and society, in general, as Australia’s
labour, financial and other markets become more influenced by global markets.
Further, there is a general movement away from the welfare state, shifting social
justice responsibilities back to organisations, individuals, families and the
community generally (Callaghy, 1993; Carl, 1994; Wells et al., 1998).
There is evidence of intent by Commonwealth and State governments to support a
public provider of VET (ANTA, 1998, 2004; Queensland Government, 2001a,
2003a). While there is a TAFE sector, there will be government, industry,
community, teacher, management and individual expectations of what TAFE is and
should be. In addressing the research questions identified earlier in this section, this
thesis aims to add to a body of knowledge that informs key stakeholders of the
implications of current education and economic policy by understanding:
• The contemporary social service and economic utility influences and issues
facing TAFE Queensland;
• The current position of TAFE Queensland in relation to these influences and
issues; and
• The gaining of insight into policy directions that could lead the way towards a
desired position in the future.
6
1.3 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE RESEARCH:
1.3.1 Importance of the area
While TAFE, in itself, may not be able to directly affect government policy, or the
size of public expenditure on the VET system, it does have a significant role to play
in delivering Australia’s broader knowledge requirements. TAFE is the major
provider of public funding of VET training within Australia (NCVER, 2005) and has
been recognised by ANTA as an ongoing participant in the VET market (ANTA,
1998, 2004; Queensland Government, 2001, 2003a). Paradoxically, while ANTA
vigorously pursued an open training market to encourage private provider
participation, it maintained a commitment to TAFE as an instrument for pursuing
government policy, particularly noting that TAFE has a role in providing a safeguard
against market failure. Small wonder, then, that Goozee (2001) sardonically
depicted TAFE as:
Education’s version of the Flying Dutchman instructed to go forth and
compete but forever destined to beat against the wings of regulation and
directions from which all competitors are exempt. (p.9)
The implication of this claim is that, for TAFE, there is not a level playing field.
TAFE, as the government provider, cannot be as free to compete in the market place
as a private provider. However, it seems reasonable to conclude that, unless TAFE is
privatised, it has a role to play as the public provider and therefore should not be
simplistically treated in the same way as a private provider competing in the same
market.
There are concerns that the reforms in VET in the 1990’s occurred with incredible
swiftness, limiting the opportunities of those actually within the VET system to
participate in the current policy debates (Broadbent, 1998). It is against this
background that Veenker and Cummins (2001) argue that significant change has
occurred in TAFE on two previously identifiable occasions. It first occurred when
the Kangan Report (1974) gave TAFE its identity, providing a vision for TAFE in
which educational and social objectives, and the rights and needs of individuals had
precedence over the needs of industry. The second occurrence was during the
7
1980’s, when political and economic thinking diverged from the Kangan philosophy
and the national training agenda evolved. This second period has been characterised
by increasing dominance of economic policy in the education sector, a shift to
demand-driven provision, greater industry ownership and involvement, the creation
of the training market and the implementation of competency based training.
Veenker and Cummins (2001) argue that there are compelling, social and educational
signs that thinking about the role and purpose of TAFE is needed. For example,
Seddon (1999) argues for the need to review the balance between the economic
drivers that have influenced education policy since the 1970’s and the need to
maintain the core social responsibilities of education. TAFE is a significant sector of
education that supports not only the economic agenda but also broader education
issues such as learning for adults, not just children and youth, and lifelong learning
not just front-end learning. Therefore, a study that focuses on the current policy
position of TAFE Queensland, and the key influences that have impacted on that
position, is deemed timely.
1.3.2 Practitioner Research
A Doctor of Education degree provides an opportunity for the enhancement of
professional practice at a higher degree level. Research is designed to focus on
applied investigation and problem solving in response to the changing patterns in
research activity (Pearson, 1999). Further, this degree provides opportunities for
practitioners, who seek to engage more deeply within their own fields of learning, to
enhance their contribution to policy, management and professional practice in an
education setting (McWilliam, 2002).
The researcher undertook a number of management roles in the private sector before
commencing a teaching role at TAFE. Over recent years, he has performed a
number of senior management roles within Queensland’s Department of
Employment and Training and within TAFE Institutes. As is the nature of
practitioner based doctorates, this study emerged from the researcher’s work context
and developed in response to his desire to be more informed about TAFE’s role in
the Australian education system. This desire also stemmed from a view that there are
other practitioners who share a similar interest and concern regarding the uncertainty
8
of the role and purpose of TAFE as the major public provider of vocational education
and training in Australia.
1.3.3 Significant Research and Study Relevant to this Thesis
This research is premised on the notion that the TAFE sector has a social and an
economic role to play and that these roles are an historical characteristic of
Australia’s vocational education and training system. This research also recognises
that there is a relationship between a social and economic role for TAFE and that
they are not distinct and irreconcilable. The issue of duality and dualism is addressed
in Chapter Three and underpins much of the discussions in Chapters Five, Six and
Seven.
Ryan’s (2002) research on Australia’s vocational education and training system
found that vocational education has oscillated between two poles. One pole sees
vocational education as primarily an instrument of economic development with a
primary concern to meet the labour needs of industry, while the other pole views
vocational education as primarily student centred, more aligned to a general
education philosophy that encompasses goals of individual self-development and the
creation of a more equitable society (Ryan, 2002). Ryan (2002) argues that at one
time or another, either one of these views on the role of vocational education will
tend to dominate and there will be a cyclical nature to the emphasis of either view.
Additionally, Ryan’s (2002) research identifies that the value systems that underpin
policy and policy administration are also subject to cyclical change. Of interest to
this study is the extent to which an economic and a social emphasis on vocational
education and training are evident in policy. The mapping of TAFE Queensland’s
current policy position is discussed within a conceptual framework (Chapter Three)
that draws on the bi-polar concepts identified by Ryan (2002).
The main findings from a Review of Research: Factors influencing the demand for
vocational education and training courses by Kilpatrick and Allen (2001) were:
• Policy has focussed largely on VET and the world of work neglecting notions of
learning to improve quality of life and knowledge;
9
• Industry receives the primary consideration under national policy although it is
(usually) individuals or enterprises who demand training;
• Individuals, communities, industries and the nation have a longer-term view of
their training needs and are increasingly looking for life-skills;
• Motivation for participating in VET can stem from labour market and/or social or
personal development reasons;
• Learning for life requires skills such as literacy, numeracy, personal skills and
positive attitudes. These skills are transferable into non-work situations; and
• The social rate of return, or the benefits of training have been understated
including benefits such as increased social capital and cohesion, improving sense
of personal worth, lower crime rates, increased community service, improved
quality of civic life, greater appreciation of diversity and improved ability to use
technology and reactive positively to economic shocks.
The key findings of Kilpatrick and Allen’s (2001) study suggest the VET system,
including TAFE, needs to consider encompassing education outcomes rather than
limiting itself to vocational and work related outcomes. Their study supports an
argument that there is a need for TAFE to fulfil both a social service role and to meet
the economic utility function that it performs as the major public provider of
vocational education and training.
In Blurring the Boundaries, Anderson (1994) undertook a detailed comparative
examination of three commercial enterprises and three TAFE Institutes, focussing on
their structure, operation and approach to training. This research identified a key
difference between private providers and TAFE: TAFE’s greater capacity for
promoting long-term social and economic development. In part, this capacity stems
from existing infrastructure and commitment to TAFE by governments.
Additionally, Anderson (1994) argues that the pursuit of access and equity cannot be
left to market forces, and intervention by government is necessary to meet the needs
of ‘disadvantaged’ consumers. Without ongoing intervention a two-tiered system
may develop whereby those identified as ‘in need’ would be marginalised and left for
TAFE, while private providers would be free to focus on the rest of the community.
10
In a Review of Fees Issues and Revenue Options in TAFE: a Discussion Paper by
Ryan and Schofield (1990), a number of models for TAFE are discussed. They fit
broadly within a social service and/or economic utility framework. Ryan and
Schofield’s (1990) discussion paper recognises that it is “impossible to subdivide
perceptions of the role of TAFE into rigidly separate models, however, there are
sufficient differences in underlying values to justify setting out a series of approaches
which constitute a variety of emphasis” (p10). Ryan and Schofield’s (1990) work is
congruent with Ryan’s (2002) bi-polar perspective, and is used in the development of
support for the conceptual framework and the model established in Chapter Three.
These studies highlight some of the issues around the tensions between the
appropriate role and purpose of TAFE. The current study aims to contribute to this
body of knowledge by exploring TAFE’s policy position within the contemporary
education market.
1.3.4 Gaps within Existing Research
There have been a number of key reports undertaken on both the VET system and/or
TAFE sector. They include Bannikoff (1998), Dawkins (1988, 1989), Deveson
(1990), Finn, (1991), Fooks, Ryan and Schofield (1997), Hilmer (1993), Kangan
(1974) and Schofield, (1999). Reports such as these have focussed primarily on the
efficiency and/or effectiveness of the TAFE sector or VET system. The
implementation of their recommendations has resulted in significant reform to both
the VET system and to TAFE, and influenced the emphasis of TAFE toward either a
social service and/or economic utility position.
A number of authors have expressed concern about the quantity and quality of
research in VET when compared to other sectors, and more particularly on the lack
of influence research seems to have had on policy making (Butterworth, 1994, 1996;
Hall, 1993; McDonald, Hayton, Gonczi, & Hagar, 1993; McDonald & Hawke, 1996;
Ramsey, 1993; Seddon, 1997; Wiltshire, 1994). Yet, the 1990’s have seen the
development of a number of research centres that have increasingly contributed to
the development and publication of research on VET and TAFE policy and practice.
Examples of these centres are the:
11
� National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER): a jointly owned
commonwealth, state and territory government funded research, evaluation and
information centre;
� Vocational Education and Training Research Database (VOCED): that provides
access to information on VET research, policy and practice in Australia; and
� Centre for the Economics of Education and Training (CEET).
(Knight & Nestor, 2000)
In seeking to analyse a policy position within a social service and economic utility
framework, then, this thesis contributes to a growing, but relatively small, body of
knowledge in the VET research field of TAFE Queensland.
1.4 POLICY: DEFINITION
Policy can be defined in many ways. For example, it can be seen as a label for a
field of activity, an expression of general purpose, a desired state of affairs, a specific
proposal and/or decision of government, a formal authorisation for action, a theory,
model, and programme or desired output or outcome (Hogwood & Gunn, 1984). A
commonly encountered usage is in the context of broad government statements about
economic or social policy. At its most simple level, public policy is viewed as a
choice made by government to undertake some course of action, or a statement by a
government about its intentions that then provides ‘authority’ to commit resources in
support of these actions or intentions (Howlett & Ramesh, 1995). In this study,
policy is viewed as a range of government statements (i.e. objectives, strategies,
recommendations) regarding certain directions for VET and TAFE at both a national
and State (i.e. Queensland) level.
For the purposes of this thesis, seven seminal policy documents were selected that
represent past, present and future activities of vocational education and training in
Australia. Three of these documents are commonwealth government generated
policy documents representing a national view of vocational education and training.
The other four are Queensland Government generated policy documents representing
a state view of vocational education and training. This research did not seek to
investigate to what extent, or how effectively, these policies have been implemented.
However, it did seek to understand a number of theoretical perspectives that
12
influenced the development and implementation of such policy documents in
Australia. These perspectives have a basis in ideology and are addressed initially in
Chapter Two: Literature Review and further discussed in the Findings and
Discussions Chapters.
1.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY
To address the first research question a conceptual framework and a model to
visually present a policy position are presented and explained that assists in
identifying:
• The current policy position of TAFE Queensland in a social service and
economic framework;
• Whether there is consistency between the documents analysed and the views
and/or perceptions of senior executive in DET and TAFE Queensland; and
• The relationship between the current position and that exemplified in Kangan
(1974).
The methodology governing this study is a case study approach which draws upon
policy documents and interviews with a small group of senior executives of
Queensland Department of Employment and Training (DET) and TAFE Queensland.
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
Chapter Two reviews the relevant literature in five main sections. Section one
examines the educational context for understanding TAFE in Australia. Section two
reviews the key theoretical influences of globalisation, economic rationalism,
corporate managerialism and human capital theory as they have impacted on
education policy in Australia. Section three provides insight into the VET market
and the marketisation of TAFE. Section four presents the key policy initiatives and
milestones that have impacted on TAFE in Australia and culminates in a
contemporary overview of TAFE Queensland. Section five introduces the social
service and economic utility paradigm. This paradigm contains the foundational
attributes of the conceptual framework presented in Chapter Three.
13
Chapter Three presents a justification for a conceptual framework and a model to
visually represent a policy position of TAFE Queensland. The sections in Chapter
Three discuss the key research and other issues that influenced the development of
the conceptual framework and the model. Chapter Four outlines the case study
methodology that was utilised for this study. The sections in Chapter Four discuss
the research design and identify the two main sources of data collection: policy
documents and elite interviews.
Chapters Five and Six report on the findings from the study. Chapter Five presents
the findings for the first research question, ‘What is the current policy position of
TAFE Queensland with respect to the emphasis placed on a social service and
economic utility role?’ Chapter Six presents the findings for the second research
question ‘What influences a TAFE Queensland policy emphasis towards either a
social service or economic utility role?’
Chapter Seven presents a discussion of these findings and relates them to the
literature. Chapter Eight includes a summary and conclusions, along with a tentative
TAFE system model that evolved from the findings and discussion chapters.
1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Vocational Education and Training (VET) is one mechanism Governments use for
meeting National and State economic and social goals. At times, these goals can
conflict with each other. From a social service perspective, demand for VET stems
from a desire by individuals to achieve their full potential and contribute to their own
social and cultural development while demand motivated by economic goals stems
from the income that accrues to individuals, communities, enterprises and nations
that possess superior skills and knowledge (Ferrier & Anderson, 1998).
Like many organisations, TAFE is in transition and currently the distinction between
commercial and government organisations is less clear than before. Public funding is
no longer solely the domain of the public provider and the question can be posed:
‘Do we still need the public provider?’ Given that there are private providers who
depend pre-dominantly on government-funded training through user choice and
competitive tendered arrangements, one could argue that they are in effect private
14
TAFE’s, albeit TAFE’s unencumbered by the extent of government policies,
processes, systems and awards that bind TAFE Queensland.
TAFE itself has evolved from a 1990’s environment of increased private provider
activity, limited government funding and a political policy framework focussed on
the sale of public utilities. For any TAFE organisation, then, it is an appropriate time
to consider the ongoing role of TAFE, as a public service entity, located within what
appears to be a competitive, open-market environment (Broadbent, 1998; Goozee,
2001; Veenker & Cummins, 2001). While the TAFE sector can be viewed in a
number of ways, this thesis provides an opportunity to investigate the current policy
position of TAFE Queensland within a social service and economic utility role.
15
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
One of the key purposes of a literature review is to assist in finding a focus for a
topic. However, it is also an ongoing process that cannot be completed until the data
collection and analysis phase has been finalised (Glesne, 1999). Chapter Two of this
thesis provides an evolving review of literature from the inception of the initial draft
questions to the final presentation of this thesis. In response to the research questions,
and in preparation for the interviews which follows, it addresses the following key
areas:
• The educational context for understanding TAFE in Australia in comparison to
other educations sectors;
• A number of theoretical perspectives impacting on education policy in Australia
with particular emphasis on those perspectives that have created tensions on
education policy;
• The VET market and the marketisation of TAFE;
• Key policy initiatives and milestones impacting on TAFE; and
• TAFE’s role from a social service and economic utility perspective.
2.1 EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT FOR UNDERSTANDING TAFE IN
AUSTRALIA
2.1.1 An Overview of the Australian Education System
The Australian education system is a tiered system comprising primary and
secondary schools, a vocational education and training system (VET) and
universities. There is a fourth sector described as adult and community education
(ACE). ACE activities occur within community colleges, Workers Education
Associations (WEA), community adult education centres, schools, TAFE institutes
and universities (Knight & Nestor, 2000; NCVER, 2003).
There are both private and public providers operating within Australia’s education
system. Further, there is considerable overlap between secondary schools, TAFE
and universities as indicated below:
16
• Both private and public secondary schools offer a range of vocational activities
traditionally the domain of TAFE and the private VET market;
• Universities enhance pathways from TAFE and private providers by providing
credit for studies competed in certificate and diploma programs, subsequently
reducing the duration of a number of under-graduate degrees;
• However, universities also offer programs to facilitate easier pathways for
secondary students who do not gain direct access to under-graduate degrees,
effectively by-passing a Diploma-Degree pathway option at the expense of TAFE
and other private providers; and
• Private providers offer both mainstream VET products under the national training
packages system and provide associate degree and degree programs in direct
competition with TAFE and universities.
This overlap is further evidenced within Queensland’s vocational education and
training system through estimations that the number of students enrolled in TAFE
represents only 48% of total VET students (Queensland Government, 2003c). The
balance of VET students are enrolled in universities, secondary schools and private
registered training organisations. There are arrangements that have been, and
continue to be, established between schools, universities, TAFE and private
registered training organisations that illustrate common practices and overlap
traditionally defined boundaries.
In terms of participation across the three education sectors, nearly all school students
are full-time; approximately 60% of university students are full-time; however, only
about 15% of TAFE students undertake full-time study (Burke, 2000). A further
unique characteristic of TAFE is that it derives its student population across all age
categories, delivering education and training to more students than universities at
every age level, except the age group 20 to 24 years (Burke, 2000). Clearly, this
indicates that TAFE has a broader clientele base than either of the other two
mainstream sectors as it provides opportunities for youth, second chance education
for adults, and opportunities for lifelong and recurrent learning for all age groups.
17
2.1.2 The General Role and Purpose of Education
Marginson (1993) describes the role of education as being subject to conflicting or
incompatible interpretations. They may be categorised as “the custody and care of
students, the academic development of students, the preparation of a democratic
citizenry, the construction of a more productive economy and social selection”
(p.16). The tendency is for a claim to be made that one or the other role of education
should be dominant. However, Marginson (1993) indicates that “educational policy
and professional education practice must strike a balance between these different
roles, but there is rarely an equilibrium point and the priorities tend to shift over
time” (p.17). Ferrier and Anderson (1998) describe the role and purpose of
education as tensioned between two predominant and contrasting perspectives:
The primary role of education should be to contribute to the achievement of
national economic success by developing the human capital required by
industries and enterprises. (p.1)
[and]
The main goal of education should be to assist individuals realise their full
potential thereby contributing to social and cultural development. (p.1)
Traditionally, a key role of the education system has been to absorb youth
unemployment while playing a prominent role in the modernisation of the economy
(Marginson 1993). An example of this approach has been the attempts to increase
the retention rate of youth within the wider education sector. The retention rate was
relatively stable at 35% in the 1970’s, but by 1996 had increased to 71% (Burke
1998, p.23). In a Queensland context, the Education Training Reforms for the
Future (Queensland Government, 2002) policy focuses on increasing the ‘school’
leaving age so that youth will be engaged in schooling, vocational education or
employment until the age of 17 years. The report estimated that at that time there
were some 10,000 disengaged youth throughout Queensland, aged 17 and under, not
actively participating in school, VET or employment (Queensland Government,
2002).
18
Notwithstanding the focus on youth, it has been recognised that existing workers also
needed increased levels of education and training. For example, there was the
Training Guarantee Scheme (1990 to 1996) that required employers with payrolls
over $200,000 to spend 1.5% of gross wages on training (Dawkins, 1988; Dawkins
& Holding 1987). More recently, Queensland’s Smart Vet strategy (Queensland
Government, 2004b) and the Queensland Skills Plan (Queensland Government,
2005) have recognised the importance of training for adults and existing workers as
the focus on VET training has shifted from training people so that they can gain ‘a
job’, to training people, including existing workers, so that they have the skills
required to meet industry skill shortages.
Significantly, education has become a highly politicised sector (Marginson, 1993)
with policies open to broad public debate and interest. Hence this study’s research
into the current policy position of TAFE Queensland within these broad
interpretations of the role and purpose of education is timely.
2.1.3 The Role and Purpose of Technical and Further Education
In 1973 the Whitlam Government established the Australian Committee of Technical
and Further Education (ACOTAFE) with Myer Kangan as Chair. Committee
representation came from businesses, the Australian Council of Trade Unions
(ACTU), State technical education systems and higher education. The committee
was formed to undertake a significant review of technical and further education in
Australia. For the purposes of the committee, technical and further education was
defined as post-school education other than that undertaken under the auspices of the
Australian Universities Commission and the Australian Commission on Advanced
Education. The ACOTAFE committee produced the Kangan Report (1974) that
provided the initial definition and purpose of technical and further education under a
formalised TAFE banner that included a national structure and funding
arrangements. The Kangan committee established a mission for TAFE:
The concept central to this [Kangan Committee] report is the provision of
unrestricted access to post school education through government maintained
or administered institutions not already assisted through the Australian
19
Universities Commission or the Australian Commission on Advanced
Education. (Kangan, 1974, p.xxvi)
In establishing this initial mission for technical education, Kangan did not define an
identity for the technical and further education sector. However, those
recommendations that were focussed on the role of TAFE reflected a student centred
approach as described by Beazley (1980):
The report envisages a major shift in emphasis. It abandons the narrow rigid
concept that technical colleges exist simply to meet the manpower [sic]
needs of industry, and adopts a broader concept that they exist to meet the
needs of people as individuals. (p.48)
According to this perspective, TAFE’s role was to be broad and inclusive by
reflecting a substantial access and equity strategy for vocational education and
training within Australia. According to the Kangan Report (1974), a large proportion
of the community would not graduate through either the secondary or university
systems. The Report indicates that the TAFE sector was positioned to give these
individuals an opportunity to engage in education and training that they otherwise
might not have. Hattam and Smyth (1998) argue that TAFE continues to be the
“only alternative pathway offering publicly valued credentials into the workforce for
the majority of Australian students” (p.142). This argument is tempered when
considering that, in Queensland, the growth in the private provider market means that
an estimated 36% of total VET training will be undertaken by privately operated
RTO’s and 10% by private RTO’s who are publicly funded. Notwithstanding, the
estimated proportion of all VET activity undertaken through TAFE Queensland is
still the largest proportion at 48% (Queensland Government, 2003c).
While Kangan (1974) focussed on developing a structured TAFE sector in the 1970’s
to deliver on a policy strategy, significant education and training reforms of the
1980’s and 1990’s sought to develop a more encompassing VET system that
included not only TAFE activities, but those undertaken by secondary schools,
universities, private registered training organisations and industry. Sheed’s (1999)
research on the convergence of general education and vocational education during
20
this period concludes that, historically, education in Australia had been constructed
as theoretical, while training was considered practical and focussed on vocational
specific competencies required by workers. Moreover, Sheed (1999) identified four
emerging trends that were influencing a growing convergence between general and
vocational education. These trends encompassed the increased diversity evident in
the senior secondary school cohort; employers becoming more influential in requests
for school leavers to have basic skills and a broad range of skills and attributes
relevant to the world of work; the convergence of work and education that integrated
the concept of work with lifelong learning; and the convergence of the needs of
individuals with industry, particularly in such areas as computers and information
technology and the need for lifelong learning. This changing situation implies a need
for the VET system to take an integrated approach to meeting education and training
needs of individuals and industry. However, within this broader VET system,
vocationalism is seen as a:
national education sector [system] whose task is to increase individuals’
skills in order to increase their capacity for action [work] and so enhance
national levels of work skills. (Seddon, 1994, p.70)
Seddon (1994) suggests that a conservative vocationalist approach sees a confluence
of economic and education policy that:
privileges commitments to free market principles, primarily services social
demands for vocational preparation and service to society and …
emphasises the pre-specification of knowledge and standards against which
student performance can be assessed. (p.145)
Henry and Taylor (1995) have expressed concerns that conservative vocationalism
will produce competent workers, but limit their capacity to participate as active and
informed citizens in wider social and political affairs. Sheed’s (1999) study on the
convergence of general and vocational education acknowledges the concern that
there is a risk of the focus of vocational training being the dominant influence. This
influence is perhaps evident in the following discussion on a range of theoretical
21
influences that have impacted on education policy, and more specifically, policy on
vocational education and training.
2.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IMPACTING ON EDUCATION
POLICY IN AUSTRALIA
The discussion which follows provides an overview of relevant literature that
identifies key concepts taken from economic, organisational and market theory as
they relate to the Australian education sector, with a particular focus on VET and
TAFE. These theoretical perspectives provide the foundation for identifying some of
the major influences that have impacted on the TAFE Queensland system and its
capacity to deliver on a social service and economic agenda. These influences
contribute to the development of a model provided in Chapter Three.
2.2.1 Globalisation and the influences of Liberalism
Globalisation refers to the relationship of an individual country’s economy to that of
the world economy. It reflects the diminishing of economic borders and an increase
in international trade resulting in a greater inter-dependence, or interconnectedness,
between nations and individuals (Marginson, 2004; Wells et al., 1998). In other
words, countries can no longer remain isolated from the rest of the world, and
workforce competitiveness, in an international context, has become a key issue for
governments.
Globalisation emanates from an ideological base of liberalism. Liberalism was
formulated in response to the growth of modern nations that “centralise
governmental functions and claim sole authority to exercise coercive power within
their boundaries” (Audi, 1999, p.502). There are two general orientations of
liberalism. The first orientation, neo-liberalism, is the promotion of free unregulated
markets coupled with aggressive individualism. The second orientation is liberal
progressivism. While not proposing a return to a welfare State, liberal progressives
seek to maintain a degree of government intervention in the provision of public
services and of the market in which they participate (Thurrow, 1996; Wells et al.,
1998). The approach to ‘free’ market ideology (Korton, 1995; Mander, 1996) is in
contrast to a Fordist economic philosophy based upon the principles of “protected
national markets, organised labour unions, mass production of standardised products,
22
bureaucratic and hierarchical management and labour” (Harvey 1990 cited in Wells
et al., 1998, p.325).
Globally, the emergence of neo-liberal economics has been strengthened by the
demise of communism throughout Eastern Europe and the influence of the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank over Western countries and
more significantly within Latin America and Africa (Wells et al., 1998). The
influence of a free market approach, and the neo-liberalist philosophies that underpin
it, can be significantly attributed to a First World financial intervention into Third
World economies with the intent of opening up developing countries’ economies so
they are more responsive to global markets, encouraging an ongoing shift towards
the privatisation of government owned and/or operated services (Wells et al., 1998).
Neo-liberal, or neo conservative ideology, encompasses three main beliefs. Firstly,
that public institutions are failing to perform satisfactorily; secondly, that an
unfettered market is the preferable form for regulating all institutional activities; and
thirdly, that the role of government should be reduced (Lam, 2001). The following
sections on economic rationalism, human capital theory and managerialism provide
insights into how neo-liberal ideology has influenced reform agendas such as those
within the Australian vocational education and training system, and TAFE sector
over recent decades. The reform of Australian VET and TAFE is discussed in
sections 2.3 and 2.4 of this chapter.
2.2.2 Economic Rationalism and Education Policy
If one acknowledges a neo-liberal belief of a failure by public institutions in the
provision of services such as education, then it is reasonable to accept that any
consequential education reform is not a random or accidental event; rather, it is
deliberate and planned (Lam, 2001). Part of this ‘planned’ reform has
consequentially manifested itself in the conceptual framework of economic
rationalism. Economic rationalism derives its ideological base from classical
economics that asserts “the primacy of markets and seek[s] to limit government
intervention” (Dalton, Draper, Weeks, & Wiseman, 1996, p.224). Three key
ingredients of neo-liberal or neo-classical economic theory are: “rational, self-
23
interested consumers; rational profit maximising firms; and competitive markets with
price taking behaviour” (Richter & Buttery, 2004, p.120).
A neo-liberal ideology would see economic rationalism as supporting a view that
“self interest was assumed to be the driving force behind all social interactions and
the role of government was to be limited to the protection of individuals from crime
and violence” (Dalton et al., 1996, p.44). In this context, education should operate
within a free and competitive market unsupported by government, on the premise
that the market will deliver better outcomes than governments, bureaucracies and the
law (Chubb & Moe, 1990; Pusey, 1994). This approach to economic rationalism was
particularly evident during the period of Britain’s Prime Minister Margaret
Thatcher’s stewardship in the 1970’s and 1980’s (Hayek, 1979; Nozick, 1974).
Dalton et al. (1996) maintain that economic rationalism has continued to influence
social and economic policy agendas in the United States of America, the United
Kingdom and Australia since the 1980’s.
Contrasting with this neo-liberal view is a liberal progressive view that argues that a
degree of State intervention is required (Dalton et al., 1996; Green, 1941; Hobhouse,
1928). In this view, governments have a role to play in protecting individuals from
the excesses or failures of the market. Therefore, the rejection of a completely free
and open market is critical to a liberal progressive conception of an economy.
In recent decades, formal education has been increasingly seen as an extension of
economic policy with economic penalties being attached to people with little
education, redundant skills and lack of expertise (Burke, 1998; Gough, 1994;
Marginson, 1993). This growing impetus of economic policy on education was
reflected in the 1980’s in a government commitment to the economic focus of
education policy. Thus Dawkins & Holding (1987, p.1-2) stressed, “The
Commonwealth government says a better educated and more skilled population will
be more flexible in the face of economic change”. According to Seddon and
Lawrence (1995) and Self (2000), the influence of economic rationalism on the
development of education policy over the last two decades has reflected a neo-
classical economic and public choice paradigm that relies extensively on the concept
that each participant in the market will seek to gain a level of efficiency from the
24
market beyond which others would take over. In essence, a provider of a service
would only be an active participant in the market if there were sufficient financial
benefits. An extension of this argument would be that a public provider, such as
TAFE, would only provide those activities that it sees as financially viable rather
than those that it is ‘expected’ to provide by industry or the community. For
example, it could be argued that a smaller, more flexible community service
organisation is more suited to delivering literacy and numeracy skills than a larger,
less flexible institution, such as a TAFE institute, and that TAFE remains within
these areas more because of political or community expectation than for any market
or financial reason.
The argument at a macro-level is if resources are efficiently used then they would
subsequently be effectively used (fully utilised) at a micro-level. Therefore, it is
reasonable to assume that a significant factor in the linking of economic and
education policy is to drive behavioural changes at the micro-level. The focus of
such policy would be to encourage organisations and individuals to efficiently access
and use available resources. Therefore, the role of government policy here is to set
up frameworks that influence behaviour in certain directions.
Within Australia, the approach to economic rationalism, as a conceptual source of
policy, is guided by the principles of efficiency, productivity and accountability
(Lam, 2001). These ideological arguments have manifested themselves within the
wider Australian VET system in three ways. Firstly, through a focus on rationalism
by limiting or reducing government funding, thus encouraging or forcing (depending
upon one’s perspective) TAFE to gain operational efficiencies, in effect, to do more
with less; secondly, through the marketisation of VET through the recognition of
VET as a training market; and thirdly, through the application of business
management principles to education and training management through the
corporatisation of government providers (Kenway, 1999). This shift in focus, not
only in VET, but also in Universities and, to a lesser extent, secondary schools, has
seen a general movement towards private providers of education and training and
commercialisation of public sector activities. In a TAFE context, this has been seen
as increased competition both through the tendering of traditional TAFE funds on the
open market and the shift to a user choice approach with the New Apprenticeship
25
Scheme. Overall, there is an expectation of increased efficiency of the provision of
education and training, driven through the management and institutional structural
reforms in conjunction with the increased focus on private provider competition
activated during the 1990’s (Burke, 1998). Arguably, in many ways, TAFE’s
ongoing survival is dependent on its capacity to respond to this new challenge.
From a practitioner perspective, anecdotal evidence suggests that economic
rationalism is often seen as simply a focus on efficiencies, driving costs down, and
productivity up. However, within the Australian VET system, economic rationalism
is more evident through the outcomes of centralisation of resource distribution;
decentralisation of responsibilities, setting up of standards, outcome based education
and the supporting by government of market forces as they relate to competition and
‘client’ choice (Lam, 2001). Arguably one of the fundamental issues that affects the
current TAFE sector is concern that the economic benefits of vocational education
and training have taken precedence over the social benefits (Smith et al., 1999;
Powles & Anderson, 1996). If this premise is reflected in broader government
objectives for the VET system, then TAFE, as the major government provider, will
be directly affected. Hence, an investigation into what extent, if any, the social value
of education and training has become subservient to this economic agenda is critical
to this thesis
2.2.3 Human Capital Theory
Since the 1960’s, human capital theory has had an influence on the economic theory
of education and the setting of a framework for government education policies
(Marginson, 1993). The development of human capital theory as a mathematical
science of education emerged with the development of neo-classical economics.
The purpose of neo-classical economics was the construction of hypotheses about
economic behaviour, in the form of mathematical equations. Ultimately, hypotheses
would be used to predict economic behaviour (Marginson, 1993). Friedman (1962)
developed a free market version of human capital theory whereby he drew a direct
relationship between the economic benefits gained from vocational and professional
schooling and the investment into an individual who received the schooling.
26
Within the perspectives of neo-liberalism and liberal progressivism, there is
recognition of the economic value of labour through human capital theory
(Marginson, 1993). However, a key question distinguishes these two orientations:
‘Who pays: governments or the individual beneficiaries of the education or training?’
The neo-liberal approach would leave it to Friedman’s (1962) free market approach
with individuals paying, while a liberal progressive approach would support a focus
on governments investing in the individual so that individuals can gain increased
economic value for their knowledge and skills.
Education and training can increase individual cognitive capacity and therefore a
person’s capacity to be productive. Within Australia, for example, comparison
between graduates and income levels shows that the level of education and training
influences income rates, based on average income earned relative to education
standards. Generally, University graduates have a higher likelihood of employment
to earn higher incomes than VET graduates, who in turn have a higher likelihood of
employment and higher average incomes than those individuals without formal
qualifications and/or training (NCVER 2002). Therefore, it is reasonable to expect
that increased productivity may lead to increased individual earnings. However,
there is a flaw in logically moving from increased productivity to increased earnings,
given that an increase in productivity can also lead to individuals doing more for less
(i.e. reduction in the number of jobs to achieve the same outcome).
In effect there have been three phases in the relationship between human capital
theory and government education policy. In the 1960’s there was a focus on public
investment in human capital supported by claims that linked the benefits of education
to economic growth. This initial phase was superseded by a neo-classical argument
that minimised the economic gains from human capital investment to more modest
levels. Finally, in the free market climate that emerged in the early 1990’s there has
been a renewed commitment to the value of human capital theory, although this time
the focus is on private investment rather than public investment (Marginson, 1993,
2000).
27
2.2.4 Corporate Managerialism
The dominant administrative culture to support the move towards economic
rationalism has been corporate managerialism. Yeatman (1991, cited in Marginson
1993), describes corporate managerialism as the replacement of public policy
objectives that frame ‘social good’ with ‘economic good’. This ‘new managerialism’
for the public sector is based upon “strict financial controls, the efficient use of
resources, the discipline of the market, the extensive use of performance criteria, the
assertion of management control and the manager’s right to manage” (Briggs, 2004,
p.587).
This move to corporate managerialism reflects the general shifts of VET policy since
the early days of reform led by the Minister for Trade, John Dawkins, through such
reports as A Changing Workforce (1988) and Improving Australia’s Training System
(1989). Corporate managerialism advocates a management of government agencies
as if they were part of the private sector (Marginson, 1997; Marginson, 1993). In
essence, the rationale for a managerialist approach is that the public service could be
more effectively managed through the adoption of market techniques either through
the privatisation of services, through the creation of an open market, or through the
management of government agencies as if they were private corporations.
Within Australia, the adoption of a managerialist approach to managing the VET
sector and TAFE system has been demonstrated by:
• Strong central control of policy;
• Devolved responsibility for operations;
• Separation of policy making from devolved operations; and
• Focus on outputs, market style competition, distribution and exchange.
(Marginson, 1993)
As can be seen, this approach shifts education and training away from a teacher-
learner centred context and frames education activity as a ‘product’ that is marketed,
sold and measured under similar processes to those used by the private sector.
28
This regime may have been built on a flawed argument. Ryan (1999) has queried
whether TAFE was really unresponsive, inefficient and ineffective as a provider of
vocational education and training, or that a particular type of discourse been used to
create this belief that TAFE was unresponsive to industry needs. With the Dawkins
agenda derived from corporatist and managerialist values there is a logical extension
to the rationale that saw educational corporatism promoting the ‘economic
production of students’. To take a stronger, national control of an under-performing
system was perhaps politically justifiable. However, within what is now a nationally
regulated VET system, a reasonable question is: ‘Have the quality of education and
the quality of learner been enhanced?’ While that question remains for later
investigation, this thesis does consider the influence of corporate managerialism on
TAFE Queensland policy development and implementation.
2.2.5 Summary
This section has canvassed the key issues on four theoretical perspectives that have
impacted on education policy in Australia. The emergence of a ‘globalised’ world,
with less distinct economic boundaries between countries, means that individual
countries need to be able to compete beyond their borders. To meet these
competitive demands, the argument has been that the Australian economy needs a
flexible, qualified and mobile workforce and it is this need that provides an impetus
and rationale for more strongly linking education policy to economic policy. While
there are differences between a liberal progressive and a neo-liberal perspective on
the degree of government intervention, fundamentally an economic rationalist
approach to economics seeks to lessen government intervention in the market place.
Coupled with a managerialist approach to the management of public sector education
systems, particularly in the VET-TAFE area, there has been both a shift towards
encouraging private providers into the education market, and greater expectations
placed on public education providers to adopt more private enterprise behaviours in
relation to performance and market competitiveness.
While there has been a renewed commitment over recent decades to the value of
human capital, economic rationalist and managerialist influences have created a
focus on funding individuals’ current and future education needs more from private
rather than public investment. Further, economic rationalist influences on the market
29
seek to influence individual choice to undertake education and training activities that
meet the skill needs of the economy rather than those an individual wants.
Therefore, linking a neo-classical approach to human capital theory and an economic
rationalist paradigm would provide a full open market strategy in which the
beneficiaries pay full fees and there is no government provider of education. Or if
there were, then the public provider would genuinely compete for all of its funding in
a competitive manner. While Australia has yet to shift to this ‘far right’ position, and
may never do so, Burke (2000) provides a cautioning perspective:
Globalisation, technological and demographic changes have been major
factors in highlighting the need for increased education and training
throughout life … Given the likelihood that governments will be unwilling
to provide additional resources required, there is a need to examine the most
efficient and equitable ways of providing education and training and
incentives to encourage the financing of education and training by
employers and individuals. (p.1)
Taking all these issues into account, then, this thesis aims to provide some insight
into the influences of globalisation, economic rationalism, human capital theory and
managerialism and their impact on the VET system and TAFE Queensland.
2.3 THE VET MARKET AND THE MARKETISATION OF TAFE
2.3.1 The Development of a VET market
Since the mid-1980’s, Commonwealth, State and Territory governments
have been engaged in a process of reform with the aim of increasing the
efficiency, flexibility, quality and responsiveness of the vocational
education and training (VET) sector [system] in Australia. (Anderson 1997,
p.1)
While there has been a private market for vocational education and training in
Australia since the late 19th century, the development of a market for contestable
government funds in the VET system is relatively new, emerging in the early-1990’s
after the creation of the Australian National Training Authority (1992). The mid-
30
1980s saw a rise of economic rationalist ideas in Australian Governments coupled
with a micro-economic reform process to reduce the size of governments, restrain
government expenditure, improve public sector efficiency, and increase industrial
productivity and economic growth (Marginson, 1993; Pusey, 1991; Robinson, 2000).
To achieve these reforms, governments placed high priority on reforming TAFE to
support a more responsive approach to the human capital needs of industry. Initially
these reforms resulted in the Australian Traineeship System (ATS), and federal
government labour market programs were expanded to the private market through a
contestable funding process. Additionally, program budgeting and performance
agreements were established with TAFE while fee charging was permitted for adult,
community and further education and post-trade courses. The Training Guarantee
Scheme was introduced and operated between 1989 and 1994 as a means of
increasing industry investment and contribution towards vocational education and
training. Finally, each State established its own system of registration to allow
private providers to award publicly recognised VET qualifications (Anderson, 1997;
Goozee, 2001; Robinson, 2000).
Influenced by neo-liberal views, the Deveson Report (1990) recommended a
deregulation of fee charging in TAFE, increased commercialism of TAFE provision
and a diversification of training supply through a national recognition system for all
providers (see National Training Packages and the Australian Qualifications Training
Framework). In 1992, the Deveson Report principles were endorsed by the Ministers
of Vocational Education, Employment and Training (MOVEET, 1992), thus
supporting the creation of an efficient, effective, responsive and integrated training
market. Subsequent to the Deveson Report (1990), a key recommendation agreed
upon by all ministers was the need to “develop a national market for the delivery of
VET” (Goozee, 2001 p. 80).
The Hilmer Report (1993) further emphasised the value of competition in the reform
process and in 1995 the Council of Australian Governments agreed to implement a
National Competition Policy. The key benefits to be derived from the Hilmer Report
were to be the development of an open and integrated national market through the
removal of regulations that restrict competition; the restructuring of public
monopolies; the facilitation of ‘third party’ access to public facilities; and
31
competition neutrality between government departments and private providers
(Anderson, 1997; Hilmer Report, 1993). This push towards recognising VET as a
market was also supported internationally’ as evidenced through the stance presented
by the OECD:
Although learning is not a commodity that can be mechanically bought and
sold in the market place, the metaphor of demand and supply is a potentially
useful one in relation to services that have learning as their main objective.
(OECD 1995, p.11)
Overall the Australian Vocational Education and Training sector has undergone
significant reform since the early 1990s that Harris (2002) categorised into four key
areas:
• A shift to an industry-led VET system has seen a power-shift away from training
institutions towards industry and employers through the development of a user
choice policy for apprenticeships and traineeships;
• While VET has been subject to government policies designed to create an
effective public system of vocational training, since the mid-1990’s an open
training market was promulgated that encouraged private providers and
enterprises to enter this market. For example, through the apprenticeship and
traineeship systems and through a number of other competitive funding
processes, non-TAFE providers were able to access government funds to deliver
VET;
• While competency based training has been a long standing practice, the formal
integration of Competency-Based Training (CBT) into a national framework of
qualifications has been the hallmark of the reform of the VET system. Framed
under national training packages, centrally developed with significant industry
input, CBT presents a VET agenda based not on any curricula, but rather on a set
of industry competency standards; and
• Entry-level training opportunities have been broadened beyond a focus on youth
or traditional male-dominated industries. Under the current New
Apprenticeships policy, employers and new apprentices are able to select from a
32
wider range of pathways and training providers, while access to an
apprenticeship by a wider range of individuals, such as mature aged workers, has
increased.
The pinnacle of this emerging VET market was the development of the Australian
National Training Authority (ANTA) that was responsible for national policy on
VET. Within the original ANTA Agreement (1992), the validation of this emerging
VET market was depicted in the aims for ANTA to promote an effective training
market, with public and private provision and an efficient and productive network of
publicly funded providers that could compete effectively in the training market
(Goozee, 2001).
The promotion of a training market was formalised through the ANTA National
Strategy: Towards a Skilled Australia (ANTA, 1994) that gave a high priority to the
expansion of the training market. This priority was underscored by a view that
TAFE had a monopoly on VET, that TAFE was not responsive to industry needs and
that there was a greater need to focus on the demand side of the market (Goozee,
2001). Additionally, ANTA national strategies (1994, 1998) identified a key strategy
of increasing the responsiveness of VET providers to the needs of industry through
the use of contestable funds both to attract private training providers into the VET
system, and to focus training outcomes on the skills needs of industry. This shift is
not exclusive to the VET system and while universities do not have to tender for
operating grants they have actively engaged in developing fee-for-service programs
for both domestic and international students.
An issue to monitor is the potential that the establishment of this training market
focuses energy on capturing market share, rather than focussing on core functions.
This is not merely an issue for TAFE and VET private providers. Universities and
secondary schools are more vigorously competing in the VET system seeking market
opportunities, particularly those with fee-for-service capacities, or integration of
institutions such as what has occurred in Victoria between several TAFE’s and
universities (Anderson, 1998).
33
2.3.2 TAFE and VET
Prior to the Deveson Report (1990) TAFE was the pre-eminent provider of
vocational education and training in Australia. The Deveson Report (cited in
Anderson 1997) found that, “the public technical and further education (TAFE)
system had become too insular and inflexible as a consequence of its longstanding
reliance on government subsidisation” (p.3). This report was a catalyst for the
establishment of an open training market designed to make TAFE become more
efficient and client-oriented through exposure to greater competition. As a result,
TAFE needed to become more entrepreneurial to generate income from an increase
in private investment into training by individuals and industry. Consequently, during
the 1990’s the language around TAFE changed. TAFE and vocational education and
training were no longer seen as synonymous. The VET system was now used to
describe the totality of vocational education and training that included TAFE as the
public provider. TAFE was now considered a sector within VET system (Fookes, et
al., 1997)
Recognising, therefore, that TAFE is an integral part of the VET system, Anderson
(1997) sees the relationship and distinction between TAFE and private providers as
somewhat problematic, while neither private providers nor TAFE see it as a level
playing field:
Research has identified a range of factors which public and private
providers view as unfair advantages enjoyed by their competitors. Private
providers consider that TAFE colleges are advantaged by: a capacity for
monopoly trading; ease of access to infrastructure [staff, facilities and
curriculum]; economies-of-scale; a capacity to cross-subsidise commercial
activities from recurrent funds; subsidised tuition fees; government
recognition and marketing; and a range of historical factors. (p.51)
[While]
The public provider [TAFE] argues that private providers enjoy greater
flexibility and control of resources [particularly human resources]; freedom
from government interference [e.g., restrictions on fee charging and
accountability requirements] more flexible cost structures; non-reciprocal
34
access to accredited curriculum; and more freedom from community service
obligations. (p.51)
An important difference between TAFE and other participants in the VET system,
then, is a focus on the direct government subsidisation of recurrent programs and
funding of infrastructure. Furthermore, it is argued that traditionally TAFE has had a
stronger commitment, or obligation, to fulfilling community service obligations. In
reviewing the literature discussed throughout this thesis, the difference between the
role and purpose of VET and the role and purpose of TAFE is mainly the social role
of TAFE, particularly in an access and equity context. On this issue, Selby Smith
(1995) proposes that:
Open and competitive processes are not always consistent with the public
interest objective … acknowledging that the capacity of TAFE institutions to
address equity and social justice issues may be eroded in a more competitive
market. (p.11)
From a financial perspective, the application of equity and social justice principles is
evident in government providing additional funds for education and training
programs or through subsidies to support individuals considered in need of
assistance. If there was no public provider, and all government funds for VET were
fully contestable, then, arguably, there would be no need to see VET and TAFE as in
anyway different from each other. Consequently, the provision of equity and social
principles would be undertaken using a purchasing mechanism by government that
would be see TAFE and private RTO’s in the same context.
2.3.3 VET and TAFE’s Role from a Policy Perspective
The primary role for TAFE is to deliver on government policy objectives for
technical and further education, and more recently for vocational education and
training. TAFEs are driven through State agendas that align to broader federal
strategies. Recent key Queensland Government policy documents that have
impacted on TAFE are: Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001b); the
Department of Employment and Training 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland
35
Government 2003a); and, the TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003b).
Since the early 1990’s, there has been another layer of policy impost on the State
owned and managed TAFE sector. Nationally, policy positions have been articulated
through the auspices of ANTA and presented in such policy documents as A Bridge
to the Future: Australia’s national strategy for vocational education and training
1998-2003 (ANTA, 1998) and, more recently, through Shaping our Future:
Australia’s national strategy for vocational education and training 2004-2010
(ANTA, 2004). These and other significant policy documents are reviewed more
fully in Chapter Five.
2.3.4 VET and TAFE’s Role from a Research Perspective
Selby Smith, Hawke, McDonald and Selby Smith (1998) have identified four main
types of policy-making processes at the Commonwealth and State and Territory
government levels that impact on VET policy:
• Pragmatic policy making that uses no systemic consultation or research;
• Limited consultation with invited stakeholders and limited or ad hoc research
undertaken;
• Policy making based upon green/white paper processes that employ systematic
consultation and a tendency to use selective research to support policy
approaches; and
• Policy decisions made upon independent public inquiry through external expert
panel or committee.
Selby Smith et al. (1998) suggest that most key VET policy decisions made to-date
have been made using the pragmatic approach although it was noted that there were
some exceptions such as the Kangan Report (1974), the Kirby Report (1985) and the
Finn Report (1991). Within Queensland, the Education and Training Reforms for
the Future (ETRF) (Queensland Government, 2002) policy was developed and then
implemented using a green-white paper approach. However, it seems that “both full
public consultation and systematic use of research have played a relatively small role
in VET policy decisions” (Selby Smith et al., 1998, p.6).
36
A lack of VET planning informed by a research perspective, according to Selby
Smith et al. (1998), can be explained in the following ways. Firstly, the complexity
of structures that have been established to oversee the VET system has ensured that
the VET system is a contested policy domain between the Commonwealth and State
and Territories governments; between public institutions and private providers; and
between unions and employers. Secondly, the rate of change in VET has been so
significant that any research undertaken will appear always ‘too late’ to influence
emerging policy. Thirdly, there is a perception amongst practitioners that VET
research is not given a high priority; it has no research culture; VET policy makers
are not research literate; and they do not understand research language. Additionally,
there is an expectation that research should provide simple answers to what are in
effect complex social phenomena and that overall public service downsizing has
further reduced organisational commitment to research. Finally, policymaking is not
driven solely by research; rather it is used more to validate decisions made for
political or strategic considerations (Selby Smith et al., 1998).
Hayton (1992) and Selby Smith et al., (1998) concluded that VET research was
insignificant in relation to total education research and that there was a lack of
research culture for VET within Australia. Findings from the broad and
comprehensive research undertaken by Selby Smith et al (1998) highlight this issue:
Much decision making in fact has not used research: the volatile policy
climate in VET and the pressures on key players have all mitigated against
the considered use of data as a component of decision making. As a result,
decision-making processes do not pay sufficient attention to the existence of
important research information. (p.120)
More recently, though, Harris (2002) has argued that there is a substantial body of
work in some aspects of VET. This research is supported through such centres as
NCVER, VOCED and CEET, which each contribute to formal and informal research
activities and publications on VET in Australia. However, this issue of research is
arguably less about the quality or quantity of research; it is more about whether
research is being translated into policy in a pro-active way, rather than as a process
of challenging or validating policy that has been developed.
37
2.3.5 Funding of VET and TAFE
In undertaking research regarding the influences on the policy emphasis of the social
service and economic utility role of TAFE, it is inevitable that the funding of VET
and TAFE needs to be considered. The following discussion provides an overview
of the strategic funding mechanisms that impact on VET and TAFE.
VET in Australia is available through a number of processes. At the time of this
research, under the ANTA Agreement, most government funded VET activities were
planned through the ANTA Ministerial Council. Under the ANTA Agreement
(1992), the public funding of VET became a joint responsibility between the
Commonwealth and States and territories with State and territory governments
currently providing about 70% of funding and the Commonwealth providing the
balance (NCVER, 2005). The primary focus of all of this funding is towards the
attainment of awards under the Australian Qualifications Framework (Dumbrell,
2000). At a State level, this funding is either ‘allocated’ or made available to both
the State TAFE sector and private registered training organisations (RTO’s)
providers through direct grant funds (TAFE), user choice (TAFE and private RTO’s)
and through competitive tendering mechanisms (TAFE, private RTO’s and
community agencies/groups). Each State TAFE sector has established processes to
collect student fees that contribute to the funding pool, while each State TAFE sector
has mechanisms to deliver fee-for-service education and training; that is training
where no government subsidy for education or training is provided. This blend of
government funding of VET and TAFE can see tensions arise between
Commonwealth and State governments with conflicting agendas, or comparable
agendas but conflicting implementation strategies.
2.3.6 Summary
This section has reviewed the VET market and the marketisation of TAFE, including
the role of VET and TAFE from a policy and research perspective. Until the early
1990s, technical and further education was seen as a province of the State owned and
managed TAFE sector. While there has always been a private sector within technical
and further education, the development of a vocational education and training (VET)
system in the 1990’s provided scope for increasing competition for TAFE, both for a
share of government funding and overall market share. This shift in relationship
38
between TAFE and governments has not been driven by a research paradigm.
Rather, policy has been developed with VET research more as a mechanism of
validation or review. While other countries have also developed VET systems, it
appears that the key characteristic that distinguishes Australia’s system is its
centralised and formal structures.
2.4 KEY REPORTS AND MILESTONESS IMPACTING ON TAFE IN
AUSTRALIA
The Vocational Educational and Training (VET) system as we know it today has
been a part of the Australian education system since the formation of the Mechanics
Institutes system in the 19th century. More formally, the Australian Education Act
(1910) established the statutory framework for the establishment of an Education
Department that featured schools that had trade classes as their primary focus. The
1920s to 1970s saw a growth in technical education in Australia; however
government support for this sector was more rhetorical than financial. As Robinson
(1990) observed, “The (technical education) systems were part of the education
departments dominated by the financial needs of schooling” (p.21). By the early
1970s technical education was the only tertiary education sector not directly
receiving Commonwealth funding as a regular funding practice. Some of the key
reports and milestones that have impacted on the development of TAFE since the
early 1970’s are now outlined. This discussion provides an overview of the
historical context in which to understand how the current TAFE sector came into
being.
2.4.1 The Kangan Era
The early 1970’s were a period of change. Australia had been managed by a long-
term federal coalition government and while it had progressively become involved in
the funding of schools, CAE’s and universities, technical education was under-
recognised, under-funded and under-resourced. Since its establishment in 1964, the
Technical and Further Education Teachers’ Association of Australia (TAFETAA)
had annually requested a national inquiry into technical education. The flow-on
effects of Australia’s 1950s and 1960s immigration growth also indirectly supported
this inquiry (Goozee, 2001). Thus, the Tregellis Report (1969) focussed on skill
recognition issues for European migrants to Australia; however, it also identified
39
Australia as the only advanced industrialised country that did not have a general
coordinated approach to training or a common acceptance of qualifications and
highlighted the lack of funding for the technical education sector when compared to
other sectors of education in Australia.
When the Labor government came to power in 1972, advisory commissions were
developed for pre-schooling, primary and secondary education. Notwithstanding the
implementation of the Children’s Commission, the Australian Schools Commission,
the Commission on Advanced Education and the Universities Commission, the then
Minister for Education (Mr. Kim Beazley Snr) realised that there were approximately
400,000 students who would not come under the jurisdiction of these commissions
(Goozee, 2001). After further requests from TAFETAA, and with the support of the
then Minister for Labour and Immigration, the Australian Commission on Technical
and Further Education (ACOTAFE) was formed with Myer Kangan as Chairperson.
Technical and further education prior to 1974 fulfilled a role of providing post-
secondary education and training for a large number of people. A lack of identity
and charter, however, tended to leave it as a sector both under-valued and under
resourced (Goozee, 2001). The Kangan Report (1974) provided a watershed for the
reform of technical and further education in Australia. Within the recommendations
of this report, key characteristics of TAFE were identified that provided a
cornerstone for what is a State managed but nationally recognised system for the
delivery of publicly funded vocational education and training. TAFE’s initial role
was identified as follows:
Technical and further education should be regarded as describing all
organised and sustained programs designed to communicate vocationally
orientated knowledge and to develop the individual’s understanding and
skills. It should include all programs of education with a vocational
purpose, other than those financially supported by other commissions,
whether the individual is using the program with employment as a primary
aim or with the aim of gaining specialised knowledge or skills for personal
enrichment or job improvement. It includes what is usually known as ‘adult
education’. It does not include activities which have no direct educational
40
purpose and which are not planned as a systemic sequence. (Kangan Report,
1974, p.v.)
In essence, the Kangan Report provided the impetus for the sustained growth of
TAFE, through:
• A national focus on curriculum and credentials;
• The professional recognition and development of TAFE teachers;
• Capital infra-structure funds to develop student services including libraries, first
aid and health services, canteens and counselling services;
• An expectation that TAFE was more than just training, that it was vocational
education with a training component; and
• Meeting the needs of students within the context of an industry’s skill
requirement. (Fooks, et al., 1997)
Significantly the Kangan Report (1974) stressed that technical and further education
was “not something different from a tidy mainstream of education – primary,
secondary and tertiary - and should be regarded as an alternative, neither inferior nor
superior, to the other streams of education” (Goozee, 2001, p.25). Additionally, and
importantly for evaluating the purpose and role of TAFE, Ryan (1982) argues that
Kangan gave TAFE its distinctive ideology:
One which dismissed crude distinctions between technical and humane
studies, discounted a narrow vocationalism as TAFE’s sole charter, asserted
the equality of esteem with other educational sectors as well as its
distinctive character and especially stressed the role of TAFE in providing
access by all to post-secondary education. (p.9)
A few years after the Kangan Report handed down its recommendation, the Williams
Committee, 1976-1979, was established to study the links between education and
employment (Connell, 1993). The committee placed emphasis on the value of the
TAFE sector, recognising that TAFE carried a large proportion of the post-secondary
education participation. Specifically the Williams Committee recommended
41
increases to the range and flexibility of TAFE programs, increased access to TAFE
courses and improved training for TAFE teachers. Additionally it recommended
improved efficiencies in articulation between TAFEs, Colleges of Adult Education
(CAE) and universities (Connell, 1993). Generally the priorities for the TAFE sector
identified by the Williams Committee were to focus on training for skilled
tradespersons; improve the quality of TAFE staff; and provide additional funds to
TAFE to provide access for an increasing number of 15-19 year olds choosing TAFE
for their full-time schooling.
2.4.2 TAFE in the 1980’s and 1990’s
By 1985, TAFE had grown considerably, with the growth being described as a
“major national achievement” that saw a transformation of TAFE from an
“educational backyard operation to a major partner in tertiary education” (Connell,
1993, p.348). Notwithstanding this, TAFE still lacked funds to upgrade ageing
equipment and student services, which while improved from pre-Kangan days, were
still considered below reasonable levels. Significantly, during this period the growth
in retention rates of secondary school leavers improved the standards of recruits for
TAFE; the establishment of CAE’s that took over the top-end technical qualifications
freed TAFE to focus on sub-professional courses; there was an increasing interest by
the Federal government in education funding from social, political and economic
grounds; and improved teacher professional development was supported by TAFE
authorities (Connell, 1993).
The increased focus by the federal government on education resulted in a number of
reports on the wider VET system. Dawkins and Holding (1987), Dawkins (1988,
1989), Finn (1991) and Carmichael (1992) were the forerunners in the development
of a range of economically derived government strategies for VET that saw a
national move towards Competency Based Training (CBT), the development of
National Training Packages (NTPs) and the evolution of the New Apprenticeship
Schemes (NAS).
The Finn Review (1991) appraised the future development of post-compulsory
education and training in Australia. A major theme in the consequent report
generated from the review was that general education and training, and work and
42
learning, were too sharply divided. By implication, the report suggested that schools
needed to be more concerned with employability issues, while TAFE needed to be
increasingly concerned with more general competencies than those focussed towards
the more traditional craft-based apprenticeships. The report recommended that six
key areas of competence be deemed essential for all young people engaged in post-
compulsory education and training and that all programs should incorporate these six
competencies as part of their overall outcomes. Subsequent to the Finn review, the
Mayer committee (1992) was successful in having key competencies nationally
endorsed as the required key competencies for all young Australians (Goozee, 2001).
The key outcome of the Carmichael Report (1992) was the establishment of a
competency-based Vocational Certificate system, merging traineeships and
apprenticeships. This new system provided a more flexible, workplace focussed
system that also proposed a training wage based upon levels of competence achieved.
Both the Finn (1991) and Carmichael (1992) reviews set targets of participation and
completion rates for youth for year 12, initial post-school qualifications and active
participation in recognised education and training (Goozee, 2001; Robinson, 2000).
In 1992 a series of Australian Vocational Training System (AVTS) pilot programs
was developed and implemented; however a change in government in 1996 saw
AVTS replaced by the New Apprenticeship system.
This increasing inter-relationship between broader government policies and VET
policy, particularly on youth and employment issues, was reflected in a series of key
changes. Firstly, to be both import-competitive and export-orientated it was argued
that the Australian workforce must be skilled and flexible in the provision of goods
and services (Dawkins, 1988); secondly, that a bipartite notion of ‘industry’ sectors,
defined by government and represented by employers and unions, was to have a
greater influence on the VET system through, for example, Industry Training
Advisory Boards (ITABs); and thirdly, that there was a strong government interest in
the VET system that led to significant changes in the administration of VET
(Goozee, 2001). In consequence, vocational education and training became centrally
administered through standardisation, bureaucratic control, mandation, regulation
and market mechanisms to secure efficiencies across the VET system nationally, and
finally, a framework for training was developed that incorporated the development of
43
the national competency standards, a qualification framework and uniform guidelines
for assessment (Goozee, 2001; Robinson, 2000). These three elements of
competency standards, qualification framework and assessment guidelines, form the
endorsed components of an Industry Training Package (VET Policy and Research
Report, 1998).
The policy shift towards a more centralist and economic control of the VET system
was reflected in the Bannikoff (1998) description of the fundamental purpose of the
VET system as:
• The delivery of preparatory vocational training in schools, Institute’s, workplaces
and community settings;
• The provision of entry-level vocational program for people seeking to enter the
workforce or change jobs;
• The provision of advanced skills training;
• Providing opportunities for updating skills; and
• Providing program for access and re-entry in the labour-force.
With this emerging focus on a relatively new VET system, the fundamental purposes
for VET could be seen as the fundamental purposes of TAFE.
While TAFE is a State government managed system, it is substantially tied to federal
government policy through the Ministerial Council on Education, Employment,
Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA), the ANTA Ministerial Council (MINCO)
structures, and ANTA, the agency that, until July 2005, was responsible for the
overall implementation of VET policy. Since the mid-1990s federal funding has
been committed to a newer national training system. The administrative structures
and accountability requirements of this system are known as the National Training
Framework (NTF). Elements of the NTF include the Australian Qualifications
Frameworks (AQF), the Australian Qualifications Training Framework (AQTF),
National Training Packages and National Assessment Arrangements, and Service
Provider Registration. In combination, these elements provide a national framework
under which States and training providers operate so there is standardisation and
44
portability of qualifications and consistency in assessment and determination of
outcomes across Australia (Hawke & Cornford, 1998; Robinson, 2000). This
framework purports to provide an improved policy and accountability framework for
the disbursement of public funds (Robinson, 2000; Smith, 1997). It is industry that
endorses units of competency within qualifications and identifies the core and
elective units of competence deemed relevant for learners. Hence, this framework is
not one that can be construed necessarily as educational; rather, it is arguably a
regulatory framework with a primary purpose of certifying training outcomes against
agreed industry standards. Its focus, then, is on administrative structures and
accountability, rather than educational concerns, and thus it reinforces a shift to an
economic paradigm for vocational education and training.
2.4.3 TAFE in the Early 21st Century
A critical component to unlocking questions surrounding TAFE’s future is the
funding issues that have evolved since 1996. At that time a change of federal
government saw Commonwealth funding cease and recurrent funding for VET
remain static. This has occurred in an environment where there have been significant
cost impacts beyond salary increases, costs that relate to the implementation of the
New Apprenticeship System and National Training Packages (NTPs). Additionally,
the Commonwealth has reduced its funding for labour market programs, a significant
source of TAFE revenue, with long-term unemployment programs now being funded
from State-based funding arrangements (Goozee 2001; Robinson, 2000).
Furthermore, the TAFE sector has emerged through a period focussed on efficiency
of delivery that has emphasised increased delivery provision and reduced costs,
putting significant pressure both on quality of service delivery and support services
for students. During the 1990s, services were rationalised and activities considered
to be non-viable have been discontinued. Adding further tensions has been the
ongoing need for TAFE institutes to “increase their competitiveness in the training
market in tendering for contestable funds, develop strategic alliances and increase
their revenue base through higher levels of commercial activity and increases in fees
and charges” (Goozee 2001, p.104).
45
In the report on Shaping the Future: National Strategy for Vocational Education and
Training 2004-2010 (ANTA 2004), there is a focus on the economic utility role of
the VET market with a continued emphasis on a national approach to qualifications,
quality assurance, funding, cross-sectoral pathways and a national market. This
future vision for the VET system covers:
• VET working for Australian businesses: making businesses internationally
competitive;
• VET working for people: giving Australians world class skills and knowledge;
and
• VET working for communities: building inclusive and sustainable communities.
(ANTA, 2004)
Within the ANTA (2004) report, there is an identification of the need to make a
sustained investment in TAFE (and other registered training organisations) to build
the capability and capacity of these providers to deliver on the strategic objectives for
the VET market. In this document, the TAFE sector is recognised as an integral part
of the future of the VET market. However, there appears to be no significant clarity
as to TAFE’s future role as the major public provider within VET.
More recently ANTA has been dismantled and subsumed under the federal
Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST). As part of this transition,
the federal government released a revised policy document, Skilling Australia
(DEST, 2005) that further emphasises the focus of vocational education and training
on meeting the needs of the economy. For example, Minister Hardgrave stressed
that: “Our goal is to ensure that in the future Australia’s training system will be even
more responsive to the ever-changing needs of industry” (DEST, 2005, p.iv). Yet,
and in further justification of this study, there appears to be little clarity around a
policy position on the role and purpose of TAFE.
2.4.4 TAFE Queensland
The Ahern Report (1980) was the first major review of education in Queensland
since the 1875 Royal Commission into Education. It encompassed a review of the
efficiency and adequacy of secondary education and technical education to meet
46
industry needs. However, the report made little reference to technical education and
therefore had no impact on TAFE. Notwithstanding this lack, there were some
changes to the structure and operations of TAFE Queensland during the period from
1976 to 1982. Firstly, TAFE Queensland officially came into being on 1 January
1977; and secondly, the TAFE Operations Section was created in 1978 to provide a
direct link between TAFE Colleges and the head office to co-ordinate all TAFE
activities and provide executive services to the Board of Adult Education (Goozee,
2001).
In 1987 the Queensland Government formed a new department, the Department of
Employment, Vocational Education and Training (DEVET). DEVET comprised
TAFE and senior colleges under the Minister of Education and the Division of
Employment Planning and Training. Additionally, DEVET was responsible for the
administration of apprenticeships and the maintenance of standards for private
providers, while the Queensland Employment, Vocational Education and Training
Board (QEVET) was established in 1987 to provide advice to the minister. After a
change in government in 1989, DEVET and the Department of Industrial Relations
were amalgamated to form the Department of Employment, Vocational Education
Training and Industrial Relations (DEVETIR) (Goozee, 2001).
A green paper on the Formation of Technical and Further Education, Training and
Employment Commission (1990) was a forerunner to the separation of the policy and
delivery of VET in Queensland. In 1991 the Vocational Education, Training and
Employment Act established the Vocational Education, Training and Employment
Commission (VETEC) to replace QEVET. Key elements of VETEC’s role were to
provide advice to the minister on the vocational education, training and employment
frameworks and strategies to enhance State economic and social development, and to
determine policy in relation to regulated training, accreditation and curriculum policy
development. The Act also created three councils under the commission: The State
Training Council was responsible for matters related to structured training; the State
Planning and Development Council was to provide independent advice on short and
long-term priorities for vocational education, training and employment services; and
the Accreditation council was responsible for all accreditation matters and for
providing independent advice on the quality of VET. TAFE was administered
47
through TAFE, Training and Employment Queensland (TAFE*TEQ), a body that
operated within DEVETIR. It was during this period that a ‘purchaser model’ was
introduced. This model saw VET services purchased by the department both from
TAFE and private RTO’s (Goozee, 2001).
In 1998 a blueprint for the future of TAFE Queensland was represented through a
report called A Vision for TAFE Queensland, in which the Queensland government
undertook to re-establish TAFE Institutes as “vibrant, effective organisations having
‘best practice’ responses to the policy interests of government, the vocational
aspirations of individuals, the needs of students, enterprises and the community
demands of the training market” (Braddy, 1999, p.2). Following this, TAFE
Queensland operated within the Department of Employment and Training (DET).
During the 1990s some 30 plus TAFE Colleges became 15 TAFE Institutes, and
Institute Directors were seen to be somewhat autonomous from the Department
(DET). However, in 2001-2002 governance arrangements for TAFE Queensland
shifted from the decentralised model that was in place during the late 1990s. The
implementation of the Training and Employment Act 2000 provided the Minister
with the authority to establish, disestablish or merge TAFE Institutes and mandated
that TAFE Institutes must have Institute Councils with neither the TAFE Institute nor
Institute Council having independent statutory existence. During 2001 the TAFE
Board and the TAFE Queensland Executive (TQE) developed proposals for
governance arrangements that put forward greater system responsiveness and a
stronger TQE. The Department (DET) appointed a Deputy-Director General whose
primary responsibility was service delivery through TAFE Institutes, with a
consequent move away from providing Institute Directors with portfolio
responsibilities for a range of functions, while the chair of TQE (now TDQ) became
the ‘public face’ of TAFE Queensland, and Institute Directors were responsible to
the Director General through annual performance agreements (Kirby, 2002).
In 2005, further changes saw the removal of the role of the Chair of TDQ, the
appointment of an Executive Director Operations who holds responsibility for TAFE
performance, with the Deputy-Director General taking strategic responsibility for the
development and implementation of the Queensland Skills Plan (Queensland
Government, 2005). This plan “outlines both a fundamental shift in the way our
48
training system operates and a significant reform to TAFE Queensland” (p.2). After
the state election in September 2006, DET was separated so that Training became
part of the Department of Education, Training and the Arts (DETA). Training
currently retains its own DDG under the auspices of a DETA Director General. The
implications of these changes are not yet known.
Given that TAFE Queensland is a unit within DETA, and strategically managed
through the Director-General and Deputy Director General performance agreements
process, from a strategic and operational perspective TAFE is likely to be influenced
by the Department’s support of current government policy. Therefore, Federal and
State Government agendas are not mutually exclusive to those of either DETA or
TAFE. What is relevant is the implication of government polices for TAFE policy,
particularly as they impact on the balance that Institutes are able to make in their own
strategic and operational practices between a commitment to broader social and
community requirements and the achievement of more economically defined
outcomes such as jobs and graduates.
2.4.5 Summary
This section has outlined a range of key reports and milestones that have impacted on
the development of TAFE in Australia. From the early days of Mechanics Institutes
to the formation of TAFE in 1974, technical and further education has played a key
role in assisting individuals develop the technical skills required by industry. The
Kangan Report (1974) was the initial impetus for the development of a State owned,
but Commonwealth supported TAFE sector. It preceded what was arguably the most
significant reform of technical and further education in Australia’s history with the
formation of TAFE Colleges across Australia.
The establishment of ANTA in 1992 stemmed from growing concerns that the TAFE
system was not responsive to the needs of industry, and therefore of the economy.
ANTA oversaw the implementation of a national training framework that led to a
nationally consistent system of VET. Further, ANTA provided for consistency
between TAFEs and private registered training providers in the areas of assessment
against industry competency standards, the issuing of qualifications, and the quality
standards that underpin being a registered training provider. This period also saw the
49
development of a VET system that has encouraged greater participation of private
training providers in competing with the traditional base of TAFE colleges or
institutes. More recently, ANTA has been dismantled by the Commonwealth
government and its functions subsumed into the Commonwealth department of
DEST; however, the national training framework implemented in the 1990s remains.
TAFE Queensland has evolved within the frameworks established both by the
Kangan Report (1974) and ANTA. Since its inception in 1977, TAFE Queensland
has been consistently linked with an employment rather than an education
department. Currently, TAFE Queensland is undergoing significant structural reform
through its recently released Queensland Skills Plan (Queensland Government,
2005).
2.5 A SOCIAL SERVICE AND ECONOMIC UTILITY ROLE OF TAFE
2.5.1 Introduction
An analysis of a policy position of TAFE Queensland is possible within a number of
frameworks – educational, political or economic. In this thesis, the policy position of
TAFE Queensland is analysed within a social service and economic utility paradigm.
Powles and Anderson’s (1996) publication, Participation and Access in TAFE:
social service or economic utility is referred to here since they produced a conjectural
and deliberately dichotomous social-service and economic utility framework
superimposed upon some of TAFE’s features (refer: Table 1). They indicate that
these social service and economic utility features “bear a close resemblance to actual
policy configurations and discursive positions adopted in the debate about vocational
education and training over the past few decades” (p.100). While they concede that
the social service and economic utility views are represented as opposites within this
table, they argue that at any given point in time elements of each view are invariably
represented in various policies that impact upon TAFE. Powles and Anderson’s
work forms the basis of the conceptual framework and model developed in this thesis
and both are discussed in Chapter Three. Notwithstanding the dichotomous nature of
the Powles and Anderson framework, the conceptual framework and model used for
this research acknowledges the duality of a social service and economic role for
TAFE. In other words, it acknowledges that these two purposes of TAFE are
intertwined and inter-related.
Table 1: Features and Access Implications of Two Views of TAFE
(Powles & Anderson, 1996, p.102)
Schofield (1994) argues that an understanding of “the sharp dichotomy between
educational and social purposes on one hand and the labour market purposes on the
other” (p.21), in a TAFE context is necessary. While Kilpatrick and Allen (2001)
argue that given economic and social factors contribute to the demand for VET,
further research is needed with regards to economic and social factors related to
50
51
demand for VET. In particular, research is required on the desirable balance between
general and job-specific education. This research is consonant with Barnett’s (1997)
conclusion that future research should be designed to inform and enhance ongoing
policy development processes, including the most appropriate strategies to foster a
dynamic balance between public and private provisions of VET.
Burke (2000) sees that an apparent shift away from a social-view perspective
towards a more economic paradigm is reflected in quantitative analysis that shows a
trend towards a reduction in government spending on vocational education and
training, a reduction in employer and industry expenditure on vocational education
and training and an increase in contributions by individuals towards their cost of
education and training. Likewise, Foley, Crombie, & Morris (1998) suggest there is
now a stronger focus on providing funding in relation to specific outputs such as
delivery efficiency, return on investment (ROI) and value for money outcomes; on an
focus on competition or ‘being competitive’; and on the use of technology to better
monitor that specified services go to the appropriate individuals and are not wasted
on those without need or entitlement, along with a stronger focus on who benefits
and who pays.
In the sections that follow, a social service and economic utility view of TAFE is
discussed in the context of the views held by Powles and Anderson (1996) on
TAFE’s social service and economic utility role.
2.5.2 TAFE’s Role from a Social Service Perspective
A social service view of TAFE’s role extends beyond meeting the needs of certain
disadvantaged groups. The concept of TAFE’s social service role is embedded in a
number of interpretations of the role of education, particularly those provided by the
Government provider. This social service role for TAFE provides a framework for
education, not simply training, and a broad base of access by the community (Ferrier
& Anderson, 1998; Kangan, 1974; Powles & Anderson, 1996), although it does not
ignore the economic benefits gained from education and training (Ferrier &
Anderson, 1998; Kangan, 1974; Lloyd, 1976).
52
A social service role for TAFE, as presented by Powles and Anderson (1996),
provides a system that focuses on individual needs and outcomes; multiple pathways
and outcomes; is student centred in terms of course entry; is a publicly funded
system; and has a broad approach to equity goals. In a social service paradigm,
TAFE’s role can be described as a view whereby “the individual is TAFE’s primary
focus and equity of access within a broad framework of social concern is the guiding
principle” (Powles & Anderson, 1996, p.98). This view means that in addition to
teaching specific vocational skills, the acquiring of knowledge and skills as the
development of adaptability, social responsibility and the personal development of
the student should be supported. It reflects the original purpose and role of TAFE as
identified by the Kangan Report (1974) that chose to emphasise a focus on the
individual learner and accessibility over a narrower emphasis on meeting the
‘manpower’ needs of the economy. Under a social service view of TAFE, the issue
of access and equity is reflected in a broad concern of “what is fair for all” (Hattam
& Smyth, 1998, p.136).
Nationally, TAFE provides education and training to a diverse group of people with
special needs such as low income earners who cannot afford university, private RTO
or corporate training, people who do not complete secondary school and are looking
for a second chance opportunity in an adult environment, the unemployed, remote or
rural communities, Indigenous people, people with recognised disabilities and people
from non-English speaking backgrounds (NCVER, 2005). With TAFE providing
opportunities for such a diverse group of people, many who have not previously had
success in a formal education setting, a measure of ‘success’ may be simply
attending one class or participating in a program. Qualification outcomes, jobs
attained or promotions received, while perhaps ultimate goals are not always the
primary purpose for the individual student enrolling into a TAFE course. For
example, in 2004, 30.7% of VET students, the majority of whom were TAFE
students, were not studying Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) recognised
qualifications (NCVER, 2005). That is, their studies were not directly tied to the
national approved qualifications framework, which meant they were undertaking
programs that were non-formal in nature and had more to do with individual
development than competencies aligned to specific industry sectors.
53
Adult and community education (ACE) provision caters for individual needs and
performs a key social service educative function in the community. ACE provides
both vocational and non-vocational training, accredited and non-accredited training
and supports a lifelong learning paradigm. ACE is an example of the development of
social capital through less formal education (Birch, Kenyon, Koshy, & Wills-
Johnson, 2003). ACE is adult learner focussed and delivered by a wide range of
providers, including mainstream VET providers such as TAFE and private registered
training organisations, but also by smaller, local community providers. However,
there is inconsistency and a lack of coherence in defining ACE activity across
Australia (Birch et al., 2003). In Queensland, while some adult and community
education activity occurs within TAFE Institutes, ACE is seen more as a community
owned and managed activity (Volkoff, Golding & Jenkin, 1999). This view of ACE,
for example, is reflected in the national statistics on ACE activity where Victoria and
NSW represented 86% of the reported ACE activity (NCVER, 2001). The
implication is that there is either a lack of commitment to ACE activity by the other
states, or what may be termed ACE activity by Victoria and NSW is not being
recognised as such by the other states.
A social service view of TAFE’s role is underpinned by an ideological commitment
to the public good and social development. In this context, while TAFE has a role to
play in the provision of skilled and qualified people for the betterment of industry,
commerce and the economy, its central role is to meet people’s broader education
needs.
2.5.3 TAFE’s Role from an Economic Utility Perspective
The rationale of an economic utility perspective of TAFE is that the economy is the
key driver behind the development of a VET system, and in this context, TAFE is
seen by government as one channel through which to promote national economic
development (Powles & Anderson, 1996). An economic utility role for TAFE, as
presented by Powles and Anderson (1996), provides for a system that focuses on
industry needs and economic outcomes; that provides for pathways that support the
economic benefit and market value of a qualification; and that is industry demand
driven. It supports a user pays system and sees equity goals as market issues
whereby selective subsidies off-set any individual disadvantage.
54
The economic rationale is that the economy drives enrolments, determines their
social distribution, and influences the nature of student demand. In a neo-classical
economic rationalist environment, governments seek to minimise ‘frivolous
consumption’ through the management of education and training as a commercial
transaction. Seeing education and training as a commercial transaction minimises
the emphasis of education and training as a process of social and cultural formation
(Marginson, 1993). In a human capital context, education becomes skill formation,
with the objective of boosting industry productivity and competitiveness rather than
contributing to social and personal development (Marginson, 1993, Powles &
Anderson, 1996). From this perspective, a lifelong learner is seen as a person who is
prepared to invest time, money and effort in education and training on a continuous
basis (Watson, Kearns, Grant, & Cameron, 2000).
One of the key characteristics of the TAFE sector, and arguably one of its greatest
challenges, is its diversity. In 2004 in excess of 1.6 million students in Australia
were enrolled in a broad range of qualifications, competencies and non-award
courses and programs (NCVER, 2005). Compare this with the 430,265 enrolled
students reported at the time of Kangan (1974) and it is evident that the TAFE sector
has grown significantly in its impact on the general population and labour market.
Given that this rapid growth needs to be funded, and given limited government
contributions, the issue of funding is potentially one of the significant elements that
has influenced an apparent shift towards a more economic focus on TAFE.
More than any other education sector, the rationale for VET is explicitly economic; a
key manifestation of this economic focus can be seen in the ANTA principles for the
National Training Reform Agenda presented in 1994 (Burke, McKenzie, Magle,
Selby-Smith, Ferrier, & Selby-Smith, 1994). Further, it was during the 1990s that
the concept of a training market was introduced into the policy discourse on VET in
Australia (Anderson, 1996). The Deveson Report (1990) identified this focus as a
central feature of VET reform; it has been reflected in such activities as the overseas
marketing of VET through governments, TAFE and Private RTO’s; an increase in
competitive tendering that provided opportunities for an increase in private provider
entering this new training market; and a new focus on the themes of choice,
diversity, efficiency, client focus, consumer sovereignty and competition. The
55
features of a training market provide a stark contrast to the traditional Kangan focus
of TAFE that functioned in a non-market environment, insulated from pressures of
resources and clients, with public access heavily subsidised and rationed by
government (Smith et al., 1999). In essence the early 1990’s period was predicated
upon a concentration on supply, though there was also a shift towards making the
market more contestable than in the 1980’s and earlier.
During the 1980s and 1990s there was an ascendancy of economic rationalism and a
preoccupation with economic objectives in debates about public education policy
(Powles & Anderson, 1996). This ascendancy has seen a shift towards a user pays
environment and an access and equity policy that focuses on identified target groups
rather than a broader or more inclusive view of access and equity for all. However, it
has also seen the development of a TAFE sector arguably more responsive to
industry, government and clients’ needs. What underpins an economic utility role of
TAFE is an ideological commitment to economic growth and industry priorities.
2.5.4 Tensions between a Social Service and Economic Utility Perspective
The question of what is an appropriate role for TAFE is not new. The tensions that
arise between a social service and economic utility paradigm can be related to a
series of models for TAFE developed by Ryan and Schofield (1990, pp10-12). The
following examples drawn from these models demonstrate the complexity around
developing either a social service or economic utility model for TAFE. For example,
from a social service view, the ‘Comprehensive Model’ conceptualises the Kangan
philosophy that esteems equally the vocational, community and second chance
education functions. Fees for individuals, under this model, would be minimal and
would not be used as a rationing device. The ‘Entitlement Model’ is a socially
responsive model that recognises that individuals are entitled to a measure of training
from the public purse. An economic element of this model would suggest that
beyond the initial entitlement, a level of contribution from the beneficiary is
appropriate.
From an economic utility view, the ‘Industrial Efficiencies Model’ reflects the
economic rationalist agenda and would provide TAFE with clear goals as an
economic development contributor, given limited resources that need to be optimally
56
used. Equity and access are not necessarily irrelevant, but are viewed in relation to
providing employable skills to disadvantaged (identified) groups. The ‘Market Place
Model’ recognises that TAFE is only part of a wider market and favours a more level
playing field, supporting a greater, if not total use, of a user-pays regime.
The ‘Public Policy Model’ is a blended model that encompasses a number of other
models, but is focussed on the issue that TAFE is available to deliver on specific
government policies, regardless of the social or economic emphasis of the policy of
the day. This model recognises that it is a traditional and legitimate function of State
governments to implement Commonwealth policy, in this case, using the State TAFE
sector as the policy vehicle.
Ryan and Schofield (1990) argue that it is not possible to fully separate each view of
the role of TAFE as depicted by each model. Each model has an element of several
models; however, there are sufficient differences in underlying values to distinguish
each model in its own right. The models ground an argument that each of them has
its own underlying values and that there will be tensions between a social service and
economic utility paradigm. Chapter Three builds on the options identified by Ryan
and Schofield (1990) to create a model that captures the social service and economic
utility view of the role of TAFE.
Vocational education and training in Australia is now a federally driven system with
performance outcomes measured through compliance with the regulatory
frameworks identified (particularly) within the AQTF. This strategic focus on
economic measures has created tension between social and economic roles for
TAFE. A key example of these tensions is evidenced through a shift in the premise
of TAFE as a supplier driven organisation to one that is demand driven, with the
need for this industry demand stance stemming from a view that TAFE was
unresponsive to industry needs. The advocates for this shift to a market (or demand)
driven paradigm have argued that it would be achieved through creating a
competitive market in which TAFE and private providers operate; developing a
national policy, planning and regulation regime that is driven by training needs of
employers and industry; increasing flexibility in content and delivery of vocational
education and training; and by developing the concept of ‘user choice’ that provides
57
an opportunity for employers and trainees to select their registered training
organisation, attracting the associated public funding through this process (Fooks et
al., 1997). This watershed brought a range of concepts such as competition, demand
driven, client focus and an emphasis on training rather than education to TAFE
management.
Fooks et al. (1997) suggest that TAFE can be a full competitor in a market driven
VET system, while at the same time meeting its obligations as the major public
provider of vocational education and training. Many of these concepts, particularly
those that focus on client satisfaction and organisational efficiency, can be seen as
constructive, positive, and potentially necessary shifts for the ongoing viability of a
healthy and strong TAFE sector. Again, it is a question of balance. How much
efficiency, how much accountability, and how much competition are enough? If the
premise is that TAFE should be a privatised, commercial operation, then TAFE
would be faced with no more or less social service obligations than any other private
training provider. However, as the public provider, TAFE Institutes are arguably
becoming more challenged in having to deal with somewhat conflicting obligations –
meeting social service obligations and maintaining financially sound public service
businesses.
The literature supports the conclusion that TAFE has traditionally fulfilled both a
social and economic role. However, over recent years, a strong argument in the
literature indicates that policy has shifted towards a more significant emphasis on the
economic role, at the expense of fulfilling the broader social role. This thesis aims to
contribute to a body of research in this field by providing a greater understanding of
the nature of the social and economic roles of TAFE Queensland, as evidenced both
by policy documents and perceptions held by senior policy personnel.
2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has reviewed literature that provides an educational context for
understanding TAFE in Australia; discussed a number key concepts drawn from
economic, organisational and marketing theory and discussed how they have
impacted on the TAFE sector; provided a review of the development of the VET
market and TAFE; provided an overview of TAFE Queensland as it fits within the
58
Department of Employment and Training and presented some key issues behind the
social service and economic utility roles for TAFE. This literature review has
provided a comprehensive rationale for undertaking this research. The following
summary identifies some of the key points addressed within this chapter and their
relevance to this study.
TAFE is a sector within Australia’s three tiered education system of primary and
secondary schools, vocational education and training and universities. Within this
tiered system, the role and purpose of education is subject to interpretation: with key
tensions around whether education should be more focussed on individual
achievement or more focussed on meeting strategic economic agendas. As a sector
that emphasises vocational outcomes, this issue of an economic focus is arguably
more significant for TAFE than that imposed on the school and university sectors.
At issue is whether the need to develop competent workers for benefit of the
economy and industry supersedes the need to provide individuals with a broader
vocational education that encapsulates substantial social and equity strategies, or vice
versa. This research aims to shed light upon this issue to determine a current policy
position of TAFE Queensland.
During the 1980’s and 1990’s, the impact on education policy via globalisation,
economic rationalism, corporate managerialism and a shifting emphasis within
human capital theory influenced the development of education policy. Again, given
the nature of TAFE, the establishment of ANTA and the influence of industry on the
VET agenda, this impact has arguably been more significant than in the school and
university sector.
The influence of a neo-liberal perspective has manifested itself in the development of
a VET market that has provided opportunities for private training providers to
contest for funds and compete in markets that had been the traditional domain of
TAFE.
The framework presented by Powles and Anderson (1996) provides an appropriate
means for analysing a policy position of TAFE Queensland since it identifies a range
of social service and economic characteristics. Work undertaken by Ryan and
59
Schofield (1990), Anderson (1994), Powles and Anderson (1996), Kilpatrick and
Allen (2001) and Ryan (2002) suggest that it is not possible to treat a social service
and economic role of TAFE as a dualism; that is, as a set of distinct and
irreconcilable differences. Rather, they are dualities in that the characteristics of a
social service and economic utility role are a set of related factors. To assist in
determining the relationship between a social service and economic role, and any
policy balance between them, a conceptual framework and a model are presented and
discussed in Chapter Three.
The aforementioned discussion of the literature indicates that there has been a policy
shift, for TAFE, away from the core social service principles espoused in the Kangan
Report (1974) to one that places more emphasis on the economic utility role
undertaken by TAFE than the traditional social service role. The current study, then,
seeks to explore the current policy position of TAFE with respect to the emphasis
placed on a social service and economic utility role to determine if there is any
support for this shift.
60
61
CHAPTER THREE: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter discusses the conceptual framework developed for this thesis. It begins
by justifying the conceptual framework; it then discusses the significant research that
underpins the framework, the influences of a continuum view, and influences that
impact on the framework. Finally, the chapter discusses a heuristic model used to
visually present a policy position of TAFE Queensland as evidenced by the strategic
policy documents and interviews used as sources of data for this thesis. These
sources of data are discussed in Chapter Four: Methodology.
3.1 JUSTIFICATION OF THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This section presents a justification for developing a conceptual framework and a
model for this thesis. The concepts presented by Powles and Anderson (1996) focus
on two conjectural views of TAFE: a social service view and an economic utility
view (refer: Table 1). The social service view is that the individual student is
TAFE’s primary focus and access is an equity issue that should be addressed under a
broad social framework of social concern as the guiding principle. To ensure access
and equity are maintained, government intervention is required, while the concepts of
recurrent education and lifelong learning are emphasised. The economic utility view
of TAFE sees the economic outcomes of TAFE activity as a key driver. In this
context ‘education and training’ is seen as a commercial transaction rather than a
process of social and cultural formation and there is a belief that the market is a more
efficient and equitable allocator of scarce resources than service arms of
governments (Powles & Anderson, 1996). Beyond these conjectural views, Powles
and Anderson (1996) provide a useful basis for the development of a range of social
service and economic utility indicators. While subject to a range of differences of
emphasis and interpretation, policy prescriptions impacting on TAFE are likely to
contain indicators that represent both social and economic views. In the view of
Powles and Anderson (1996): “it is the balance [between them] that is of interest”
(p.101).
Research undertaken by Ryan (2002) on the Australian vocational education and
training sector has shown that, historically, there have been bi-polar functions of
vocational education with a focus on economic development at one pole and a
62
student centred general education philosophy at the other. Ryan’s research supports
the position that, depending upon the economic and political climate of the time, the
values that underpin policy shift between these two poles. Ryan’s (2002) findings
support an argument that at one time or another either one of these views on the role
of vocational education will tend to dominate; however the tendency to dominate
will be cyclical in nature.
A series of models of TAFE in Australia, developed by Ryan and Schofield (1990)
and discussed in Section 2.5.4 provide further justification for the need to develop a
conceptual framework to analyse a policy position of TAFE. These models fit under
a social service and economic paradigm. The development of such a conceptual
framework has been further aided by Schofield’s (1994) conclusion that there is a
“sharp dichotomy between educational and social purposes on one hand and the
labour market on the other…… and an adequate analysis of the impact of this split is
fundamental to an understanding of TAFE within today’s debate around the national
training reform agenda” (p.60). However, Schofield (1996, cited in Anderson, 1998)
also contends that “it is possible to forge a consensus between social justice and an
efficient market by: defining clear policy objectives; developing principles to guide
that application of competition policy on VET; and undertaking public benefit tests”
(p.49). Following Schofield’s logic, the broad role of social service and economic
utility are not mutually exclusive and, implicit in Schofield’s (1996) argument, is the
conclusion that a consensus between the two roles can be reflected in policy.
This view of the need to manage both roles is supported by Deveson (1990, cited in
Anderson, 1997) who argues that the pursuit of “efficiency and equity are not
mutually exclusive” (p.50). The issue of efficiency and equity is significant since the
Deveson Report was a key document promoting the need for an open, competitive
VET market. Finally, there is the observation by Kilpatrick and Allen (2001) that the
VET system and TAFE need to focus on broader education outcomes and not be
narrowly focussed on supporting a world of work concept. Arguing that TAFE
already has the capacity to provide both long-term social and long-term economic
benefits, Anderson (1994) recommends government intervention to maintain an
access and equity focus.
63
The discussion thus far indicates that, at minimum, a social service and economic
utility role for TAFE can be diagrammatically presented in a continuum. The
following sections provide a more detailed justification of the conceptual framework
used for this thesis and the development of a model that goes beyond a continuum
view of TAFE’s social service and economic roles.
3.2 THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework for this thesis is based on the concepts and ideas drawn
from a range of literature discussed in Chapters One and Two and its evolution is
presented in three stages. These are, a representation of some of the key influences
impacting upon the social service and economic utility roles; secondly; a continuum
view of these roles; and thirdly, a social service and economic utility framework that
is used to guide the research to a point at which a policy position of TAFE
Queensland can be discussed. A model used to visually represent the current policy
position of TAFE Queensland is discussed in Section 3.3 of this chapter.
3.2.1 Key Influences that Impact on the Conceptual Framework
The argument presented through much of the literature in Chapters One and Two is
that key influences such as vocationalism, a neo-classical approach to economic
rationalism and human capital theory, and industry driven influences have had a
significant impact on Australia’s vocational education and training system.
Consequently, with TAFE being the key public provider of VET, they have also had
an impact on the TAFE sector. These influences are represented in Figure 1.
64
Figure 1: Key Influences on a Social Service and Economic Utility Role
The tensions that have arisen from differing perspectives on the economic and social
goals of education reflect changing demands and differing views on the role and
function of education and education institutes. The recent shift towards an industry
influenced VET system has led Harris (2002) to argue that:
The shift has also implied that the needs of the individual are subservient to
the needs of the economy. This shift in emphasis represents a dramatic
swing away from the spirit of Kangan (1974), which emphasised the
philosophy of lifelong education and priority of the needs of the individual.
(Harris, 2002, p.32)
These perspectives are part of a wider ‘debate’ on education regarding the relative
value of lifelong learning versus recurrent training and general versus vocational
education. TAFE Directors have argued in a position statement that, given that
TAFE is the current centrepiece for the delivery of vocational education and training
in Australia, it has a critical educational capacity and social responsibility to meet
Economic Utility Role
Social-Service Role
Neo
-Lib
era
l
ap
pro
ach
to t
he
Ma
rket
Vo
cati
on
al
Ed
uca
tion
Neo
-Lib
era
l
ap
pro
ach
to
Hu
ma
n C
ap
ital
Ind
ust
ry
Dri
ven
↑ ↑ ↑ Influences ↑ ↑ ↑ Influences ↑ ↑ ↑ Influences ↑ ↑ ↑
↓ ↓ ↓ Influences ↓ ↓ ↓ Influences ↓ ↓ ↓ Influences ↓ ↓ ↓
Gen
eral
Ed
uca
tio
n
Lib
era
l P
rog
ress
ive
ap
pro
ach
to
Hu
ma
n C
ap
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Lib
era
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ress
ive
ap
pro
ach
to t
he
Ma
rket
Stu
den
t
Cen
tred
65
diverse educational needs and aspirations of people of all ages (TAFE Directors
Australia, 2001). The TAFE Directors position statement emphasises the need for a
balanced approach to be maintained (or re-implemented) between the needs of
industry demands for training and the broader educational rights and needs of
students. This balanced role is perhaps even more significant in rural communities
where individual TAFE Institutes are an integral part of their economic and social
well being.
The key influences presented in Figure 1 do not represent all the influences that are
impacting on a social service and economic role for TAFE. Rather, its purpose is to
visually present the key influences in play so as to assist in the analysis of the policy
documents and interviews which are the focus of this examination. These key
influences in determining a current policy position for TAFE Queensland are also
useful in understanding what policy shifts, if any, have occurred since 1974.
3.2.2 A Continuum View of a Social Service and Economic Utility Role
A continuum view of social service and economic utility roles for TAFE suggests
that while one or the other will dominate, the balance between them will change with
time. If a continuum model were to be superimposed on Powles and Anderson’s
framework (refer: Table 1), it would suggest that a social position could only
improve if an economic position was diminished, and vice versa. For example, it
would imply that a focus on individual needs was at the expense of a focus on
meeting industry needs. This view is consistent with Ryan’s (1999) research on
Australia’s VET system discussed in Chapter One. It is also consistent with the
discussions in the previous section on the tensions and influences on social service
and economic utility roles for TAFE. Each of these influences reflects an underlying
ideology implying that one role is more appropriate for TAFE than the other. In this
context, a continuum view can be visually presented by Figure 2.
Figure 2: Continuum View of Social Service and Economic Utility
Social Service view of TAFE
(focus on individual needs such as education and access)
Economic Utility view of TAFE
(focus on industry needs, employment outcomes and economic benefit)
66
The concepts of social service and economic utility represented as a continuum
(refer: Figure 2), reflect the influences that tension the view of social service and
economic roles (refer: Figure 1). In a continuum view, both social service and
economic utility roles can be seen as competing in an environment that vies for finite
resources. However, while these roles may in fact represent different perspectives,
they are not mutually exclusive. The argument for ‘balance’ presented in this thesis
is that it is not appropriate that the vocational education and training delivered by
TAFE, as the public provider, should be limited to a focus on training, regulatory
compliance and economic outcomes at the expense of any social service obligations.
Conversely it is inappropriate for TAFE not to fulfil its obligations to government as
the public provider arm of government economic policy. Therefore, within the
framework of national VET policy, funding limitations and the corporatisation and
economic rationalism of vocational education, it is argued that there should also be a
focus on the broader needs of society. In other words, that focus would include
education as well as training; education that encapsulates knowledge as well as skill;
education that is broader than the achievement of ‘work competence’; education that
covers being a ‘good citizen’, a good ‘adult’ and an effective member of the
community.
A key element of this thesis is to consider these views and build upon this simplistic
continuum that suggests an emphasis on one paradigm at the expense of the other as
shown. The following section presents the discussions around the development of a
conceptual framework and a model that reflects this capacity to see a balanced
position.
3.2.3 The Conceptual Framework
To determine a current policy position of TAFE Queensland, a Social Service and
Economic Utility conceptual framework has been developed (refer: Table 2). This
conceptual framework has been adapted from the Features and Access implications
of two conjectural views of TAFE (refer: Table 1) presented by Anderson and
Powles (1996, p.102). Within this conceptual framework, social service and
economic utility characteristics are identified for five Key Features of the TAFE
system. As can be seen from Table 2, these Key Features are:
67
� [A] System Emphasis: This feature is an overarching view of TAFE activity.
From a social service view, this feature is represented by a focus on individual
needs, life long learning and an integration of social, education and vocational
learning. From an economic utility view, this feature is represented by a focus on
meeting industry and economic needs and a focus on short term recurrent
vocational training. A balanced view would recognise that many individuals
cannot become contributors to industry and the economy without first having
their individual needs addressed. Industry requires individuals who possess social
and interpersonal skills as well as technical skills.
� [B] Student Access: From a social service view this feature focuses on a student
driven, open access system. In effect, this is a supply driven system. From an
economic utility view, this feature is represented by a focus on access being
restricted or influenced, by the skill and qualification needs of industry and the
economy. In effect, this is a demand driven system. A balanced view would
acknowledge the complexity of a supply-demand model recognising that many
skills developed in industry specific areas are in fact quite portable. Further it
would not assume that by simply training people within specific qualifications
streams that the specific needs of industry would be automatically addressed;
� [C] Equity Goals: A social service view of equity is based on a strategy that all
student needs are to be met, and it is underpinned by a welfare state approach.
From an economic utility view, equity goals are achieved by targeting identified
groups ‘in need’, so that they can move on to a successful economic outcome
(e.g., further training or employment). A balanced view would recognise
individual rights to accessing education and training while providing a
framework for government to influence training activity to meet specific policy
agendas;
� [D] Award Credentials: A social service view of this feature focuses on an
emphasis of achievement and multiple outcomes, while an economic utility view
focuses on pre-determined outcomes and the market value of any credential
attained. For example, a social service view would support general education
activity regardless of any employment outcome, while an economic utility focus
would see value in how the specific outcome leads to a job, career or how it
meets the skills needs of industry. A balanced view would recognise the implicit
value of all education and training and
68
� [E] Finance: From a social service view, while individuals may make a
contribution to the ‘cost’ of their education and training activities, fees would be
minimal. From an economic utility view, both individuals and industry are
expected to make an increased contribution to the overall cost of education and
training traditionally funded by government. A balanced view would provide a
framework to ensure that finance, in itself, is not a barrier to individuals who
wish to access education and training,
Additionally, key theoretical perspectives that influence either a social service or
economic utility emphasis are identified in the conceptual framework. These
perspectives, discussed in Chapter Two, provide a theoretical context for each of the
Key Features addressed, and for the characteristics that define them.
Table 2: Social Service and Economic Utility Conceptual Framework
(Table adapted from Powles & Anderson, 1996, p.102)
Theoretical
Framework or
Influence
Social Service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic utility
Characteristics
Theoretical
Context or
Influence
1. Focus on individual need
2. Integrates social,
education & vocational learning
3. Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
1. Focus on industry and economic needs
2. Focus on vocational training
3. Focus on short term recurrent training
4. Student driven 5. Open access
[B]
Student
Access
4. Market driven 5. Restricted access
6. Welfare focussed 7. Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity
Goals
6. Economically focussed
7. Responds to needs of identified target groups
8. Open/multiple outcomes
9. Emphasis on achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials
8. Pre-determined outcomes
9. Emphasis on market value of credential
• Student Centred
• General Education approach that focuses on meeting the needs of people as individuals through curriculum based learning
• Social liberalism approach that tempers the market to pursue common social goals
• Liberal Progressive approach suggests government should intervene to protect individuals from the market
• Liberal Progressive influence on Human Capital theory recognises the value of human capital developed through government intervention
10. Minimal fees paid
[E]
Finance
10. Increased individual contribution
11. Industry Contribution
• Industry Driven
• Education linked to economic success through Vocational
Education to Meet the human power needs of industry through a competency-based system
• Neo-liberal approach to economic rationalism focuses on an unregulated, open market providing individual choice suggests that the market is the most efficient way to manage equity issues
• Neo-liberal influence on Human Capital theory emphasising a user pays system
69
Powles and Anderson (1996) developed their table as a way of summarising some of
the features and access implications of the bipolar social service and economic utility
views of TAFE. While they have represented these views as opposites, Powles and
Anderson (1996) have argued that the features and characteristics presented for each
bipolar view “bear close resemblance to actual policy configurations and discursive
positions adopted in the debate about vocational education and training over the past
few decades” (p.101). Further, the authors (1996) acknowledge that a social service
and economic utility view of TAFE’s role is subject to differences in interpretation
and emphasis and, at any given point in time, various policy prescriptions contain
elements of both views. For the purpose of this thesis, the table has been adapted so
that five broad Key Features of the TAFE sector (i.e., system emphasis, student
access, equity goals, award credentials and finance) have been identified from the
original nine presented by Powles and Anderson (1996).
This social service and economic utility conceptual framework is the basis for the
development of a Data Collection Table that is used to capture the initial data from
the policy documents and interview sources for this study. The Data Collection
Table is discussed further in Chapter Four: Methodology. A model has been
designed to visually represent each of the policy positions identified in the data
collection tables. While this model is also discussed in the next chapter, the
following presentation affords some discussion relating to its development and
relevance to the conceptual framework.
3.3 PRESENTING A POLICY POSITION: A MODEL
The argument presented thus far is that social service and economic utility roles for
TAFE are not mutually exclusive; rather they can be represented in various
configurations along a continuum view of a social service and economic utility
emphasis (refer: Figure 2). However, the complexity of the influences on these roles
supports an argument that a continuum approach to a model is inadequate for the
needs of this thesis. Thus the social service and economic utility characteristics
presented in Table 2 provide the framework for investigating the first research
question posed in this thesis. The significant work undertaken by Anderson (1994),
Kilpatrick and Allen (2001), Powles and Anderson (1996), Ryan (2002), Ryan and
Schofield (1990) and Schofield (1994), justifies illustrating the relationship between
70
a social service and economic utility role in a format that depicts the relationship
between a social service and economic utility emphasis.
Hereafter referred to as the ‘Model’, the Model (refer: Figure 3), allows a visual
depiction in four possible policy positions, of the current policy position of TAFE
Queensland as evidenced from an analysis of seminal policy documents and
interviews with senior executives of Queensland DET and TAFE.
• [Quadrant One] reflects a social service emphasis
• [Quadrant Two] reflects a balanced emphasis
• [Quadrant Three] reflects an economic utility emphasis
• [Quadrant Four] reflects a low emphasis or no representation
Certain caveats are necessary. The model does not provide a formal graphical or
algebraic representation of the relationship between the four positions it represents.
Nor should the vertical and horizontal lines separating them be construed as ‘axes’ in
a graph. Rather, the model should be seen as a heuristic tool or device
complementary to the analysis of Table 2 which is appropriate to a qualitative study
such as this, and by which the varying emphases of documents and subjects can be
represented and contrasted.
71
Figure 3: A Model for Visually Presenting a Policy Position
As seen in Figure 3, a higher social service emphasis than economic utility position
reflects an emphasis towards a social service role [Quadrant One]. A higher
economic utility emphasis than a social service position reflects an emphasis towards
an economic utility role [Quadrant Three] and so on. After an analysis of policy
documents and interviews are completed, an overall or holistic position can be
determined with respect to the policy emphasis of TAFE Queensland at the time this
study was undertaken.
If there is a balanced emphasis, then it may be possible to determine that the current
TAFE Queensland policy provides a balanced approach between an emphasis on
social and economic roles [Quadrant Two]. If the analysis cannot identify with
either a higher social service or a higher economic utility feature, then it would be
placed within the no representation quadrant [Quadrant Four]. This position could
reflect either a lack of policy in relation to the relevant key indicator or a lack of
representation within the policy documents and discourses analysed.
[1]
Social Service
Emphasis
[4] No
Representation
[3] Economic Utility
Emphasis
[2] Balanced
Emphasis
72
It is proposed that the Model assists in identifying:
• The current policy positioning of TAFE Queensland;
• How the current policy compares with that envisaged in the Kangan (1974)
agenda in a social service and economic paradigm; and
• Whether there is consistency between the policy document and interviews
undertaken for this research. Policy documents and interviews, as a source of
data, are discussed further in Chapter Four: Methodology.
Chapter Four: Methodology discusses the appropriateness, trustworthiness and
credibility of the Model as a tool for visually representing a policy position.
3.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Historically, TAFE has had a broad charter to improve both the social and economic
welfare of its clients by providing access to and equitable provision of educational
opportunities for those in the wider community. To achieve this, TAFE has a strong
infrastructure and established social justice and equity policies (Anderson 1994). It
would appear that this charter, established by Kangan (1974), still has utility among a
range of relevant stakeholders. Yet, in recent years, there has been a range of
economic and political agendas that have influenced the role, expectations and
performance of TAFE Institutes. These agendas have challenged the traditional role
of TAFE and have provided the interest for the development of the model presented
in this chapter. However, this researcher acknowledges that while the use of a
model, such as the social versus economic model presented in this chapter, is one
way to leverage debate and discussion about where the current policy position of
TAFE Queensland now ‘fits’ in a policy sense, other approaches are also possible.
This chapter has presented a conceptual framework that provides the basis for the
development of a Data Collection Table to record and analyse data gathered in this
study. Further, this chapter has presented a Model designed to visually present the
overall policy determinations of the selected policies and interviews. In Chapter
Four, a more detailed discussion of how the conceptual framework and Model are to
be used to collect and analyse data is provided.
73
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN
The previous chapters have identified a number of theoretical perspectives that have
impacted on Australian education policy in the 1980’s and 1990’s. Specifically, the
critical review of literature examined the complexities behind the social service and
economic utility roles of TAFE and provided an overview of the influences that
impact on the current policy position of TAFE Queensland.
The purpose of this chapter is to identify the research strategies for this study to
ensure that the data collection and analysis address the key questions. A case study
approach has been determined as the appropriate methodology and a justification is
presented in this chapter. Additionally, a description of, and justification for, the
data collection and data analysis methods used are provided in support of the
conceptual framework and Model presented in Chapter Three.
4.1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR THE STUDY
Within social science research there are two broad paradigms. Firstly, there is
quantitative research that typically supports a positivist paradigm. This paradigm
characterises the world as observable and measurable and assumes there is a fixed,
measurable reality external to people. Secondly, there is a qualitative method of
research that is typically supported by an interpretivist paradigm that views a world
in which reality is socially constructed complex and ever changing (Glesne 1999).
This research is of the second paradigm and uses qualitative methods and strategies.
Qualitative research provides opportunities for the researcher to see that things could
be other than they are (Burns, 2000). Qualitative research is research frequently
undertaken by practitioners within their field of work, and for this reason, a closer
relationship with the participants and activities increases the capacity for the
researcher to gain a greater insight into the insider’s view of the field (Brennan,
1998; Burns, 2000). Qualitative research can also be of benefit to existing
practitioners given that it is presented in a descriptive, narrative style. This
methodology, therefore, can be a practical reference for existing practitioners while
the knowledge required to understand the sophisticated measurement techniques used
in quantitative research is perhaps limited (Burns, 2000). This is not to suggest that
74
qualitative research is less rigorous than quantitative research, or is able to be
undertaken easily. To further suggest that only serious and rigorous researchers
would undertake quantitative research and that only such designs are capable of
producing legitimate research would also be misleading (Glesne, 1999). Threats to
the credibility of qualitative research are addressed through the investigative process
of study design, data collection, data analysis and presentations of findings. These
strategies provide the basis for ensuring that the trustworthiness of the data of
qualitative research is as justified as data validity and reliability are in quantitative
research (Burns, 2000; Glesne, 1999; Le Compte & Goetz, 1982).
In undertaking qualitative research, the main instrument for research is the researcher
as he or she observes, asks questions and interacts with research participants (Glesne,
1999). However, within qualitative research, there can be a perceived lack of
standardisation, with some authors arguing that a risk for such research is a lack of
clear criteria for establishing research steps and the potential for ambiguity in
research analysis (Burns, 2000; Glesne, 1999). Furthermore, qualitative researchers
need to be aware that this intimacy of participant-observer relationships can impact
both on the research participants and the researcher, potentially creating a difficulty
in replicating qualitative studies from one social context to another (Parlett, 1975;
Rist, 1975). However, proponents of qualitative research claim that “the genuinely
and distinctively human dimension of education cannot be captured by statistical
generalisations and causal laws” (Walker & Evers, 1988, p.30). For this thesis, the
need to engage with research participants to analyse their views on the role of TAFE
Queensland encourages, if not mandates, a qualitative research approach.
Case study research can be based on any mixture of qualitative and quantitative
evidence (Burns, 2000; Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). Furthermore, the case study
comprises an all-encompassing method, covering logic of design, data collection
techniques and approaches to data analysis and is therefore a comprehensive research
strategy (Stoecker, 1991; Yin, 2003). A case study method, using a qualitative
approach for data collection, has been selected as an appropriate approach to address
the research questions for this thesis.
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4.2 THE RESEARCH STRATEGY – A CASE STUDY
There are several ways to undertake social science research, including experiments,
surveys, histories and the analysis of archival information. Case studies are used
across a number of fields, such as psychology, sociology, political science, social
work, business and community planning and economics (Ghauri & Grenhaug, 2002;
Gilgun, 1994; Yin, 2003). The case study approach provides an opportunity for the
investigator to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real life events
(Yin, 2003). Notwithstanding this holistic intent, a case study approach is suited to
focus on an individual case (Merriam, 1988). For this research, TAFE Queensland is
the case.
A case study approach is also particularly useful when an understanding is required
of a specific problem or unique situation, particularly where a great deal can be
learned from a few exemplars of the phenomenon under discussion. Cases can be
individuals, programs, institutions or groups (Patton, 1980). To be considered a case
study, the study must be a bonded system – an entity in itself. The case study should
focus on a bounded subject that is either very representative or extremely atypical
(Burns, 2000). The case study stands alone as a unique, holistic entity; however,
there is a premise that an individual case study can be used as a comparison with
other similar case studies (Burns, 2000). Relevant to this thesis is that the issue of
policy in relation to a social service and economic utility role for TAFE is a national
issue and, therefore, a case study focussed on one State, TAFE Queensland, may
have relevance for another. Further justification for using a case study approach
stems from two key points. Firstly, there is no control required over behavioural
events and, secondly, the focus is on a contemporary situation (Yin, 2003).
Case study questions can cover who, what, where, when or how scenarios. In effect,
they form the basis of the questions that a case study is seeking to answer, while the
questions provide the focus for the study (Burns, 2000). For this case study, the
research questions focus on a ‘what’ scenario. That is, what is the current policy
position of TAFE Queensland and what influences shape a TAFE Queensland policy
emphasis towards either a social service or economic utility position? Further, as a
research strategy, a case study is an all encompassing method. It covers the logic of
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design, data collection techniques and specific approaches to data analysis (Yin,
2003). The following sections provide details of the data collection and analysis
design features of the study.
4.3 DATA COLLECTION
To ensure a contribution to educational knowledge, it is important that a case study
involves sufficient collection of data to produce an in-depth understanding of the
entity being studied. Techniques used in case studies include observation,
interviewing, archival records and document analysis (Burns, 2000; Patton, 1980;
Yin, 2003). As noted previously, this thesis uses two main sources of evidence.
These are, firstly, seven seminal National and Queensland Government policy
documents that have influenced the strategic policy development and direction of
TAFE Queensland and, secondly, interviews with six senior executives who, due to
their formal position, influenced the strategic policy development and direction of
TAFE Queensland. These stakeholders have been drawn from the ranks of senior
executives within the Queensland Department of Employment and Training and
within the TAFE Queensland sector.
4.3.1 Policy Documents
In this section the key issues of why policy documents have been selected as a data
source and which policy documents have been selected for this thesis are addressed.
Documents in Social Research
Documents have a place in social science research (May, 1997) and can be broadly
defined as the “physical embodied texts where the containment of the text is the
primary purpose of the physical medium” (Scott, 1990, p.12). Documents, for
example, allow for comparisons to be made between an observer’s interpretation of
events and those recorded in documents relating to those events (May, 1997). Policy
documents can be regarded as a statement of the courses of action that policy-makers
and administrators intend to follow. Therefore, Governments can promote public
discussion of, for example, educational policy using policy documents produced as
one means of constituting official government discourse (Codd, 1985, 1988;
Marshall & Peters, 1999).
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Scott (1990) proposes four criteria for assessing policy documents: firstly, the
authenticity of the document; secondly, the credibility of the document; thirdly, is the
document representative; and, fourthly, the meaning of the document, that is, what is
it and what does it tell us? For the policy documents selected for this research, the
first three criteria are validated in the following discussions on what, and why, these
documents were selected for this research. To address the fourth criterion, this thesis
used content analysis as a strategy to analyse data from documents. The fourth
criterion is addressed in the Section 4.4: Data Analysis.
Document Selection
The TAFE in Australia: Report on the needs of technical and further education
(Australian Committee on Technical and Further Education, 1974), commonly
referred to as the Kangan Report (1974), was selected as the cornerstone policy
document for this research. The selection was based upon the significance of the
Kangan Report (1974) in that it provided the formation of a national TAFE agenda
that provided the watershed for reform of technical and further education in
Australia; provided the impetus for sustained growth; and gave TAFE an ideology
(Fooks et al., 1997; Goozee, 2001; Ryan, 1982). The following is a brief outline of
the Kangan Report (1974) and the six key policy documents selected for this
research.
1. Kangan Report (1974) was produced after a national review on the needs of
technical and further education in Australia. The Kangan Report (1974) provides
the policy framework for the development of a national TAFE sector and
provides the comparative reference against which the following six policies can
be determined.
2. A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) was the second major national policy
document developed by ANTA after its inception in 1994. This document
provided the policy framework for a national VET system from 1998 to 2003.
3. Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) was the third major national policy document
developed by ANTA. This strategy was to apply from 2004 to 2010 and,
therefore, was the contemporary national policy document at the time that the
research for this thesis was undertaken.
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4. Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) was the Queensland
strategy for vocational education and training for the years 2001-2004. The
strategy is a shared commitment of the Queensland training system by
governments, industry and commerce, and training providers.
5. Education and Training Reforms for the Future (ETRF) (Queensland
Government, 2002) is a Queensland policy identifying significant reforms to
Queensland’s approach to engaging young people in learning. In this policy,
young people are considered to be 15-17 years of age.
6. The Department of Employment and Training 2003-2007 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003a) is a strategic plan that takes account of key
social, economic, employment, technology and demographics trends impacting
on individuals, families and communities across Queensland.
7. The TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government,
2003b) was the overall strategic plan for the 15 individual TAFE institutes that
constitute the TAFE Queensland sector. This strategic plan provides direction
and a shared outcome to be achieved by the TAFE Institutes over the life of the
plan.
As the focus for this study is concerned with a current policy position of TAFE
Queensland, the documents selected and identified above were deemed most relevant
to help illuminate this positioning. The national document, Shaping our Future
(2004), and each of the state policy documents were in effect at the time the research
was undertaken. The immediate predecessor to Shaping our Future - A Bridge to
the Future (1998) - was included because it was in place from 1998 till 2003 and
said to be significant. In summary, then, each of these policy documents had been
implemented at a national or state level and, during the ‘life’ of each document,
provided a framework for vocational education and training practice within TAFE. .
4.3.2 Interview Participants
This section addresses the key issues of why interviews with senior executives of
Queensland’s Department of Employment and Training and TAFE Queensland have
been selected as a key data source, which senior executives have been selected and
the interview procedure and protocols.
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Interviews in Social Research
Earlier in this chapter case studies have been shown to be an appropriate
methodology for use in social science research. Interviews are one important source
of study material for case studies (May, 1997; Yin, 2003). In undertaking an
interview strategy, researchers need to address key issues of construction of
interview questions, response bias, inaccuracies due to poor recall and reflexivity
where the interviewee simply provides what the interviewer requires. Interviews
need also to concentrate questions directly on the case study topic (May, 1997; Yin,
2003).
During any interview process there are two main focuses. The first focus is to follow
the established line of inquiry as reflected in the protocols established for the data
collection. The second focus is to ask “conversational questions in an unbiased
manner that also serves the needs of your inquiry” (Yin, 2003, p.90). For such
purposes, an interview guide, or schedule, provides a framework for discussion
without fixing the order or wording of questions, and thus assists the interview
process to focus on the issues that are central to the research questions (Minichiello,
Aroni, Timewall, & Alexander, 1995).
Rubin and Rubin (1995) describe the process of interviewing as guided conversations
rather than structured questions in order to pursue a consistent line of inquiry in a
fluid, rather than rigid manner. Similarly Yin (2003) describes a commonly used
format for case study questions as “open-ended in nature in which respondents are
asked about the facts of a matter as well as their opinions about events” (p.90). To
find out about beliefs, feelings or perceptions, open-ended questions elicit how
individuals feel about a range of issues (Burns, 2000; Minichiello et al., 1995). For
this study, interviewees’ views were sought regarding the social service and
economic utility role of TAFE and the influences that impact on either of these roles
being fulfilled.
Given that this case study is limited to TAFE Queensland, there was a need to access
a number of key stakeholders who have significant influence on the policy direction
of TAFE Queensland. Therefore, the interviews undertaken for this thesis were
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considered as elite interviews. This definition is apt, given the uniqueness of the
data that the participants provide, with personal interviewing essential for providing
data that is unavailable in documentary evidence, and hence, not in the public
domain (Ball, 1994; Fitz & Halpin; 1994, Seldon, 1988; Seldon & Pappworth, 1983).
Using open-ended questions allowed the interviewees to propose their own insights
into the issues of a social service and economic utility role for TAFE (Burns, 2000;
Flick, 1998; Yin, 2003). Similarly, given that the second question for this thesis
asked interviewees’ their thoughts or an opinion, a semi-structured approach to
interviews was deemed appropriate (Flick, 1998).
Interviewee Selection
An assumption for this study was that senior public servants within the Department
of Employment and Training have a direct influence on either policy or policy
direction. Therefore, these senior public servants can be considered as important
data sources of education policy insofar as they were representative of the most
influential and senior departmental managers who impact on TAFE Queensland
policy development and implementation. Thus, the selection of research subjects to
be interviewed was relatively straightforward as there were a limited number of
qualified case study candidates (Yin, 2003), while the limited number of potential
candidates for these interviews confirmed their status as elite participants. A
decision was made to include only the perspectives of senior public servants even
though interviews with students, employers, industry personnel and teachers may
have also provided rich insights into TAFE’s current policy positioning. The decision
to limit the study to the perceptions of senior public servants is justified in that these
players were deemed to be in a position to be more familiar with national and state
policies as well as being those players who are able to directly influence policy
within TAFE. .
The capacity of each of the six informants to influence TAFE Queensland policy was
based upon their formal position within the structure of DET and TAFE Queensland
as represented by the organisational chart that shows the relative organisational
position of each candidate (refer: Appendix 1). These positions represent some of
the most senior positions within Queensland DET and TAFE.
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• Department Employment and Training
o Deputy Director General
o General Manager – Planning & Purchasing
o General Manager – Strategic Directions
• TAFE Queensland
o Chair – TAFE Queensland Executive who also filled the role of an
Institute Director – Metropolitan Institute
o Institute Director – Metropolitan Institute
o Institute Director – Regional Institute
As previously mentioned, there have been structural changes to DET since these
interviews were completed and TAFE is now part of the Training Division of the
Department of Education, Training and the Arts (DETA).
Interview Procedure and Protocols
The interview procedure and protocols for this research followed the general
guidelines adapted from Bibby (1997, pp.115-28) and Burns (2000, pp.18-22).
These guidelines are reflected within the Research Information Pack that was
provided to interview participants as part of the consent process (refer: Appendix 2).
The guidelines encompass:
• Participants were provided with the research purpose and a set of interview
protocols that provided the participant with the capacity to make an informed
decision before consenting to participate;
• Participants had the right to discontinue with either individual questions or the
interview and being able withdraw at any time;
• Interview times, locations and procedures were adhered to and documented
within an interview letter and interview protocols;
• All data collected, including interview tapes and transcripts were securely stored
at all times; and
• Anonymity and confidentiality were assured.
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To ensure anonymity a simple process of coding interview data and data analysis
following Yin (2003) was used. While complete anonymity cannot be totally
assured, given the elite nature of the interviews, specific references by individuals
can not be determined by third parties. For example, the transcript for the first
interview is coded as Participant [1], the second Participant [2] and so forth. While
there was some opportunity for individual participants to be identified by their
position, other than the researcher, no-one knows the sequence of interviews or each
interviewee’s code.
With participant approval, interviews were undertaken using audiotapes. The
advantage of audiotapes is that they provide an accurate, complete record of the
interview and provide scope for the researcher to be in control of the interview (Yin,
2003). The Research Information Pack for interview participants provided for
approval to use a recording device for the interview. Supportive strategies for using
the audio recording device for interviews included ensuring appropriate knowledge
of the recording system used, ensuring that good listening was not diminished by the
use of the audiotapes and implementing a process to have all audio taped interviews
transcribed (Glesne, 1999; Yin, 2003). Interview transcripts were provided to
participants for review and amendment before any analysis was undertaken.
After consent for an interview was provided by a participant selected as an elite
interviewee, and specific interview times arranged, interviewees were provided with
a set of pre-reading notes (refer: Appendix 3). These notes provided an introduction
to the research problem and questions, an overview on the social service and
economic utility paradigm, an overview of the key features and characteristics
framework used to determine a policy emphasis, and an initial, or tentative, view of
the policy position of each of the seven policy document being analysed for this
research.
While interviewees were given an opportunity to express a view on these tentative
positions, their responses to these positions were not necessary to answer the
research questions for this study. What is most relevant was for interviewees to
provide insight into what they saw as the emphasis of TAFE Queensland in a social
service and economic utility context. Further, the interviews provided opportunity to
83
determine what these senior executives perceived as being the key influences on
TAFE Queensland, with particular attention to either function; the interview also
provided an opportunity for other relevant issues to arise. As alluded to in the
previous section, the process of engaging with interviewees was not to specifically
ask the question and seek a response; rather to guide the conversation so that the
responses provided produce sufficient data to enable the research questions to be
addressed.
4.4 DATA ANALYSIS
Strauss and Corbin (1990) describe three broad approaches to analysing qualitative
data. These three approaches can be aligned on a continuum from a low level of
interpretation and abstraction to a high level of interpretation and abstraction. The
first approach is where the researcher presents data without analysis. The second is
where the researcher is “primarily concerned with accurately describing what she or
he understood, reconstructing the data into ‘recognisable reality’ for people who
have participated in the study” (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994, p.122). The third
approach requires the development of theory and requires the highest level of
interpretation and abstraction. In the current research, the analysis of data from the
policy documents and interviewees was attuned to Strauss and Corbin’s (1990)
second approach that provides for a describing of the ‘recognisable reality’, although
with some interpretation in the data analysis process and in the outcomes, or finding,
reported (Maykut and Morehouse, 1994).
4.4.1 Policy Documents
Introduction
As with any document, policy documents may not have a single authoritative
meaning and they are, therefore, not necessarily blueprints for political action (Codd,
1988). However, it is acknowledged that policy ‘statements’ can be more than an
intended course of action and, thus they may also be something not intended, but
nonetheless, carried out in the practice of implementation or administration of policy
(Parsons, 1995). Further, the values and ideologies that underpin policy impact upon
policy focus or direction (Dunn, 1981). For example, in the literature review, there
was discussion on the impact of economic rationalism and managerialism on
84
education policy. In this context, Parsons (1995) argues that public policy should,
above all, be concerned with values other than those promoted by managerialism.
However, this contrasts with the view of Osborne and Gaebler (1992) that looks at
efficiency and “seeks to balance these values against demands for equity and
equality” (p.348).
The strategy employed for the analysis of policy documents used within this research
is content analysis. Content analysis is the process of identifying, coding and
categorising the primary patterns of data collected for research. In the context of this
research, the approach used in this study used falls within Patton’s (1980) more
general definition of content analysis, rather than its statistical form (Cavana,
Delahaye & Sekaran, 2000). To conduct content analysis, a body of material is
identified and the researcher “creates a system for recording specific aspects of its
contents” (Neuman, 2003, p.44). In content analysis there are four characteristics of
text that can be analysed. They are: frequency of text, text direction, intensity of
messages or space, or size of text (Neuman, 2003). For this research, the
characteristic of text chosen and analysed was text ‘direction’: that is, “the direction
of text along some continuum” (Neuman, 2003, p.325). Consistent with qualitative
research strategies, the data collection strategy of using a Data Collection Table
(refer: Appendix 4) has been completed by assigning ‘text’ within the identified
policy documents to either social service or economic utility characteristic of the
TAFE system.
Data Analysis Process for Policy Documents
A three step process for analysing and recording data from the seven seminal policy
documents selected for this research was followed. These steps elaborate the
discussions in Chapter Three on the development of a conceptual framework and a
Model to visually present a policy position.
The first step in the data analysis process was to complete a Data Collection Table
for each policy document (refer: Appendix 4). This table was developed from the
Social Service and Economic Utility Conceptual Framework discussed in Chapter
Three (refer: Table 2). The Key Features in the Data collection Table have been
designated an alpha code as follows: [A] System Emphasis; [B] Student Access; [C]
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Equity Goals; [D] Award Credentials and [E] Finance. The social service or
economic utility characteristics that define each Key Feature have been drawn from
the Service and Economic Utility Conceptual Framework (refer: Table 2). Columns
have been added to the Data Collection Table so that data from the policy documents
can be systematically recorded and analysed.
Within each policy document there is a range of recommendations, strategies,
objectives and/or other such outcome focussed devices. They provide text that can
be aligned to the Key Features and characteristics in the Data Collection Table. For
example, if an objective referred to increasing the financial contribution of
individuals or industry to education and training outcomes, then this would be
aligned to the Key Feature, [E] Finance under the economic utility column (refer:
Table 3). (The appropriateness of content analysis and, specifically, the
characteristic of text ‘direction’, has already been discussed). Ultimately, the Data
Collection Table provided the framework for determining whether there was
evidence of social service or economic utility characteristics evident within each
policy document.
Table 3: Example of the alignment of ‘intent’ in the Data Collection Table
Social
Service
Emphasis
Social
Service
Characteristics
Key Features
Economic
Utility
Characteristics
Economic
Utility
Emphasis
Minimal
fees
paid
Increased
individual
contribution
Government
contribution
[Finance]
Industry
contribution
Objective 4: increasing
investment in training
by industry (see
source)
Source: A Bridge to the
Future (1998, p.19)
The second step in the data analysis process was to determine a policy emphasis for
each Key Feature (i.e. A, B, C, D and E). This ‘emphasis’ was determined by
reviewing the Data Collection Table for each policy document. A judgement was
86
then made on the ‘weight of’ evidence for each Key Feature (A, B, C, D and E) such
that if there were more strategies, objectives and so forth aligned to the social service
characteristics, then a social service emphasis was recorded (i.e., the relevant square
is shaded) in a Policy Emphasis Overview table (refer: Appendix 12). Likewise, if
the weight of evidence was aligned to the economic utility characteristics, then an
economic emphasis was recorded, and where there was a reasonable balance between
each characteristic, then a ‘balanced’ approach was recorded accordingly in the
Policy Emphasis Overview table (refer: Appendix 12). From the emphasis
determined for each Key Feature, a judgement has been made on the overall
emphasis for each policy document and recorded in the final ‘Overall’ column (refer:
Appendix 12). The justification of the emphasis for each Key Feature and on the
overall policy position of each policy document is presented in Chapter Five
Findings: A policy position.
The third step in the data analysis process was to visually present the overall
emphasis for each policy document in the Model developed for this thesis (refer:
Figure 3). This Model was discussed in Chapter Three. The findings generated from
the analysis of policy document data, as they relate to the first research question, are
presented in Chapter Five.
4.4.2 Interviews
The interviews provided a source of data for both of the research questions asked in
this thesis. The following sections show how the interview data were analysed with
respect to these two questions.
Interview Data Analysis and Research Question One
The strategy for analysing the interview data in relation to the first research question
on what is the emphasis placed on a social service and economic utility role, was
similar to that for the analysis of policy documents. The strategy used was content
analysis. Key statements from the interviews were identified and recorded in a Data
Collection Table (refer: Appendix 4). Once this table was completed, the emphasis
for each Key Feature was recorded in the Policy Emphasis Overview table (refer:
Appendix 12) and, as with the policy documents, an overall policy position was
recorded in the Model used for this research (refer: Figure 3). A key difference from
87
the way the policy documents were analysed is that there was only one Data
Collection Table completed for the interviews, rather than one for each interviewee.
Based on the combined placement of all policy documents, and interviews, an overall
pattern emerged that shows there has been a policy shift from that established within
the Kangan Report (1974). However, it is recognised that the Model was effectively
a preliminary data manipulation activity, with the ultimate objective being the
analysis of the evidence in relation to the original propositions and to any other
feasible alternative interpretations (Burns, 2000).
The findings generated from the analysis of interview data, as they relate to the first
research question, are presented in Chapter Five.
Interview Data Analysis and Research Question Two
The second question for this thesis relates only to data generated from the interviews.
It asked interviewees to discuss the key influences on TAFE Queensland fulfilling
either a social service or economic utility role. To analyse these interviews, and
consistent with a content analysis strategy, a constant comparative analysis method
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967) was followed. Using this method, the researcher reads the
raw data (e.g., interview transcripts) and identifies an important theme, or ‘meaning
units’ (Patton, 1980). Developing themes is a process of “culling for meaning from
the words and actions of participants in the study” (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994,
p.128) that identifies smaller ‘units of meaning’ that then serve as the basis for
defining larger categories of meanings, or themes. A theme may develop from a few
words, or from a full paragraph (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994). Similar themes are
grouped together while those that differ form new categories. A constant comparison
of each theme is undertaken to ensure that each adds more understanding to the
investigation (Cavana et al., 2000). Within the constant comparative method, the
frequency of words or phrases should not be assumed as directly impacting on their
significance within a document; it is the relevance of the words or phrases that is
significant to qualitative research (May, 1997; Scott, 1990). Furthermore, while a
‘process’ is important, the ultimate decision on themes is the researcher’s; the key is
to look for evidence that supports the choice of themes (Cavana et al., 2000).
88
The constant comparative method can be undertaken using manual processes or
using a computer program. For the volume of data to be collected and analysed for
this research, it was determined that a manual process would be adequate. The
constant comparative method steps used to analyse the interview data broadly
followed the steps identified by Cavana et al., (2000, pp.171-175) and the principles
outlined by Maykut and Morehouse (1994, pp.126-150). In addition to the
identification of key themes and the constant review and checking of the data and
themes to ensure each theme provides significant contribution, the other key steps
relate to the data collection process discussed in earlier sections. These steps
included such activities as transcribing audio taped interviews, providing interview
transcriptions to participant for their perusal, comment and change if required,
providing a unique code for each interviewee that provided confidentiality and ease
of future reference and the secure and safe storage of data.
The findings generated from the analysis of interview data, as they relate to the
second research question, are presented in Chapter Six.
4.4.3 Relationship of Data to the Research Questions
By implementing the data collection and analysis strategies outlined in this Chapter,
this study aimed to develop a coherent link between each key phase, from the initial
justification for the research question, to the development of a conceptual
framework, the findings discussions and the discussions on the conclusions and
implications of this research (refer: Figure 4).
89
Figure 4: Relationship between Research Questions, Data Collection and Analysis
Justification and Development of a
Conceptual Framework to Analyse a Policy Position
Justification of a Case Study Method and
Data Collection and Analysis Strategies
Analysis of Policy Documents Analysis of Interviews
Analysis of Data against the Social Service and Economic Utility Key Features (Data Collection Table 4)
Determination of Policy Emphasis
(Policy Emphasis Table: Appendix 5)
Overall Policy Position Visually Presented in a Model (Figure 5)
Synthesis of Key Issues Generated from the Research
(Chapters 5 & 6)
Implications, Conclusions and Further Research Issues for the role of TAFE Queensland (Chapters 7 & 8)
Co
nfirm
ation
of P
articipan
ts view
s
Lin
k t
o R
esea
rch Q
ues
tion
s
Justification for the
Research Questions
Literature and Key Theoretical Perspective
Impacting on Education Policy in Australia
90
4.5 TRUSTWORTHINESS AND CREDIBILITY
To have credibility in both the broader practitioner community and the academic
community, research needs to satisfy assessment and procedural criteria that ensure
the research, including data collection and analysis, is of sufficient standard to meet
the requirements of a professional doctorate. Reliability and validity are the
characteristics of a classical approach to assessing the procedure and results of
qualitative research (Flick, 1998; Kirk & Miller, 1986). Yin (2003) advocates using
a classical approach to case study methodology. However, to ensure the authenticity
of this research, the assessment and procedural criteria need to be in line with
method-appropriate criteria for qualitative research; that is trustworthiness,
credibility and dependability (Flick, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
The credibility of qualitative research findings and its interpretation is dependent on
the level of trustworthiness established. Trustworthiness for qualitative research can
be improved by spending time at the research and by developing relationships within
the research framework (Flick, 1998; Glesne, 1999; Huberman & Miles, 1994;
Lincoln & Guba, 1985). As this researcher is a practitioner within the environment
being investigated, with existing relationships in place with those involved in the
interview process, there was an assumed level of trustworthiness to this research.
However, the researcher addressed the issue of bias by allowing QUT supervisors
and critical friends, to provide an independent review of notes, analysis and
interpretation (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
As part of an ongoing commitment to regularly publish research and findings, and to
further enhance the trustworthiness of this thesis, particularly in the context of the
model developed, the researcher has co-written and presented at two conferences.
These were the 2003 and 2004 Post Compulsory Education and Training (PCET)
conferences. The paper “Pendulums, Policies and Kangan: a possible framework for
analysing TAFE policy in Queensland” (McMillan, Ehrich, & Cranston, 2003),
explored the development of a tentative model for understanding the role and
positioning of TAFE Queensland policy. This presentation provided an opportunity
to test the concepts developed in Chapter 3. Further, the paper “An analysis of policy
impacting on TAFE Queensland: a question of emphasis” (McMillan, Ehrich, &
91
Cranston, 2004), discussed key issues identified by senior officers of DET and TAFE
Queensland regarding what they saw as influencing TAFE Queensland fulfilling a
social service or economic utility role. This conference presentation provided an
opportunity to test some of the initial findings from the elite interviews undertaken
for this research. Feedback received from participants was relevant and helpful in
interpreting the findings of this thesis.
The appropriateness of the terms of reference of any data analysis is made more
trustworthy through the data design strategies that maximise the likelihood of data
collection and analysis being responsive to the key research questions (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985). Procedural dependability provides an effective audit trail, and ensures
efficiency in data collection and analysis. For example, interviewees were provided
with a copy of the interview transcripts, both for their approval and to confirm that
their perspectives were accurately recorded in the interview transcripts, further
enhancing the credibility of data analysis. Trustworthiness and credibility strategies
ensure that the research and any findings are grounded in the data; that any
inferences are logical; that researcher bias has not tarnished the credibility of any
findings and that the strategies used for increasing credibility are appropriate to this
case study (Huberman & Miles, 1994)
The key goal of reliability or dependability is not necessarily to replicate the results
of a case study if undertaken by another researcher (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
Rather, it is to minimise the errors and bias within a case study. Therefore, reliability
is a data collection tactic that emphasises the use of case study protocol and the
development of a case study data-base (Yin 2003). Burns (2000) argues that it is
impossible to establish reliability in the quantitative sense for case studies. However,
the trustworthiness of the data can be enhanced through strategies such as
triangulation, reporting of any possible personal bias by the researcher, and by
providing an audit trail to authenticate how data was obtained and decisions made
about data. The audit trail is evident in the data collection design features of this
thesis, from the development of the research questions through to the methodology
chosen and then the data collection and data analysis strategies (refer: Figure 4).
92
Triangulation, or the use of several kinds of methods or data, provides a
methodology to ensure authenticity of the research undertaken (Janisick, 1998).
Triangulation is a strategy used to improve the internal validity and, therefore,
enhance the authenticity of research work (Flick, 1998). Qualitative research places
stress on the validity of “multiple meaning structures” and “holistic analysis” (Burns,
2000, p.11). For this study, multiple sources of data, and multiple perspectives to
interpret these sources of data through content analysis and the constant comparative
method, meet the data and theory triangulation requirements identified by Denzin
and Lincoln (1998). In this thesis, a triangulation strategy to data collection has been
used to minimise the risk of invalid or unauthenticated data.
Implementing these strategies provides confidence that the case study results made
sense and can be agreed upon (Burns, 2000). The dependability of this case study
has been emphasised through the data collections strategies identified within this
chapter of the thesis.
4.6 THE RESEARCHER AND RESEARCHER BIAS
The introduction of professional doctorates into Australia in the 1990’s has provided
a pathway for individuals to study within the field with which they are presumably
engaged. This trend has provided opportunities for a different group of students to
become engaged in undertaking research higher degrees, providing a part-time
research program for practising professionals. Therefore, education doctorate
students are often simultaneously engaged as research students and professional
workers while their research is invariably conceptualised in a connected way to their
workplace practices (Brennan, 1998). It is within the context of an educational
doctorate, undertaken on a part-time basis, by a fully engaged professional within the
TAFE Queensland system, that this research was developed.
As a senior manager within the TAFE Queensland system, the researcher has direct
operational experience of the impact of current strategic VET and TAFE policies and
practices. It is a personal view that a lack of clarity is inherent in the policy approach
to TAFE as a public provider of vocational education and training. Thus, a
motivating question for this research was: ‘What should that policy position be?’ In
order to address this future-oriented question, it was deemed appropriate to develop
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an understanding of the current policy position. However, as the researcher is a
practitioner there was potential for researcher bias because a significant amount of
insider information and knowledge underpins this thesis.
To address the potential for bias, Yin (2003) argues that an effective case study
investigator should be able to ask good questions and interpret the answers; be a
good listener and not be trapped by personal ideology; should be adaptive and
flexible; have a firm grasp of the issues being studied and be unbiased by
preconceived notions. Lincoln and Guba (1985) encourage prolonged engagement
and persistent observation, or a focus on details as key elements of building the
trustworthiness of findings, while Glesne (1999) encourages continual alertness to
personal bias and subjectivity. In this thesis, researcher bias was minimised through
the transparent linking of the data collection and the data analysis. To further assist
in minimising researcher bias, QUT supervisors and critical friends were used to
monitor the data collection and analysis process (Yin, 2003).
4.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The management of ethical considerations are captured within two approaches to
ethical issues in research. There is the absolutist view that relies heavily upon a
professional code of conduct and uses firm principles to guide all social science
research; and there is the relativist view that solutions to ethical issues cannot be
absolutely prescribed (Plummer, 1983). This research followed the following
general guidelines for interview procedures and protocols adapted from Bibby (1997)
and Burns (2000) as discussed in Section 4.3.2.
The activities undertaken to develop this thesis were governed by both the guidelines
established by the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Research Ethics
Committee, individual membership of the Australian Vocational Education and
Training Research Association (AVETRA) and the Code of Conduct guidelines
established by the Queensland Government for all employees. These professional
codes provide firm principles to guide the research activity therefore minimising the
possibility of ethical issues emerging during the research process.
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4.8 LIMITATIONS
There were four key limitations identified in the current study. Firstly, this research
focused on TAFE Queensland and seven national and state policies that influence
TAFE Queensland. Thus, it did not consider TAFE in any other State or Territory.
Although the study was limited to Queensland, the study aimed to make a significant
contribution to understanding more fully TAFE’s positioning in relation to the social
and economic roles that it fulfils. The second limitation concerned the small number
of interviews that were conducted. Six respondents constituted the sample which
was drawn from Queensland DET and TAFE. The small sample size was
unavoidable as there was only a limited pool of elite informants who met the criteria
for the study and were therefore eligible to participate. Thirdly, the analysis of
policy was premised on the implied intent of the policy and did not consider other
variables such as the how effectively the policy had been implemented, and whether
what was implied was intended by the owners or authors of the policy documents.
Fourthly, the researcher made no attempt to weight the policies in terms of their
significance or political clout. For example, national policies were not viewed as any
more important than state policies and no attempt was made to weight any of the five
key criteria so that one criterion (for example, systems emphasis) was considered any
more important than any other (for example, equity). Thus, each of the criteria that
constituted the conceptual framework was considered of equal importance and value.
4.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter Four has presented an account of the research methodology for this thesis.
The research perspective, strategy and design have been presented as well as the
process for data collection and analysis. The limitations and bias potential for this
thesis have been identified and addressed, along with the contextualisation of this
research as an education doctoral thesis being undertaken by a practitioner
researcher. Given the nature of the research questions, a case study strategy that
analyses policy documents and seeks the views of senior public servants was an
appropriate approach to undertaking research on the current policy position of TAFE
Queensland.
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CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS - A Policy Position
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Chapters Five and Six of this thesis discuss the findings of the study. Chapter Five
presents the findings from an analysis of policy documents and the elite interviews
and responds to the first research question. Chapter Six identifies and analyses the
forces that influence a social service or economic utility view of TAFE from the
perceptions of the interviewees and responds to the second research question.
The first research question addressed in this chapter, then, is:
• What is the current policy position of TAFE Queensland with respect to the
emphasis placed on a social- service and economic utility role as evidenced by:
o strategic policy documents that impact on TAFE Queensland and
o the views of senior executives who influence the development and
implementation of TAFE Queensland policy.
As discussed in the Data Analysis section of the previous chapter, there is a three
step process from collecting the data to presenting a policy emphasis for discussion.
Firstly, a Data Collection Table for each policy document and for the interviews has
been designed to record and analyse the data from each policy document and from
the interviews (refer: Appendix 4); secondly, the emphasis of each policy document
and the interviews are recorded in an overall Policy Emphasis Table (refer: Appendix
12), and finally, the overall position is represented in the Model used for this thesis
(refer: Figure 3). Figure 5 provides a visual representation of these steps.
Figure 5: Data Collection Steps
Step 1
Data Collection
Table
(refer: Appendix 4)
Step 3
Visually Present the
Policy Emphasis in the
Model (refer: Figure 3)
Step 2
Policy Emphasis
Table
(refer: Appendix 12)
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This chapter presents the research findings in four key sections: firstly, the findings
regarding the three national policy documents; secondly, the findings regarding the
four State policy documents; thirdly, findings from the interviews undertaken; and
fourthly, a chapter summary that ties the findings together to present an overall
emphasis on the policy position of TAFE Queensland that, therefore, responds to the
research question being addressed in this chapter.
5.2 POLICY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS: DETERMINING A POLICY
POSITION
This section provides a discussion of the policy positioning of each of the seven
policy documents. These seven policies are:
• The Kangan Report (1974)
• A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998)
• Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004)
• Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001)
• Education and Training Reforms for the Future (Queensland Government, 2002)
• The Department of Employment and Training 2003-2007 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003a)
• The TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government,
2003b)
The first three policy documents are national, while the remaining four are State. For
the purpose of discussion, the national policy documents are examined first followed
by the State policy documents.
The analysis focuses on the policy context of each policy document in terms of the
five Key Features of the TAFE system. The Key Features are: System Emphasis;
Student Access; Equity Goals; Award Credentials; and Finance. The Key Features
are presented in the social service and economic utility conceptual framework
developed for this thesis (refer: Table 2). This conceptual framework formed the
basis of the Data Collection Table used to collect and analyse data from the policy
documents (refer: Appendix 4). As discussed in Chapter Four: Methodology, a
content analysis approach using ‘text direction’ has been used to collect data from
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each policy document (Neuman, 2003). From each policy document a range of
recommendations, strategies, objectives and/or other such outcome focussed devices
have been aligned to the Key Features prescribed and recorded in a Data Collection
Table. A completed Data Collection Table for each policy document is presented in
Appendices Five to Eleven. The completed data collection table provides the basis
for the findings presented for each policy document. The policy emphasis for each
Key Feature, and for each policy document overall, is presented in the Policy
Emphasis Table (refer: Appendix 12). The section concludes with a discussion and
justification of the overall policy emphasis of each policy document.
It must be noted there is no consistency of usage with terms such as
recommendations, outcomes, objectives and strategies among these documents.
Therefore, any recommendations, strategies, objectives and/or outcomes drawn
directly from the policy documents are referenced as a strategy, outcome and so forth
according to their original usage.
5.2.1 National Policy Documents
5.2.1.1 Introduction
This section provides a discussion of the three national policy documents. They are:
• The Kangan Report (1974)
• A Bridge to the Future: Australia’s national strategy for vocational education
and training 1998-2003
• Shaping our Future: Australia’s national strategy for vocational education and
training 2004-2010
The Kangan Report (1974) was discussed at some length in Chapters One and Two
of this thesis. It (1974) provided 73 Conclusions and Recommendations (p.xxiii–
xxxiii). Embedded in these recommendations were the issues of a social service and
economic utility role for TAFE.
A Bridge to the Future: Australia’s National Strategy for Vocational Education and
Training 1998-2003 (ANTA, 1998) was a national strategy based upon the advice of
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the ANTA Board and agreed to by the Ministerial Council (MINCO). This
Australia National strategy for vocational education and training emerged from the
recognition that the impact of globalisation would make international competition
even tougher. To preserve Australia’s national prosperity, fundamental reforms in
key areas such as finance, banking and trade were required and implemented. These
reforms have extended over time to virtually all areas of the Australian economy. A
Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) identifies a number of key forces for change that
underpin the need for reform within Australia’s vocational education and training
system that include the growth in global markets, the emergence of service and
knowledge based industries, growth in small business and changing work
arrangements. There are five key objectives to A Bridge to the Future (ANTA,
1998). These are equipping Australians for the world of work; enhancing mobility of
the labour market; achieving equitable outcomes in vocational education and
training; increasing investment in training; and, maximising the value of public
vocational education and training expenditure. Each key objective has a range of
elements that are focussed on for the analysis. Within each Objective there is a range
of Strategies and Outcomes supporting the broader objectives.
Shaping our Future: Australia’s National Strategy for Vocational Education and
Training 2004-2010 (ANTA, 2004), built on the policy document A Bridge to the
Future 1998-2003 (ANTA, 1998) and other ANTA strategies. This national strategy
for vocational education and training was considered by ANTA as more far-reaching
than previous strategies as it covered a longer period of time; it is broader in scope; is
more clearly focussed on clients and is more inclusive of people facing barriers to
learning (ANTA, 2004, p.4). As with A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998),
Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) is a national strategy based upon the advice of the
ANTA Board and agreed to by the Ministerial Council (MINCO). Shaping our
Future (ANTA, 2004) provides three visions around international competitiveness,
advocating world class skills and knowledge for Australians and building inclusive
and sustainable communities. Supporting these visions are four Objectives and
twelve Strategies. As a subset there are outcome statements expressed for each
strategy.
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For each policy document, only those Recommendations, Strategies or Objectives
that are relevant to the social service and economic utility role of TAFE are referred
to in the next section. The following provides an analysis of the Key Features of
both the social service and economic utility emphases in the context of the National
policy documents.
5.2.1.2 Findings
In this section a summary of the findings for each national policy document is
presented. These findings have been determined after analysing each national policy
document against the social service and economic utility conceptual framework
developed for this thesis (refer: Table 2). A completed Data Collection Table from
which these findings are drawn is presented in Appendix 5, Kangan Report (1974);
Appendix 6, A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) and Appendix 7, Shaping our
Future (ANTA, 2004).
[A] System Emphasis
The Kangan Report (1974) recognised the value of vocational education and training
and its contribution to the value of an employment outcome, for industry or for the
economy. Nevertheless, it recommended a shift away from a focus on anticipating
the vocational needs of the community as the prime purpose of technical education
toward a broader focus on individual needs (Kangan Report, 1974 p.xxiii). This
emphasis on the individual learner and learning established a foundation for TAFE
and established expectations that are arguably still embedded in contemporary
thinking of some people. The student centred approach, discussed in the Kangan
Report (1974), and characteristic of a focus on the individual learner’s needs,
suggests that the emphasis for this Key Feature falls within Quadrant [1]: Social
Service Emphasis.
In A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998), there is a strong emphasis in the policy for
vocational education and training to meet the needs of industry, specifically in the
supply of globally competitive skilled labour. National Training Packages and
industry competency standards are a key platform for a skilled workforce to be
developed to achieve these industry and global needs. While TAFE is viewed as a
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centrepiece for the delivery of vocational education and training, private providers
are recognised as being integral to the vocational education and training system.
Individual needs will be resolved primarily though the attainment of skill
development and the anticipated employment outcomes that will subsequently be
achieved. In this document it appears there is a greater emphasis on the economic
rather than social service paradigm thrust of the policy and, therefore, from a
Systems Perspective, this policy document has been positioned within Quadrant [3]:
Economic Utility Emphasis.
Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) provides a more balanced system approach than
A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998), in that it places more emphasis on the
servicing of the needs of individuals and communities as well as businesses in an
integrated way. This is also evidenced in the Key Performance Measures with
Number 5 “relating to the level of community awareness and engagement with
vocational education and training to assist with economic and social development”
(p.20). Further, Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) emphasises both the recognition
of competencies currently attained, and by definition, the broader social experiences
of individuals, as well as the need for adults to focus on lifelong learning to meet
current and future work requirements. Therefore, because this policy document
emphasises a Systems Emphasis that characterises both a social service and
economic utility paradigm it has been positioned within Quadrant [2]: Balanced
Emphasis.
The comparative examination undertaken above indicates a shift in emphasis over
time from the original Kangan position of a social service emphasis to a more
economic utility emphasis within A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998). More
recently, with Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004), there has been a re-adjustment of
this shift away from a social service emphasis toward a more balanced emphasis
between the two paradigms (refer: Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
[B] Student Access
The Kangan Report (1974) provided a strong emphasis on a student driven system
and an open access environment that reflected the social service characteristics for
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this Key Feature. Accordingly, for this policy document it is deemed that Student
Access falls within Quadrant [1]: Social- Service emphasis.
In A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998), there is evidence of student choice,
particularly with reference to new apprenticeships and traineeships and with the
strong acknowledgement of the role of private providers within the market, and with
their access to contestable funds. However, there is a stronger focus on the market
and economic value of undertaking vocational education and training activities that
might influence other factors. For instance, there is a focus on contestable funding
directed towards industry and/or economic needs impacting, therefore, on individual
choice. It appears there is a greater emphasis on the economic utility characteristics
and, therefore, from a Student Access perspective this policy document is rated
within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) encouraged a broad based access to vocational
education and training. It does this by recognising the needs of potential and existing
workers. This policy document encourages choice; however it is underpinned, or
restrained, by an expectation of gaining a value from the investment in vocational
education and training, whether this is by governments, business or individuals. This
policy document emphasises a broad access into vocational education and training
which meets a social service agenda. It also provides an economically focussed
expectation of this access. Therefore, it is deemed that this policy document
provided a balanced approach to Student Access and has been placed within
Quadrant [2]: Balanced Emphasis.
There appears to have been a shift over time from the original Kangan position of a
social service emphasis in student access to a more economic utility emphasis on
access within A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998). Again, the most recent policy
document, Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004), appears to provide a more balanced
emphasis between the two paradigms (refer: Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
[C] Equity Goals
Generally the recommendations within the Kangan Report do not refer to identified
target groups, but focus more on a broad or open access approach to equity.
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However, two identified target groups within the Kangan Report are married women
and migrant youth in the 15-19 age group (Recommendation 49), while
Recommendation 51 provides for a focus on facilities, resources and programming to
assist married women in gaining vocational qualifications. However, because
Equity Goals within the Kangan Report focus on responding to the needs of all
students, rather than just an economic utility focus of responding to identified target
groups, Equity Goals has been positioned within Quadrant [1]: Social Service
Emphasis.
In a Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998), the identification of equity goals through
targeting the needs of identified groups places the emphasis within the economic
utility paradigm. Given this document emphasises vocational education and training,
and presents a limited view of equity as constituting an identified target group, it is
deemed that Equity Goals is dominated more by economic than social service
characteristics. For this reason, Equity Goals is rated within Quadrant [3]: Economic
Utility Emphasis.
Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004), recognises the needs of Indigenous people as a
specific and significant group, a characteristic of an economic focus. However, there
is strong support for equity and access issues within this policy document that
underpins the broader system evidenced by Objective 3. This objective focuses on
linking communities and regional economic and social strength through learning and
employment and within the Servicing and Improving strategies that facilitate
flexibility, accessibility and responsiveness. Therefore, it is deemed that this policy
document provides a balanced approach and for this reason has been placed within
Quadrant [2]: Balanced Emphasis.
Again there appears to have been a shift away from the key position of the Kangan
Report (1974) that focussed on responding to all student needs. A Bridge to the
Future (ANTA, 1998) is focused more on meeting the identified needs of target
groups, thus shifting the emphasis towards an economic paradigm. Shaping our
Future (ANTA, 2004) provides a more balanced approach by re-emphasising a
broad-based approach to equity while recognising that identified target groups
require additional assistance (refer: Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
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[D] Award Credentials
Within the Kangan Report (1974) there is a focus on formal education outcomes as
evidenced in Recommendation 1 and 57 that provide an emphasis on a range of
possible outcomes such as the social and community value of qualifications rather
than a focus more on pre-determined outcomes or the market value of a qualification.
On this basis it is deemed that the emphasis for Award Credentials fits within
Quadrant [1]: Social Service Emphasis. Conversely, A Bridge to the Future (1998)
emphasises pre-determined outcomes and an emphasis on the market value of
credentials. This places Award Credentials in Quadrant [3] Economic Utility
Emphasis.
Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) provides a more balanced agenda, on the belief
that pathways with multiple outcomes are needed to enhance the value perception of
vocational education and training qualifications. This value perception benefits both
the individual and industry, providing an opportunity for individuals to choose their
pathway of choice, with industry having some capacity to value the outcomes
presented to them by individuals. In summary it is deemed that Award Credentials,
within this policy document, reflect a balanced emphasis and, therefore, is placed
within Quadrant [2] of the model.
As with the preceding Key Features, there appears to have been an initial shift from a
social service emphasis (Kangan Report) to an economic focus (A Bridge to the
Future) and a more recent alignment to a balanced emphasis (Shaping our Future,).
The consistency of shift between each of the first four Key Features is presented in
Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table.
[E] Finance
Within the Kangan Report (1974), Recommendations 40 and 44 provide examples
whereby full-time TAFE students should be viewed in the same way as those
undertaking courses at a university or college of advanced education, and in
consequence that the community should subsidise students at TAFE in the same way
as it did for universities and colleges of advanced education. On the information
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available, it is reasonable to determine that the emphasis for Finance, for this policy
document, fits within Quadrant [1]: Social Service Emphasis.
A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) provides limited information on finance
issues. However, Finance appears to have an Economic Utility Emphasis since the
document points to an individual user pays system and the need for increased
industry contributions to vocational education and training. For this reason, the
emphasis has been placed in Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
There are clear indications within Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) of the intent to
increase individual and industry contributions to vocational education and training.
“Strategy 8: Develop a sustainable mix of funding” (p.16) identifies outcomes that
require increased investment by all parties to meet future skills requirements and a
higher proportion of employer and individual investment in learning is required.
Therefore, the emphasis within Finance is within the characteristics prescribed for a
focus on economic utility. Accordingly, within this policy document, Finance has
been placed within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
With a Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998), there is a shift away from the Kangan
emphasis of minimal fees paid and government contribution to training. While
neither A Bridge to the Future nor Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) advocates a
full user pays environment, both policy documents demonstrate an increasing
emphasis on further individual and industry contributions. This maintenance of an
economic emphasis is visually presented in Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table.
5.2.1.3 National Policy Documents: an overall positioning
This section provides a discussion of the overall emphasis for each policy document.
A Policy Emphasis Overview table (refer: Appendix 12) has been used as a
systematic approach to presenting the emphasis for each Key Feature and the overall
emphasis of each policy document. A visual representation of this emphasis is
presented for each policy document using the Model developed for this thesis (refer:
Figure 6). At the end of this section a discussion on any shifts in overall emphasis
between these National policy documents is provided.
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Figure 6: Policy Position - National Policy Documents
Kangan Report (1974)
The Kangan Report (1974) provides for the contextualising of courses within
industry frameworks, supporting industry involvement in this process. However, the
report also confirms an emphasis that “lifts the priorities of social development in
relation to economic growth, without understating or detracting from the importance
of economic growth” (p. 10). This emphasis gives priority to the educational needs
of individuals (Section 1.53). While there are characteristics of an economic utility
framework evident within this document it is argued that this policy document most
represents a social service emphasis. It has been argued that each of the five Key
Features placed a higher emphasis on a social service than an economic utility
paradigm. Therefore, the overall emphasis of this policy document has been as
social service and it has been placed in Quadrant [1]: Social Service Emphasis (refer:
Figure 6).
A Bridge to the Future 1998-2003
A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) is a significant national strategy for vocational
education and training that emerged from the context of the economic reforms of the
[1]
Social Service
Emphasis
[4] No
Representation
[3] Economic Utility
Emphasis
[2] Balanced
Emphasis
A Bridge to the Future (1998-2003)
Shaping our Future (2004-2010)
Kangan Report (1974)
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1980s and 1990s. Its reform agenda for vocational education and training was in line
with similar reforms in banking, finance and trade which focussed on an economic
rationalist approach to freeing up previously highly regulated markets. Increased
marketisation of vocational education and training, increased competition, increased
industry commitment and a need to develop a skilled and flexible workforce
permeate this policy document.
While there are characteristics of a social service framework evident within A Bridge
to the Future (ANTA, 1998), each Key Feature has been placed within the Economic
Utility quadrant. This placement reflects the overall emphasis within A Bridge to the
Future (ANTA, 1998) of a focus toward vocational education and training, skills,
employment, market competition and meeting industry and economic needs.
Therefore, in the final determination, this policy document places a greater emphasis
on the economic utility characteristics that impact on the vocational educational and
training system, and therefore, TAFE, compared to those characteristics that reflect a
social service emphasis. This emphasis is visually presented in Figure 6 that shows
this policy document within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
Shaping our Future 2004-2010
Within Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) there is no apparent de-emphasis on the
need to provide industry with skilled labour for the economic benefit of Australia. As
a significant national strategy for vocational education and training, following on
from A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998), this policy document still reflects the
economic reforms of the 1980’s and 1990’s with a focus on skills, industry and the
economy. However, there is more emphasis on social, community and individual
needs than in A Bridge to the Future. Thus while there is no commitment to a broad-
based fully funded education for individuals, there are clear commitments to
providing pathways and choice for individuals.
Thus, Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) reflects an overall placement that appears
to provide a more balanced approach to the issues behind a social service and
economic utility framework than did its predecessor, A Bridge to the Future (ANTA,
1998). Appendix 12: Policy Emphasis Overview provides a visual representation of
each of the Key Features for Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004). These Key
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Features, System Emphasis, Student Access, Equity Goals and Award Credentials
reflect a balanced emphasis between the social and economic paradigms, while
Finance reflects an emphasis on the economic utility paradigm. Given the emphasis
among the Key Features, this policy has been have been placed within Quadrant [2]:
Balanced Emphasis as shown in Figure 6.
5.2.2 State Policy Documents
5.2.2.1 Introduction
This section provides a discussion of the four State policy documents. They are:
• Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001)
• Education and Training Reforms for the Future (Queensland Government, 2002)
• The Department of Employment and Training 2003-2007 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003a)
• The TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government,
2003b)
Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) was the Queensland strategy
for vocational education and training for 2001-2004. Significant changes in
Queensland’s economic and demographic base over the previous ten years provided
the foundation for a range of future challenges and priorities identified within this
document. Skilling Queensland operated within a vision of “Queenslanders reaching
their potential through vocational education and training” (p.1) and was supported by
four Objectives. Within these objectives a range of Strategic Approaches was
presented.
Education and Training Reforms for the Future (ETRF) (Queensland Government,
2002) is a comprehensive review of Queensland’s primary, secondary and vocational
educational and training options and pathways for young people. While the TAFE
sector does not deal exclusively with young people, this policy document has a
significant impact on a cohort that comprises the future workers of Australia.
Further, ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) is a significant reform policy
impacting on the linkages between schools and vocational education and training,
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and it is with these influences in mind, that this policy document has been selected
for analysis. ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) provides a series of Actions
that frame the desired outcomes of this policy document. A number of Actions (3, 4,
and 7) have no relevance to vocational education and training and, therefore, were
not analysed.
The Department of Employment and Training 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland
Government, 2003a), outlines the key strategies that are to be undertaken to
implement and achieve broader Queensland Government initiatives such as Smart
State. The Department of Employment and Training (DET) is primarily responsible
for the employment and training initiatives of the Queensland Government. Key
units within are the Agriculture Colleges, TAFE Institutes, Employment and Youth
Initiatives and Employment and Training performance. At that time, the senior
executive responsible for TAFE Institutes was a Deputy Director-General, supported
by the Chair of TQE. Since the completion of the review of both this policy
document, and the elite interviews, there have been some personnel and structural
changes within the department. However, these changes are not deemed to have any
significant bearing on the findings presented, although it is anticipated that they will
impact on future activities, which are discussed in Chapter Seven. The DET
Strategic Plan is a point in time reference to the department’s strategies and is likely
to be reviewed and amended on a yearly basis; however, it broadly aligns to the
Queensland government initiatives relevant to employment and training. For
example, the 2003-2007 Strategic Plan replaced the 2002-2006 DET Strategic Plan.
The 2003-2007 Strategic Plan has a vision of “Queenslanders excelling in learning,
skilling and work for personal, community and economic prosperity” (p.4). Four
Outcomes are presented: skills employment and community capability; employment,
training and youth initiatives; strategic policy, planning and partnering; and
organisational capability.
The TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b)
cascades from a range of whole of government priorities and responds to the key
Queensland government priorities of “More jobs for Queensland – skills and
innovation; community engagement and a better quality of life; safer and more
supportive communities; and building Queensland’s regions” (p.1). Further, this
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plan is framed within the Department of Employment and Training vision for
Queenslanders “[e]xcelling in learning, skilling and work for personal, community
and economic prosperity” (p.2). This alignment highlights Queensland TAFE’s role
in implementing the Queensland Government’s agenda for vocational education and
training. Under this strategic plan of systemic responses and strategies, TAFE
Institutes are to utilise individual institute expertise and local responsiveness to
implement this plan within the context of their regions. The strategic plans for TAFE
Queensland do not necessarily carry forward for their full duration, in this case 2003-
2006; however, when updated they would tend to align to any emerging shifts within
updates to the Department of Employment and Training Strategic Plan.
5.2.2.2 Findings
In this section a summary of the findings for each state policy document is presented.
These findings have been determined after analysing each state policy document
against the social service and economic utility conceptual framework developed for
this thesis (refer: Table 2). A completed Data Collection Table from which these
findings are drawn is presented in Appendix 8, Skilling Queensland (Queensland
Government, 2001); Appendix 9, Education and Training Reforms for the Future
(Queensland Government, 2002); Appendix 10, DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003a); and Appendix 11, TAFE Queensland 2003-2006
Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b).
[A] System Emphasis
Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001), articulates a commitment to
providing opportunities for individuals to achieve their full potential as evidenced
both in the strategic approaches and within the wider priorities of the Queensland
government. Yet the dominant thrust of Skilling Queensland (Queensland
Government, 2001) is an emphasis on vocational training outcomes for employment
purposes compared to a focus on integrating social, education and vocational
outcomes. For this reason System Emphasis has been placed within Quadrant [3]:
Economic Utility Emphasis.
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With the Education and Training Reforms for the Future (Queensland Government,
2002) there is recognition that providing opportunities for employment is critical.
The term ‘learning or earning’ identified within this policy document provides clear
expectations of what young people will need to be doing until they are 17 years of
age. Notwithstanding, there is a strong emphasis on providing student choice within
other education and training systems. This choice provides students with options to
undertake pathways focussed on education through schools or university, pathways
for vocational education and training, pathway for jobs or an integration of pathways
combining school, vocational education and training and jobs. Overall, this
commitment to student pathways provides a rationale for determining that, from a
Systems Emphasis perspective, within the ETRF policy there is a balanced emphasis
between social service and economic utility. Therefore, for this policy document,
Systems Emphasis has been placed within Quadrant [2]: Balanced Emphasis.
Within the DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003a), the
Vision and Outcomes reflect an approach that balances a system focus on individual
needs and the needs of industry and the economy. The key performance indicators
for Outcomes 1 and 2 provide a range of quantitative output measures such as
number of vocational qualifications attained, employment rate, and work and/or
education participation rates. There are also a number of measures that reflect a
more student or client centred approach, including levels of satisfaction with
products and services, increased youth participation, increased participation in
publicly funded vocational education and training and employment programs. From
a System Emphasis there is arguably a balance between focussing on industry and
economic needs while recognising the needs of individuals within a social context.
Therefore, it is determined that System Emphasis has been placed within Quadrant
[2]: Balanced Emphasis.
The TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b)
provides for institutes to develop local strategies that provide a balance between
achieving an annual increase in qualifications (performance indication of 8% for 25-
64 age groups by 2010) and the need to accommodate individual needs of customers,
whether the customer is industry, community or individuals. While this may appear
to provide a balanced approach to a social service and economic utility role, a review
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of the performance indicators for the TAFE Outcomes for the Smart State strategy
and for Customers, Products and Innovation shows they are output focussed. For
example, the performance indicator for ‘target’ groups is not on take-up or
participation; it is on completions. The focus on qualifications negates the equal
value of individuals developing skill sets from a range of qualifications, that in
themselves do not necessarily make a qualification yet may provide the individual
with as much if not more opportunity to gain employment or be more ‘employable’.
More on the basis of these performance indicators than the outcomes or strategies
presented, it is determined that System Emphasis is within Quadrant [3]: Economic
Utility Emphasis.
In summary, similar to the earlier national document, A Bridge to the Future, Skilling
Queensland and the TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan are more economic
in their focus, while the more recent policies of ETRF and the DET 2003-2007
Strategic Plan reflect shifts towards a balanced emphasis similar to that in national
policies when Shaping our Future was released (refer: Appendix 12, Policy
Emphasis Table).
[B] Student Access
Within Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) there is a range of
Strategic Approaches that focus on meeting industry and economic needs as
evidenced within the findings for [A] Systems Emphasis. However, there is no
indication in this policy of a reliance on market forces or economic drivers to restrict
student access into vocational education and training in Queensland. Accordingly,
Student Access is placed within Quadrant [1]: Social Service Emphasis.
For Education and Training Reforms for the Future (Queensland Government,
2002), Student Access is student driven, albeit in the context of an assumed benefit
for individuals. The ETRF policy document is premised on the notion that this
benefit is driven both from a social and economic imperative. However, the view of
Student Access, within this policy, provides a greater emphasis on the social service,
than the economic utility characteristics. Therefore, Student Access has been placed
within Quadrant [1]: Social Service Emphasis.
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Within the DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003a), there is
a focus on increasing access with an emphasis on employment outcomes. Within the
examples of key deliverables there is a commitment to prioritise investment into
training programs in line with the 2003–2004 Queensland Training and Employment
Priorities. However, there is also a commitment to delivering programs and
solutions aligned to both social and economic imperatives of regions and
communities. For these reasons, Student Access has been placed within Quadrant
[2]: Balanced Emphasis
With the TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government,
2003b) there may appear to be a lack of strategy around student access as an input
driver evidenced within the policy document. However, it is reasonable to argue
there is no overt market, economic or other restricted access strategies within this
document. Therefore, Student Access has been placed within Quadrant [1]: Social
Service emphasis.
With the exception of the national document A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998)
the emphasis for Student Access has been either a social or balanced emphasis. This
suggests that, while there may be some focus on student accessibility influenced by
market forces or economic needs, there is no policy approach to restrict access.
Rather, the policy documents overall provide a focus on a student driven, open
accessed approach as evidenced in Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table.
[C] Equity Goals
Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) focuses on responding to the
needs of identified target groups such as school leavers, young people, casual
workers, mature aged Queenslanders, existing workers, Aboriginal and Torres Strait
islander peoples, people with a disability, women, people in rural and remote
communities, Australian South Sea Islanders, people from ethnic and linguistically
diverse communities and Queenslanders who are long-term unemployed. The
strategy of identifying target groups presents a narrow view of equity. For this
reason, Equity Goals has been placed within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility
Emphasis.
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While the Education and Training Reforms for the Future (Queensland Government,
2002), policy focuses on young people as an identified target group, and further
identifies key groups within this, there is evidence of a focus on meeting the broader
needs of all young people, including those currently engaged, disengaging and
disengaged from education. Therefore, for this policy, Equity Goals are deemed to
be focused on both the social service and economic utility imperatives of youth
needs. Accordingly, Equity Goals has been placed within Quadrant [2]: Balanced
Emphasis.
The DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003a) identifies a
core role for the Department in ensuring that “all citizens, of post-compulsory school
age, have accessible pathways to learning and skilling” (p. 10). While there is no
explicit strategy on managing equity issues that would respond to broader student
needs, neither is there a list of groups to be targeted as ‘in need’ who are perceived as
requiring additional support or assistance. For this reason, Equity Goals has been
placed within Quadrant [2]: Balanced Emphasis.
The TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b)
refers to the importance of responding to all student needs. However, the focus on
identified target groups, and more importantly, the key performance indicators that
focus on measuring equity through outcomes for targeted groups, indicates that
within this policy Equity Goals fall within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
Identifying target groups as the focus of an equity strategy is an economic
characteristic within the social service and economic utility framework presented for
this research. It is evident there is a mix of strategies for achieving equity outcomes
for students in these State policy documents (refer: Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis
Table); however, it is reasonable to argue that there is an overall focus on identifying
target groups as an equity strategy.
[D] Award Credentials
While there are multiple outcomes available through the training package options,
Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) emphasises endorsed Training
Package Qualifications as the desirable outcome of training for Queenslanders. This
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emphasis on a pre-determined focus on vocational outcomes places the emphasis for
Award Credentials in Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
Within the context of the ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) policy, Award
Credentials are seen as valued from both an emphasis on multiple outcomes and an
emphasis on individual achievements. This policy provides expanded opportunities
for young people. It does present award outcomes as pre-determined in terms of
qualification attainment and/or employment. However, it also provides for a broader
range of learning outcomes that will be recognised as part of the Senior Certificate.
Accordingly, within the context of this policy, Award Credentials is placed within
Quadrant [2]: Balanced Emphasis.
Within the DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003a) there
are key performance indicators that focus on skills development and qualification
attainment. With this focus, it is determined that Award Credentials falls within
Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis. Similarly, the TAFE Queensland 2003-
2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b) has an overt focus on a pre-
determined outcome (qualification) and an emphasis on the market value of
credentials. Therefore, Award Credentials is placed within Quadrant [3]: Economic
Utility Emphasis.
While each of the State policy documents provides at least some acknowledgement
of open or multiple outcomes, there is an emphasis on pre-determined outcomes and
an emphasis on the market value of credentials. Therefore, the overall emphasis of
Award Credentials, within these State policy documents, is economic (refer:
Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
[E] Finance
Within Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) strategies can be
identified that seek to increase individual and industry contributions, both of which
are characteristics of the economic utility paradigm. On this basis, Finance has been
placed within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
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Within the ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) policy document, there is a
commitment that indicates that fee payments by individual students should not be a
barrier to accessing education and training opportunities under the ETRF agenda.
There is a commitment within ETRF for vocational education and training to be
‘affordable’ for young people. Therefore, within this context, finance is placed with
Quadrant [1]: Social Service Emphasis.
In the DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003a) finance is
only nominally addressed. However, within the key deliverables is discussion that
that seeks to leverage government funding from industry and individuals to grow
investment in vocational education and training. The document points to a need for
increased individual and industry contribution, a characteristic of a user pays system.
For this reason, Finance has been placed within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility
Emphasis.
With the TAFE 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b), the
principles that underpin a user pays approach, including an increased individual and
industry contribution, are presented within this policy document. Therefore, this
aligns this feature more towards Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis.
Apart from the ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) policy, the other State policy
documents reveal a focus on an increased user pays system. This focus is deemed an
economic characteristic of the system and, therefore, the overall emphasis of Finance
appears to be economic (refer: Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
5.2.2.3 State Policy Documents: an overall position
This section provides a discussion on the overall emphasis for each State policy
document. The overall emphasis has been determined using Appendix 12: Policy
Emphasis Overview table as a systemic approach to presenting the emphasis for each
Key Feature and the overall emphasis of the policy document. A visual
representation of this emphasis is presented for each policy document using the
Model (refer: Figure 7). At the end of this section a discussion on any shifts in
overall emphasis among these State policy documents is provided.
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Figure 7: Policy Position – State Policy Documents
Skilling Queensland: 2001-2004
Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2002) was a key policy document for
the Department of Employment and Training in support of Queensland’s Smart State
strategy. In implementing Skilling Queensland, the Queensland Government was
committed to “implementing the four objectives to gain skills for current and
emerging work” (p.14). These objectives encompassed increasing skills and
qualifications; embracing the information and biotechnology age; expanding
innovation and collaborative business practice; and, building on the quality of
vocational education and training delivered in Queensland.
In Skilling Queensland, Student Access was the only feature that presented a social
service position. This suggests that, while the focus was on an economic agenda,
there was also an acknowledgement of the need to provide ease of student access into
the system. However, with a focus on skills for work, the strategies in this policy
document have overwhelmingly represented key characteristics that underpin an
economic utility paradigm. That is, the features of System Emphasis, Equity Goals,
[1]
Social Service
Emphasis
[4] No
Representation
[3] Economic Utility
Emphasis
[2] Balanced
Emphasis
Skilling Queensland (2001-2004)
TAFE Strategic Plan (2003-2006)
ETRF (2002)
DET Strategic Plan (2003-2007)
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Award Credentials and Finance were seen to be economic in their focus. Therefore,
Skilling Queensland has been placed within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility
Emphasis (refer: Figure 7).
Education and Training Reforms for the Future (ETRF) 2002
ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) is a State policy document that focuses on
Queensland youth up to the age of 17 years. Through a legislative process,
Queensland youth will be required to be either in school, participating in other
training, such as that offered by TAFE, or working. In this context, the policy
document presents the argument that “young Queenslanders can no longer expect to
get jobs, earn decent incomes and lead rewarding lives without obtaining year 12 or
some kind of substantial vocational or university qualification that gives them the
skills for work and life” (p.6).
For the features, System Emphasis, Equity Goals and Award Credentials, a balanced
position was determined since both a social service and economic utility focus were
apparent. For example, there was a focus on meeting student needs; the integration
of community into decision making at a community level; a broader recognition of
what constitutes a Senior Certificate and strategies for supporting all young people.
These are social service themes evident throughout the ETRF document. At the
same time, the document identified the need to gain recognised qualifications that
reflected industry standards; the need to focus on education and training for the
ultimate outcome of employment; and the determination that certain target groups
would require additional assistance. All of these are economic themes. For these
reasons, it was determined that, for a System Emphasis and Equity Goals, a balanced
emphasis was reflected within the ETRF policy document.
For the features Student Access and Finance, ETRF reflects social service position on
minimising barriers for students to enter and remain within the education system
until the age of 17 years. However, given the overall balanced position, the ETRF
policy document has been placed within Quadrant [2]: Balanced Emphasis (refer:
Figure 7).
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Department of Employment and Training (DET) 2003-2007 Strategic Plan
The Department of Employment and Training 2003–2007 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003a) is a key policy document in support of
Queensland’s Smart State strategy. This policy document also reflects the
Department’s mission of “skilling Queenslanders for jobs, and building the social
and economic capacity of communities …” (p.4)
The DET Strategic Plan shows a balanced emphasis for the Key Features, System
Emphasis, Student Access and Equity Goals. This balanced emphasis reflects the
integration of social and economic strategies within this document. The placement
of Award Credentials and Finance as economic reflects the focus on skills
development, qualifications and the need for increased user pays systems within this
document.
With three Key Features evidencing a balanced position, and two with an economic
position, it appears as if the overall position of the DET Strategic Plan can be
considered as balanced. Therefore, this policy document has been placed within
Quadrant [2]: Balanced emphasis as shown in Figure 7.
TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan
The TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b)
is another key policy document for the Department of Employment and Training in
support of Queensland’s Smart State strategy. In this plan, there is a focus on
achieving an increase in qualification profiles to meet or exceed the average top ten
OECD countries by 2010. However, there was also commitment to recognising that
individuals and communities were part of the process of achieving outcomes
identified.
A range of strategies reflected social service characteristics, notably Student Access
that emphasised social service characteristics for this category. However, the Key
Features of System Emphasis, Equity Goals, Award Credentials and Finance more
represented key characteristics that underpin an economic utility paradigm. For
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these reasons, this policy document is placed within Quadrant [3]: Economic
emphasis as seen in Figure 8 (below).
5.2.3 Summary and Discussion on all Policy Documents
The findings presented here have been developed within a framework of Key
Features as modified from an approach used by Powles and Anderson (1996) to
identifying the social service and economic utility characteristics of the TAFE sector.
Figure 8 provides a visual representation of where all policy documents have been
placed within each of the four possible quadrants. The following section provides a
discussion of these positions and the shifts since Kangan (1974)
Figure 8: Policy Position – Combined Policy Documents
[1]
Social Service
Emphasis
[4] No
Representation
[3] Economic Utility
Emphasis
[2] Balanced
Emphasis
A Bridge to the Future (1998-2003)
Skilling Queensland (2001-2004)
TAFE Strategic Plan (2003-2006)
Shaping our Future (2004-2010)
ETRF (2002)
DET Strategic Plan (2003-2007)
Kangan Report (1974)
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The Key Reference Point: Kangan (1974)
It was argued earlier that the Kangan Report (1974) is fundamentally student centred.
While the needs of industry are noted within this report, a strong theme is its social
service approach to education. This approach focuses on meeting the needs of
people as individuals through curriculum based learning. Of the documents
discussed, the Kangan Report (1974) is the only document that falls within Quadrant
[1]: Social Service Emphasis.
An Economic Utility Emphasis
Three policy documents were determined as having an overall economic utility
emphasis. They were the national document A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998),
and the State documents, Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) and
the TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b).
In the Key Features of System Emphasis, Equity Goals, Award Credentials and
Finance, these documents presented an economic emphasis. Only in Student Access,
for the documents Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) and the
TAFE Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003b) was
there a different emphasis. In this case, they represented a social service emphasis
while A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) maintained an economic focus (refer:
Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
A Balanced Emphasis
Three policy documents were determined as having a balanced emphasis; that is
there were sufficient social and economic characteristics evident in the documents to
suggest that neither emphasis dominated. These were the national document, Shaping
our Future (ANTA, 2004), and the State documents Education and Training Reforms
for the Future (Queensland Government, 2002) and the DET 2003-2006 Strategic
Plan (Queensland Government, 2003a). There was consistency between these
documents in the Key Features of System Emphasis and Equity Goals. There was
also consistency between Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) and the DET Strategic
Plan for Student Access and Finance (balanced and economic respectively). For
these features, ETRF reflected a social service position. For Award Credentials,
Shaping our Future and ETRF were consistent with a balanced position, while the
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DET Strategic Plan was aligned to an economic emphasis (refer: Appendix 12,
Policy Emphasis Table).
The Shifts in Emphasis from Kangan (1974)
From a System Emphasis perspective, all policy documents had shifted to either an
economic or balanced position away from the 1974 Kangan position. The literature
review presented in Chapter Two indicated a belief that there has been a shift in
emphasis away from the original social service Kangan perspective to a more
economic emphasis. The proponents of this shift have presented differing views as
to whether this shift is positive or not. The analysis of the policy showed that TAFE
has shifted from the original emphasis espoused by the Kangan Report (1974). This
shift reflects the development of a VET market; the increased focus on industry
competencies and national training packages; increased private provider access to the
market; and the increased influence by industry on vocational education and training
outcomes.
However, it is noteworthy that the more recently published documents are the ones
that have been determined as having a balanced emphasis. This may be a result of a
policy adjustment given the economic rationalist and managerialist influences on
education policy in the 1990’s.
From a Student Access position, only one policy document was deemed to have an
economic focus; that is, the earlier published national policy document, A Bridge to
the Future (ANTA, 1998). All other documents presented either a social service or
balanced emphasis. This emphasis reflects continuity within TAFE as a sector that
remains open to a broad range of individuals since its inception following the
Kangan Report (1974). Thus, while some may argue that there are systemic barriers
to accessing TAFE, there do not appear to be entrenched policy strategies that restrict
access for students.
There were issues raised in the literature that a social service view of TAFE’s role is
more than meeting the needs of certain disadvantaged groups (Ferrier & Anderson,
1998; Kangan, 1974; Powles & Anderson, 1996). Further, there were concerns that
there has been a shift way from a broader view of equity to a focus on those in need
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(Watson et al., 2000). As with Student Access, the earlier published policy
documents of A Bridge to the Future, Skilling Queensland and the TAFE Queensland
2003-2006 Strategic Plan, have been determined as being economic in emphasis. It
is the focus on equity strategies through identified target groups, rather than as a
central organising feature of the policy, that influenced this determination (Butler &
Ferrier, 1999; Smith et al., 1999). The more recently published documents have been
determined as balanced in emphasis for this feature and this shift, like that to a
System Emphasis, may reflect an adjustment in policy approach.
At a national and state level, Award Credentials is seen as predominantly an
economic emphasis. This is evidenced in a stronger focus on pathways through the
tiered educational system and a user choice approach to apprenticeships and
traineeships. Further, there is a strong link between the focus on National Training
Packages, industry competencies and the need for the VET system and TAFE to be
relevant and responsive to industry. This industry driven influence on award
credentials, that links economic success through vocational education to meet the
labour needs of industry through a competency-based system, is unlikely to diminish
in emphasis for the foreseeable future.
Other than the Kangan Report (1974) and the recent Queensland ETRF policy, there
is a consistent focus on increasing individual and industry contributions to vocational
education and training. From a system perspective, this may be still relatively minor
in revenue collected from either students or industry. However the ideology of a user
pays system reflects an influence that perceives that the ‘market’ would be more
effective at managing the VET market to minimise inefficient and unnecessary use of
the system.
The findings presented across all of the policy documents clearly show at least a shift
away from the initial social service focus established by Kangan (1974) to one that
emphasises an economic focus, even if that focus is reflected in a balanced approach
as suggested within a range of the policy documents. The following section presents
the findings from the elite interviews undertaken with senior executives from
Queensland’s Department of Employment and Training and TAFE Institutes.
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5.3 INTERVIEW ANALYSIS: DETERMINING A POLICY POSITION
5.3.1 Introduction
This section presents the key findings that have been developed from the elite
interviews as they relate to the primary research question: ‘What is the current policy
position of TAFE Queensland with respect to the emphasis placed on a social service
and economic utility role?’ Section 5.2 addressed this question by an analysis of
seven key policy documents. This section presents a discussion of the views of six
senior executives of the Department of Employment and Training (DET) and
Queensland TAFE sector.
The six senior executives were chosen because of their capacity to influence the
development and/or implementation of policy at a strategic level. The interviewees
understood that the role they fulfilled was why their participation was sought in this
study and that the views and opinions they expressed should reflect their
organisational role or position responsibilities more than their personal stance on any
issue. A brief outline of the role of each interviewee is as follows:
• Deputy Director General: The primary responsibility of this role is for service
delivery through TAFE Institutes and to provide strategic leadership for TAFE
institutes in Queensland. Further, this role provides a significant link between
Queensland and Commonwealth agendas and is a key role in negotiations on
funding arrangements and policy development between Queensland and the
Commonwealth.
• General Manager Strategic Directions and Policy: This is a key role in the
development of Queensland policy for vocational education and training and
employment. As part of the Department’s senior executive, this role produces
policy documents that articulate the department’s position on a range of policy
areas.
• General Manager Planning and Purchasing: This role has two broad functions. It
is the key Department representative with industry and seeks to identify current
and future skills and training needs of industry in support of the Queensland
economy. Secondly, this role provides the mechanism to allocate funding both to
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the publicly funded TAFE sector and through contestable funds available to both
the TAFE sector and private training providers.
• Chair, TAFE Queensland Executive (TQE): The incumbent in this role is an
Institute Director of a TAFE institute. During their reign as Chair TQE they
retain their role as Institute Director. The Chair of TQE formally represents
TAFE Queensland at a range of forums, including the senior executive of DET.
In this role, the Chair has the capacity to influence policy development as it
affects TAFE institutes. The institute that this Director manages is a large
Brisbane metropolitan institute.
• Institute Director: This is also a dual role in that the incumbent is responsible for
a TAFE institute and strategic responsibility for information communication
technology. This role participates on the senior executive of the Department and
manages a small institute that focuses on online and distance delivery.
• Institute Director: This role is Institute Director for a regional institute. Regional
institutes are said to face different sets of issues from those in metropolitan
institutes in that they have less capacity to specialise in areas and are seen to
work more closely with their immediate community than in metropolitan
institutes.
These roles are a blend of those that have the capacity to influence strategic policy
development and those that are required to implement policy within a TAFE institute
environment. As mentioned earlier, there have been changes to these roles and
responsibilities and to the individuals occupying these roles since the research was
undertaken. Thus, the views and opinions expressed by the individuals reflect the
roles held by them at a particular point in time.
The plan for the interview process was established in Chapter 4 where it was agreed
that semi-structured/open-ended questions would guide conversations to elicit the
‘facts of a matter’, and to seek the opinions of those interviewed regarding the
current policy position of TAFE (Burns, 2000; Minichiello, et al., 1995; Rubin &
Rubin, 1995; Yin, 2003). Interviews ranged from 45 minutes to one hour and were
conducted in the offices of each of the participants. An aide-memoir was used to
guide the conduct of the interviews. All interviewees permitted the researcher to
tape record the discussions. Following the interview, transcripts were produced and
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provided to each interviewee for perusal and comment if needed. No interviewee
sought to amend points raised within the transcripts.
As a stimulus for the discussion, informants were provided with the ‘tentative’
positioning of the seven key policy documents analysed in the previous sections.
This information was provided in a set of pre-reading notes prior to the interview.
Those interviewed were not required to comment on the analysis of individual policy
documents or validate or challenge the overall emphasis of the policies presented;
however, they were provided with an opportunity to do so as part of establishing the
context of the interviews. The purpose of the interviews was to ascertain the current
policy emphasis of TAFE Queensland’s social service and economic utility role from
the viewpoint of the elite policy makers and influencers within the system.
Throughout the following section participant responses provide illustrative examples
of the key ideas and concepts presented that underpin the findings presented. As
discussed in the introduction of this chapter, and consistent with the methodology
used to present the findings for the policy documents, interview responses were
aligned to the social service and economic utility characteristics of the Key Features
of the TAFE system and represented in the Model used for this thesis.
5.3.2 Interview Findings
The findings reported here present a compilation of the views expressed by the key
informants. Of interest to this research is the consistency, or otherwise, between the
findings presented between the policy position represented by each of the policy
documents, and an overall policy position as evidenced by the views of those
interviewed.
Generally, there was consistency in the views of those interviewed regarding a range
of issues relating to vocational education and TAFE Queensland. Where there was
inconsistency, or where there were individual views that were contradictory to the
prevailing view, or where there were specific views raised only by one or two
interviewees, this is acknowledged within each section. As addressed in Chapter 4,
given the elite nature of the roles played by the participants, and to ensure that
maximum confidentiality was maintained, the findings from the interviews are
126
presented such that specific individuals are not easily identifiable. Where specific
quotes are used, they have been attributed to Participant 1, Participant 2 and so forth.
[A] System Emphasis
There was consistent support by participants for the view that there has been a shift
in policy towards an economic focus over recent years and that an existing
Queensland government imperative is about meeting the economic development and
capacity building of the State. Noteworthy was a comment by Participant 5 who
stated that “there is no policy position for TAFE Queensland as being an enabler
from an economic development context”. While this appeared to be the case,
Participants 1 and 2 suggested that this economic imperative was reflected in
resource agreements and key performance indicators established for institutes and
institute directors. Participant 5 provided insight into current and future policy
directions when it was said that there will be a need to:
Increasingly align [government] investment in public debt away from non-
priority funding, non-priority training which is basically non-economically
aligned ….. so the social agendas that run across our organisation [DET]
will shift very much to where are the opportunities to maximise economic
return to the community and/or State.
As can be seen here, Participant 5 was suggesting that any social agenda for
vocational education and training will need to be considered in the context of
responding to a broader economic agenda.
Notwithstanding a general view by participants that a key driver for the system is
economic benefit, Participant 1 expressed a view that:
The focus clearly needs to be on the person receiving the service and it
really does need to be upon the individual …. because benefits to them and
the economic utility will only accrue if those people have been engaged and
the best possible services provided to them.
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In this context, Participant 1 was not moving away from the key economic driver, but
highlighted the need to maintain a level of focus by the system on the provision of
services to students.
Other participants argued that there was a need for balance between a social and
economic purpose of TAFE with a number of participants suggesting that this was
more of an issue in a regional context where a balance was needed between
individual and community needs. In this context, Participant 5 argued that:
Metro-based [metropolitan] institutes are not really community based ... that
beyond the south east corner there is ... a greater acceptance that the
contribution that the [Regional] institutes make to the community goes
beyond just economic growth.
Participant 2 claimed that the economic agenda was at least equally important as a
social agenda, while other participants [3, 4, 5 and 6] saw that the economic issues
are inter-linked with social issues, with the social underpinning the economic. This
position supports a view expressed by some participants that the issue of social
service for TAFE was more about a means to an end, with the end being the
achievement of the broader economic objectives reflected in such documents as the
Queensland Government’s Charter of Social and Fiscal Responsibility (Queensland
Government, 2004a). It was seen by Participant 3 that:
In Queensland, schools and education fall within our social policy paradigm
while DET [and therefore TAFE] is within our economic policy paradigm.
Participant 5 provided an even more emphatic focus on an economic agenda as
evidenced by the following:
We [DET] are first and foremost about the implementation of government
policy. In that context, we are about building human and social capital for
economic growth. There is no other agenda -- that is the agenda.
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This stance reflects the views of many of the participants who suggested that DET
and TAFE are more about skilling and employment than general education although
the rhetoric within Departmental policy supports aspects of a social service agenda.
Participants 1 and 6 challenged the Model presented in this study and indicated that
in this framework, focus on the individual was seen as a social service characteristic.
They argued that the social service of employability was an economic driver for the
person and for the economy. These views reflected the complexity of the task of
arranging features and characteristics of a system into either a social service or an
economic utility context, and reinforce the issues discussed in Chapter 4 that
underpinned the development of a model beyond a continuum. Further, the views
presented by interviewees in this section were significant in influencing the
development of a tentative model to view TAFE that is presented within Chapter
Eight (refer: Figure 12).
From a System Emphasis perspective, there was a consistent view expressed by
participants that substantiates an argument that the current and foreseeable emphasis
for TAFE Queensland is and will be more economic than social. Therefore, based
on the participants’ views it is reasonable to determine that the emphasis for System
Emphasis falls within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility emphasis (refer: Appendix 12,
Policy Emphasis Table).
[B] Student Access
Participants did not cite any evidence of a restrictive approach by policy-makers to
people accessing Queensland TAFE services, although they generally acknowledged
that there was a set of government priorities that influenced the direction of
government funded training. This was illustrated by Participant 2 who stated that:
“There has been a drive towards economic output ... focussing on skill shortages and
government priorities”. This economic focus was further emphasised in the views
expressed by Participants 3, 5 and 6, that reflected a view presented by Participant 4
who stated that:
General education activities are now more seen as a bridging strategy for
students with literacy, numeracy, cultural heritage as part of a re-
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engagement strategy that supports a DET perspective of implementing
government policy in the context of building human and social capital for
economic growth.
While not ignoring student needs, these participant views supported the argument
that access is focussed more toward an environment that suggests that the education
and training undertaken by students should be market driven. However, there was a
balanced commitment reflected in the views expressed by many participants to the
broader social service principle of open access. For example, it was argued by
Participant 2:
That a shift away from traditional trades has assisted an equity balance with
the emergence of many new service industries that have provided both
formal training and employment opportunities for significant numbers of
women who now have access to education.
As also argued by other participants, this shift was reflected in the 1980s movement
to competency-based training in a so-called industry led paradigm that was all about
making skills relevant. As expressed by Participant 6, “this industry led paradigm
reflected a Taylorist view of industry needs”. Frederick Taylor, the pioneer of
scientific management theory, emphasised a focus on analysing and standardising
work activities; separating the management function of ‘thinking’ from the worker
function of ‘doing’ (Morgan, 1997). By recognising the value of knowledge and
skills-based training that underpins competency-based training, there are now both
formal qualifications and government funds directed towards a broader range of
industries such as children’s services, aged care, and retail and health services.
Therefore, these industries that are more traditionally female dominated now have a
qualification framework on par with the more male dominated traditional trade areas.
Participants 4, 5 and 6 suggested that in recent times it has been argued that this
industry influence has been over-stated with about half the jobs in industry being
able to be undertaken with more general, but still vocational, qualifications. It was
seen by participants that the world of work is changing; there are more specialised
training needs; there is a need for individualised training solutions for people; and
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there is a need to train and re-train people throughout their lives as jobs change or
they change jobs. However, these views focussed on the economic imperative of the
outcome of providing open access to students as evidenced by the view expressed by
Participant 5 in a discussion on a person’s contribution to the State’s social and
human capital:
[Human capital] is about customer service and delivery as an end in itself.
It’s merely a means to ensuring that your human potential, your economic
potential, is maximised by ensuring that your learning, and the opportunity
for you to learn is maximised through a variety of ways…
There was an imperative generally evidenced in the views by participants that
students should access qualifications or courses that respond to the needs of the
market and that are economically focussed. However, while there was little
discussion on access being student driven or welfare focussed, there were arguably
few constraints around student choice. It can be argued that the views expressed by
participants reflected a balanced approach to Student Access. In this case, it is
reasonable to determine that the emphasis for Student Access falls within Quadrant
[2]: Balanced Emphasis (refer: Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
[C] Equity Goals
Overall, participants commented that the seven policies under review position the
VET system as a system which includes an equity focus. While equity is not
necessarily the highest priority within these policies, it was identified by Participant
4 “as an essential element, both explicitly and implicitly”. In other words, equity is
both stated in policies and reflected in the practices of the Department and TAFE
Institutes. It was also presented by participants, particularly 2, 4 and 6 that
regardless of any policy direction, an important consideration for DET and
Queensland TAFE is to make sure that disadvantaged people are not further
disadvantaged when accessing and/or completing vocational qualifications.
Participant 3 claimed that:
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There is an understanding that TAFE has an obligation towards access and
equity by making product, space and service available to people who may
be more disadvantaged in the community.
A number of participants also argued that, notwithstanding any policy position, or
lack there-of, within each TAFE Institute there was a strong set of approaches
supported by institute management to ensure access into the system by those deemed
as disadvantaged. An example of this commitment to equity was presented by
Participant 4 who maintained that a focus on equity was strongly reflected in
performance of output as seen by Indigenous student participation increases since
mid-1980. It was also acknowledged by this participant that there were still
inadequacies in the effectiveness of the outcomes of such participation, but this level
of participation was positive as without participation, the effectiveness of the output
cannot be improved.
Participants 5 and 6 in particular saw equity and access issues as secondary to an
economic agenda with Participant 5 expressing a view that:
You [institute management] will not fill your institutes and your training
places according to population groups … you will fill your institutes around
priority industries … so in focussing on the needs, the access and equity
issues, you are very much focussed on the economic agenda.
In this context a focus on equity is on identifying groups in need rather than a
broader response to all student needs. Therefore, equity strategies and policy are
more likely to be seen within economic rather than social terms. The success of an
equity strategy is more likely to be seen as a measurable outcome (e.g., qualification
completion and employment outcomes) rather than in broader qualitative terms that,
for instance, simply reflect participation in an activity for the general benefit of the
individual, whether that be vocational, general or socially focussed in outcome.
No participant saw equity and access as unimportant. Equity and access were seen
by participants as a critical first step at least for individuals to improve life chances to
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build social and economic prosperity in the community. For example, Participant 6
highlighted the importance of:
‘Helping people that [sic] are unemployed and the most seriously socially
and economically disadvantaged ... so that they are capable of taking a
place in an economic world that is simply a social world where you work to
earn the right of passage to live and be part of the community.
The Education and Training Reforms for the Future (ETRF) (2002) strategy was
seen by Participant 5 as an example of a shift towards cross-sectoral involvement,
and a significant bridge between social and economic agendas. ETRF supports a
focus on lifelong-learning; provides education and community sectors with an
opportunity to work with common purpose; and it blurs sectoral boundaries
providing more community orientated focus on educating and training youth. Yet,
Participant 5 argued that ultimately the ETRF agenda should be “more economic
than social …. it [should] be around the economic priorities for the State”.
Uncertainty over the purpose of Queensland TAFE was seen by some participants as
reflecting broader tensions around general and vocational education. Expressed by
Participant 5 was a belief that a common view of TAFE by teaching staff was that
‘TAFE is about social development, equity access, and second chance education’.
This view reflects the core Kangan principles and is somewhat contradictory to the
prevailing Department policy and management focus on skills for work. However,
Participant 6 presented a view that “it’s not obvious what TAFE does … it’s
anything to anybody that you want it to be”.
As evidenced by the views expressed by the participants, there appears to be no lack
of commitment in DET or TAFE policy on the issue of equity. Further, there does
not appear to be a focus merely on meeting the needs of identified target groups (an
economic characteristic in the framework for this thesis). Therefore, within the
framework established for this research the views expressed fall within a balanced
emphasis and therefore it is reasonable to determine that the emphasis for Equity
Goals falls within Quadrant [2]: Balanced Emphasis (refer: Appendix 12, Policy
Emphasis Table).
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[D] Award Credentials
Participants acknowledged that over recent years there has been a general shift in
government funding for TAFE Queensland away from general education and those
qualifications that are not vocationally focussed. It was also generally confirmed by
participants that over recent years the VET system has been industry led, which has
resulted in a strong emphasis on delivering industry relevant qualifications.
Participants 4 and 6 expressed the view that this focus has been tempered by the
recognition that qualification pathways provide organisational and occupation
outcomes as much as meeting specific industry skill needs. However, they conclude
that the emphasis is still on training packages and competency-based training.
A general view of those interviewed was that the common thread for VET [and
TAFE] was this focus on skills for work; and that the current system today is
fundamentally about the economic paradigm of the relevance of skills for a working
world. Participant 4 argued that part of the role of a national vocational education
and training system was to “broaden out the VET system and focus on jobs [skills]
not catered for by universities”. In this context, the participant was suggesting that a
university outcome was often less vocationally specific than a VET outcome and that
the TAFE role has been to provide qualifications more specifically targeted to
industry needs. This shift towards vocational qualifications not generally catered for
by universities was broader than a traditional focus on trades and apprentices,
encompassing many occupations and industries that had little or no qualification
framework or system before the implementation of national training packages in the
early 1990’s.
Until recently there has been a need within Queensland to encourage people to
undertake vocational training to provide them with the knowledge and skills to gain
employment. In the current ‘full’ employment market, the current scenario of
“people with qualifications are getting work whether they need the [specific]
qualification or not” was a matter of some irony to Participant 4. This situation
suggests that an economic imperative for employers when labour is plentiful may be
to use qualifications as a ‘selection tool’; however when labour is scarce, the value of
qualifications is less important than an individual’s availability to start work.
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With the information provided, and with due regard to the aforementioned
discussions, the emphasis for Award Credentials is based on pre-determined
outcomes and the market value of qualifications and, therefore, falls within Quadrant
[3]: Economic Utility Emphasis (refer: Appendix 12, Policy Emphasis Table).
[E] Finance
It was generally argued by participants, but specifically by Participant 3:
That the TAFE sector has grown out of a time that has seen education in its
broadest sense as a public good and that to invest dollars in education is for
the good of the public.
However, it was also presented by Participant 6 that recent influences have seen a
shift so that “education is now seen as a private good”. This concept was further
evidenced by Participant 4 who stated that: “this means that individuals invest in
their education and gain their own benefits from it, and the benefits are there”. It
was recognised that these benefits for individuals were both social and economic.
Further, Participant 3 argued that “governments are [now] more comfortable about
how it [sic] delivers its social obligations through private entities”. This view
diminishes expectations that only the public provider can deliver on social agendas
on behalf of governments.
As indicated previously, there was a general agreement by participants that there is a
lack of policy around both VET and the Queensland TAFE. One consequence of
this was identified by Participant 6 who stated that: “with this absence of policy,
common sense and accountability to government have been key drivers”. An
example of this absence was highlighted by Participant 6 who identified there was a
lack of clear policy around student fees, or who pays what and why. According to
some participants, this lack of policy has created inconsistency between institutes
whereby similar courses are offered to students at significantly different prices. For
example, for the same qualification outcome, some students pay a minimal regulated
fee, others may pay fee-for-service, while others a blend of these two. The issue is
not that there are different prices for students as such; the issue is there is no policy
framework around why there is difference. This can be seen as further evidence of
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an implied endorsement of a shift towards a system whereby individuals can choose
to pay more or differently for services offered.
Based upon the participants’ discussions, it is reasonable to determine that the
emphasis for Finance reflects a focus on increasing individual contributions and
therefore falls within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis (refer: Appendix 12,
Policy Emphasis Table).
5.3.3 Summary and Discussion of Interviews
The findings from the interviews were presented within a framework of Key
Features in the same way that the policy documents were. Appendix 12, Policy
Emphasis Table, provides a visual representation of where the interviewees’
positioning of each Key Feature has been placed. The overall policy emphasis,
based upon the interview findings, has been visually presented in the Model
developed for this study (refer: Figure 9)
Figure 9: Policy Position – Interviews
[1]
Social Service
Emphasis
[4] No
Representation
[3] Economic Utility
Emphasis
[2] Balanced
Emphasis
Elite Interviews (Aug - Sept 2004)
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It was generally argued by participants that the policy positions represented by the
VET system reflected both a social service and economic utility context; however
over recent years the economic agenda was the prevailing one. This System
Emphasis was reflected in the participant views that government policy, State and
federal, were focussed mainly on an economic agenda and that any social agenda
would be in the context of achieving an economic gain, either for the individual,
community of economy. There was limited discussion on Award Credentials and
Finance. However, there were clear indications that the interviewees acknowledged
the focus on pre-determined outcomes through the national training package system,
a focus on the value of gaining a credential or qualification and that government is
quite comfortable with increasing contribution from either individuals or industry.
Accordingly, the Key Features System Emphasis, Award Credentials and Finance
have been placed within the economic quadrant of the Model.
While there were discussions on a market driven and economic influence on student
access, there were no explicit policy constraints presented by interviewees around
student access to TAFE. Similarly, while there was discussion that the focus of
equity was ultimately towards an economic agenda, there was a consistent
recognition of the importance of an equity agenda. In consequence, Student Access
and Equity Goals have been placed within the Balanced Quadrant; however, it is also
reasonable to argue that if the placement was not here, they would have been in the
economic rather than the social quadrant. An influencing factor for both Key
Features to be placed in the balanced quadrant was that, while there was a broader
System Emphasis focus on an economic agenda, there was generally positive rhetoric
on the need to provide access and equity, and there was no evidence of intent to
restrict access or marginalise equity.
As discussed by the participants, there is no explicit policy position of the role or
purpose of TAFE Queensland and there was some conjecture by those interviewed as
to whether this was an issue or not. However, there was consistent agreement by
participants that there has been a shift away from the Kangan (1974) position
characterised by a student centred, general education system as the priority emphasis
as evidenced in 5.2.1. There was a common view by those interviewed that DET and
TAFE Queensland’s role is to deliver on the Queensland governments priorities and
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that the key focus of these priorities are economically focussed. While the issues of
social service were seen to be important by participants, the primary role of TAFE
Queensland was not seen as being a social service agent. It is for these reasons that
the current policy position of TAFE Queensland, as evidenced by the views of those
interviewed, is within Quadrant [3]: Economic Utility Emphasis (refer: Figure 9).
5.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY
A Model was used to provide a visual representation of a policy emphasis for each of
the seven policy documents analysed. This Model also presented the findings of the
interviews with six senior executives with Queensland’s Department of Employment
and Training and Queensland TAFE. The findings from an analysis of six policy
documents and the interviews provided consistent evidence that there has been a
fundamental shift away from the original position established by the Kangan Report
(1974) (refer: Figure 10).
Figure 10: Policy Position - Documents and Interviews
[1]
Social Service
Emphasis
[4] No
Representation
[3] Economic Utility
Emphasis
[2] Balanced
Emphasis
A Bridge to the Future (1998-2003)
Skilling Queensland (2001-2004)
TAFE Strategic Plan (2003-2006)
Elite Interviews (Aug – Sept 2004)
Shaping our Future (2004-2010)
ETRF (2002)
DET Strategic Plan (2003-2007)
Kangan Report (1974)
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The national policy document, Shaping our Future (2004), and the State policy
documents Education and Training Reforms for the Future (2002) and the DET
Strategic Plan (2003) provided sufficient evidence of both a social service and
economic utility focus to justify an overall balanced emphasis. As previously
discussed, it is noteworthy that these were three of the more recently published
policy documents analysed.
Having determined a current policy position for TAFE Queensland as evidenced by
an analysis of seminal policy documents and elite interviews, the next chapter
addresses the second question of this thesis.
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CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS - A Policy Emphasis
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In addition to determining a policy position of TAFE Queensland with respect to a
social service and economic utility role, another important area of investigation for
this research concerns the key influences in determining this emphasis. The focus
for this chapter is a response to the second question which asks: ‘What influences are
shaping a TAFE Queensland policy emphasis towards either a social service or
economic utility role, as evidenced by the views of these senior officers?
In Chapter Four the data analysis strategy, a constant comparative method, was
discussed. This methodology was used to analyse the interviews with DET and
TAFE senior executives by culling for the meanings from words and developing
these into themes (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994). From the analysis of the data
collected from the six interviews with senior executives of Queensland DET and
TAFE, three key themes emerged that provided a structure to present a response to
the second research question. The themes that emerged were:
• A Lack of Clarity of TAFE Queensland Policy
• The Role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors
• A Focus on Key Performance Indicators
The following sections consider these themes.
6.2 A LACK OF CLARITY OF TAFE QUEENSLAND POLICY
Within this theme, a lack of clarity on TAFE Queensland policy, a number of sub-
themes are addressed. These sub-themes are policy: framework or an explicit
position; policy gaps; TAFE as a public provider; individual institutes or a TAFE
sector and TAFE as a policy arm of government. Each of these sub-themes is now
discussed in turn.
6.2.1 Policy: A Framework or an Explicit Position:
There was a consistent view among participants that there is a lack of policy clarity
around the role and purpose of the TAFE Queensland, and of the broader VET
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system within Australia. Overall, participants concluded that the recent policy
documents were typically more about what has been happening rather than a focus
on what needs to happen and, in this context, it was also argued that there is not a
great deal of policy direction in the seven documents identified. This policy clarity
issue was reflected in the position argued by Participant 6:
There is little or no understanding of a philosophy of VET by senior [or
aspiring] executive people; there is insufficient diversity in management
style within the Department; and there is too much focus on mechanisms,
the processes [and] the practice rather than strategic management by senior
executives.
In presenting this view, Participant 6 was suggesting that the department is currently
more focussed on measuring performance of a process rather than having a clear
understanding of what it requires the broader VET and specifically TAFE Institutes
to achieve. Participant 1 emphasised this lack of policy in expressing a view that:
What I believe is lacking is [a] policy position on the Queensland VET
system which articulates then a position for the whole public provider as
opposed to the role of private provider and then makes clear what, if any,
differences should occur.
However, Participant 5 did not support the development of a single policy document
to frame activities:
I do not support view of let’s publish a document as a vision statement and
everyone will sort of look to it and implement it because the minute we do
that, it is dated …… what is more important is that you have a policy
framework such as ….. SmartVET, which is a translation of government
priority, and that people come together continually to dialogue and project
to achieve that.
In this way, Participant 5 saw that strategic activity would be able to respond and
adjust to emerging needs of government rather than be constrained by a particular
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policy position. Challenging this stance on DET policy was a view by Participant 6
who argued that policy was seen as “organic, with the purchaser responding to the
squeaky wheel” with the implication being that policy was less focussed on what is
strategically required than what interest groups such as industry, politicians and
individual senior executives within the department may want. In this way, if the
dominant interest groups seek a focus on economic and industry needs, then
regardless of what strategic policy documents may suggest, policy practice will
reflect these economic and industry agendas.
There were divergent views expressed as to whether an explicit policy position
should be established. Participant 5 was concerned that by developing an explicit
position a common understanding of the role and purpose of TAFE as the public
provider would be known. However, for Participant 5, the down-side to this was the
potential energy that would be misdirected by constant discussion as to whether this
position was correct. Conversely, the view presented by Participant 1 was that it
was better to provide a broader policy position that allowed a more implicit
approach to policy to sit within this broader context. However, participants
generally contended that there was an opportunity for building a stronger TAFE
sector from the current position and there was a deliberate strategy to drive change
towards a future focussed policy position both for TAFE as the public provider and
DET as the managing agency of TAFE.
6.2.2 Policy Gaps
There was a perceived gap between policy development and operation by some
participants. This was reflected in Participant 2’s view that planning in the
Department links effectively with treasury and government, as it should, but there
was “little coming together with implementers or operations on the impact of
policy”. In this context, Participant 2 also suggested that there was a perceived gap
“between the thinking of policy makers and policy implementers within the
Department”. If, as suggested by Participant 2, there was a gap in thinking, then
this could be reflected in the inconsistency between the more balanced position of
recent policy documents while the policy influencers, such as those interviewed as
part of this research, appear to have adopted a strong economic stance. For example,
policy implementers are left to fill policy voids in the current emphasis of access,
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equity and finance issues with localised practices. Examples of these localised
practices were reflected in the analysis of interviews on the Key Features: Equity
Goals and Finance that demonstrated inconsistencies across TAFE Queensland.
These inconsistencies reflect a lack of policy rather than a deliberate policy of
allowing institutes to meet localised conditions (eg: the role a regional institute plays
in meeting community and/or social needs compared to a metropolitan institute).
A policy position for TAFE Queensland around its role and purpose in a social or
economic context can be presented with a range of explicit visions and statements,
or as a policy framework. Regardless of the explicit or implicit nature of any policy
position, there needs to be clarity of the capacity of policy implementers, such as
Institute Directors, to develop and implement localised policies and practices. The
capacity for local policies and practices may be that there is no opportunity, or that
there is significant scope within an established framework. Further, any policy
position or framework needs to recognise that there can, and perhaps should be,
inconsistencies of an equity, access or financial nature across the TAFE Queensland
system; it is the defensibility of the inconsistency that is paramount and the
interview findings suggest that current policy gaps that provide for inconsistency
across the TAFE Queensland system are there by default, not design.
6.2.3 TAFE as a Public Provider
The historical intent of a ‘Public Provider’, as presented within the Kangan (1974)
position, suggests that the public provider has more of a social service role to play
than a private provider within the broader VET system. However, an analysis of
policy documents and the perceptions of the six interviewees in this study, showed a
shift away from the Kangan (1974) position, that emphasised a TAFE sector as one
more focussed on, for example, the individual needs of students, general education,
and open access and with minimal costs to students. The analysis of the interviews
suggested that the emphasis was now more focussed on an economic role for TAFE.
The general view supported by interview participants was that government needs a
public provider base to be able to respond to changes in economic circumstances and
to provide a level of protection for individuals from the impact of fluctuations in the
VET market. They saw the public provider as providing a capacity for government
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to demonstrate leadership on market programs and as a tool to drive economic and
social change. However, participants argued that while there was general support
for the need for a public provider there was little, if any, policy difference between
TAFE and the broader VET market, although the concept of TAFE as a market
protection mechanism has been represented in the national strategies espoused by
ANTA (1998, 2004).
Participant 6 had a strong belief that: “a public sector organisation does not have an
innate right to exist and that the argument for automatic retention tends to be from
within”. This view was supported by Participant 5 who argued that “we [DET] need
to be demonstrating public value” to provide a capacity to be an advocate of the
system to government. However the same participant also indicated that “there will
always be a place that carries a government endorsement for learning”. (It is
relevant to note that some private providers also receive funding directly from
government and therefore, can be seen as ‘government endorsed’).
Participants 1 and 2 argued that the community needs a public provider that provides
benefits for the individual and community with broader outcomes. It was also
proposed by these participants that Government, through a public provider, has an
obligation to the whole community. Further, they argued this obligation was perhaps
more significant in regional areas. As Participant 5 stated, “[TAFE] institutes in
communities are part of the social capital of a community … and people [in the
community] talk about wanting a physical presence of a TAFE building there”.
This general view by participants supporting a view of regional institutes as being
more clearly embedded in their community was further evidenced in a point raised
by Participant 5 who also said that “the social capital role is different in regional
areas”. Participants saw that there was a symbolic role of a public provider with a
government presence represented through physical buildings and facilities, through
the leadership that a TAFE Institute can represent within a community and in the
community expectations that relate to the paying of taxes and a right to access
learning.
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Overall there was a view that TAFE will, and should, remain the key player as a
public provider in the VET system. This argument was supported through the
example of the cost of technical skills that are not able to be done well by private
providers. Therefore, it was reasoned that the public provider, TAFE, “is the place to
build capacity to meet skilling needs of the economy” (Participant 4). Generally
TAFE was seen by Participants as relatively well-funded and strong and it was also
argued that countries that have a strong public system have a strong VET system
with the reverse also applying (Participant 4). Participant views generally reflected
the notion that TAFE is a government’s commitment to an investment in community,
its own future, and its own strengths as an economy. Further, there was a general
understanding, or at least an acceptance by participants, that TAFE has an obligation
towards access and equity, making product, space and service available to people
who may be disadvantaged in the community.
6.2.4 Individual Institutes or a TAFE Sector
The competitive environment in which TAFE Institutes operate was viewed by
participants as a key influence on institute activities. In turn, this competitive
environment potentially influences the focus that individual institutes, through their
management structure, have on social or economic agendas. The more influence
that focus has on individual institutes, the greater the likelihood of inconsistencies in
their emphasis on such social and/or economic agendas as the emphasis is on
institute performance rather than on a TAFE system performance.
Because each institute is somewhat different from the other, participants saw the
system in Queensland as potentially comprising 15 individual examples of a TAFE
model. Participants also indicated that there is an emerging crisis for regional
institutes, given the demographic shifts away from regions and an increased capacity
to deliver training in remote areas without location specific buildings and facilities
(Participant 4). They generally agreed that there is an emerging need for individual
institutes to specialise and develop niche markets, an issue particularly relevant for
regional institutes so that they could deliver services outside of their region. Thus,
Participant 4 argued that “TAFE has to be strategic about where it puts its efforts
from a labour market and analytical sense not a community service delivery sense”.
This view supports the expectation that the future of TAFE will be to develop
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products and services that other people cannot deliver which in turn will influence
product mix selection and delivery methodology at individual TAFE institutes.
Participant 4 suggested that this will also “challenge many people’s expectations of
what they see their ‘local TAFE’ being the provider of”.
According to participants there was tension between TAFE Queensland as a system
and the individuality of the fifteen Institutes. Indeed, one participant argued that:
Individuals, industry and community are not interested, nor do they
understand that this well-recognised brand is in fact a separate system
within each State, and that within Queensland there is a culture of
competitiveness between institutes.
However, Participant 1 indicated that the intensity of this competitiveness had
diminished over recent years. Participants 1 and 5 have the perception that a current
key driver of a number of existing Institute Directors was a culture of control; that is,
control over their own business. This creates uncertainty and tensions between the
role of the Department as the managing agency for TAFE and what is perceived as
being the Institute’s responsibility. Participants 1 and 2 argued that underpinning
this tension were the Resource Agreements and the development of Key Performance
Indicators (KPIs) around a focus on financial outcomes and the measurement of
hours of training. A further point made by Participant 2 that “the broader more
system focussed performance measures are arguably weaker and less valued”, re-
affirmed earlier discussions on the over-emphasis on quantitative KPIs with little or
no focus on KPIs that encourage Institute Directors to be more system focussed in
their decision-making.
Participant 4 argued that the TAFE client is increasingly one who already has skills,
knowledge and experience, and that in the future there will be less focus on entry-
level training and qualifications. Employment profiles are changing with fewer
people in large corporations, more people in small business, there are more
contractors and the casualised work-force is shifting to a demand-driven system
compared to the industry led system of recent times. Much of this has led to a push
over the last decade to move out of the trades system into service industries.
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However, Participant 4 argued that it is now time to reinvent the trades and focus on
skilling and re-skilling a range of people with existing knowledge and skills. A
challenge presented for the TAFE sector was that while it needs to shift to meet these
emerging needs, it is seen that the current business model still focuses on entry level
training. An impediment to the need to change is this tension between the
individuality of an Institute compared to the needs of a sector represented by 15
institutes.
Generally the TAFE sector was seen to be relatively well-funded and robust. The
key question raised by Participant 6 was:
What is it you want the funding to do? TAFE is the public provider and it
arguably has some social obligations, governance and legislative
obligations; and there is a need for TAFE to be seen as relevant to
government’s competing decisions about where it puts its resources.
The competitive nature between institutes is likely to influence the consistency in
emphasis around such issues as a social or economic role for TAFE. While overall
the system is seen to be economic in its focus, there remains a requirement to meet a
range of social service agendas. However, within any policy framework, the
competitiveness between institutes may distort the consistency with which any
emphasis is approached.
6.2.5 TAFE as a Policy Arm of Government
Overall, participants saw a need for a robust market with both private providers and
public providers. Both were viewed as being able to assist the role of government in
the distribution of resources and the achievement of goals around access and equity.
Participant 2 argued that competition has improved both the productivity and
responsiveness of TAFE Queensland, and this was beneficial for the broader VET
system. However, Participant 2 also argued that TAFE Institutes were seen as
“merely the delivery arm of a range of strategies from government as opposed to
being a public provider”. Participant 2’s argument was supported by other
participants who generally had a view that, from a policy perspective, there was little
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to distinguish publicly funded private RTO’s from a TAFE Institute. Participant 6
provided this view:
Arguably there is a broader government policy that says public provision is
about public good, that it is important for our whole society, and that we
invest and deliver this for the public. However, at the same time the policy
makers play around the edges with the private good allowing people to buy
more, or buy differently.
Evident in Participant 6’s statement was an expectation that government will
continue to invest in the public provision of vocational education and training.
Given earlier statements from Participants 5 and 6, it cannot be assumed that public
provision necessarily needs a TAFE sector to be the provider. However, participants
also argued that, in relative terms, public provision of vocational education and
training is still predominantly delivered in Queensland by TAFE institutes.
Participant 3 raised the issue that Queensland has a whole-of-government strategy
that provides a focus on how to get all Departments to view delivery of government
services as an integrated department issue rather than having departments competing
with each other. Within a whole of government focus, it was seen that governments
have become more comfortable about how they deliver their social obligations
through private entities by purchasing the service without the ownership of the
physical buildings, staffing and so forth. In this context, TAFE was not seen by
participants as social service delivery agent of government. However, while TAFE
was not seen as a social service delivery agent, social service and economic functions
were seen as “two sides of the one coin” (Participant 3). Further, while there was a
range of views expressed by participants suggesting that currently DET is not clear
about what its business strategy is on the purpose and use of TAFE Institutes, there
was a common acknowledgement of the current emphasis of using TAFE to support
the Queensland Government’s focus on economic growth.
From the evidence drawn from the interviews, it is reasonable to argue that the
current and foreseeable policy focus will accommodate a ‘public provider’ TAFE
sector that provides an appropriate vehicle for government to integrate economic and
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education policy to achieve a range of economic objectives. Further, the public
provider will provision a system of checks and balances that would ensure a range of
social agendas are met and a strong focus on training delivered by TAFE will be
where such issues as capital costs and financial viability inhibit a private provider
interest.
6.2.6 Summary
It was revealed by the participants that the role and purpose of TAFE Queensland is
unclear, although there has been evidence of a shift to an economic agenda over
recent years. The participants maintained that the lack of policy clarity has provided
scope for inconsistencies to emerge throughout the system by default rather than as a
result of any policy strategy to address localised needs. Lack of policy was also seen
to contribute to uncertainty both within the system among senior executives,
managers and educators, as well as externally in the perceptions of industry,
individuals and the community on the purpose and role of TAFE.
It was generally agreed by Participants that Queensland TAFE should remain as a
publicly funded sector in the foreseeable future. However there was no clear
reflection of this in policy and some participants did not see that it was an assumed
right for TAFE to remain. While these views are contradictory, they do reflect the
ongoing uncertainty over the future role and purpose of TAFE institutes. Adding to
this uncertainty around TAFE as the public provider, was an issue as to whether the
Queensland TAFE sector was, or should be, one system of 15 institutes, one system
represented by the institutes, or whether there is scope for a TAFE sector to operates
under a variety of models.
6.3 ROLE OF TAFE QUEENSLAND INSTITUTE DIRECTORS
Institute Directors are the senior executives who lead and manage institutes on behalf
of the Department of Employment and Training (DET). As individuals they are at
least influencers of policy implementation at an institute level. As part of a TAFE
Queensland Executive (TQE) collective, they have a capacity to influence the
development of policy. In this context, Institute Directors can influence an emphasis
toward either a social service or economic utility agenda both at a strategic level of
policy and within the policy framework of the practices of their institute. The
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following three sections address key issues that relate to the role of Institute
Directors.
6.3.1 Policy Developers, Influencers or Implementers
Institute Directors report directly to the Deputy-Director General (DDG). However
as part of annual negotiations for developing an Institute’s Resource Agreements,
Institute Directors negotiate with the Director General (DG), the DDG and the
General Manager Purchasing and Planning. Institute Directors are strategically
represented through TAFE Queensland Executive (TQE), now known as TAFE
Directors Queensland (TDQ). Since the interviews were held there have been some
organisational changes within the Department. For a short period Institute Directors
reported directly to a new role, the Executive Director of Operations (EDO),
however, this role has been discontinued and Institute Directors again report to the
DDG.
A general view expressed by participants was that Directors were not necessarily
seen as policy makers; rather their primary role is that of policy implementers.
However, there was also a consistent view amongst participants that Institute
Directors have not strategically influenced policy development and that they need to
be more influential in this area than is currently the case.
Some participants presented a view that there appeared to be a number of
organisational impediments to the issue of expanding and developing Institute
Director influence over policy development and strategic planning. Participant 2
referred to the short-term nature of annual performance agreements and the lack of
genuine negotiability that appear to exacerbate this issue. It was argued that the
current KPIs are not set by Institute Directors, “rather that they are set, or influenced,
by government and by industry groups”. Further, this participant in particular
concluded that Institute Directors were remunerated for their management of “big
budgets and large staff, emphasising an operational focus rather than for being
involved in debates around policy and direction”.
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6.3.2 Institute Director or Senior Bureaucrats
The participants agreed that an individual Institute Director’s philosophy and
interpretation of policy are key influences on both the strategic focus of an institute
and institute activity. The issue of influence by Institute Directors was presented, by
Participants 1 and 5 in particular, as somewhat problematic. In the mid-1990’s there
was a system move more towards independent institutes, focussing on managing
Institutes independently of each other. While not necessarily moving completely
towards the Victorian (Australia) model of TAFE as a statutory authority, this focus
towards institute independence and autonomy reflects the type and nature of a
number of Institute Directors employed at this time. Participants contended that
there had been a system shift over recent years to re-emphasise the role of TAFE as
the public provider and to focus on TAFE as a system and as a tool to implement
government policy. This shift created either tension or uncertainty as to the role that
an Institute Director has in relation to policy development and implementation.
However, Participant 5 argued there a generational shift was occurring with the new
thinking that:
They [Institute Directors] are [now considered] senior bureaucrats working
in a community to implement government policy; they are not first and
foremost a director of an institute … the next generation of directors … will
adopt a more systemic approach to the provision with a local flavour. It’s a
generational change.
This view implies there is, and should be, an emerging group of Institute Directors
who are more focussed on systemic improvements and achievements that support
broader government and department priorities, rather than those who are focussed on
individual institutes.
It was seen by participants that TAFE needs to assist the government to achieve the
outcomes it wants and in this context Participant 6 argued that “there was not enough
work helping senior managers make the translation from policy to practice”. Further,
participants agreed that there were insufficient hard measures to determine how
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Institute Directors, as Senior Executives of the department, contributed to the whole
of government environment.
Generally participants argued strongly that in order to have more influence on policy
development, the Institute Directors, through TAFE Directors Queensland (TDQ),
needed to be more strategic; more engaging with leaders in industry; more
responsive to government policy and more able to influence the department (DET)
strategically. If Institute Directors are not able to have an influence in these areas,
they are more likely to be restricted to the role of policy implementer, while any
determination of policy emphasis around a social or economic role for TAFE
Queensland would remain the domain of Government and DET policymakers who
do not necessarily have the same understanding of the local implications of any such
policy.
6.3.3 Political Influences
Participants generally agreed that governments influence an emphasis on a social or
economic position by their political flavour. In turn, this influences the Agency
(department) about the way it does its business (Participant 3). Thus, Participant 5
could comment that “the reality is, on a daily basis, we’re [DET] influenced by
politics and pressure groups and all those other things that influence how
governments push the boundaries of structure”.
Participants believed there were real and fundamental differences between party
politics that underpin policy that affects TAFE and the practicality that governs the
implementation of policy. Also discussed by Participant 3 was a belief that the
Department (DET) has yet to be financially tested to “make the hard decisions that
may not be politically palatable but right from a policy or business operation
perspective”. An example presented was around the issue of regional TAFE where
it was argued the primary issue relates to the value of government infra-structure
within a community, while what they deliver, education and training, can be
considered a secondary issue. This physical presence can relate to the needs of the
government of the day and lobby groups “rather than locating Institute campuses
around the convenience of students or closing institutes/campuses that are not
financially viable” (Participant 6).
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A number of participants raised concerns about the broader ANTA agenda and a
general combativeness around the State and ANTA funding arrangements. For
instance, Participant 6 argued “that ANTA has lost its way since its clearer initial
driver as a national industry driven training policy framework” and over recent times
has more simply been a federal government tool to focus on funding agreements. In
this context, Participant 6 concluded that “ANTA should be more focussed on a
national leadership role rather than the regulatory role it appears to have developed
over recent years”.
It is important to note that as of 1 July 2005 ANTA ceased to exist; the
responsibilities and functions of ANTA have been transferred to the federal
Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST); a new Ministerial Council
on vocational Education has been formed to lead the national training agenda (DEST,
2005, p.1); and that as of September 2004 there was no signed ANTA agreement
with Queensland. The dismantling of ANTA suggests that the Commonwealth
Government, through DEST, is seeking to take a more interventionist role over the
VET system, and over the associated negotiations with States and territories on the
allocation and use of Commonwealth funds for vocational education and training.
6.3.4 Summary
Participants highlighted the need for more clarity around the organisational
governance required to support the purpose of the TAFE system, whatever that
purpose may be. This was deemed relevant as the type of Institute Director required
will differ depending on whether a TAFE system or autonomous institute model is
preferred. The evidence from the interviews acknowledged that politics influences
the development of policy. Perhaps because political influences were seen as
inevitable this appeared to be a practical reality for senior executives and not seen as
overly significant. What was seen as more relevant was the need to have Institute
Directors more strategic in their focus, and preferably united as an interest group, so
that there was greater potential for them to influence key stakeholders such as
politicians, senior government bureaucrats and industry.
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6.4 FOCUS ON KEY PERFORMANCE MEASURES (KPIs)
Given the influence of performance measures on TAFE institutes, how these
measures impact both on institute activity and senior management decision making is
relevant in analysing key influences on a social service and economic utility role for
TAFE Queensland. This section provides insight into how the participants saw the
influence of performance measures on an emphasis either towards a social service or
economic utility role for TAFE Queensland.
A key measure of performance for TAFE Queensland is the Performance
Agreements established between the Department and each Institute’s Director. The
Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) in these agreements are predominantly output
driven in terms of delivered hours of training, with a strong focus on government
priorities for vocational education and training within priority industries. A resource
agreement reflects decisions about where and how money is spent and the key
priorities of government. Participants stressed that there was not always a match
between the KPIs and the vision and the goals of the department or of the key
objectives of relevant policy documents.
Generally participants argued that few of the KPIs in these agreements were about
outcomes for individuals and that the key performance indicators were
fundamentally economic in nature with efficiency and effectiveness type measures
currently quite strong and numerous. It was presented by Participant 2 that a key
driver behind this strategy has been to move the TAFE sector from one that was not
performing (financially) well in the mid-late 1990s, to a system that has more rigour
around financial and outcome performance over recent years. This emphasis on
financial output was raised as a current concern by Participant 5 when referring to
what influences the current Institute Directors:
... and we’ve got them [institutes] to a financially viable stage. They are
[Institute Directors] more interested in how do I continue my viability, and
they see everything else beyond their boundary, I think, as being a risk and a
cost.
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Participants acknowledged that current KPIs emphasising meeting skill shortages,
achievement of a financial operating surplus and delivering on the output targets of
delivered training hours were important, although there was also a capacity to
provide for a broader range of qualitative KPIs. Participants 2 and 5 indicated that
there have been some recent shifts to see growth funding focussed not simply on the
output of delivery but to “recognise a broader value of the investment of funding in
TAFE and other VET activities” (Participant 5). Arguably a less prescriptive
approach to performance indicators was reflected in strategies such as the recently
announced ‘Smart VET’ (Queensland Government, 2004) that presents strategies for
priority training for Queensland’s economic growth for 2004-2007.
Currently the TAFE sector focuses on the delivery of education and training,
although there was an emerging view from Participants 4, 5 and 6 that suggested
that, in the future, TAFE will play more of a brokerage role between the supply of
labour, those in need of training and those who seek to access those who have
become trained. Notwithstanding, there are a range of other issues that impinged on
output performance beyond a TAFE Institute’s control. These influences tended to
be “industrial in nature and include such issues as working arrangements and
conditions” (Participant 2). Additionally, participants commented that there was a
range of perceptions held by the wider community about vocational education and
training that had direct impact on the type of education and training sought by
individuals, regardless of government strategies and industry needs. Participant 2
argued that:
While there is a constant demand to provide training to meet skill shortages,
there is a set of conditions outside of TAFE that influence people’s choices
about staying or seeking employment in an organisation, industry or
occupation.
Further, there are circumstances whereby employers themselves do not value
supporting a training agenda as evidenced by Participant 2:
Ironically, while the system is influenced by what industry needs, industry
appears too often to have either a negative view of the ‘cost’ of training, see
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that having skilled people means that they will move on and thirdly that by
giving people more skills and qualifications, they will demand more money.
These types of perceptions, in themselves, are sufficient to reinforce an argument
that KPIs for TAFE need to be broader than those that are quantitative and economic
in focus.
There was insufficient evidence drawn from these interviews to ascertain how
significant current performance measures influence either a social or economic
emphasis. However, as evidenced by the views of the participants, it is reasonable
to argue that the type of performance measures used to measure institute
performance will consequently influence an emphasis either towards a social service
or economic context. It is also reasonable to argue that over recent years these
performance measures have focussed more on economic utility characteristics than
on measures that reflect social service characteristics.
6.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
There are many tensions that influence an emphasis either on a social service or
economic utility for TAFE Queensland. This chapter identified a range of influences
on TAFE Queensland as evidenced by an analysis of the interviews with six senior
executives of DET and TAFE Queensland. The influences were grouped into three
key themes. It was not possible to determine to what extent each of these influences
affect an emphasis in policy; however, they provided some insights regarding what
variables might need to be managed if a specific emphasis was to be achieved.
The ongoing role and purpose of the TAFE system is problematic as a core issue is
whether a policy position for TAFE should be explicit, or a whether a broader policy
position should be established. A more explicit position would provide more clarity;
however also provide scope for more policy ‘gaps’ to be identified. A broader
position might provide less clarity, but at the same time, provide more flexibility in
scope. The findings suggested that the role and purpose of Institute Directors is
somewhat attuned to the policy position of whether TAFE Institutes are seen as part
of a connected system, or as autonomous entities. What is significant is that there
should be a synergy between the two as the type of Institute Director required will
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differ under each model. Performance Agreements were seen as an influence on
institute management behaviour. This influence was evidenced by an emphasis on
quantitative outcomes related to institute performance that focussed management
behaviour on the institute needs rather than a contribution towards a broader system
The findings in Chapters Five and Six presented a rationale that, regardless of any
shifting emphasis, the TAFE sector does fill both a social service and economic
utility function. However, the interviewees appeared to highlight a common theme
that an economic agenda was the main influence on TAFE policy. Chapter Seven
provides an analysis of the findings presented in this and the preceding chapter.
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CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND ISSUES CHAPTER
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter analyses the findings presented in Chapters Five and Six that reviewed
seven seminal national and State policy documents and interviews with six senior
executives of the Queensland Department of Employment and Training (DET) and
Queensland TAFE in light of the theoretical framework developed in Chapter Three.
The theoretical framework, based on work by Powles and Anderson (1996),
identified two major functions performed by TAFE: a social service and an economic
utility function. A model was developed that demonstrated four policy positions
represented by quadrants and based on these two functions. These were [1] a social
service emphasis, [2] a balanced emphasis, [3] an economic emphasis and [4] an
indeterminate emphasis. Chapter Five Findings presented the policy position for
each policy document and the interviews in the Model developed for this thesis
(refer: Figure 10). This figure is reproduced in Figure 11, below.
Figure 11: Policy Position - Documents and Interviews
[1]
Social Service
Emphasis
[4] No
Representation
[3] Economic Utility
Emphasis
[2] Balanced
Emphasis
A Bridge to the Future (1998-2003)
Skilling Queensland (2001-2004)
TAFE Strategic Plan (2003-2006)
Elite Interviews (Aug – Sept 2004)
Shaping our Future (2004-2010)
ETRF (2002)
DET Strategic Plan (2003-2007)
Kangan Report (1974)
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An important finding of Chapter Five was a positioning of each of the seven policies,
and the overall emphasis of the interview findings, into one of the four quadrants of
the framework that best represented its nature and orientation. To assist in this
determination, five Key Features of the TAFE sector were evaluated. These Key
Features were a System Emphasis, Student Access, Equity Goals, Award Credentials
and Finance.
The focus of this chapter is threefold. Firstly, it discusses the positioning of the
seven policies and interviews into the quadrants identified in light of key theoretical
perspectives influencing education policy (Section 7.2). Secondly, it discusses three
themes that represent key influences on a social or economic emphasis. These
themes are a lack of clarity of TAFE Queensland policy, the role of institue directors
and a focus on key performance indicators (Section 7.3). Finally, the chapter
considers a number of related issues regarding the future role of and implications for
TAFE Queensland (Section 7.4).
7.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES INFLUENCING POLICY:
The following sections discuss and review the seven seminal policy documents
analysed in previous chapters and the elite interviews undertaken as they relate to
each of the quadrants presented in Figure 11.
7.2.1 A Social Service Emphasis
The Kangan Report (1974) provided a watershed for technical education in Australia
by effectively establishing the TAFE sector. Within this report Kangan effectively
argued for a general education approach, rather than a narrow technical skills concept
of Technical Education. The broad role of technical education and training was
evidenced by its vision that maintained “strong elements of a traditional liberal
education role, as practised in schools and especially higher education” (Veenker &
Cummins, 2001, p.3). Noonan (2001, p.4) argued that Kangan afforded TAFE a
prominent place not only within public education but also enabled vocational
education and training a status that was new and unknown at the time. For this
reason, the Kangan Report was used as the cornerstone policy document for this
research.
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In Chapter Five, the Kangan Report (1974) was analysed to determine its overall
emphasis. The five Key Features of the TAFE system used as part of this analysis
included a range of characteristics with a social service orientation. These
characteristics include a focus on individual needs of students; integration of social,
general education and vocational education; a focus on lifelong learning; a student
driven, open access system; a welfare focussed system; a system that responds to all
student needs providing open/multiple outcomes; an emphasis on individual
achievement; minimal fees paid by students and an expected government
contribution to education and training.
The analysis showed that the Kangan Report (1974) was the only policy document
researched that met social service criteria for each Key Feature of the TAFE sector.
The emphasis on social service was reflected in the Report’s recommendations that
included, for example, a strong commitment to unrestricted access to recurrent
education; a TAFE role in overcoming any omissions or deficiencies related to
primary and secondary schooling; support to be given to all students in the areas of
career counselling including the provision of social workers for counselling on
personal, family or social problems, and tutors where self learning has been
undertaken as an option; more open or multiple pathways for individuals; and
embedded a range of strategies that focus on a minimal fees regime for those
students undertaking TAFE courses. In this, the Kangan Report (1974) did not refute
the value of vocational education and training for an employment outcome for
industry or the economy. It did, however, recommend an emphasis away from
anticipating the vocational needs of the community as the prime purpose of technical
education and thus recommended a broader focus on individual needs. While the
Kangan Report (1974) acknowledged the role of TAFE in providing the economy
with a skilled workforce, it placed a higher emphasis on meeting individual needs,
therefore supporting an argument that vocational education and training has a wider
individual and public role beyond merely meeting the needs of industry.
As noted above, the Kangan Report (1974) was the only policy document analysed
that was deemed to represent a social service position. However, with the exception
of the initial national document, A Bridge to the Future, the Key Feature, Student
Access, was seen either as a social service or balanced position. Another social
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service implication emerged from the interviews with senior executive of DET and
TAFE. Anecdotal evidence suggests that increased participation by a broader range
of groups has occurred over recent years. For example, interview participants
identified a range of industry sectors that traditionally employed women and have
casualised workforces that now have access to formal training and qualifications thus
bringing parity between traditional trade qualifications and many new soft-skill
sectors such as community services and health. It is worthy to note that this issue of
‘parity’ refers to credentialed qualifications and not necessarily to such things as
employment conditions and rates of pay. Further, examples presented by
interviewees were that since the early 1980’s there has been a strong increase in
participation in vocational education and training by Indigenous Australians and that
there has been an understanding that TAFE has an obligation towards access and
equity by providing access to those who may be more disadvantaged in the
community.
Notwithstanding these examples, the findings presented in Chapter Five showed that
there has been a shift away from this social service emphasis of TAFE. With this
shift, there is belief by some writers that there should be a return to the principles
espoused in the Kangan era. For example, Harris (2002, p32) argued that: ‘the spirit
of Kangan (1974) emphasised the philosophy of lifelong education and priority of
the needs of the individual, and that they should not become subservient to the needs
of the economy”. However, unless there is a significant shift in political thinking
around separating economic and education policy, there appears to be little
likelihood of a return to a VET system or TAFE sector that sees the student as the
primary focus for policy, rather than the process by which an end, such as the
provision of a highly skilled and flexible workforce for industry, is achieved.
If one endorses a general education approach that integrates social, general education
and vocational education, and an approach that provides a focus on lifelong learning
then a reasonable question is: ‘What sector in Australia is the most appropriate to do
this?’ Currently, the secondary education and university sectors provide
opportunities for individuals to integrate social, general and vocational education.
There is also accredited and non-accredited activity undertaken within ACE
programs that provide these opportunities. However, it is this researcher’s
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contention that the TAFE system provides learning opportunities for a wider range of
individuals not currently captured by these sectors. It provides opportunities not only
for those choosing specific vocational pathways at qualification levels and sectors
not traditionally addressed by secondary schools and universities; it also provides
opportunities for individuals who have either disengaged from the secondary sector
(whose main focus is youth up to age 18) or who have little need, desire or capacity
to access the university system. This role of the publicly funded TAFE sector is
most relevant in the areas of providing access and equity outcomes to a broad range
of individuals who would otherwise be less protected in an open-market
environment. This issue of the need for a public provider TAFE system is addressed
further in 7.4.3.
The following section provides discussion on this shift toward meeting industry and
economic needs as being the fundamental purpose of TAFE.
7.2.2 An Economic Utility Emphasis
Within the five Key Features of the TAFE sector, Powles and Anderson (1996)
describe a number of characteristics that represent an economic utility function of
TAFE. As adapted for this research, the characteristics include a focus on industry
and economic needs; a focus on vocational training; a focus on short term recurrent
training; a market driven and economically focussed system; restricted access for
students; response to the needs of identified target groups; pre-determined outcomes;
emphasis on market value of credential; and increased individual and industry
contribution.
An economic utility focus for the TAFE sector is one that responds to the dynamics
of the economy generally, and more specifically the needs of the labour market. The
national policy document, A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998), was the only
document analysed that was placed within economic emphasis quadrant for each of
the Key Features of TAFE. With the exception of the Key Feature: Student Access,
the State policy document, Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001) was
also positioned as economic in emphasis. Across all five Key Features, for all policy
documents and the interviews with senior executives of DET and TAFE, an
economic emphasis was the dominant quadrant in the Key Features: System
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Emphasis, Award Credentials and Finance. It is this collective emphasis that has
influenced the overall determination of a shift towards an economic emphasis, away
from the social service position of the 1974 Kangan position. It is relevant to note
that A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) was the second national ANTA policy
document released and the subsequent ANTA document, Shaping our Future
(ANTA, 2004), was determined as having a balanced emphasis. Arguably, this could
be an adjustment in policy, tempering the earlier more decisive economic shift and
reflective of the Ryan (2002) view that throughout Australia’s history there has been
a constant shifting between a social and economic function of vocational education
and training. Skilling Queensland (Queensland Government, 2001), is a State policy
document that focussed on a skills agenda to meet industry needs with a strong focus
on improving individual employability skills, and therefore it is not unreasonable to
see this policy document as one that had economic drivers as its primary purpose.
From the findings presented in Chapter Five, one of the key examples of a shift
towards an economically driven VET environment was evidenced by key ANTA
(1998, 2004) policy documents that positioned TAFE as part of a broader vocational
education and training (VET) system, or market. During this period, the VET system
was expanded by encouraging a range of private Registered Training Organisations
(RTO’s) to enter the market in competition with the traditional public provider TAFE
sector. The evidence presented within Chapter Five indicated that this shift was
undertaken to ensure that the broader VET system, including TAFE, was more
responsive to the needs of industry and the economy. The need for a more
responsive and flexible TAFE sector was reflective of the earlier demands from such
reports as the Deveson Report (1990) and the Finn Report (1991) that called for
reform of technical and further education and training in Australia.
Recommendations from the Deveson Report (1990) have been interpreted as a
rejection of Kangan philosophy. On the one hand, Kangan argued for the role of
government in planning, coordination and delivery of vocational education through
the publicly-owned and controlled TAFE institutions and non-profit adult and
community education (ACE) institutions. On the other hand, Deveson argued for a
greater role for industry and a lesser role for government, with the government’s role
being to establish a favourable environment that would encourage and facilitate
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private participation and investment in VET (Saggers, Watson, Nicholson, & Body,
2000). Yet Kangan did not discount the role of industry. Likewise, Deveson
recognised TAFE’s social policy and objectives and its obligation to maintain a core
provision of vocational education for the wider community (Veenker & Cummins,
2001). Further, the Finn Report (1991) continued the redefining of TAFE’s primary
role as industry training, recommending that governments and TAFE sectors should
identify unequivocally that TAFE’s primary role is the provision of high quality
education and training relevant to industry needs and standards.
The process of opening up the market has ensured that some government funds,
previously the exclusive domain of the TAFE sector, were now contestable by both
public and private training providers, therefore providing expanded opportunities of
choice for individuals. While this broadening of choice reflected a social service
position, these contestable funds have been predominantly located in the
apprenticeship and traineeship areas (Veenker & Cummins, 2001) and therefore
fundamentally driven by the skill shortage needs of industry and the economy.
The participants interviewed as part of this research were not united in their views
that the system emphasis for TAFE Queensland should be an economic agenda;
however there was unanimity that it was an economic agenda, that it would remain
economic, and that TAFE would need to be a competitive player in the VET market
if it wished to maintain any relevance to government policy. In the context of this
economic agenda, the view of Foley et al., (1998) that “this need of governments to
maintain international competitiveness has resulted in governments acting as a player
in the market” (p.110), has substance. This economic shift has been consistent in
other sectors of government in Australia. For example, in the 1970s unemployment
benefits were paid as an entitlement (a form of social insurance); in the 1980s the
approach was a range of labour market programs targeted to specific subgroups of
the unemployed with specific assessable outcomes; in the 1990s this in turn was
replaced by a series of individual case management approaches, delivered by private
providers and designed to prepare people to work. In effect, a public provision of
services directed at particular disadvantaged individuals or groups, was replaced by
an employer-driven system that “individualises people and defines them as human
capital” (Foley et al., 1998, p 124).
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In TAFE Queensland, it is reasonable to suggest that some level of continued
government intervention is likely to remain to temper the potential limitations of the
VET market. However, there is no suggestion that there will be a policy approach to
social issues, such as access and equity, under a broader pursuit of common social
goals (Dalton et al., 1996). This economic influence on access and equity policy was
evident in some views expressed by senior executives of DET and TAFE who
indicated that the social agendas that run across DET will shift to where the
opportunities are to maximise economic return to the community and/or State. In
this way access and equity issues are likely to remain focussed on meeting the
economic agenda. Thus, it can be argued that the concept of equity is not always
part of a fundamental policy rationale. For example, in order to meet government
economic policy goals, education and training outcomes may not be evenly
distributed (Watson et al., 2000) and the TAFE sector has no commitment to
providing community-service obligations such as broad based access and equity
other than those specifically funded or purchased by government. This shift in
emphasis toward seeing access and equity policies and strategies as a means to an
economic end, rather than as an end in themselves, is arguably a key influence in
refocusing a VET-TAFE emphasis from individuals to industry.
Over the last two decades there has been a period of refocusing VET and TAFE.
During this time, the Australian national training agenda for vocational education
and training has been successful in the following achievements: Australia now has a
system of nationally recognised vocational education qualifications that has
significantly standardised both qualifications and the transferability of the
qualification across boundaries such as industry sectors and State borders and
between registered training organisations. There is potential to meet the demands of a
growing economy and the challenges of a changing society by providing more
education and training focussed on existing and emergent skill areas needed by
industry and the economy. More Australians of all ages are currently engaged in
vocational education and training than in the 1980’s and 1990’s (NCVER, 2003). To
date, there has been increased access to formal qualifications for non-traditional trade
areas such as the retail sector, health and community services; sectors traditionally
dominated by women and a part-time and a casualised work-force. Industry is better
linked to the training and education system and debate through more formal
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engagements with federal and State governments. Proponents of having education
policy influenced by economic policy may argue that these ‘successes’ would not
have occurred without government intervention through such mediums as the
establishment of ANTA and the expansion of a more competitive VET market.
The secondary and university sectors provide opportunities for integrating social,
general and vocational education, and while each participates in vocational education
and training activities, it is also reasonable to see this as a lesser priority when
compared to their social and general education role. In contrast, central to the policy
documents analysed for this research is the need for an economy to have a skilled,
flexible workforce able to compete in a globalised world. The Australian VET
system that has been developed is designed to ensure that these economic goals are
met. Within this, the TAFE sector is significant both in terms of volume of students
going through its institutes and as an arm of government to respond to emerging
needs of industry. Further, while at times criticised for being slow or non-
responsive, the TAFE system delivers publicly funded training in areas that private
RTO’s avoid, given the high cost of capital required and/or the marginalised
opportunity for profitable training to be delivered. It is reasonable to expect that a
publicly funded TAFE system has an important role to play in supporting economic
policy and objectives. However, under a social service paradigm, it would be argued
that individual needs should not be subsumed by industry needs; likewise public
funds should not be used to provide training for training’s sake and industry should
be able to benefit by having access to a pool of skilled and qualified VET graduates.
This thesis is premised on the notion that TAFE should, and does, fulfil a social
service role and an economic utility function as the major provider of publicly
funded vocational education and training. The following section provides discussion
on this balanced view of the TAFE system.
7.2.3 Balancing Two Apparently Dichotomous views
“Although the development of human capital is primarily considered an economic
measure, it is also justified on social grounds; that is, that it has a role in improving
opportunities for individuals” (Butler & Ferrier, 2000, p.12). This view supports the
notion for the need to have a balance between a social service and economic utility
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role for TAFE. As discussed in Chapter Three, this matter is not resolved by a
continuum that provides an emphasis for one function at the expense of the other.
While the Ryan (2002) research on the Australian VET system suggested that over
time one or the other function would tend to dominate, Chapter Three provided the
rationale for the development of a model that provides for an equal emphasis on
these economic and social functions. This section discusses a position that provides
a balance between a social service and economic utility role for TAFE.
A balanced role for TAFE has been expressed within the following Federal
government context. In 1997, the House of Representatives Standing Committee on
Employment, Education and Training (HRSCEET) initiated an inquiry into the role
of technical and further education (TAFE) in Australia. The terms of reference were
to examine the appropriate roles of institutes of technical and further education. The
inquiry culminated in a report entitled: Today’s Training, Tomorrow’s Skills (House
of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training,
1998), that identified the importance of striking a balance between TAFE’s social
and economic goals so as to avoid narrow utilitarian approaches to vocational
education. ‘Education for life’ is valued, not just ‘training for work’. The report
emphasised TAFE’s special roles in meeting community service obligations,
contributing to regional growth and providing second-chance education to the
disadvantaged and the skills poor. Further, the Report recognised that Institutes of
TAFE play special roles which other providers of further education and training do
not fulfil. However, unlike the ANTA documents that were used as source
documents in this thesis, the HRSCEET report was not part of a state or federal
government endorsed policy position and, therefore, was not used as a source
document.
The three policy documents that were determined as balanced in emphasis were the
national ANTA document, Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) and the State
documents ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) and the DET Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003). What is not known, but may be surmised, is that
the shift in emphasis of the ANTA document from its predecessor, may have been
influenced by the Today’s Training, Tomorrow’s Skills Report (House of
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Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training,
1998) that advocated a broader focus for vocational education and training.
The Queensland policy documents, DET Strategic 2003-2007 Plan (Queensland
Government, 2003) and ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002), analysed as part of
this research, also provide a broader focus on student needs. Further, ETRF
(Queensland Government, 2002) provides a ‘learning or earning’ strategy that
recognises multiple pathways and outcomes. The DET Strategic 2003-2007 Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003) was determined as balanced; however, the TAFE
Queensland 2003-2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003) and the
interviews were deemed to be more economic in emphasis than balanced. This is an
interesting, and perhaps unexpected, outcome given that the TAFE Queensland 2003-
2006 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003) is arguably a subservient
document to the DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan (Queensland Government, 2003) and
the senior executives interviewed are responsible for implementation of both. It
would have been more reasonable to have anticipated that the TAFE document
representing the public provider would have been more balanced, while the more
strategic DET document would be more economic in emphasis.
Further support for a balanced approach to social and economic functions is
evidenced in an OECD view:
It is essential for education systems to pursue two objectives at once, one
objective must be to produce a high skilled workforce … the other objective
... must be to promote the economic and social inclusion of those most at
risk in the new economy. (Veenker & Cummins, 2001, p.11)
A 1999-2000 Senate Committee Inquiry into vocational education and training
similarly argued that the role of TAFE extends beyond VET to the social, economic
and educational enhancement of community life and TAFE, as the public provider
and an instrument of government policy, is a key instrument in addressing market
failure. Further, TAFE plays a critical role in broadening access to education and
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training opportunities for the socially, economically and educationally disadvantaged
(Veenker & Cummins, 2001).
Regardless of any view of TAFE in which it takes either a social and/or economic
role, this research has identified a number of system checks and balances within VET
and TAFE. For example, it was seen that while creating opportunities for young
people to access different pathways through Australia’s tiered education system
remained important, a focus on the relevance of education and training to the needs
of the economy was seen as more important (Burke, 1998). However, in this
context, targeting ‘at risk’ individuals and groups can be argued as a failure of the
markets to address, or solve access and equity problems (Anderson et al., 2004)
while TAFE can be seen as the safety net for when everything else fails, including
those other providers against whom TAFE competes (Forward, 2001). ANTA had, if
not concerns, at least wariness, about the impact of an open market system on access
and equity as indicated when it clearly identified that TAFE would act as a stabiliser
in the VET market (ANTA, 1998). While the findings from the interviews reflected
an economic focus for TAFE exemplified by funding allocations towards priority
industry needs to influence individual behaviours toward enrolling in certain
qualification pathways, there was no evidence from the analysis of policy documents
and interviews of a restrictive policy approach that limits student access into a wide
range of pathway options, both general and vocational in focus. Even though the
equity focus lies with identified target groups, there was no evidence of a restrictive
policy approach that excluded individuals. If students have little or no capacity to
pay for training, the Queensland VETE Regulation (2000) provides a safety net of
diminished fees, or fee waiver, for a range of circumstances including low income
and financial hardship.
However, inequities in a system are not necessarily measured solely by the impact on
an individual. For instance, over recent years, individuals obtaining the most
favourable educational outcomes, such as personal income and social status, come
from social groups categorised by high family income and high levels of education.
Conversely those from lower family incomes and lower levels of education have
received less favourable outcomes (Watson et al., 2000). Of concern is the unequal
access to training by occupation groups. Professionals’ and para-professionals’
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participation in ongoing education and training far exceeds that by manual workers, a
category that includes labourers, tradespersons, elementary clerical, sales and service
workers (Dumbrell, 2000). There are also seen to be inequalities in accessing
education and training by such groups as young persons, persons of low socio-
economic background, rural backgrounds and older persons (Burke, 2000). Thus,
there is concern that it is difficult to promote education equity if there is inadequate
funding of education and training outcomes provided by TAFE Institutes; if there is a
focus on output not input measures; if there is a strong bias in favour of competition
in the provision of services; if there is more focus on specific provision of services
and a focus to ensure funding is not wasted; and if there is more focus on who
benefits and who pays (Foley et al., 1998). Increased allocation of resources
(funding) is also not necessarily the simple answer. “Where resources for human
capital development are distributed unevenly, further increase in investment in
training will only result in an increase in social inequality” (Fooks et al., 1998, p.12)
Within the VET market, “the role of TAFE tends to be seen as doing those things the
other [systems] can’t or won’t do” (Noonan, 2001, p. 4). However, TAFE needs to
be seen as more than just a mechanism to guard against market failure or to provide
supply to industry, or to respond to government policy, although each is laudable in
itself (Forward, 2001; Noonan, 2001). Policy making is about building in bias
(Foley et al., 1998) so it is not unreasonable for policy that affects TAFE to favour
certain sectors, groups or individuals in the pursuit of broader economic goals.
However, what should also be desired is ensuring that all people have reasonable
access to social and economic prosperity. This is a position consistent with the
Queensland Government’s own Charter of Social and Fiscal Responsibility
(Queensland Government, 2004a) that seeks a balance between “a strong diversified
economy; a community of well-skilled and knowledgeable people; and [an]
improved standard of living for all Queenslanders” (p.3). Within this vision, the
Queensland TAFE sector has a role to perform. However, it does not mean that
TAFE has an assumed right to exist, any more than it should be assumed that
‘industry’ represents all organisations, businesses or enterprises in any debate on
education, training and skills; or that industry necessarily has the expertise to
determine what education and training are required to meet current and emerging
skills needs
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7.2.4 Summary
Each of the policy documents and findings from the interviews reflected social
service and economic utility characteristics that aligned to the five Key Features of
the TAFE sector evaluated for this thesis. Ultimately, each policy document, and the
interviews were determined to be either within a social service, economic utility, or
balanced position. The analysis also indicated a capacity for policy to provide a
balanced approach to meeting a social service and economic agenda. Further, while
a system output focus may well be currently justified as being economic, if the TAFE
sector is to remain as part of Australia’s tiered system of education, then it does have
a social service role to play. In this policy does need to ensure that the messages it
portrays, recognise this balance. As discussed in Chapter Four, policy is arguably
more than an intended course of action; thus it may also be something not intended,
but nonetheless, carried out in the practice of implementation or administration of
policy (Parsons, 1995). The findings and discussion suggest that either there is scope
for policy documents such as those researched for this thesis to be more explicit in
their intent, or there needs to be a more explicit determination of the role and purpose
of the ‘publicly-funded’ TAFE sector, within the broader VET system.
The following section provides a discussion of the key influences on a social or
economic emphasis that emerged from the elite interviews with senior executives
from DET and TAFE.
7.3 INFLUENCES ON A SOCIAL OR ECONOMIC EMPHASIS
This section analyses the findings from Chapter Six that addressed the second
research question: ‘What influences a TAFE Queensland policy emphasis towards
either a social service or economic utility role as evidenced by the views of these
senior officers?’ Developing this second question provided an opportunity to gain
insight into the views of senior executives within the Department of Employment
and Training (DET) and TAFE. From these interviews three key themes on what
influences a social service and economic utility emphasis emerged and these themes
were presented in Chapter Six findings. These themes were: a lack of clarity of
TAFE Queensland policy; the role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors; and a
focus on key performance measures. The following section discusses these three
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themes as they relate to the broad theoretical influences discussed in the Chapter
Two Literature Review and in the Chapter Six Findings.
7.3.1 A Lack of Clarity of TAFE Queensland Policy
A key finding that emerged from the interviews was the lack of clarity around the
role and purpose of the TAFE sector, not only within the policy documents analysed
for this thesis, but within policy generally. This section addresses the relevance of
this issue of policy clarity and its influence on a social and/or economic emphasis.
The lack of policy clarity for such a significant sector within the Australia’s tiered
education system is of concern given the size of the VET system, and within this,
TAFE. For example:
During the last decade in Australia, the attention of public policy makers
and academics has focussed on higher education. The Senate Committee
(2000) regards such policy attention as understandable, given that the
university sector is regarded as the creation of new knowledge and ideas …..
However, as the Senate committee observes, university graduates form and
will continue to form, a minority, albeit a sizeable and growing minority, in
the Australian workforce. The number of students participating in VET is
nearly three times the number of students at university (Veenker &
Cummins, 2001, p.13)
Veenker and Cummins (2001) go on to suggest that given shifts in TAFE’s role over
recent years, more than ever before, the purpose and role of the TAFE sector within
this broader VET system, need to be reviewed. The policy documents examined in
this thesis did not provide clarity regarding the role and purpose of the TAFE
Queensland. Those interviewed were not unanimous regarding the need to develop a
more prescriptive role and purpose of Queensland TAFE as it fits within the broader
VET system. On one hand, to do so may provide clarity around the social
responsibility role that some people see as a core role for TAFE, and that others no
longer see as relevant. On the other hand, while policy prescription may provide
clarity, it can also provide a narrow focus that ultimately detracts from a broader
agenda.
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Interview participants generally saw the value of a competitive and robust VET
system where both private and public providers compete for contestable funds.
With this increased competitiveness, an issue for TAFE is its capacity to be
responsive and adapt to emerging and changing needs within the markets. These
challenges facing TAFE reflect the policy gap between the role and purpose of the
VET system compared to TAFE. In discussions with interviewees it was evident that
there was common understanding, or at least acceptance, of the need for the broader
VET system to focus on an economic agenda; and that the purpose and role of the
VET system was quite clear in policy discourse. What was not consistent from
interview participants was the role and purpose of the TAFE sector within that
system. Thus Participants (4, 5 and 6) tended to see social issues for TAFE as a
means to an economic end, while Participants 1 and 2 had more concern about the
need to balance social and economic agendas.
The identity issue for TAFE has been raised in research undertaken by Chappell
(1999) on the policies and discourses of vocational education and training. Chappell
cites several examples of how TAFE has become subservient to the VET system.
For instance, in government documents, the term vocational education and training
(VET) is now more frequently used to describe what was referred to as technical
education and training, a term synonymous with TAFE. In NSW, TAFE was firstly
subsumed into the Department of Training and Education Coordination (DTEC) and
more recently into the Department of School Education to form a new Department of
Education and Training. Chappell (1999) also cites Maglen (1996), who comments
that: “today, TAFE is constituted within policy discourse, as only one of many VET
providers” (p.74) and Ryan (1997) who suggests that while there is a rational
distinction to be made between VET and TAFE, it is reasonable to conclude that
much of the reformer’s zeal has been focussed on a dislike of the public system,
rather than any positive belief that a better alternative exists.
It is also reasonable to ask, is there a need for governments to re-affirm and
recommit themselves to the principle of education as a public good and to TAFE as
the public owned provider of education to the community? For example, on return
from a visit to South Africa, the then acting General Manager for ANTA Steve
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McDonald, commented that South Africa’s values sets are so much higher than
Australia’s in that:
The striking difference between drivers of education and training … We talk
about VET and the economy; the South Africans talk about education and
training creating a better, fairer, more inclusive society. It refocuses your
view of VET and its broader role in society (Cited in Veenker and Cummins
(2001, p.8).
What is evident in the analysis of the policy documents researched for this thesis is
that the role of the VET system is fairly clear. That role is to provide a flexible,
well-skilled and portable workforce, capable of competing in a globalised world.
What is less evident is whether the TAFE sector has a sustainable role to play within
this system, either as a publicly funded entity or as an entity capable of competing
freely in an open market, unencumbered by the social expectations that come with
being a publicly funded entity. What is unsustainable is having an unclear role for
TAFE, whereby the meeting of individual and community expectations of a TAFE as
a significant alternative general education and vocational pathway from school to
work for many Australians frequently conflicts with the more skill specific needs of
industry and the economy. This issue is further addressed in the following Section
7.4.3 on discussion on the need for a public provider.
A lack of clarity around the role and purpose of TAFE as the major public provider
of VET does create uncertainty, and therefore tension, amongst key stakeholders.
These key stakeholders include government, industry, communities, students and
staff who operate within TAFE institutes. The tensions stem from different
expectations of each of these stakeholders, and in the absence of policy clarity, each
group will tend to create their own view of what is the ‘right’ role and purpose for
TAFE. In Queensland, a key stakeholder group to manage these tensions on behalf
of DET comprises Institute Directors. The role of this stakeholder group was
identified as the second key theme that influences a social or economic emphasis for
TAFE and this role is discussed in the following section.
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7.3.2 The Role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors:
The second theme that emerged from the interviews with senior executives of DET
and TAFE was the role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors. This section
provides a discussion on the relevance of the role of Institute Directors in TAFE
Queensland and their influence on a social and/or economic emphasis.
As previously addressed in some detail in the literature review, the dominant
administrative culture to support a move towards economic rationalism in Australia
was corporate managerialism (Yeatman, 1991, cited in Marginson 1993). This
corporate managerialist influence on TAFE reflects a broader federal and State
government approach to managing the public sector so that: “within the new market
paradigm, VET administrators have become business managers, VET teachers have
been recast as training entrepreneurs and VET students have been reframed as
clients” (Anderson et al., 2004, p.239).
In essence the rationale for a managerialist approach to managing a public agency
such as TAFE is that the public service could be more effectively managed through
the adoption of market techniques either through the privatisation of services,
through the creation of an open market, or through the management of government
agencies as if they were private corporations (Marginson, 1993, 1997; Poulson,
1996). At a strategic national and State level this influence of managerialism
manifested in the expansion of a competitive market and through the opportunities
provided to private training providers to access to contestable funds. This is
particularly so within the user choice market for apprentices and traineeships.
As senior bureaucrats within the Department of Employment and Training, those
who develop and implement policy are there to support government and department
priorities. The findings from the interviews suggested that within Queensland DET,
TAFE is considered as a policy tool of government to achieve a range of economic
outcomes, particularly as they relate to the development of a well-skilled and flexible
workforce, capable of competing in a globalised world. What is not known to any
extent is how senior managers such as TAFE Directors are adjusting to ongoing
changes imposed upon them over recent years. This is a significant issue given that
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TAFE’s ability to respond to the challenges of the future depends largely on the
people within the organisation, particularly those in senior leadership and
management positions. What is known is that TAFE Queensland Institute Directors
have experienced an environment that has undergone significant change.
An apparent shift in the late 1990’s towards more autonomous TAFE Queensland
Institutes has been tempered with a re-focus on systemic issues and a need for
consistency across the Queensland TAFE sector. However, the recent Queensland
Skills Plan (Queensland Government, 2005) on the Queensland VET system
foreshadows further reform for TAFE Institutes that includes a re-focussing on an
earlier shift towards institute autonomy. As part of the senior executive, the role of
Institute Directors can now be merely to implement, effectively and efficiently, the
Queensland Skills Plan (Queensland Government, 2005) actions endorsed by
government. Nevertheless, as evident in the interview discussions, there is a role for
Institute Directors, if not to develop policy, then to significantly influence the
development and implementation of policy provided they present a strategic
approach to influencing the Department of Employment and Training (DET),
government and other key stakeholders, such as industry. However, as senior
government officials, they also need to be cognisant of their own obligations to DET
and the Queensland Government framed in documents such as their job descriptions
and Queensland’s Code of Conduct. These documents frame standards of behaviour
that apply to all government employees. Within the framework of these standards,
Institute Directors would need to ensure that, in advocating on issues, they do not, or
are not seen as, undermining existing or proposed government or department policy
positions.
Perhaps the most significant managerialist influence identified by those interviewed
was an expectation that Institute Directors would now manage the financial
performance of an institute as a business unit, with key performance indicators and
associated penalties for non-performance. The following section addresses the third
and final theme that emerged from the interview process that is a focus on key
performance indicators.
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7.3.3 Focus on Key Performance Measure
The third and final key theme on what influences a policy shift either to a social
and/or economic emphasis was this issue of a focus on key performance indicators.
The following section discusses this theme as it relates to the findings presented in
Chapter Six.
In the context of an open VET market, governments potentially become purchasers
of training outcomes, rather than suppliers of training. Government departments
develop constructs similar to that of private enterprises and use such language as
‘customers’, ‘return on investment’, ‘the market’, ‘profitability’, and
‘entrepreneurialism’. For example, evidence of this can be seen in the output
measures generally used across the policy documents illustrating economic output
measures such as increasing qualifications attained, employment outcomes achieved
and efficiency of training delivered. These types of measures are traditionally more
attuned to an industry driven paradigm given that: “in the policy context there is a
tendency to rely on outputs that can be readily identified and measured” (Marginson,
1993, p. 95). However, measures reflecting a student centred approach (satisfaction
and participation) were also evident, for example, in the DET 2003-2007 Strategic
Plan (Queensland Government, 2003). This notwithstanding, the general focus of
policy documents, and the views expressed in the interviews, has been a focus on
employment outcomes and qualifications attained as the key priorities of the VET
system and TAFE sector over recent years; therefore, any priorities of social growth
have been within the context of economic needs.
The interviews with senior DET-TAFE executives highlighted that TAFE
Queensland had moved significantly from a poor financial position in the mid-1990’s
to one with more rigour and focus on institute profitability. Further, the interview
outcomes raised the concern that this emphasis had been excessive and was driving a
range of management behaviours more targeted towards the ‘bottom-line’ than those
actions that supported a system approach to, for example, product development and
delivery. These concerns are shared by Anderson et al., (2004), who state that, “due
to the influences of neo-liberalism, VET systems have been subjected to deep
funding cuts, business management techniques and a cult of efficiency of doing more
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with less” (p. 237). However, the interview findings also indicated that there was a
current process underway that would potentially see a wider range of key
performance indicators in place that, while recognising the significance of financial
performance, would also recognise and value other functions of an institute that more
closely align to higher level strategic objectives. In human services sectors, such as
education, it is arguably difficult to define and measure outputs and productivity,
whereas costs are easy to measure. In this, Marginson (1993) argues that:
There is a danger that policy will take a narrow cost cutting approach,
weakening long term productive capacity. (p.92)
[and]
In a policy context there is a tendency to rely only on outputs that can be
readily identified and measured. (p.95)
A further risk of focussing on outcomes can be understood in four main ways.
Firstly, government bureaucrats may become economic managers rather than service
deliverers; secondly, welfare State bureaucracy can be replaced by an individualistic,
competitive and careerist style of work; thirdly, open competition of interest groups
is replaced by remote decision making; and, finally, public services become more
closely ‘targeted’ in terms of measuring performance outcomes (Foley et al., 1998,
p.119). In other words, there is a risk that an excessive focus on economic outputs
will adversely affect any legitimate social service agendas. The need to balance the
management of TAFE as a business, while not losing site of its core purpose of
education and training, can be seen as problematic. The interview responses
evidenced that TAFE Queensland, as a publicly funded education and training
institution, is required to be more efficient and more productive. It is this
researcher’s contention that it is not unreasonable to see these as proper objectives;
even more so, arguably these should be mandated objectives for any public sector
department responsible for the judicious use of public funds. It is, however, more a
question of balance. It is a question of ensuring that efficiency and performance
outcomes drivers do not negate system inputs such as access and equity and service
delivery standards to such a level that the initially desired outcomes are themselves
diminished.
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7.3.4 Summary:
The three key themes discussed in this section provide a cascading discussion. At
the highest tier is a policy perspective where it was deemed there is little clarity
around the role and purpose of the TAFE sector. At the next tier, it was determined
that this lack of policy clarity impacted on the role of Institute Directors. This
impact is exacerbated when considering the influence of corporate managerialism on
the TAFE system. Its influence also reflects both a federal and State government
approach to managing the public sector so that the whole notion of vocational
education and training policy implementation and the management of TAFE become
inextricably linked. The significance of this link has been addressed in the third tier
through the identification of an emphasis on key performance indicators. At an
institute level, this corporate managerialist influence on performance provides for a
focus on economic agendas and, arguably, provides for the potential of over-
emphasising an economic agenda, particularly through narrowly defined key
performance indicators. Consequently, these indicators have the capacity to
influence Institute Director behaviour more towards a corporate managerialist agenda
than perhaps intended within the policy documents.
Beyond the discussion on the policy documents, the interviews with senior
executives, and the three key themes that emerged during the interviews, there were
four issues that emerged. The following section identifies and discusses these issues
as they relate to this thesis.
7.4 RELATED ISSUES
This final section in the discussion raises four related issues that emerged from the
findings and discussion. The four issues are: firstly, the politicising of the Australian
VET system; secondly, VET-TAFE reforms: integrating or disengaging social and
economic goals; thirdly, the question of whether there is a role for a public provider
(TAFE)?; and, finally, the limitations of VET research. These emerging issues
underpin a number of discussions that are presented within the final chapter,
particularly as they relate to the implications for theory, for policy and practice and
for further research.
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7.4.1 The Politicising of the Australian VET System
The issue of an economic emphasis for the TAFE sector has been discussed earlier in
this chapter (section 7.2). However, the issue of an economic influence on TAFE
and the VET system falls within a broader political context. For this reason, this
section discusses the broader context and comments on its implications given that
“education is now seen as a branch of economic policy rather than a mix of social,
economic and cultural policy” (Marginson, 1993, cited in Veenker & Cummins,
2001, p.4).
In the mid-1970’s, most major western countries experienced slumps in their
economic growth. To address the slump, many developed countries abandoned their
post-war Keynesian economic polices that underpinned the development of a welfare
State and a commitment to full employment (Anderson, et al., 2004). Since then,
governments have been pursuing a ‘free market’ agenda through the deregulation of
trade and labour markets and financial systems, combined with a re-structuring and
downsizing of the public sector (Anderson et al., 2004). As a consequence,
education, in Australia, has become a highly politicised sector in which governments
subsidise private institutions, influence family decision making, and much policy is
focussed on efficiencies and cost containment. In all sub-sectors of education: pre-
school, primary and secondary schooling, VET, including TAFE and private training,
higher education, and on-the-job training, funding and provision of services are a
mix of public and private agents and both federal and State governments (Marginson,
2005).
The conclusion that political and economic influences have created an environment
in which the purpose and role of TAFE, within the Vocational Education and
Training (VET) system has changed from its core principles espoused by the 1974
Kangan Report was discussed in Chapters One and Two. It was argued that during
the 1980s and 1990s economic conditions played a significant role in the way that
education was seen to contribute to society and the way education policy was shaped
(Kenway, 1999; Marginson, 1993, 2000). At the extreme right wing of politics,
economic rationalist governments simply want to reduce the role of the State, while
social democratic governments wish to retain some commitment to social justice
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goals. Within the shift to the right, a corporate managerialist approach to managing
the public service provides some protection against the worst excesses of a
reorganising capitalism. However, social democratic governments, by their nature,
tend to demobilise trade unions and encourage conservative political parties (Foley et
al., 1998; Pusey, 1991) and, consequently, there is arguably little to distinguish either
side of politics in Australia. For example:
There is no doubt that the prevailing national policy directions for VET,
which have produced a demand driven, industry led, competitive market
system with priority to meeting industry and enterprise training needs, can
be attributed to the current [Federal] Coalition Government, but there is
much in the policy and in the system that is consistent with, and had its
origins in, the political orthodoxy of previous Labour Governments.
(Veenker & Cummins, 2001, p.7)
In this sense, consecutive federal governments supported the Australian National
Training Authority from its establishment in 1992 until its demise in July 2005 when
it was subsumed into the Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and
Training (DEST). Similarly there is consistency in the public discourse from
Federal and State ministers on the future emphasis of the VET system. For example,
following the announcement of the demise of ANTA, the Federal Government
released a new policy document for VET, Skilling Australia (DEST, 2005). Within
this policy document, the ongoing federal commitment to an economic agenda was
reinforced in that the first guiding principle of this document is that “Industry and
business needs must drive training policies, priorities and delivery” (DEST, 2005,
p.vi). This policy document still recognises the needs of clients (students) through
the necessity to provide “better quality training outcomes for clients through more
flexible and accelerated pathways” (p.vi). Notwithstanding, there is no reference in
this document for social growth in this training system; however, Section 1.2 clearly
articulates a position on “the training system we need for further economic growth”.
(p. 1). Further, in the recently launched Queensland Department of Employment and
Training Queensland Skills Plan (Queensland Government, 2005) that focuses on
skills for jobs and growth, Minister Barton stated that “Queensland vocational
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education and training system must provide the best possible outcomes for
Queensland workers and employers” (p.2).
The reform of the Australian vocational education and training system in the 1990s
occurred at a time when some sections of society were questioning the role of the
public sector broadly (Forward, 2001). More specifically, the 1990s were a period of
reform in TAFE with changes being driven by national strategies such as a genuine
desire of government and industry to develop a relevant and dynamic training system
to meet the needs of industry and workers; by a perception that TAFE had a
monopoly over the vocational education and training market; and because TAFE was
seen as unresponsive and supply driven and in consequence the demand side needed
more attention (Fooks, et al., 1997; Forward, 2001). However, the issue of
responsiveness of TAFE was seen by some as more politically motivated to engender
the need for change than necessarily a real issue to be addressed (Ryan, 1999). At
this time, the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) oversaw these reforms
that transferred vocational education and training into a more open market system
and one more industry driven than before. ANTA’s first national strategy document,
Towards a Skilled Australia (ANTA, 1994), presented that:
Competition is less comfortable and more challenging than monopoly or
protection. It is now, however, universally recognised as the most effective
way to improve services, contain or reduce costs and focus an organisation’s
efforts away from its own pre-occupation towards those of its customers.
(p.7)
This shift in education policy to focus on an economic paradigm has sought to
measure public and private investment into human capital more as a benefit for the
economy than for the social fabric of Australia. As discussed within the literature
review there are two notions of human capital investment, a neo-classical perspective
that advocates private investment (Korton, 1995; Mander, 1996) and a liberal
progressive view that advocates government investment in human capital (Giddens,
1994; Thurrow, 1996). Furthermore, there is the social-liberal view that espouses
government intervention in the market place (Drucker, 1993; Reich, 1991; Thurrow,
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1996) compared with an economic rationalist argument that sees an open and
competitive market as the most efficient means of managing the market (Callaghy,
1993; Carl, 1994). Influences from human capital theory have shaped government
education policy since the early 1980’s by linking education policy to economic
policy outcomes. In this economic context, education has been viewed as important
to international competitiveness in a high technology world (Gough, 1994;
Marginson, 1993), and more recently by Anderson et al., (2004) who stated:
VET has risen to an almost unprecedented prominence in government policy
… to a large extent by the conjunction of deep seated economic problems,
globalisation and the rise of neo-liberal politics and free market economics
over the past decades. (p.235)
The last two decades in Australia have seen governments, and particularly the federal
government, develop a more comprehensive and controlling approach to education
policy making. However, educators in the tertiary sector remain wary of linking
educational responses directly to short-term economic goals (Stevenson, 1994).
What is not at issue is whether an obligation exists to meet these short term goals;
rather, whether the pursuit of short term goals impedes the longer term benefits of
more general objectives (Stevenson, 1994).
The blending of social and economic goals so that either is ineffective is potentially a
consequence of any pursuit of short-term goals. This issue forms the basis for the
next section.
7.4.2 VET-TAFE Reforms: integrating or disengaging social and economic
goals?
The second key issue that emerged from the findings and discussions is the impact of
recent VET and TAFE reforms on social and economic goals. Based on the review
of literature, a review of seven seminal policy documents and interviews with six
senior executives of Queensland DET and TAFE, the current policy position of
TAFE Queensland was determined to have an overall economic emphasis. Even so,
there was significant social service activity evident in the policies. At the same time,
there is evidence of system failure in supporting social goals through such indicators
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as decreased student retention, growth in numbers of marginal students disconnected
from education, training and the labour market, and the disadvantage of entire
cohorts of young people (Seddon, 1999).
At a time when TAFE was the dominant entity within the vocational education and
training system, the Kangan Report (1974) recognised the value, relevance and
significance of providing the labour market with qualified and skilled labour. The
Kangan Report (1974) also recognised, and placed more emphasis upon, the broader
education value of student participation. During the 1980’s and 1990’s the TAFE
sector was enveloped into a vocational education and training (VET) system that
created tension between what was seen as the traditional role of the TAFE sector and
the role of this emerging VET system. Anderson et al. (2004) provide this recent
view of this ongoing tension:
The ‘vocational education’ dimension is emphasised by those who contend
that VET is (or should be) about the holistic and integrated development of
underpinning knowledge and broad-based, transferable work and life skills.
(p.234)
[and]
The ‘training’ dimension tends to be emphasised by those who believe that
VET should address itself exclusively to the acquisition of a relatively
narrow band of employment-related or job specific skills and competencies.
(p.234)
The findings of this research confirm the view that there has been a fundamental shift
away from these social views of VET and TAFE to a view with an economic focus.
This shift was seen as being in the context of a need to improve Australia’s economic
standing due to the impact of globalisation on Australia’s economy and workforce;
the rise in neo-liberal politics that have engendered an economic rationalist approach
to the marketisation of the VET system; and the corporate managerialist influences
on managing public sector organisations such as TAFE that has occurred over the
last two decades.
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In the mid-1990’s ANTA established an overall aim for access and equity that
focussed on increasing participation in structured and accredited training by client
populations currently under-represented and on improved vocational and
employment outcomes for individual clients (ANTA, 1996). The identification of
these under-represented groups was reflected in most of the policy documents
analysed as part of this research. Access and equity issues were understood in the
context of addressing a range of target groups that require additional attention or
assistance. However, it can be seen that social inequalities are produced out of the
discourses, practices and institutional structures of society (Hattam and Smyth,
1998). The discourse of ‘disadvantaged’ used to address issues around those in
‘targeted groups’ is more reflective of discussions around exclusion or
marginalisation. Arguably those targeted as ‘in need’ are simply positioned as “less
than the dominant cultural identity of Western, white, industrialised, wealthy and
male” (Hattam & Smyth, 1998, p.143), and therefore the questions of access and
equity in official explanation tend to be limited to aspects of individualism that have
less concern with a higher level approach to access and equity. Again, arguably the
VET system is a substantial access and equity strategy in itself in that it is at least
positioned to give a large proportion of the community the opportunity to engage in
education and training as a necessary transition into the world of work, and financial
independence (Hattam & Smyth, 1998). However, Fookes et al., (1997) argue that:
It is clear that a VET training market based on price competition will not
naturally produce the necessary investment in teacher training, student
services, comprehensive library facilities and the like; that is, the things that
are recognised internationally as the hallmarks of a public technical
education sector. (p.15)
Therefore, while a robust and competitive VET system may be desirable from an
economic view, arguably a public provider TAFE sector is desirable from an
individual and community view.
Within the Charter of Social and Fiscal Responsibility (Queensland Government,
2004a), Queensland Government policy links the building of Queensland’s economy
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to a community of well-skilled and knowledgeable people. This document clearly
identifies education as a key economic strategy. Some would argue that this means
that TAFE does not have a social or community responsibility; that its policy regime
is to focus on skills development to meet this economic agenda. However within this
document there are other outcomes and priorities, such as delivering responsive
government and a commitment to lifelong learning, that do more than suggest that,
while an economic agenda is an outcome in itself, it is not necessarily the driver for
system input and processing. In this context, this is about identifying, sourcing and
developing individuals for education and training so there is a community of well-
skilled and knowledgeable people, and therefore, a balanced approach is required.
There are those who contend that the impetus to focus TAFE on an economic agenda
has diminished TAFE’s capacity to respond to a broad range of social, cultural and
economic needs for the broader Australian community (Anderson, 1997; Anderson,
et al., 2001; Powles and Anderson, 1996). From an access and equity perspective,
the findings of this thesis suggest that, while there is evidence of economic
influences, the TAFE Queensland system is still fundamentally an open access
system that gives due consideration to equity issues. Further, there is evidence
within policy documents, and from the views of senior executives within Queensland
DET-TAFE, of a commitment to social service principles such as lifelong learning.
However, it is likely that economic goals will continue to dominate.
A continuing theme throughout this thesis is the question of balance. This theme can
also be applied to the politicising of the Australian VET system. It is reasonable that
economic agendas should have a link to education and training policy. It is also
reasonable to anticipate that many individuals seek to use the VET system and TAFE
sector to gain knowledge and skills and qualifications that provide a passport to
improve their employment outcomes (NCVER, 2005). It is to be expected that
industry has a need for a range of skills so that industry remains competitive,
domestically and internationally. It is also anticipated that TAFE, as a public
provider, has a role to play in assisting individuals and industry to achieve these
economic agendas within broader government policy, regardless of whether TAFE is
seen as an education provider, a training provider, or a blend of both. However, if
TAFE is considered in its own right as a sector within Australia’s tiered education
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system, then it is reasonable to expect that any such economic agenda does not
completely subsume broader general education and vocational pathways or options.
It is these pathways or options that often provide second chance education and
training options for individuals previously unsuccessful in the secondary sector or
unlikely to be accepted in, or able to afford access to, the university sector, or who
are unable to pay the commercial rates required by a private RTO provider.
The following section discusses whether there is an ongoing need for a public
provider TAFE sector.
7.4.3 Is there a Role for a Public Provider TAFE Sector in the Future?
The third issue that has emerged from the discussions in this thesis surrounds the
issue of whether Australia requires a public provider TAFE sector in the future,
given that:
[t]he hallmark of the Australian system of VET over the past 30 years has
been a policy by successive governments to establish and develop a
comprehensive system of public TAFE colleges and institutes across the
nation. (Robinson, 2000, p.35)
The Australian Vocational Education and Training (VET) system is perhaps more
easily described than defined given an array of participants that includes both TAFE
and private registered training organisations (RTOs). Further, VET activities are
undertaken with universities, secondary schools and within industry and
organisations. From Kangan (1974) until the early 1990s, TAFE was the pre-
eminent provider of VET, and arguably, at this time VET and TAFE were
synonymous with each other. A significant challenge to this TAFE dominance
emanated from the Deveson Report (1990). The Deveson Report (1990) was
premised on the belief that TAFE had become insular and inflexible and would
improve in a more competitive environment. TAFE was also viewed as advantaged
in its capacity for monopoly trading, its access to infra-structure, its government
subsidised fees and its ability to cross-subsidise commercial activities (Anderson,
1997). Following the Deveson Report (1990), an era evolved that advocated a
broader, more open system that culminated in the development of ANTA as the
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national authority for the development of a VET system within Australia. Within
this, TAFE has remained the ‘public provider’ with all that this may imply for key
stakeholders.
The Australian National Training Authority (ANTA), established in 1992, drove a
process of reform for the VET system that has increased its focus on meeting the
labour and skills needs of industry; however individuals remain a key stakeholder.
With this drive to support industry, the TAFE sector has been moved more towards a
competitive environment, although it is reasonable to ask whether increased
competition provides a better system. During its reign as the national authority,
ANTA (1998, 2004) presented a policy position that recognised TAFE’s capacity to
act as a system protection against market excess or failure. In this sense, the TAFE
sector can seen as the residual system left to manage those components not desired
by schools, universities, private providers and industry (Noonan, 2001). TAFE
appears to be criticised for not being responsive to meeting the needs of industry,
individuals and communities. Yet to meet these collective needs, while operating a
prudent financial and risk management strategy, often appears to be somewhat
contradictory. For example, in an environment of finite funding, using state
government funds to respond to the general education desire of individuals, can be in
conflict with the need use of the same funds to meet skills shortage areas of industry.
This simple example highlights the conundrum of whether TAFE is simply an
economic policy arm of government or does it have a future role to play that
integrates social, education and economic policy? Those interviewed as part of this
thesis generally saw the need for a public provider. However, there was also a view
that the TAFE sector did not have an automatic right to exist and that it must be seen
to be relevant to government for it to have a future and, therefore, the issue of any
social, education or economic relevance would be determined within policy
discourse.
Forward (2001) is concerned that TAFE has simply become a managed business
model, while Seddon (1999) is concerned that: “governments have moved away from
tried and true ways of public educational provision” (p.2). Noonan (2001) has
expressed a view that: “governments need to be more conscious of their
responsibility as the owner of the public provider” (p.4). In expressing this view,
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Noonan (2001) also argues that governments need to acknowledge that there are
legitimate stakeholders in TAFE other than industry or business and that there are
students, teachers and community members who are entitled to a say in the role of
TAFE. This thesis endorses an approach that integrates social and economic goals
and therefore supports the notion of acknowledging a range of needs beyond those of
industry.
TAFE Directors Australia (2001) issued a Position Paper expressing the view
that “a properly resourced TAFE sector working in partnership with industry would
yield substantial social and economic benefits for the Australian community” (p.2-3).
The benefits identified were:
• enabling large numbers of Australians to acquire improved skills essential to
industry;
• ensuring every young Australian has the opportunity to acquire better skills;
• accessing training will result in generally higher incomes as a result of better
skilled and higher productivity;
• increasing participation in the knowledge economy, thus improving social
cohesion;
• preparing workers for lifelong learning;
• enhancing the ability of Australians for upskilling and to respond to labour
market changes; and
• providing better pathways for the large body of students entering the world of
work and ensure access to education and training for those in regional and remote
areas, and for those who are disadvantaged.
Regardless of a view as to whether shifts away from the 1974 Kangan position are
appropriate, what is crucial, as it has been for some time, is a need to articulate a
policy position around the future purpose and role of the TAFE sector. The findings
from this research suggested the policy position needs to reflect:
• TAFE’s role as a policy arm of government
• TAFE’s role as a public provider of services
• TAFE’s role as a predominant provider of vocational education and training
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The points identified above overlap but provide a different focus for policy
development. For instance a TAFE that is autonomous from government, with a
mandate for market growth, financial sustainability and with targeted funding for
community service obligations will act quite differently from one that is seen
primarily as a public provider of services. The policy position should not be so
prescriptive that it does not allow for emerging and changing circumstances, nor
should it be so broad or vague that various key stakeholders have little understanding
of their relationship to the role and purpose presented.
The rationale for a public provider can stem from a range of perspectives, for
example, to provide a consistent entity or identity for the publicly funded delivery of
VET across Australia; to provide a consistent presence for VET delivery across all
communities; to provide an enduring level of service regardless of the normal cyclic
demands of industry and the economy; to act as the system ‘standard’ for provision
of services; and to provide government with a direct agent in order to facilitate policy
demands, whether they be social or economic in nature. Therefore, for a sustainable
public provider TAFE sector to continue, it should be acknowledged that TAFE is
not just another provider; “it is a publicly owned provider and has essential
responsibilities, characteristics, values and educational objectives and philosophies
that distinguish it from other providers” (Veenker & Cummins, 2001, p.10). The
outcome of this debate is perhaps influenced by whether education and training is
seen as a gift from the adults of one generation to the young and other adults of their
community, or as something sold between providers and consumers (Seddon, 1999).
It is this researcher’s contention that TAFE is a legitimate sector through which
economic and industry objectives can be met. However, if there is an ongoing
expectation that TAFE is a sector within Australia’s tiered education system, then it
must not be so affected by economic rationalist and managerialist influences that it
cannot fulfil the reasonable social expectations that come with the role of being a
publicly funded provider of education and training. In this context, it is also
contended that it is reasonable to expect TAFE to operate with similar commercial
acumen to that of any commercial entity in terms of delivery efficiency and measures
of effectiveness. However, this should be done while fulfilling a public provider role
that provides a student centred approach to such issues as access and service delivery
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and to system outcomes that not only recognise the needs of vocational specific
outcomes, but also recognise the broader knowledge and skill required for work and
social life in general.
7.4.4 The Limitations of VET research
The fourth and final theme that has emerged during the analysis of this thesis is the
limitation over recent years of VET Research on education, VET and/or TAFE
policy. This section provides some insight and discussion on the impact of these
limitations on VET and TAFE policy.
The use of research and its relationship to outcomes is not easily determined. It is
also not easy to detect the impact of any particular piece of research on policy
development. Further, the rate of change within the VET system means that any
research is invariably too late to influence emerging policy (Selby Smith, et al.,
1998). To an extent, this is true of this research. Since the time of the interviews
with senior executives of DET-TAFE in August to September 2004, the following
major events have occurred:
• ANTA was dismantled and subsumed into the Department of Education, Science
and Technology;
• Queensland DET developed a Green Paper on a range of reforms for the
Queensland VET system, including TAFE. This was released as Queensland
Skills Plan (2005) White Paper policy document;
• Queensland DET finalised an effectiveness and efficiency review to ascertain
how well the department goes about delivering on its policy platform. A number
of outcomes of this review have been incorporated into the White Paper
mentioned above; and
• Following the 2006 Queensland state elections, TAFE Queensland is now a
division (Training) of the Department of Education, Training and the Arts
(DETA).
As any research is a point in time event, changes such as those identified above will
occur when significant research is underway.
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Hayton (1992) and Selby Smith et al. (1998) have suggested that research on VET
has been far less significant, in terms of volume and impact on policy, than total
education research. For example, Robinson and Thomson (1998) maintain there is a
lack of research culture within the VET system. This lack of influence of research
on policy is emphasised by Marginson (1997) who argues that VET research is
primarily driven by the requirements of government and policy. More recently
Harris (2002) argued that there is now a growing body of research in some aspects of
VET. However, he calls for even more research to be done. Of note, is that
Australia has developed and published a national policy to govern its research and
evaluation of effort in VET (Robinson, 2000). This policy, The National Research
and Evaluation Strategy for Vocational Education and Training in Australia 1997-
2000 commenced in July 1997 with a focus on increasing Australia’s national VET
research and evaluation effort and to prioritise the research undertaken to improve
decision making about VET policy (NCVER, 1997). In Queensland, policy
developments such as ETRF (Queensland Government, 2002) and Queensland Skills
Plan (Queensland Government, 2005) have used the policy making strategy of a
green-white paper process. The green paper component entails wide consultation
with key stakeholders and does provide opportunity for broad input into white paper
policy development.
Volume and quality are not synonymous; however, volume does represent activity.
A matter for consideration for Queensland DET-TAFE is this issue of more
effectively linking policy development with research. Arguably part of this issue is
the lack of a committed resources and research culture within VET and TAFE when
compared to other areas of education (Robinson and Thomson, 1998), although
research activity appears to be on the increase. A culture and practice of research
within Queensland’s VET and TAFE sector would more regularly contribute to a
body of timely knowledge that could inform policy as part of the development
process as well as part of the review-checking process after implementation.
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7.5 SUMMARY
This chapter has addressed three key areas. Firstly it discussed the policy emphasis
of the seven seminal policy documents and interviews in the light of key theoretical
perspectives impacting upon education policy. Secondly, it identified and discussed
issues around three key themes that emerged from interviews with senior policy
executives utilising theoretical insights from the literature. Finally, the chapter
considered four key issues that emerged from the study regarding the future role of
and implications for TAFE Queensland.
The tensions that influence the role for TAFE are not new. The tensions that can
arise between a social service and economic utility function for TAFE have been
reflected in the Ryan (1999) research on a bipolar view of TAFE; in the models
developed by Ryan and Schofield (1994); in the social service and economic utility
framework developed by Powles and Anderson (1996); and in the refinement of
these concepts and ideas into a model for this thesis. Using this model, this research
has determined that there has been a shift in emphasis from the Kangan Report
(1974) that recognised the value of a student centred system as the priority over
meeting industry needs. Using the Kangan Report (1974) as the cornerstone
document, the analysis of six other seminal policy documents and interviews with
senior executives of DET and TAFE determined that this priority is now more
economic in emphasis. Yet, there was significant evidence to suggest that student
centred issues remain relevant in terms of an open access TAFE system and an
ongoing commitment to lifelong learning.
As discussed within Chapter Two, the linking of a neo-classical approach to human
capital theory to an economic rationalist paradigm would provide a full open market
strategy in which the beneficiaries pay full fees and there is no government provider
of education. Or if there were, then the public provider would genuinely compete for
all of its funding in a competitive manner. It is reasonable to argue that this research
has provided evidence that this more extreme market driven view has not been fully
implemented in Queensland TAFE. There is still a TAFE sector that delivers the
majority of government-funded VET, and the majority of formal VET activity
delivered is still government funded (Queensland Government, 2003c).
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This research was premised upon the notion that there is a role for TAFE to play that
meets both a social service and economic role and function. Further, it is contended
there will be constant shifts in emphasis between these roles, driven by wider
political and economic trends in addition to community and industry expectations
about the appropriate role and purpose of TAFE. The analysis of interviews with
senior policy makers within the Queensland Department of Employment and
Training confirmed that a continuum model is too simplistic. The analysis also
suggested that the notion of a balanced emphasis may also be problematic.
Therefore, a model is proposed in Chapter Eight that expands the Model used for this
thesis into a systems approach model of inputs, processing and outputs (Robbins and
Barnwell, 1998).
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CHAPTER 8: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This final chapter summarises the purpose of the study, provides a rationale for the
conceptual framework used in the study, presents a summary of the findings and key
issues that have emerged from the study, and presents some implications for theory,
for policy and practice and for further research.
8.2 THE STUDY
8.2.1 The Purpose and Significance of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine a current policy position of TAFE
Queensland within a social service and economic utility context. Specifically, this
study addressed the topic of 30 Years on From Kangan: An analysis of the current
policy position of TAFE Queensland. In order to answer this research topic, two
questions were developed that asked:
• What is the current policy position of TAFE Queensland with respect to the
emphasis placed on a social- service and economic utility role as evidenced by:
o strategic policy documents that impact on TAFE Queensland and
o the views of senior executives who influence the development and
implementation of TAFE Queensland policy.
• What influences are shaping a TAFE Queensland policy emphasis towards
either a social service or economic utility role, as evidenced by the views of
these senior officers?
This study is significant for four reasons. Firstly, the Kangan Report (1974) was a
major review of the TAFE system. Since then, there have been significant reforms
that have seen the development of a competitive VET system with little policy
development on the role and purpose of the TAFE sector. The literature review
indicated that there has been a shift from the social service position presented within
the Kangan (1974) to one that is more economic in emphasis. In analysing seven
seminal policy documents and interviews with six senior executives of Queensland
DET and TAFE, this study has confirmed this shift away from the Kangan position.
196
Secondly, this study has sought the views and opinions of six senior executives to
gain significant insight into the influences on the TAFE system fulfilling either a
social or economic role. Thirdly, the study is significant in that it identified and
discussed a range of emerging issues that impact on TAFE Queensland. Finally, this
research contributes to a growing body of knowledge in this field.
8.2.2 The Literature Review
The literature review for this study examined a broad range of issues. Firstly, it
provided an overview of the Australian education system, discussed the general role
and purpose of education, and discussed the role and purpose of technical and further
education. Secondly, it identified and discussed a range of theoretical perspectives
that have impacted on education policy in Australia. They were globalisation,
economic rationalism, corporate managerialism and human capital theory. Thirdly, it
discussed the VET market and the marketisation of TAFE. Fourthly, the key policy
initiatives impacting on TAFE in Australia from pre-Kangan to TAFE in the early
21st Century were reviewed and discussed. Finally, the literature review introduced
and discussed the significant issue for this thesis: TAFE’s role from a social service
and economic utility perspective.
The literature review provided a rationale for undertaking this research by identifying
the significance of TAFE to Australia’s tiered education system; by highlighting the
gaps in research on the VET system and TAFE sectors; and by discussing the
significance of the perceived policy shift away from the 1974 Kangan Report
position and the subsequent need to determine if this shift towards an economic focus
was evidenced in policy.
8.2.3 The Conceptual Framework and Methodology
A conceptual framework was developed that drew significantly upon a set of Key
Features and Characteristics of the TAFE sector developed by Powles and Anderson
(1996). The framework was used to analyse the policy documents and interviews.
To assist in this process, a Data Collection table and Policy Emphasis Table were
designed. A Model that was linked to these Tables recorded the relative position of
the overall emphasis of each policy document and the interviews. The Tables, and
the Model, provided a visual representation of the findings that ensured consistency
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in presenting the analysis and discussions for each policy document and for the
interviews.
In the methodology chapter the rationale for using a case study approach was
presented. Further there was discussion on the use of policy documents and elite
interviews as the prime sources of data. Data collection, analysis and
trustworthiness and credibility strategies were identified to ensure that the data
collected and analysed responded to the aims and questions of this study.
8.2.4 Findings
The study determined an emphasis for seven policy documents and the interviews
overall. These emphases were:
Emphasis:
• The Kangan Report (1974) National Social service
• A Bridge to the Future (ANTA, 1998) National Economic Utility
• Shaping our Future (ANTA, 2004) National Balanced
• Skilling Queensland State Economic Utility
• Education and Training Reforms for the Future
(Queensland Government, 2002) State Balanced
• DET 2003-2007 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003) State Balanced
• Queensland TAFE 2003-2006 Strategic Plan
(Queensland Government, 2003) State Economic Utility
• Queensland Elite Interviews (2004) State Economic Utility
Overall, it was determined that there had been a shift away from the social service
position first established in the Kangan Report (1974). It was also determined that,
while there was a number of social service characteristics represented within the
policy documents and interviewees generally acknowledged the importance of a
social service focus for TAFE, overall the current policy position of TAFE
Queensland was one that was deemed fundamentally as economic in its purpose.
From the interviews with senior executives of Queensland DET and TAFE, the study
identified three key themes that emerged as influences on policy. These were:
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• A Lack of Clarity of TAFE Queensland Policy
• The Role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors
• A Focus on Key Performance Measures
The discussion of these three themes highlighted the following issues: the need to
improve existing policy or develop new policy, particularly as it impacts on the role
and purpose of TAFE; that the role of TAFE Queensland Institute Directors was
tensioned between competing priorities; and that a focus on key performance
indicators had the capacity to influence a shift toward either a social or an economic
focus.
8.2.4 Emerging Issues
The main purpose of this study was to determine a current policy position of TAFE
Queensland. However, during the course of this study, a number of issues were
identified and discussed. These issues were:
• The Politicising of the Australian VET System
• VET-TAFE Reforms: integrating or disengaging social and economic policy
• Is there a role for a public provider (TAFE) in the future?
• The limitations of VET research
The significance of these issues was threefold. Firstly, there was evidence to suggest
that policy on the Australian VET system and the TAFE sector is now fully
integrated within economic policy and objectives and that this is unlikely to change
in the foreseeable future. This has a direct impact on social policy for TAFE and
there is a need to continually monitor the impact that economic and social agendas
have on each other. Secondly, there is a need to develop coherent policy around the
purpose and role of a public provider TAFE system which may include a
determination that major reform is required, or that one is not required at all.
Thirdly, that research can, and should, fulfil a significant role in supporting policy
development around each of the first three issues identified.
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8.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY
This study was not designed to develop new theory as would be the objective with
grounded theory research based studies (Burns, 2000). However, as the data were
analysed and themes and issues identified and discussed, it became evident that
TAFE could be viewed as a system whereby social and economic characteristics
could be aligned to the phases of inputs, processing and outputs. A tentative TAFE
System Model (refer: Figure 12) has evolved from the conceptual framework and the
four quadrant Model developed for this study, and from the analysis of seminal
policy documents and interviews with senior executives.
Figure 12: A TAFE System Model
Service Delivery within
an Institute,
Workplace or Community
Setting
Skilled Labour
to Meet
Future Needs
System
Input
Service
Delivery
System
Output
Social Service:
Examples of characteristics: � Focus on ongoing student
re-engagement � Provides bridging
opportunities between general and vocational education
� Minimal or no fees for entry into programs
Economic Utility:
Examples of characteristics: � Targeted funding towards
priority areas � Career advice that support
economic agendas and sustainable jobs
� Identifies key target groups for special assistance programs and funding
Social Service:
Examples of characteristics: � Individual training plans
developed
� General education programs (e.g., language, literacy, numeracy) fully funded
Economic Utility:
Examples of characteristics: � Skills training through
training packages � Funding of programs
emphasises qualification outcomes
� Additional ‘services’ funded by user pay system
Social Service:
Examples of characteristics: � Improved social
circumstance for individuals valued even if no economic benefit
� Output measures more qualitative (e.g., student satisfaction)
� Contribution to community development
Economic Utility:
Examples of characteristics: � Provide skilled &
flexible labour force to compete in a globalised world
� Output measured by economic measures
� National consistent VET system: e.g., qualifications
Providing Opportunities for
Individuals and/or
Individualising Training and
Employment Needs
A TAFE System Model
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This TAFE System Model uses a framework based on principles that an organisation
acquires inputs - students or clients; engages in a transformation process - providing
education and training for knowledge and skill development; and generates output, or
outcomes - qualifications or individuals with knowledge and skills to meet the needs
of industry (Robbins and Barnwell, 1998). By identifying the TAFE sector in such a
way, it is proposed that policy decisions may be made about each phase. Further, at
a more tactical and operational level, policy implementers can test thinking to ensure
that, for example, what may be an economic output agenda, does not necessarily
impact on other phases unless there are explicit policies that require this to be so.
This model was initially presented as a paper (McMillan et al., 2004) at the 2004
Post Compulsory Education and Training Conference (PCET) to test some initial
public discussion on the rationale underpinning the model.
The rationale for developing this TAFE System Model stems from the findings and
discussion of this thesis. While it was evident that there has been a shift so that the
purpose of the TAFE system is seen as fundamentally economic and industry driven,
the current TAFE Queensland system is still influenced by many social service
agendas. In this context, it can be argued that a TAFE system driven by an economic
output agenda is not one that necessarily needs to be driven by the same agenda on
input. The value added process of building on an individual’s existing level of
knowledge and skill to that required for qualification or employment, requires an
acknowledgement that cost alone is not the only driver for determining what services
should be provided to students, or clients. Appropriately targeted and funded support
services are as important as the measured outcomes of qualifications attained and
jobs found. Furthermore, arguably the effectiveness of ‘services’, such as teaching
and other support activities, has a fairly direct relationship to the potential of
individuals being successful through the process.
This TAFE System Model provides some initial examples of how social service and
economic utility characteristics can be constructed. The model requires further
investigation and development; however, it may also provide a framework for future
investigation within the TAFE sector on how policy is interpreted and applied at an
institute level. For each phase of the model a range of economic utility and social
service characteristics have been proposed. Some examples of system characteristics
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have been provided. These examples have been drawn from the source social service
and economic utility framework established by Powles and Anderson (1996) that was
used for this thesis.
At a System Input level, the focus is on providing opportunities for individuals and/or
individualising training and employment needs. In an economic context, individual
enrolment behaviour can be influenced by targeting funding towards priority areas,
therefore making it financially easier, or more attractive, to undertake qualifications
required by the economy and industry. From a social service stance, an approach of
encouraging ongoing re-engagement would be supportive of a lifelong-learning
strategy. Again, funding may be used to influence behaviour toward those areas that
provide the best employment opportunities for those currently employed in skill
areas that are diminishing in need.
The quality of Service Delivery within an institute, workplace or community setting
should be fit for purpose. For example, from a social service perspective, TAFE
should provide opportunities for individualising training programs that enhance an
individual’s opportunity to enter and complete a program of study. From an
economic stance, beyond providing a base level of service relative to the funding it
receives from government, it is not unreasonable that additional value added services
could be funded under a user pay model.
System Output fundamentally focuses on providing skilled labour to meet future
economic and industry needs. From an economic focus, success of the system can be
measured in quantitative terms such as qualifications attained or competencies
achieved. However, from a social service stance, it might be reasonable to measure
more qualitative outcomes such as student satisfaction and other measures.
This thesis is premised on the notion that TAFE has both a social service and an
economic role to play. It also consistently raises the notion that a balanced approach
to these orientations is desirable and achievable and, for example, a focus on industry
skills should not be at the detriment to other relevant and useful skills that are
attainable under a general vocational education approach. The research undertaken
by Ryan (1999) indicates that any such focus is cyclic in nature; however, with the
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significant impact on education policy from such influences as globalisation,
economic rationalism and managerialism, this researcher is concerned that there is a
risk that the economic intent will prevail beyond any historical cyclic pattern. Once
further developed, this tentative TAFE System Model may provide scope to monitor
TAFE policy and practices to ensure that neither an economic utility nor social
service emphasis dominates at the full expense of the other. In conclusion, it can be
argued that an economic and social agenda are not, and should not be seen as,
mutually exclusive.
8.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY
This study describes a policy position of TAFE Queensland, in a social service and
economic utility context, at a point in time. This point in time analysis was presented
within a historical context of the Kangan Report (1974) and includes a number of
policy documents that have shown a general shift towards an economic agenda as the
key driver of the output of the TAFE sector. This study has shown that perceptions
of such a shift in emphasis are founded within VET literature.
A recurring theme from this study is a lack of policy. The analysis of policy
documents and interviews suggests that there is policy around the broader VET
system. What is less clear is the policy around areas such as the purpose and role of
the TAFE sector. This is even more evident given recent national strategies to
disassemble ANTA and absorb its functions into the Commonwealth Department of
Education, Science and Training. Within this policy uncertainty is the requirement,
if any, of TAFE to meet community service obligations and other broader social
justice agendas.
While three policy documents were determined as balanced in their approach to this
social and economic issue, those interviewed generally provided views that
supported an economic focus. This was an important finding since senior executives
are responsible for developing and implementing policy at a strategic level. This
issue of consistency between policy rhetoric and policy practice is significant and is
one of the reasons for developing a TAFE System Model. If it is accepted that TAFE
does and should perform a social service and economic utility role, then appropriate
checks and balances need to be maintained to ensure there is not an imbalance
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between policy discourse and policy practice. The tentative TAFE System Model
presented could form part of a process of checks and balance.
8.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
This research was undertaken to determine a current policy position of Queensland
TAFE. In determining that this position is one that is fundamentally economic, there
remains a range of philosophical, political and policy tensions around the role and
purpose of the TAFE sector. Further, this research informs the debate on whether a
public provider TAFE sector is needed and, if so, what is its purpose for existing?
However, TAFE managers do operate in a system that has tension between key
stakeholders such as government, industry, organisations, teachers, students and
communities. For example, at the recent Australian Vocational Education and
Training Research Association (AVETRA) conference, Gallagher and Anderson
(2005) argued that:
The ongoing subsidisation of employers and funding of private RTO’s in a
context of widespread and persistent market failure suggests that current
VET polices are serving narrow private interests, rather than the wider
public good. (p.9)
This view contrasts with the commitments of the Queensland government towards
using the vocational education and training system as a key driver to economic
success for the State. For example, Minister Barton presented this view:
“Queensland’s vocational education and training system must provide the best
possible outcomes for Queensland workers and employers. Ultimately it is workers
and employers who will make Queensland a Smart State” (Queensland Government,
2005, p.2).
The Commonwealth policy document, Skilling Australia (DEST, 2005) further
emphasised this focus on vocational education and training on meeting the needs of
the economy: For example, Minister Hardgrave stated, “our goal is to ensure that in
the future Australia’s training system will be even more responsive to the ever-
changing needs of industry” (DEST, 2005, p.iv). These economic views are
challenged by those such as Anderson et al., (2001) who suggests TAFE should
204
promote a broader set of principles that underpin active citizenship and include:
“democratic participation; social equity; cultural inclusiveness; and ecological
sustainability” (p.4).
There is similarity in both the Queensland State and Commonwealth Government
commitment to using the VET system to satisfy the needs of the economic and
industry. However, for existing managers and practitioners within the TAFE
Queensland system there remains uncertainty and tension around the current and
future purpose of the TAFE sector. This thesis may provide practitioners with a
better understanding of these uncertainties and tensions and provide a foundation for
further discussion.
8.6 LIMITATIONS
The limitations identified for this study were focussed on the issue of TAFE
Queensland being the case, and therefore the study did not consider other states and
Territories; the limited number of interviews undertaken; the study did not attempt
to consider how effectively each policy document had been implemented, or whether
what was stated, was truly intended by the developers of these policy documents; and
there was no weighting given between the TAFE system Key Features analysed, or
between the individual policy documents and the interviews. It was considered that
these limitations did not detract from the analyses and discussions, although it is
recognised that further research in some areas, particularly if linked to this study,
would be further contribute to a growing body of knowledge on VET and TAFE.
8.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
A range of opportunities for further research have emanated from the findings and
discussion and are now presented:
• The tentative TAFE System Model presented in Section 8.3 requires further
refinement and investigation to test both its rationale for a systems approach and
the appropriateness of the initial characteristics presented;
• Of interest to this thesis has been the impact of many of the reforms generated
from these reports on the current policy position of TAFE Queensland. Research
could be carried out to investigate the policy position of TAFE in the remainder
205
of the states and territories within Australia to determine whether there is
uniformity both in State based policy documents and within senior executive
roles of similar departments to Queensland DET;
• Further, this research could be expanded to undertake an analysis of international
perspectives on the social service and economic utility roles of similar vocational
systems;
• Research to investigate the process by which senior managers in TAFE institutes
implement policy at an institute level would provide an opportunity to investigate
the consistency between policy rhetoric and policy practice. The TAFE system
Model presented could provide the framework to interview a range of managers
within TAFE institutes to evaluate this issue of consistency between policy
rhetoric and policy practice; and
• The issues discussed in Chapter Seven provide the basis for further research on
the need for a public provider TAFE sector and, if there is, what should be the
policy position for TAFE with regards to a social service or economic utility role.
8.8 CONCLUSION
This study has provided a unique blend of policy document and interview analysis to
determine a policy position for TAFE Queensland in a social service and economic
utility framework. The study determined that TAFE Queensland has been influenced
by a current emphasis on an economic agenda. However, despite the economic
imperatives of recent decades, and the repositioning of vocational education and
training to respond to these imperatives, these have not, and cannot be achieved
without consideration of the important social imperatives upon which TAFE in
Australia were founded and which continue to be relevant today. This has been
evidenced by this study whereby it also determined there remains a range of social
service characteristics within the Queensland TAFE system.
Further, this study proposed a tentative TAFE System Model that provided for the
identification of both economic and social characteristics at a system input, process
and output or outcome level. This model may used to develop and monitor social
service and economic utility policy of TAFE in the future. It provides a more
discrete framework than seeing the balance between a social service and economic
206
utility function either as the continuum model rejected in Chapter Three or as the
four quadrant model used for this study.
Vocational education and training (VET) is currently a significant part of the tiered
Australian system of education that includes primary, secondary and tertiary
education. Within this, TAFE is a sector whereby education and economic policy
appear to be irrevocably entwined. A matter for consideration is whether the VET
system should be seen as part of this tiered system or as a separate system in its own
right, and within this, whether the TAFE sector remains as part of the education
system delivering a range of technical and further education outcomes, or is fully
subsumed into this training focussed VET system. The future of a TAFE sector may
well be one that is more stream-lined, more efficient, more adaptive and more able to
compete in a VET system that is recognised as a training sector more so than an
education sector. In this context the VET system becomes a VeT system with a
‘little e for education’, and one where the issue of providing a skilled, qualified and
mobile workforce to compete in a globalised world is even more paramount than
today. It seems that the Queensland TAFE sector is one that is caught between two
paradigms and, while the broader VET system may be more clearly focussed on
moving down an economic pathway, either the role of TAFE within this has yet to be
clearly defined, or the structural reform required for TAFE to be truly competitive in
this VET market has yet to occur.
207
Appendix 1: DET Structure
Organisational Structure of the Department of Employment and Training
(as at August 2004)
Adapted from the Department of Employment and Training (DET) website:
http//www.det.qld.gov.au
* The Chief financial Officer and the Chief Information Officer also report directly to
the DG.
** Chair, TAFE Queensland Executive
Indicates a elite interview participant/s (individuals may have changed since the
interview date, but positional relevance unchanged)
Minister for Employment,
Training and Youth Minister for the Arts
Board of
TAFE
Quee nsland
Agricultural
College Board Director
General Training and
Employment
Board
Training
Recognition
Council
Internal
Audit
Shared Services
Provider
Office of the Director - General, Cabinet Liaison
Officer
Strategic
Directions
and Policy
Planning
and
Purchasing
Deputy -Director
General
**Chair,
TQE Organisation
Performance
and
Corporate Capability
Strategic
Communication
and Marketing
* Business Management Chief
Financial Officer
Centre for
Innovation
and
Development
* Chief
Information
Officer
TAFE
Institutes Employment
and Youth
Initiatives
Training Employment
and Training
Performance
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Appendix 2: Research Information Pack
Research Information Pack
30 Years on from Kangan: An Analysis of the Current Policy Position of Queensland
TAFE (EdD Thesis)
Contact Information:
Greg McMillan (Researcher) Student No.: n04042298 Doctorate of Education Program School of Professional Studies Faculty of Education Tel: 3826 8318 or 0419646097 Email: [email protected] Dr. Neil Cranston (Supervisor) Dr Lisa Ehrich (Supervisor) School of Professional Studies School of Professional Studies Faculty of Education Faculty of Education Tel: 3864 3288 Tel: 3864 3038 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
QUT Involvement:
The findings from the research will be submitted as a thesis to meet requirements for the conferring of a Doctorate of Education (EdD) with Queensland University of Technology (QUT). The research will be undertaken under the supervision of QUT’s Dr. Neil Cranston and Dr. Lisa Ehrich and will conform to the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Human’s as required by QUT.
Project Description:
This thesis will undertake research to determine and analyse the current policy positioning of TAFE Queensland in a social-service and economic utility context. The thesis will use the key principles of the Kangan Report (1974) and the broad shifts in government strategies during the 1980’s and 1990’s as reference points, when analysing this current position for Queensland TAFE. Specific questions to be addressed in this thesis are:
• What is the current policy position of Queensland TAFE with respect to the emphasis placed on a social- service and economic utility role as evidenced by:
o Current strategic policy documents that impact on Queensland TAFE and o The views of senior officers who influence the development and
implementation of Queensland TAFE policy.
• What influences a TAFE Queensland policy emphasis towards fulfilling either a social-service or economic utility role?
There are two main phases to this research project, each of which is linked to the objectives of the project. Phase 1 is concerned with an analysis of key national and State strategic policy
209
documents that influence Queensland TAFE policy. Phase 2 is concerned with an analysis of the views of six to eight key senior officials within the Department of Employment and Training who influence the development and/or implementation of TAFE Queensland policy. The position that you currently hold is one that has strategic influence on the implementation, or the development of, policy that impacts on TAFE Queensland. Therefore, you have been selected as a candidate to be interviewed as part of this research project. Your interview time, locations and procedures will be documented within an interview letter and interview protocols. Interview time and location will be negotiated with you, however it is anticipated that your interview will occur in either June or July 2004. It is anticipated that your interview will take approximately 11/2 hours. A follow-up interview to provide you with an opportunity to review the interview transcript and initial analysis will occur within six week of the initial interview. Once an interview time has been ascertained a two page preliminary document will be forwarded to you that will provide a framework for the interview. This framework will identify questions for discussion and present an overview of the provisional analysis of the seven policy documents being analysed for this research.
Benefits of this Research:
There have been a number of key reports undertaken on both the VET and/or TAFE systems such as those undertaken by Anderson (1998), Bannikoff (1998), Dawkins, (1987), Deveson (1990), Fooks et al., (1997), Hilmer (1993), Kangan (1974) and Schofield, (1999). Reports such as this have focussed primarily on the efficiency, or effectiveness, of the TAFE and/or VET systems. This research is somewhat unique in that it will be seeking to determine and analyse a current policy position, using not only an analysis of policy documents, but also the views and perceptions of senior managers within the Department of Employment and Training (DET) and Queensland TAFE who influence both policy development and implementation. Therefore, this thesis will provide policy-makers/influencers within the Department of Employment and Training (DET), and therefore, by the nature of your position within DET, yourself, with a body of research that may inform TAFE Queensland policy development.
Risks:
There are no identifiable risks associated with your participation in this research other than the anonymity issues identified within the interview protocols (see Confidentiality). Providing you with access to interview transcripts and initial analysis, as well as the process of coding interviews, maximises your anonymity.
Confidentiality:
You interview responses, and my subsequent analysis of these responses, is governed by the following interview protocols:
• Your anonymity and confidentiality will be assured by the use of a simple coding system to record data and data analysis. Audiotapes will be coded and the initial analysis will be undertaken using a table, which is also coded.
• Given the limited number of interviews, anonymity of your participation cannot be totally assured, however, the coding system will ensure, as far as possible, that specific references or views presented by you will not be able to be determined by third parties.
• Specific references by yourself will only be used with your approval
• All data collected, including interview tapes and transcripts will be securely stored at all times (e.g.. in a locked filing cabinet at the researcher’s home).
210
• You will be provided with an opportunity to review the interview transcripts and initial analysis. Interview tapes will be destroyed once the thesis has been either accepted or rejected by Queensland University of Technology (QUT) as fulfilling the requirements of a Doctor of Education degree.
The activities undertaken to develop this thesis will be governed by both the guidelines established by the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Research Ethics Committee, individual membership of the Australian Vocational Education and Training Research Association (AVETRA) and the Code of Conduct guidelines established by the Queensland Government for all employees. These professional codes provide firm principles to guide the research activity therefore minimising the possibility of ethical issues emerging during the research process. Voluntary Participation:
The Deputy-Director General of the Department of Employment and Training has provided approval for this project to be undertaken, Queensland University of Technology (QUT) sponsors the project, however, your participation in this project is completely voluntary. You may withdraw from this project at any time, without comment or justification. There is no remuneration for your participation in this project, and there are no penalties if you withdraw participation at any stage of the process. Reporting:
The findings from research will be submitted as a thesis to meet requirements for the conferring of a Doctorate of Education (Ed.D) with the Queensland University of Technology (QUT). IT is anticipated that a number of conference papers and journal articles may also be developed throughout the course of the research.
Further Questions/Information:
If you have any further questions, or require additional information, you may contact either the Researcher or Supervisors who can respond to your questions. Concerns/Complaints:
If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of this project you should contact QUT’s Research Ethics Officer on 3864 2340 Feedback:
For reference by managers a copy of the completed thesis will be presented to the Department of Employment and Training.
211
Consent Form
30 Years on from Kangan: An Analysis of the Current Policy Position of Queensland
TAFE (EdD Thesis)
Contact Information:
Greg McMillan (Researcher) Dr Neil Cranston (Supervisor) Student No.: n04042298 Tel: 3864 3288 or Email: [email protected] Doctorate of Education Program Dr Lisa Ehrich (Supervisor) School of Professional Studies Tel: 3864 3038 or Email:[email protected] Faculty of Education School of Professional Studies Tel: 3826 8318 or 0419646097 Faculty of Education Email: [email protected] Queensland University of Technology Statement of Consent:
By signing below, you are indicating that you:
• have read and understood the Research Information Pack about this project
• understand that interviews will be audiotape recorded and that you will be provided with an opportunity to review the interview transcripts and initial analysis.
• understand that interview tapes will be destroyed once the thesis has been either accepted or rejected by Queensland University of Technology (QUT) as fulfilling the requirements of a Doctor of Education degree.
• have had any questions answered to your satisfaction
• understand that if you have any additional questions you can contact the researcher at any time
• understand that you are free to withdraw at any time, without comment or penalty;
• understand that you can contact the Greg McMillan or his supervisors Dr Neil Cranston and Dr Lisa Ehrich if you have any questions about the project, or
• the Research Ethics Officer on 07 3864 2340 or [email protected]; and
• that you agree to participate in the project. Name: _______________________________________________________ Signature: _______________________________________________________ Date: _______/_______/_______
Interviews will be held in August/September 2004. Your preferred time for an interview is: (optional, however this will assist with planning interview times and sequence_
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
7.00am 8.30am mid-morn midday mid-after 5.00pm 6.00pm 7.00pm
(please circle preferred day/times, if any)
Please send signed consent form
to:
Greg McMillan
9 Sullivan Rd
Tallebudgera Qld 4228
Private and Confidential
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Appendix 3: Interview Pre-Reading
Interview on “An Analysis of the Current Policy Position of TAFE Queensland”
Introduction:
The purpose of this interview with you is to seek your views that will: � Validate or challenge the overall emphasis of the policies presented [Table 2] � Provide insight into what influences TAFE Queensland fulfilling either a social-
service or economic utility role, including, but not limited to: o Does TAFE Queensland currently fulfil either or both a social-service and
economic utility role and what are the indicators that substantiate this? o Should TAFE Queensland fulfil either or both a special-service and economic
role? o Other policy that significantly influences TAFE Queensland o What policy vacuums may exist
Part A: The Paradigm (overview)
There are a number of paradigms that could be used to develop a policy perspective on the role and purpose of the Australian TAFE system. This research builds upon a social service and economic utility paradigm. The social-service view sees the individual student as TAFE’s primary focus. Access is an equity issue that should be addressed under a broad social framework of social concern as the guiding principle. To ensure access and equity is maintained, government intervention is required while the concepts of recurrent education and life-long learning are emphasised. The economic utility view of TAFE is one that sees the economic outcomes of TAFE activity as a key driver. In this context, education and training are seen as a commercial transaction rather than as a process of social and cultural formation coupled with a belief that the market is an efficient and equitable allocator of scarce resources. While subject to a range of differences of emphasis and interpretation, policy prescriptions impacting on TAFE are likely to contain indicators that represent both social and economic views. The reality is, there is unlikely to be simply one or the other. More importantly is the question of balance that is of interest to this research (Powles and Anderson, 1996) Part B: The Framework
The following table provides a framework that illustrates the key features of a social service paradigm and an economic paradigm to assist in determining the positioning of seven policy documents important to TAFE. The table also provides an insight into the broader theoretical context or influence on each feature.
213
Table 1: Framework governing the analysis of the policies
Theoretical Context or Influence
Social-service Characteristics
Key Features
Economic utility Characteristics
Theoretical Context or Influence
Focus on individual need Integrates social, education & vocational Focus on lifelong learning
[A] System Emphasis
Focus on industry and economic needs Focus on vocational training Focus on short term recurrent training
Student driven Open access
[B] Student Access
Market driven Restricted access
Welfare focussed Responds to all student needs
[C] Equity Goals
Economically focussed Responds to needs of identified target groups
Open/multiple outcomes Emphasis on achievement
[D] Award Credentials
Pre-determined outcomes Emphasis on market value of credential
Student Centred
General Education approach that focuses on meeting the needs of people as individuals through curriculum based learning Social liberalism approach that tempers the market to pursue common social goals Liberal Progressive approach suggests that government should intervene to protect individuals from the market Liberal Progressive influence on Human Capital theory recognises the value of human capital through government intervention
Minimal fees paid Government Contribution
[E] Finance
Increased individual contribution Industry Contribution
Industry Driven Education linked to economic success through Vocational
Education to Meet the manpower needs of industry through a competency-based system Economic
Rationalism focus on an unregulated, open market providing individual choice Neo-liberalist approach suggests that the market is the most efficient way to manage equity issues Neo-classical influence on Human Capital theory emphasising a user pays system
Part C: The Emphasis
The following table reflects the provisional analysis of seven identified policy documents. Each of the policies has been (tentatively) plotted on the continuum between a social service and economic utility for TAFE. To arrive at this positioning, consideration was given to each of the five key features (i.e. system emphasis, student access, equity goals, award credentials and finance). The positioning, therefore, shows the overall emphasis.
As can be seen from Table 2, there appears to have been a shift in policy emphasis regarding the three national policies. While recognising the significance of the economic outcomes associated with technical and further education, Kangan (1974) placed a higher emphasis on the social-service role (and hence this policy has been positioned closer to the social service end of the continuum). The 1998-2003 ANTA policy appears to have reflected a stronger emphasis on economic outcomes and therefore has been positioned closer to the economic utility end of the continuum. There are indicators within the most recent ANTA policy (2004-2010) that suggest a re-emphasis of a range of social-service characteristics, thus, this policy has been place somewhere between the two ends of the continuum to reflect a balance between both a social-service and economic role for the broader VET system as has the Queensland Department of Employment and Training Strategic Plan.
From a Queensland policy perspective, the Education and Training Reforms for the
Future white paper reflects more of a social-service emphasis, while Skilling Australia reflects dominant economic characteristics. While the TAFE Queensland Strategic Plans reflect characteristics from both paradigms, this policy has been positioned closer to the economic utility end of the continuum because overall, the emphasis seems to be more economic than social service.
214
Table 2: Positioning of policies on continuum (N = National Policy; Q = Queensland Policy)
Social-Service Economic Utility
(Social-Service Emphasis) (Balanced Emphasis) (Economic Utility Emphasis)
[N] Kangan Report
(1974) [N]
A Bridge to the Future (1998-2003) ANTA
[Q]
Skilling Queensland (2001-2004)
[Q]
Queensland Department of Employment & Training Strategic Plan (2003-2007)
[Q]
TAFE Queensland Strategic Plan (2003-2006)
[Q]
Education and Training Reforms for the Future (2004 White Paper) Queensland
[N]
Shaping Our Future (2004-2010) ANTA
215
Appendix 4: Data Collection Table
Social service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Focus on individual need Focus on industry and economic needs
Integrates social, education & vocational
[A]
System Emphasis
Focus on vocational training
Focus on lifelong learning Focus on short term recurrent training
Student driven Market driven
Open access [B]
Student Access
Restricted access
Welfare focussed Economically focussed
Responds to all student needs [C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of identified target groups
Open/multiple outcomes
[D]
Award Credentials
Pre-determined outcomes
Emphasis on achievement Emphasis on market value of credential
Minimal fees paid
[E]
Finance
Increased individual contribution
Government contribution Industry Contribution
216
Appendix 5: Data Collection Table – Kangan Report (1974)
Social-Service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social-service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
• Recommendation 3: the emphasis in technical college type institution should be primarily be on the needs of the individual …(p.xxiii)
• Recommendation 12: there should be opportunities for individuals to learn at their own pace … (p.xxiv)
Focus on individual
need
Focus on industry
and economic needs • Recommendation 57 identifies an expansion of para-professional courses and
consultation with trade union movements, professional organisations and/or employer bodies … (p.xxxi)
• Recommendation 2: the main purpose of education is the betterment and development of individual people and their contribution to the good of the community (p.xxiii)
• Recommendation 4: … it is important that general education be seen as relevant to vocational purposes … (p.xxiii)
Integrates social,
education &
vocational
Focus on vocational
training
• Recommendation 15: … little used knowledge should be removed … (p.xxv)
• Recommendation 16: TAFE authorities are responsible for ensuring that course content is relevant to occupational excellence (p.xxv)
• Recommendation 8: recurrent education should be accepted as an integration principle … (p.xxiv)
• Recommendation 9: the concept of recurrent vocational oriented education is especially relevant to technical and further education (p.xxiv)
• Recommendation 10: opportunities for recurrent education should help individuals who wish to repair inadequacies in their initial formal education … (p.xxiv)
Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
Focus on short term
recurrent training •
• Student driven Market driven •
• Recommendation 5: Strong emphasis should be placed on unrestricted access to recurrent education (p.xxiii)
• Recommendation 24: access to further education by many persons who reside outside large metropolitan areas would be facilitated by he development of community type colleges … (p.xxvi)
Open access Restricted access
•
• Welfare focussed
[B]
Student
Access
Economically
focussed •
• Recommendation 14: Colleges of external studies and like institutes should be expanded and encouraged financially to make available their self learning techniques and material to all capable and motivated persons (p.xxv)
• Recommendation 20, 21, 222: provide for support to be given to all students in the areas of counselling and guidance services on course and career opportunities and options … (p.xxvii)
Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of
identified target
groups
• Recommendation 49 and 51 identifies a range of target groups including married women and migrant youth (p.xxix)
• Recommendation 2: (p.xxiii)
• Recommendation 3: (p.xxiii)
Open/multiple
outcomes
Pre-determined
outcomes
•
• Emphasis on
achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials Emphasis on market
value of credential •
• Recommendations 40 and 44 proposes that TAFE students should be financially assisted and fees subsidised (pp.xxviii-xxix)
• Sections 4.87 – 4.89 discuss a range of issues around the abolition of student fees (pp.91-92
Minimal fees paid
Increased individual
contribution •
• Government
contribution
[E]
Finance
Industry
Contribution •
217
Appendix 6: Data Collection Table – A Bridge to the Future (1998 – 2003)
Social-Service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social-service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
• Objective 2: Seamless post-compulsory pathways (p.13)
Focus on individual
need
Focus on industry
and economic needs • Objective 1: Building the nationals stock of skills to meet the needs of industry
(p.5)
• Objective 2: Emphasising key competencies and cross industry competency standards (p.13)
• Objective 2: Improving language, literacy and numeracy skills (p.14) Integrates social,
education &
vocational
Focus on vocational
training
• Objective 2: Ensuring that skills are nationally recognised (p.13)
• Objective 4: Developing a training culture (p.18)
• Objective 1: Expanded pathways and options – supporting life-long learning (p.6)
Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
•
• Objective 1: User Choice provides choice to students and employers in terms of RTO and training plans (p.6)
Student driven Market driven • Objective 1: Encouraging flexible registered training organisations – responding to the demands of a competitive market (p.9)
• Outcome 1: .. increased and improved access to, and outcome from, vocational education and training … (p.16)
Open access Restricted access
•
• Welfare focused
[B]
Student
Access Economically
focused • Objective 4: Addressing the economic imperative to build the national stock of
skills (p.17)
• Objective 4: Maximizing returns on investment (in VET) (p.19)
• Objective 5: Improving efficiency – infrastructure efficiency, accountability, improving management information and using research and evaluation (p.21)
• Objective: Achieving equitable outcomes in vocational education and training (p.15)
Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of
identified target
groups
• Objective 3: Identifies targeted groups such as National Women’s VET strategy, and other specific priorities that might include ATSI people, people with a disability, women, rural and remote communities and people from non-English speaking backgrounds (p.15-16)
• Encourage the development of training packages which suit individual needs (p.6)
• Adult and community education options (p.10)
Open/multiple
outcomes
Pre-determined
outcomes
• Training Packages provide the basis for training (p.6)
• Emphasis on
achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials Emphasis on market
value of credential • Objective 1: Raising awareness of vocational education and training
opportunities – marketing of VET products and services to build greater recognition of the value of VET (p.11)
• Outcome 4: .. and there will be corresponding higher completion and graduate placement rates .. (p.12)
• Minimal fees paid
Increased individual
contribution •
• Government
contribution
[E]
Finance Industry
Contribution • Objective 4: Increasing investment in training by industry (p.19)
218
Appendix 7: Data Collection Table – Shaping our Future (2004 – 2010)
Social-Service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social-service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Focus on individual
need
Focus on industry
and economic needs
Strategy 2: Communities engage in partnerships with vocational education and training to meet local economic development needs (p.15) Strategy 9: Strengthen industry’s ole in anticipating skill requirements and developing products and services to meet them (p.17) Strategy 12: Facilitate access to international markets (p.17)
Strategy 1: People have their prior learning/current competence recognised and recorded nationally (p.15) Strategy 2: Communities engage in partnerships with vocational education and training to meet their local economic development needs (p.15)
Integrates social,
education &
vocational
Focus on vocational
training
Strategy 5: Make a sustained investment n TAFE and other RTO’s (p.16) Strategy 6: Enable training providers and brokers to partner with industry to drive innovation (p.16) Strategy 11: Improve quality and consistency (p.17)
Strategy 1: Adults through life-long learning, continuously upgrade their skills to meet current and future work requirements (p.15)
Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
Student driven Market driven
Strategy 1: Workers in part-time, casual, contract and occasional employment have equal opportunities for learning (p.15) Strategy 2: Clients, particularly youth in transition and small businesses, find VET more understandable and enjoy easier access to information, career development, navigation and brokerage services (p.15)
Open access Restricted access
Welfare focused
[B]
Student
Access
Economically
focused
Strategy 7: Implement flexible funding models and planning and accountability approaches (choice and value of investment) (p.16)
Strategy 4: Take positive steps to achieve equality of participation and achievement (p.15)
Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of
identified target
groups
Strategy 10: Make learning pathways seamless (p.17) Open/multiple
outcomes
Pre-determined
outcomes
Emphasis on
achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials Emphasis on market
value of credential
Strategy 3: Clients, the broader community and other education and training sectors strongly value VET and its outcomes (p.15)
Minimal fees paid
Increased individual
contribution
Strategy 8: Develop a sustainable mix of funding – increased investment by employers and individuals (p.16)
Government
contribution
[E]
Finance Industry
Contribution
Strategy 8: Develop a sustainable mix of funding – increased investment by employers and individuals (p.16)
219
Appendix 8: Data Collection Table – Skilling Queensland (2001 - 2004)
Social-Service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social-service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Focus on
individual need
Focus on industry
and economic needs
Integrates social,
education &
vocational
Focus on vocational
training
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 10, Ensure training products and delivery support the acquisition of generic skills (p.6)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 12, Develop resource allocation models that link with desired community, economic and social outcomes (p.12)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 13, Expand the role of the training system in community capacity building (p.13)
• Objective 3: Strategic Approach 1, Support research and development to extend training products, pathways and options, both locally and globally, that better satisfies industries’, communities’ and individuals’ diverse needs (p.11)
• Objective 3: Strategic Approach 5, Ensure training system processes and products provide a balanced response to the needs of industry, community and individuals, particularly for key client groups (p.11)
• Objective 3: Strategic Approach 7, Develop the capacity of communities to identify and address their training needs related to economic and social development (p.11)
• Objective 4: Strategic Approach 6, Review planning and funding allocation processes to ensure that they meet industry, community and individual training needs (p.12)
Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
Focus on short term
recurrent training
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 1, Expand quality apprenticeships and traineeships opportunities, including growth in new qualification areas (p.5)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 3, expand Youth Access Program to provide vocational education and training to students at risk of leaving school early and having difficulty in securing employment (p.5)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 11, Provide seed funding for the creative arts industry (p.6)
• Objective 3: Strategic Approach 3, Assist in implementation of the Queensland Education and Training Industry Export Strategy 2000-2005 to position the education and training industry as one of Queensland’s top five export earners (p.11)
• Objective 3: Strategic Approach 4, Lead the development of an Aviation Centre for Excellence (p.11)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 1, Expand the school-based apprenticeships and traineeship program and other VET in schools options (p.6)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 5, Better recognise the skills that people already have, through improved recognition of prior learning (RPL) processes (p.6)
• Objective 2: Strategic Approach 1 to 11 (p.8)
• Objective 4: Strategic Approach 5, Progress strategies to increase the proportion of apprentices and trainees successfully completing their training
• Objective 4: Strategic Approach 1, Implement the Australian Quality Training Framework and ensure that appropriate quality systems are in place that complies with the standards for state and territory registration/course accrediting bodies (p.13)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 2, Provide a range of labour market programs aimed at increasing job readiness and opportunities for securing employment (p.5)
• Student driven Market driven •
• Objective 3: Strategic Approach 2, Increase the flexibility of access to training across learning sectors (p.11)
Open access Restricted access
•
• Welfare focussed
[B]
Student
Access Economically
focussed •
• Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of
identified target
groups
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 3, Expand the Youth Access Program to provide vocational education and training to students at risk of leaving school early and having difficulty in securing employment (p.5)
• Objective 1: Strategic Approach 8, Increase the training outcomes for key clients including … (p.6)
• Objective 4: Strategic Approach 7, Support provision of effective career education and guidance for all Queenslanders, including unemployed adults in career transition
Open/multiple
outcomes
Pre-determined
outcomes
• Objective 4: Strategic Approach 2, Continue to implement national training packages qualifications based on up-to-date industry accepted standards that provide the underpinning skills people need for the future workforce (p.13)
• Emphasis on
achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials Emphasis on market
value of credential • Objective 1: Strategic Approach 4, Adopt marketing strategies to encourage
Queenslanders to place higher value on vocational education and training and participate more in training (p.5)
• Minimal fees paid
Increased individual
contribution • Objective 1: Strategic Approach 6, Encourage more Queenslanders and
Queensland industries to invest in training … (p.6)
• Government
contribution
[E]
Finance Industry
Contribution • Objective 1: Strategic Approach 7, Use government funding strategically to
complement and foster more private investment, while maintaining current levels of competitive funding (p.6)
220
Appendix 9: Data Collection Table – Education and Training Reforms (2002)
Social-Service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social-service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
• Focus on individual
need
Focus on industry
and economic needs •
• Action 5: We will establish the quantity and quality of education and training that a student must achieve to receive a Senior Certificate (p.16)
• Action 6: We will record a broader range of learning, including learning in school, vocational education an training and other learning, that will count towards a Senior Certificate (p.17)
• Action 18: The Government will foster a Community Commitment to young people by building partnerships at a local level (p.24)
Integrates social,
education &
vocational
Focus on vocational
training
• Action 11: We will ensure that more young people who undertake vocational education and training in schools achieve qualifications that are highly regarded by industry (p.20)
• Action 12: We will provide more school-based apprenticeships and traineeships (p.21)
• Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
•
• Action 1: focus on compulsory student participation, with student choice of learning opportunities (p.13)
Student driven Market driven •
• Action 10: We will enhance distance, online and virtual education provision (p.20)
Open access Restricted access
•
• Welfare focused
[B]
Student
Access Economically
focused •
• Action 8: we will enhance learning options that provide greater flexibility to meet the needs of even more 15-17 year olds (p.18)
• Action 16: We will help young people improve participation in learning and achieve qualifications (p.22)
Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of
identified target
groups
• Action 9: We will work with communities to develop localised services and better access to education and training for young people in rural, remote and indigenous communities (p.19)
• Action 15: We will provide an employment program to assist young people who are at risk of disengaging from learning or who are not served by formal education and training options (p.24)
• Action 13: We will improve the recognition of learning and qualifications between the education and training sectors (p.21)
Open/multiple
outcomes
Pre-determined
outcomes
• Action 19: We will develop District youth Achievement plans that will set local targets for participation, retention and attainment in education, training or employment programs (p.24)
• Action 7: we will allocate extra funding to the Queensland Studies Authority to design a system so that student’s achievement can be banked with the authority and to provide students and their parents and guardians, with easy access to information about their achievements and progress towards a Senior Certificate (p.17)
Emphasis on
achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials Emphasis on market
value of credential •
• Action 14: We will investigate ways of giving young people equitable, affordable access to vocational education and training in schools and TAFE (p.21)
Minimal fees paid
Increased individual
contribution •
• Government
contribution
[E]
Finance
Industry
Contribution •
221
Appendix 10: Data Collection Table – DET Strategic Plan (2003 – 2007)
Social-Service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social-service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
• Outcome 1, Objective: improve the capability of individuals to participate in their communities and build community capacity (p.13)
• Outcome 2, Strategy: increase opportunities for young people to be actively involved in the community and government decision making (p.17)
Focus on individual
need
Focus on industry
and economic needs • Outcome 1, Strategy: ensure effective targeting of training sectors of job
growth and skill shortage (p.13)
• Outcome 1, Strategy: develop and implement more effective processes for identifying gaps in the skills profile (p.13)
• Outcome 2, Strategy: collaborate and partner with government, industry, business and the community to deliver training programs and services to achieve Smart State outcomes (p.17)
• Outcome 2, Strategy: delver training and employment programs that skill people for changing labour markets and changes in community (P.17). NB: also social.
• Outcome 1, Strategy: develop strategies to increase access to the recognition of skills and prior to learning (p.13)
• Outcome 1, Strategy: align programs and service delivery to industry, business and community needs (p.13)
• Outcome 1, Strategy: build capacity to respond to community development opportunities to ensure communities maximise employment and social benefits of services (p.13)
Integrates social,
education &
vocational
Focus on vocational
training
• Outcome 1, Strategy: strengthen the quality and consistency of vocational education and training qualifications achieved in Queensland (p.13)
• Outcome 2, strategy: improve the industry recognition of vocational education and training in schools (p.13)
NB: Performance measures reflect both economic measures and measures that reflect a student or client centred approach.
• Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
Focus on short term
recurrent training •
• Student driven Market driven •
• Outcome 1, Objective: increase access to the labour market by all sections of the community (p.13). NB: strategies focus on economic values
•
Open access Restricted access
•
• Welfare focused
[B]
Student
Access
Economically
focused • Key Deliverable: commitment to prioritise training investment in line with
employment priorities (p.18)
• Outcome 2, Strategy: play an active role in the development of district youth achievement plans (p.13)
• Outcome 2, Strategy: increase the capacity and opportunities for communities to respond to regional and local needs … (p.17)
Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of
identified target
groups
• Outcome 2, Strategy: improve vocational education and training and employment outcomes for indigenous people and disadvantaged groups (p.17)
• Outcome 1, Strategy: develop strategies for effective transition of young people from school to work and further education (p.14)
• Outcome 2, Strategy: increase the participation of young people in vocational education and training by providing a range of programs and pathways (p.17)
Open/multiple
outcomes
Pre-determined
outcomes
•
• Emphasis on
achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials Emphasis on market
value of credential • Outcome 1, Strategy: market vocational educational and training to improve
public perception and position … (p.14)
• Minimal fees paid
Increased individual
contribution •
• Government
contribution
[E]
Finance Industry
Contribution • Outcome 1, Strategy: leverage increased investment by industry, organisations
and individuals … (p.14)
222
Appendix 11: Data Collection Table – TAFE Queensland Strategic Plan (2003 - 2006)
Social-Service Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
Social-service
Characteristics
Key
Features
Economic Utility
Characteristics
Economic Utility Emphasis
(Yes and justification)
• Section 6, Strategy: ensure the TAFE Queensland product supports the clients by effective learning support systems and interactive learning systems … (p.8)
• Section 6, strategy: provide greater access to generic skills development … (p.9)
Focus on individual
need
Focus on industry
and economic needs • Section 6, Strategy: develop and implement a 3 year product plan which
identifies current and emerging markets (p.9)
• Section 6, strategy: develop innovative training programs that skill people to better manage changes in the work environment (p.9)
• Section 6, Strategy: Develop organisational models (business and delivery), which are adaptable and aligned to customers (p.9)
• Section 5, Outcome 3: enhanced relationships and key partnerships with employers, other sectors and communities (p.7)
• Section 6, Strategy: ensure the TAFE Queensland product range is current and appropriate to industry and community needs (p.8)
• Section 6, Strategy: strengthen community and industry partnerships with TAFE Institutes (p.8)
Integrates social,
education &
vocational
Focus on vocational
training
• Section 6, Outcome 1: an increase in the number of qualifications attained by clients (p.8)
• Section 6, Strategy: Improve the client focus and efficiency of RPL (p.8)
• Section 6: TAFE Performance Indicators – NB: quantitative outcome based/economic indicators (p.8)
• Focus on lifelong
learning
[A]
System
Emphasis
Focus on short term
recurrent training •
• Section 6, Strategy: identify and establish future pathways arrangements for students (p.8)
•
Student driven Market driven •
• Section 5, Outcomes 2: Improved customer access to our products and services (p.7)
Open access Restricted access
•
• Welfare focused
[B]
Student
Access
Economically
focused •
• Responds to all
student needs
[C]
Equity Goals
Responds to needs of
identified target
groups
• Section 6, Strategy: target ‘at risk youth’ through taking a lead role in implementing the ETRF (p.8)
• Section 6, Strategy: Build partnerships with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders groups to enhance training outcomes (p.8)
• Section 6: TAFE Performance Indicators (p.8)
Open/multiple
outcomes
Pre-determined
outcomes
•
Emphasis on
achievement
[D]
Award
Credentials Emphasis on market
value of credential • Section 6, Strategy: issue qualifications where achieved and encourage the
completion of qualifications (p.8)
• Section 6, Strategy: Develop a promotional strategy on the value of the qualification (p.8)
Minimal fees paid
Increased individual
contribution • Section 6, Strategy: leverage increased investment by industry, organisations
and individuals in skills development, employment and community capabilities (p.10)
Government
contribution
[E]
Finance
Industry
Contribution • Section 5, Outcome 7: an increase in revenue base (p.7)
• Section 6, Strategy: fully leverage government funding to meet government, local and equity priorities (p.10)
223
Appendix 12: Policy Emphasis Table
[A]
Systems Emphasis
[B]
Student Access
[C]
Equity Goals
[D]
Award Credentials
[E]
Finance
Overall
Quadrant
→
Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4 Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4 Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4 Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4 Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4
Emphasis
→
So
cial
service
Eco
no
mic
Balan
c
ed
No
t
Rep
res
So
cial
service
Eco
no
mic
Balan
c
ed
No
t
Rep
res
So
cial
service
Eco
no
mic
Balan
c
ed
No
t
Rep
res
So
cial
service
Eco
no
mic
Balan
c
ed
No
t
Rep
res
So
cial
service
Eco
no
mic
Balan
c
ed
No
t
Rep
res
Kangan
National
Q1
S
A Bridge
National
Q3
E
Shaping
National
Q2
Bal
Skilling
State
Q3
E
ETRF
State
Q2
Bal
DET
State
Q2
Bal
TAFE
State
Q3
E
Interviews
State
Q3
E
- Q2 provides a balanced approach and is arguably the preferred position; National = National Policy Document; State = Queensland
- Shows a change in emphasis between the previous and the current National documents
224
REFERENCES
A Bridge to the Future: Australia's national strategy for vocational education and
training 1998-200. see ANTA (1998).
Ahern Report (Queensland Legislative Assembly). (1980). Final Report of the Select
Committee on Education in Queensland. Brisbane: Government Printer.
Anderson, D. (1999). Reintegrating ACE and TAFE: a lost opportunity. Australian
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