3D Structure and Emplacement of the Alnö Alkaline and ...799076/FULLTEXT01.pdfCarbonatites are carbonate-rich magmatic rocks that are rare and of great relevance for our understanding

ACTAUNIVERSITATIS

UPSALIENSISUPPSALA

2015

Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertationsfrom the Faculty of Science and Technology 1246

3D Structure and Emplacement ofthe Alnö Alkaline and CarbonatiteComplex, Sweden

Integrated Geophysical and Physical PropertyInvestigations

MAGNUS ANDERSSON

ISSN 1651-6214ISBN 978-91-554-9224-3urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-248113

Dissertation presented at Uppsala University to be publicly examined in Hambergsalen,Geocentrum, Villavägen 16, Uppsala, Friday, 22 May 2015 at 10:00 for the degree of Doctorof Philosophy. The examination will be conducted in English. Faculty examiner: Prof. OdleivOlesen (Geological Survey of Norway).

AbstractAndersson, M. 2015. 3D Structure and Emplacement of the Alnö Alkaline and CarbonatiteComplex, Sweden. Integrated Geophysical and Physical Property Investigations. DigitalComprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Science andTechnology 1246. 64 pp. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. ISBN 978-91-554-9224-3.

Carbonatites are carbonate-rich magmatic rocks that are rare and of great relevance for ourunderstanding of crustal and mantle processes. Although found on all continents and insettings ranging from Archaean to present-day, their deeper plumbing system is still poorlyunderstood. Therefore, the main goal of this thesis is to broaden the existing knowledgeof carbonatite systems, often limited to surface geological observations, by providing depthconstraints using a number of geophysical methods and petrophysical measurements. TheAlnö alkaline and carbonatite complex in central Sweden was chosen for this purpose. Datafrom three reflection seismic lines, ground gravity and magnetic measurements are presented.These data are complemented by a series of petrophysical measurements, including ultrasonicvelocities, density, magnetic bulk susceptibility, anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS),and magnetic remanence, to aid in the interpretation of the geophysical data. The reflectionseismic data indicate a solidified saucer-shaped fossil magma chamber at about 3 km depth.Caldera-style volcanism, constrained by surface geological observations, provides a plausiblescenario to explain the emplacement of the complex, suggesting that carbonatite magmas havebeen stored, transported and erupted in a similar manner to known emplacement mechanisms forsilicic calderas, although these are compositionally different. The AMS data from most of thecarbonatite sheets in Alnö show a strong degree of anisotropy and oblate-shaped susceptibilityellipsoids. A set of syn- and post-emplacement processes that may control the AMS signature isevaluated based on the dataset. Overprinting of the primary flow patterns by processes relatedto sheet closure at the terminal stage of magma transport may explain the AMS observations.A complementary study using 3D inversion of ground gravity and aeromagnetic data was thencarried out to better delineate the 3D internal architecture of the complex. Resulting modelsindicate a depth extent of the complex to about 3-4 km, consistent with the interpretation ofthe reflection seismic data. The modelling results of a ring-shaped magnetic anomaly observedin the Klingefjärden bay adjacent to Alnö Island further suggest that the complex may extendlaterally about 3 km towards the north.

Keywords: Alnö, carbonatite, caldera, reflection seismic, anisotropy of magneticsusceptibility, gravity, magnetic

Magnus Andersson, Department of Earth Sciences, Geophysics, Villav. 16, UppsalaUniversity, SE-75236 Uppsala, Sweden.

© Magnus Andersson 2015

ISSN 1651-6214ISBN 978-91-554-9224-3urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-248113 (http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-248113)

Dedicated to my niece Elsa and my nephews Johannes, David, Sebastian and Felix.

List of Papers

This thesis is based on the following papers, which are referred to in the text by their Roman numerals.

I Magnus Andersson, Alireza Malehmir, Valentin R. Troll,

Mahdieh Dehghannejad, Christopher Juhlin, and Maria Ask. (2013) Carbonatite ring-complexes explained by caldera-style volcanism. Scientific Reports, 3(1677): 1-9. DOI: 10.1038/srep01677

II Magnus Andersson, Bjarne S. G. Almqvist, Steffi Burchardt, Alireza Malehmir, Valentin R. Troll, Ian Snowball, and Lutz Kübler. Magma transport in sheet intrusions (submitted)

III Magnus Andersson and Alireza Malehmir, Unravelling the in-ternal architecture of the Alnö alkaline and carbonatite complex (central Sweden) using 3D models of gravity and magnetic data (manuscript)

The first article (Paper I) was published in an open access journal and reprint was made with the permission from the publisher.

Additional publications during my PhD studies, which are not included in this thesis:

Alireza Malehmir, Magnus Andersson, Maxim Lebedev, Milovan Urosevic and Vassili Mikhaltsevitch (2013). Experimen-tal estimation of velocities and anisotropy of a series of Swedish crystalline rocks and ores. Geophysical Prospecting, 61(1), 153-167.

Emil Lundberg, Alireza Malehmir, Christopher Juhlin, Mehrdad Bastani and Magnus Andersson, (2014). High-resolution 3D re-flection seismic investigation over a quick-clay landslide scar in southwest Sweden. Geophysics, 79(2), B97-B107.

Harbe Muhamad, Christopher Juhlin, Oliver Lehnert, Guido Meinhold, Magnus Andersson, Maria A. Garcia Juanatey and Alireza Malehmir, (2,015). Analysis of borehole geophysical data from the Mora area of the Siljan Ring impact structure, central Sweden. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 115, 183-196.

Ping Yan, Magnus Andersson, Thomas Kalscheuer, Maria A. Garcia Juanatey, Alireza Malehmir, Chunling Shan, Laust B. Pedersen and Bjarne S. G. Almqvist, Alnö alkaline and car-bonatite ring complex, central Sweden, insights from 3D magneto-telluric investigation. (manuscript)

Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 11

2 Geological background .............................................................................. 13 2.1 Alkaline and carbonatite volcanism ................................................... 13

2.1.1 Alkaline and carbonatite rock types ............................................ 13 2.2 Geology of Alnö ................................................................................. 14

3 Petrophysical methods ............................................................................... 19 3.1 Ultrasonic laboratory measurements .................................................. 19 3.2 Magnetic properties ............................................................................ 20

3.2.1 Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility ........................................ 24 3.2.2 Natural remanent magnetisation ................................................. 27 3.2.3 Königsberger ratio ...................................................................... 27

4 Geophysical methods ................................................................................. 29 4.1 Reflection seismic method ................................................................. 29

4.1.1 Seismic data acquisition ............................................................. 29 4.1.2 Seismic data processing .............................................................. 29

4.2 Gravity method ................................................................................... 30 4.3 Magnetic method ................................................................................ 31 4.4 Forward and inverse modelling of gravity and magnetic data ........... 32 4.5 Interpretation of geophysical data ...................................................... 33

5 Summary of papers .................................................................................... 34 5.1 My contributions ................................................................................ 34 5.2 Paper I: Carbonatite ring-complexes explained by caldera-style volcanism ................................................................................................. 35

5.2.1 Summary ..................................................................................... 35 5.2.2 Petrophysical measurements ....................................................... 35 5.2.3 Reflection seismic survey ........................................................... 36 5.2.4 Gravity and magnetic measurements .......................................... 37 5.2.5 Results ........................................................................................ 37 5.2.6 Conclusions ................................................................................ 39

5.3 Paper II: Magma transport in sheet intrusions .................................... 40 5.3.1 Summary ..................................................................................... 40 5.3.2 Conclusions ................................................................................ 42

5.4 Paper III: Unravelling internal architecture of the Alnö carbonatite and alkaline complex (central Sweden) by 3D modelling of gravity and magnetic data ............................................................................................ 45

5.4.1 Summary ..................................................................................... 45 5.4.2 Conclusions ................................................................................ 49

6 Conclusions ................................................................................................ 51

7 Summary in Swedish ................................................................................. 54

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... 57

References ..................................................................................................... 59

Abbreviations

2D Two-dimensional 2.5D Two-and-half-dimensional 3D Three-dimensional AMS Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility CDP Common depth point CMP Common midpoint DMO Dip moveout GPS Global positioning system H Magnetic field k Magnetic susceptibility km Kilometre m Metre M Induced magnetisation Ma Million years MHz Megahertz mm Millimetre mT Millitesla NMO Normal moveout NRM Natural remanent magnetisation nT Nanotesla REE Rare earth element

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1 Introduction

Carbonatites are rare carbonate-rich magmatic rocks that are usually associ-ated with alkaline silica-under-saturated intrusions. Although they make up a very small portion of the crust, they occur in all continents and from the Archaean to the present (Rukhlov and Bell 2010) and are of great relevance for our understanding of crustal and mantle processes. The Alnö carbonatite ring-complex (Figure 2.1) was one of the first carbonatite occurrences to be described and has attracted attentions from many geoscientists for more than a hundred years. Numerous investigations of the Alnö complex have been conducted over the years, focussing on the exposed surface geology (e.g. Högbom 1895; von Eckermann 1948; Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990; Vuorinen and Skelton 2004; Mattsson et al. 2014). The studies presented in this PhD thesis, are mainly funded by the Swedish Research Council (VR) and Upp-sala University, and aimed to broaden the existing knowledge about these types of carbonatite systems by conducting a number of surface geophysical surveys and petrophysical measurements to provide subsurface information on the Alnö intrusive complex.

Many carbonatites and alkaline silicate rocks around the world have been studied for their importance for crustal and mantle processes, but also be-cause they are of great economic importance due to their often high concen-trations of incompatible trace elements such as REEs (rare earth elements). The major parts of the world production of REEs are indeed from car-bonatites and alkaline silicate rocks (Kanazawa and Kamitani 2006; Berger et al. 2009). In addition, nepheline syenite is quarried for feldspar that is used for manufacturing of glass and ceramics. What, however, makes the Alnö complex particularly interesting is that apart from the shallow intru-sions, evidence of explosive volcanic eruptions of carbonatites are available north of the complex (Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990). This would then place the Alnö complex among a few cases where both intrusive and extrusive carbonatite activities are observed at the same place, and potentially implies a large REE resource at depth. With the main aim of shedding light on this hypothesis, this PhD thesis has focussed on methods and approaches that can unravel the geology of the Alnö complex at depth.

Three seismic lines, densely sampled gravity and magnetic data, and a petrophysical database now exist from the Alnö complex. More than 400 gravity data points were measured to cover the complex. Petrophysical measurements including ultrasonic velocity, density, magnetic bulk suscep-

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tibility, and magnetic remanence were carried out on various rock types from the Alnö complex.

This thesis is organised in 7 chapters, after this introduction chapter, a chapter on geological background about alkaline and carbonatite volcanism with a focus on the Alnö complex is provided. Then chapter 3 presents an introduction to petrophysical methods and chapter 4 geophysical methods. The main part of the research is presented in chapter 5 as paper summaries, followed by a conclusion and look into future research possibilities related to the Alnö complex in chapter 6. In chapter 7 a summary of the thesis is given in Swedish.

The interpretation of the reflection seismic data and 2.5D forward model-ling of gravity data is presented in Paper I. In Paper II magnetic properties of the rocks in the complex were studied, with a focus on the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) in carbonatite dykes, in order to understand their emplacement mechanisms. 3D inversion of ground gravity and aero-magnetic data was carried out to better delineate the 3D shape of the Alnö complex and is presented in Paper III.

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2 Geological background

2.1 Alkaline and carbonatite volcanism Alkaline silicate and carbonatite igneous intrusions are found in small por-tions on all continents ranging in age from Archaean to the present. Car-bonatites are characteristically found in association with alkaline silicate rocks, including ijolite, nepheline syenite, and pyroxenite (Bell et al. 1999; Harmer 1999). Alkaline rocks can occur without carbonatites, but car-bonatites rarely occurs without alkali rocks (Bell et al. 1999). Alkaline sili-cate rocks are petrographically and chemically more heterogeneous than any other group of igneous rocks and are unusually rich in potassium and so-dium, which are characterised by the presence of feldspathoids, alkali pyrox-enes and amphiboles, but lacking quartz (Woolley 2001). About 500 car-bonatite locations have been reported around the world, approximately 40% of them in Africa. The majority of these are associated with the East African Rift (Woolley 2001; Rukhlov and Bell 2010). Carbonatites frequently occur in ring-complexes and have been related to stable cratonic regions, orogens, regions of rifting and extension within continental margins, and mantle plumes (Le Bas 1977; Gittins 1988; Phipps 1988; Wallace and Green 1988; Fischer et al. 2009; Rukhlov and Bell 2010). Some of the youngest car-bonatite volcanoes are located at the Kaiserstuhl volcanic complex (Mio-cene; c.16 Ma) in the Rhine graben in Germany (Keller 1981; Kraml et al. 2006) and the Oldoinyo Lengai volcano (Tanzania) in the East African Rift Valley (Dawson 1962; Dawson et al. 1990). Oldoinyo Lengai is the only carbonatite volcano on our planet known to have been active in modern time (Dawson 1962). Oldoinyo Lengai is also unique because it shows natrocar-bonatites, which is an extremely alkali-rich carbonatite composition, with more than 30 wt% of Na2O (Dawson et al. 1995).

2.1.1 Alkaline and carbonatite rock types A bewildering nomenclature has developed in literature for alkaline silicate and carbonatite rocks as names have often been given from the type locality such as alnöite, alvikite, beforsite (from Alnö area), fenite, melteigite, sövite (from Fen complex in Norway), and ijolite (from Iivaara in Finland). Many, but not all, old names are obsolete and a good practice is to follow the no-

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menclature suggested by Le Maitre et al. (2002) who shifted the naming convention to one based on chemical composition.

Carbonatites are defined as igneous carbonate rocks with a composition of more than 50 volume percent of carbonate minerals, for instance calcite (calcium carbonate) (Le Maitre et al. 2002). Based on phase equilibrium experiments, carbonatitic melts have been suggested to be generated from either primary mantle melting, liquid immiscibility, or crystal fractionation (e.g. Bell et al. 1999; Harmer 1999; Brooker and Kjarsgaard 2010). How-ever, the three models of origin do not exclude each other and a combination is possible (Bell et al. 1999). Carbonatite lavas are exceptional not only in their compositional spectrum but also in the low temperature they extrude at (~600 °C) and the low viscosities they show, with more than one order of magnitude lower viscosity than the most mobile basaltic lavas (e.g. Dawson et al. 1990). Despite their low viscosity, carbonatites have also been reported to form blocky 'a'a type lavas (Dawson et al. 1994; Mattsson and Caricchi 2009).

Most carbonatites are associated with alkaline silicate rocks but the con-nection is not fully understood. Alnöite is a mafic alkaline silicate rock that belongs to the kimberlite family and is melilite-rich, it has been named after the Alnö Island (Högbom 1895; von Eckermann 1948; Kresten 1990). Fenite is country rock, of any origin, surrounding an alkaline or carbonatite intru-sion that has been metasomatised to some degree. The fluid-rock interaction typically add Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO and FeO and reduce SiO2 (Kresten and Morogan 1986). Nepheline syenite is a feldspathoid syenite where the feld-spathoid is mainly nepheline (Le Maitre et al. 2002). The ijolite series (melteigite-ijolite-urtite) is defined as clinopyroxene-nepheline rocks. Le Maitre et al. (2002) classify a melteigite to contain less than 30 vol% nepheline; an ijolite between 30 to 70 vol% nepheline, and urtite more than 70 vol% nepheline.

2.2 Geology of Alnö The Alnö ring-complex in central Sweden is one of the largest carbonatite and alkaline ring-type intrusions in the world with an approximate radius of 2.5 km. The Alnö complex was emplaced into Palaeoproterozoic migmatitic country rock (Figure 2.1; von Eckermann 1948; Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990). A number of emplacement ages have been reported, e.g. Brueckner and Rex (1980) obtained 553±6 Ma (Rb-Sr whole rock isochron dating) on alkaline silicate rocks and Andersen (1996) obtained 584±13 Ma (206Pb/204Pb whole rock isochron dating) on carbonatites and alkaline silicates rocks. Meert et al. (2007) obtained 584±7 Ma (40Ar/39Ar dating) of biotite and po-tassium feldspar from alnöite and carbonatite samples. Meert also found that the Alnö complex is coeval with the Fen carbonatite complex in Norway and

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suggested a relation between the two complexes despite their nearly 600 km distance (Meert et al. 1998; Meert et al. 2007).

Figure 2.1. Geological map of the Alnö ring-complex. Inset map of northern Europe shows the locations of Alnö in central Sweden, the coeval Fen complex in Norway, the Siilinjärvi carbonatite complex, and the alkaline and carbonatite intrusions in northern Finland and northwestern Russia. Black lines show the reflection seismic profiles (Alnö1, 2, and 3) in the study area (Paper I). The geological map was kindly provided by Geological Survey of Sweden. The coordinate system is SWEREF99 TM (UTM zone 33N).

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The Alnö complex has been suggested to hold five intrusions. The Northern intrusion (on the northern shore of Alnö Island and the small islands close to the shore), the Southern intrusion (the northern part of Alnö Island), the Båräng intrusion (a small intrusion west of the Southern intrusion), the Söråker intrusion (on the mainland north of Klingefjärden bay), and the Säl-skär intrusion (the Sälskär breccia) in the Klingefjärden bay close to the Säl-skär skerries (Kresten 1976; Kresten 1990). The Northern-, Båräng-, and Söråker-intrusions are dominated by carbonatites, where the latter two also show narrow halos of fenite (Figure 2.1). Carbonatite in outcrop is presented in Figure 2.2. The Southern intrusion is dominated by ijolite and nepheline syenite and locally massive pyroxenites (Figure 2.1). The intrusion also has a semi-circular carbonatite ring-dyke system. A halo of fenite that surrounds the Southern intrusion resulted from metasomatic alteration of the wall rock by CO2-rich fluids from the intruding carbonatites and alkaline silicate rocks (Morogan and Woolley 1988). The fenite’s degree of alteration varies with distance from the intrusion. An unaltered variety of migmatite, approxi-mately 500 m from the intrusion, gives way to a strongly fenitised variety with no free quartz in close proximity to the intrusion (Morogan and Woolley 1988; Kresten 1990). The Sälskär breccia has been described from large boulders found at the Sälskär skerries (Figure 2.3), the rock contains fragments of carbonatites and melilitic lapilli in a carbonatite matrix (von Eckermann 1960; Kresten 1990). The boulders are assumed to be more or less in situ although no outcrop with breccia has been found (Kresten 1990). The breccia is interpreted to be a surface or near-surface product of explo-sive carbonatitic volcanism with a crater centre suggested in the bay a few hundred metres northwest of the Sälskär skerries (Kresten 1990).

The subsurface geological structures in the complex were initially in-ferred from the projection of surface geological data on dip and dip direc-tions of the alkaline silicate and the carbonatite sheet intrusions (von Eckermann 1948; Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990). Two emplacement models have been suggested for the Alnö complex based on 2D down dip projection of magmatic sheets in relationship to a fixed point at the surface. The older model suggests an intrusion centre about 1 km north of Alnö Island. The intrusion created four sets of inward dipping cone sheet swarms, with focal points at different depths below the current erosion surface, occurring at 1, 2, 3.5, and 7 to 8 km depth, respectively (von Eckermann 1948; von Eckermann 1966). Two sets of radial dykes were reported to relate to focal depths of 2 km and 7-8 km below the surface, respectively, and a main magma feeding reservoir at 9-10 km depth below the current surface was proposed (von Eckermann 1948; von Eckermann 1966). Later, detailed geo-logical mapping was employed and resulted in an altogether different em-placement model (Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990). Carbonatite dykes dipping outward from the centre of the intrusion were found to be almost as common as inward dipping ones. A shallow dome-shaped magma chamber, with a

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roof about 1.5 km below the current land surface was inferred to have sup-plied the steeply dipping radial dykes and the shallowly dipping cone sheets (Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990). Concentric outward dipping carbonatite dykes (ring-dykes) formed along post-doming subsidence-related fault structures (Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990). This emplacement model hence postulates initial up-doming followed by caldera subsidence caused by a single magma chamber that underlies Alnö at shallow depth, and which was the main source of the Alnö ring-complex. Erosion has been suggested to have re-moved about 500 m (Kresten 1990) to 2000 m (von Eckermann 1948) over-burden since the emplacement time. A recent revision of the data used by Kresten, but using modern 3D visualisation technique, has suggested a more complex intrusion pattern, with indications of a multi-pocket system with several storage levels in the magma plumbing system (Mattsson et al. 2014).

Figure 2.2. Coarse-grained carbonatite in outcrop. A more competent pyroxenite dyke shows boudinage structure. A younger fine-grained carbonatite dyke (dark brown) cross-cuts the boudinage.

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Figure 2.3. A boulder of breccia in the water between the western and eastern Säl-skär skerries. The boulder contains fragments of carbonatites and melilitic lapilli in a carbonatite matrix. The borehole marks are 2.5 cm in diameter.

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3 Petrophysical methods

Knowledge of the physical properties of rock types is important for the in-terpretation of geophysical data and can also help to design a survey (e.g. Birch 1961). The data can be obtained by laboratory measurements of dis-crete samples collected from outcrops or drilled cores. For instance, the abil-ity to acquire reflections at the interface of two juxtaposed rock units in the subsurface can be evaluated by carrying out ultrasonic velocity and density measurements of the discrete samples. Density alone is critical for the inter-pretation of gravity data. Bulk magnetic susceptibility, magnetic remanence, and the Königsberger ratio (Butler 1992) help to interpret magnetic anoma-lies and constrain geophysical models. Some pitfalls, however, can be en-countered when the data acquired by laboratory-scale (i.e. cm-scale) meas-urements of relatively small discrete samples are compared to the data ac-quired by geophysical methods (frequency, grain size, microfractures, etc.) that are representative of many tens of meters or more. A discrete sample tends to have a better rock quality than an average rock unit, because the sampling procedure will avoid large fractures, for example. However, a good quality rock may also be disturbed during the sampling (induced fractures due to hammering or drilling; fracture opening due to pressure-release). Even so, laboratory-based physical property measurements are an essential component of geophysical investigations and should be carried out as a complement to the larger-scale measurements (Salisbury et al. 2000; Kearey et al. 2002; Kamm et al. 2013).

3.1 Ultrasonic laboratory measurements Seismic velocities (both P- and S-waves) can be measured on relatively small samples (e.g. cubes with the sides 5-10 cm) using elastic waves at ultrasonic frequencies (e.g. MHz frequency). Two transducers are attached to two parallel cut surfaces of the sample. One of the transducers emits a mechanical wave with an ultrasonic frequency and the receiving transducer converts the mechanical pulse to an electrical signal, which can be recorded. A connected oscilloscope and, ideally, a computer are used to record the waveform, from which the transit time is measured. The sample is not meas-ured in situ which might change the physical properties of the sample. To replicate the natural situation the sample can be water-saturated, which gives

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a better contact between the mineral grains, or even measured under pressure (with various arrangements), which will close microfractures and increase the elastic wave velocity (e.g. Salisbury et al. 2000; Malehmir et al. 2013). Modern laboratory equipment is capable of measuring P- and S-wave veloci-ties using lower frequencies but it can also provide information about their intrinsic attenuation (e.g. Mikhaltsevitch et al. 2011; Malehmir et al. 2013; Madonna & Tisato 2013).

3.2 Magnetic properties Magnetism arises from moving elementary particles. Electrical currents floating in a conductor may give rise to a strong magnetic field (electromag-netism). At a smaller scale, an electron orbits around an atomic nucleus or spins around its own axis, which can give rise to a strong magnetic field compared with the nuclear magnetic moments. The effect of a spinning elec-tron is a magnetic moment that behaves like a small dipole magnet. The magnetic susceptibility describes the relation between the applied magnetic field and the responding induced magnetisation in the matter. The magnetic susceptibility (k) of a material is defined by the ratio between the applied magnetic field (H) and the induced magnetisation (M) (Kearey et al. 2002).

k = M/H (3.1)

The discussion in this section pertains specifically to minerals and rocks, but applies to all materials. A mineral can exhibit one or more of three types of magnetisations with different properties depending on the electron configu-ration (e.g. if the molecules have paired or unpaired electrons). These states of magnetisation are (1) diamagnetism, (2) paramagnetism and (3) ferro-magnetism. The properties may be illustrated graphically by showing the response of the magnetisation as a function of the applied magnetic field (Figure 3.1).

Diamagnetism, which is a property of all materials, is the weakest in magnitude. The applied field alters the orbital motion of electrons, however, the electrons orbit in pairs and produce a weak antiparallel magnetisation that shows a linear negative response with respect to the magnitude of the applied field (Figure 3.1a). Pure calcite and quartz are examples of minerals that exhibit only diamagnetism.

Paramagnetism results from the spin of unpaired electrons, which are electrons free to align themselves with the applied field, but do not interact with adjacent atoms or molecules. Paramagnetic minerals are magnetised parallel to the applied field, with a positive and linear dependency on the applied field, at geologically relevant conditions (Figure 3.1b; Butler 1992). One example of a common paramagnetic mineral is biotite. Diamagnetism

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and paramagnetism is field dependent and, therefore, they reduce to zero when the applied field is removed (Figure 3.1a-b).

Figure 3.1. Magnetisation, M, versus applied magnetic field, H, for (a) diamagnetic, (b) paramagnetic, and (c) ferromagnetic minerals. (a) The diamagnetic response is linear antiparallel induced magnetisation, the susceptibility k is negative in this case. (b) Paramagnetic response is linear (under geologically relevant conditions) parallel induced magnetisation k is positive in this case. (c) Ferromagnetic response is not linear, the induced magnetisation reaches saturation (Ms). A mineral can retain a remanent magnetisation (Mr) when an applied magnetic field is removed or reori-ented. Magnetic coercivity (Hc) is defined as the strength of a magnetic field with opposite sign that must be applied to reduce Ms to zero. However, Hc will not re-move the remanent magnetisation (demagnetise) the sample, which requires a stronger field known as the coercivity of remanence (Hcr). Modified after Butler (1992).

Ferromagnetism results from unpaired electrons aligned to an applied field. In contrast to paramagnetism the electrons are exchanged between molecules by coupling, with the effect that ferromagnetic materials show several distinct magnetic properties. Ferromagnetic minerals (e.g. pure iron ore) can for instance “remember” the magnetic field they have been sub-jected to, even when the applied field is removed. This makes them interest-ing for various geological applications, and this is essential in the field of palaeomagnetism. Minerals often fall into two subdivisions of ferromagnet-ism, namely ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic and they possess magnetic properties that depend on how the unpaired electrons interact/exchange across adjacent molecules, and how molecular magnetic moments are setup in the unit cell of the crystal.

With increasing applied field the induced magnetisation increases until a ferromagnetic mineral becomes magnetically saturated (Ms; Figure 3.1c). When the applied field is reduced to zero the magnetic moments relax into a stable configuration, essentially preserving a record of the previously applied field, which is known as a remanent magnetisation. (Mr; Figure 3.1c). If Ms was reached when the magnetic field was applied the remanence at H = 0 is

M

H

M

H

M

H

k < 0 k > 0

Ms

Mr

Hc

(c)(b)(a)

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called the saturation remanence (Mrs). The remanent magnetisation generally decreases non-linearly with increasing temperature and becomes zero above the materials Curie temperature as temperature-induced thermal disorder overcomes the electron exchange coupling (i.e., the material becomes para-magnetic above the Curie temperature; Figure 3.2). A small increase in the bulk susceptibility is sometimes noted at temperatures just below the Curie temperature, and indicates that the material becomes supermagnetic at the transition from a stable ferromagnet to a paramagnet. This transition is known as the Hopkinson peak (Hunt et al. 1995). Each ferromagnetic min-eral has a distinct Curie temperature, and the ferromagnetic source in a sam-ple can generally be identified by measuring the susceptibility (or magnetisa-tion) as a function of temperature (Table 3.1).

Figure 3.2. Magnetic susceptibility as a function of temperature for three different carbonatite samples from the Alnö complex. The heating paths are indicated by the red curve, whereas the cooling paths are shown by the blue curve. The susceptibility drops at ~580 °C indicating magnetite with little or no iron substituted by titanium.

Magnetic coercivity (Hc) is defined by applied magnetic field of opposite sign that is needed to reduce a saturated magnetisation to zero. In a popular sense the magnetic coercivity (Hc) indicates how materials can be demagnet-ised. This has led to minerals that are easy to demagnetise to be labelled as “soft” and those that are difficult to demagnetise as “hard”, although this labelling has nothing to do with traditional mineral hardness. Ferromagnetic (sensu stricto) minerals have the strongest susceptibility and are often “soft”, with parallel magnetic moments (Figure 3.3a), but do seldom occur as natu-ral minerals. Iron, cobalt, nickel, and alloys of them are ferromagnetic in the strict sense (Hunt et al. 1995). Antiferromagnetism occurs when adjacent

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Nor

mal

ised

susc

eptib

ility

Temperature (°C)

I

II

III

HeatingcurveCoolingcurve

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magnetic moments are antiparallel in the absence of an applied field, result-ing in zero net magnetisation (Figure 3.3b). However, the moments are occa-sionally not perfectly aligned in an antiparallel orientation, but can be canted at a small angle (Tauxe 2010; Fabian et al. 2011). This spin-canting creates a weak net remanent magnetisation. Hematite is an example of a magnetically “hard” mineral that shows spin-canted antiferromagnetism. Antiferromag-netic minerals can develop a weak net magnetisation because of defects in the crystal lattice (Tauxe 2010). Ferrimagnetic materials have antiparallel magnetic moments, but the magnitudes are not equal, leading to a net rema-nent magnetisation (Figure 3.3c). The magnetite-ulvöspinel solid solutions series (Fe3O4 to Fe2TiO4) and greigite-pyrrhotite (FeS1+x) are the most prominent ferrimagnetic mineral groups and posses strong magnetic suscep-tibility (Kearey et al. 2002).

Figure 3.3. The effect of exchange coupling between adjacent atoms for (a) ferro-magnetic, (b) antiferromagnetic, and (c) ferrimagnetic minerals. To the right net magnetisation for ferrimagnetic mineral is shown; antiferromagnetic minerals have zero net magnetisation in the absence of an applied field, however many minerals (e.g. hematite) have spin-canted antiferromagnetic properties or have a deformed crystal lattice resulting in a weak net magnetisation. The total magnetisation is the vector sum of induced and remanent magnetisation, however, in this illustration only the remanent magnetisation is considered. Modified after Butler (1992).

Magnetic susceptibility can be quickly measured on an outcrop or a sample with a pocket-sized susceptibility meter or with higher accuracy in a labora-tory (inset in Figure 3.5). Most rock-forming minerals are diamagnetic or paramagnetic and have relatively weak magnetic susceptibility. Because of their strong susceptibility, ferromagnetic minerals usually dominate the sus-ceptibility even when they represent only a minor portion of the rock (Kearey et al. 2002).

Ferromagnetism(senso stricto)

Parallel magneticmoment

Antiferromagnetism

Antiparallel magneticmoment

Antiparallelmagnetic momentlayers of unequal M

Ferrimagnetism

Mr

(c)(b)(a)

24

Table 3.1. Magnetic bulk susceptibility, k, Curie temperature, TC, and saturation magnetisation, Ms, at room temperature for selected ferromagnetic iron-oxides and iron-sulphides. Hematite-ilmenite and magnetite-ulvöspinel form solid solution series where ilmenite and ulvöspinel become ferromagnetic at low temperatures and are paramagnetic at room-temperature. aMonoclinic pyrrhotite (Fe7S8). Data from Hunt et al. (1995).

Mineral Composition Magnetic order k (10-6 SI) TC (°C) Ms (Am2kg-1)

Hematite α-Fe2O3

Canted anti-ferromagnetic 500 - 40,000 675 0.4

Ilmenite FeTiO3

Antiferro-magnetic

2,200 -3,800,000 -233

Magnetite Fe3O4 Ferrimagnetic1,000,000 -5,700,000 575 - 585 90 - 92

Ulvöspinel Fe2TiO4 Ferrimagnetic 4,800 -153Pyrrhotite Fe1+x S Ferrimagnetic 460 -

1,400,000320a 20a

3.2.1 Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility Because mineral grains can have a non-spherical shape, preferred orientation distribution and magnetic interaction in a rock sample, k, is generally de-pendent on the orientation of the applied field with respect to the grain orien-tation (Hrouda 1982; Tarling and Hrouda 1993). In this case Mi = kijHj, illus-trating that kij is a symmetric second-rank tensor. It is conventionally repre-sented by three orthogonal principal axes maximum (k1), intermediate (k2), and minimum (k3) susceptibilities, which are usually illustrated using an ellipsoid for the shape and orientation (Figure 3.4a). For the directions of the axes, it is common to plot k1, k2, and k3 in a lower hemisphere equal-area projection (e.g., Figure 3.4b; (Tauxe 2010)).

Measurements of magnetic susceptibility in geological studies are nor-mally performed at room temperature and in an applied weak magnetic field (~0.1 mT) (Hrouda 1982). To measure the anisotropy of magnetic suscepti-bility (AMS), the sample is inserted into an induction coil with an electric current flowing. The susceptibility of the sample alters the inductance, and susceptibility can be derived from the potential-drop over the coil. The in-ductance also changes if the susceptibility of the sample is anisotropic and the sample is rotated.

In addition, k1, k2, and k3 can be parameterized with a wide range of pa-rameters, in order to quantify AMS (e.g. Jelínek 1981; Cañón-Tapia & Chavez-Alvarez 2004; Borradaile & Jackson 2004; Borradaile & Jackson 2010). The most commonly employed parameters to describe magnetic ani-sotropy in rocks are arithmetic bulk magnetic susceptibility (km);

, (3.2)

25

degree of anisotropy (P);

, (3.3)

corrected degree of anisotropy (Pj);

, (3.4)

and shape factor (T);

(3.5)

(Jelínek 1981; Borradaile and Jackson 2004). They are therefore also most useful for comparisons of the results among various studies. P and Pj is equal to or larger than 1 and describes the size of the magnetic anisotropy (Pj = 1.0 for isotropic minerals) (Jelínek 1981). T describes the shape of the susceptibility ellipsoid and ranges from +1 (oblate) to -1 (prolate) (Jelínek (1981); Borradaile and Jackson (2004); see Figure 3.4c-d). In addition, mag-netic lineation (the direction of k1) and magnetic foliation (the plane de-scribed by k1 and k2) are commonly used (e.g. Owens 1974; Hrouda 1982; O’Driscoll et al. 2006; Trubač et al. 2009; Borradaile & Jackson 2010).

By collecting oriented samples the AMS can be used for petrofabric stud-ies of igneous rocks, including the magma flow direction in dykes (e.g. Khan 1962; Ellwood 1978; Hrouda 1982; Knight & Walker 1988; Tauxe et al. 1998; Cañón-Tapia & Chavez-Alvarez 2004; O’Driscoll et al. 2006; Eriksson et al. 2011; Bouchez 1997). Samples are preferably oriented with a sun compass instead of a magnetic compass to avoid magnetic influences from the rock itself. When laminar magma flow occurs in a magmatic sheet intrusion, it exerts a shear force that tends to orient prismatic and tabular mineral grains, often oriented with their grain long-axes parallel to the flow direction, with only a small angular deviation between the long axis of the grain and the flow direction (Knight and Walker 1988). In addition, mag-netic minerals may also be elongated and have shape preferred orientation. Therefore the magnetic properties as well as preferred orientation obtained during magmatic flow may reflect the direction of flow. The main advantage of the AMS method compared to traditional textural and microstructural techniques is that a large number of samples can rapidly be measured. AMS data can provide an accurate determination of the overall orientation of the bulk effect of all mineral grains in a sample, although it is biased towards minerals such as magnetite, which have high susceptibility (Borradaile and Jackson 2010). The use of AMS for igneous intrusive and extrusive rocks was pioneered by Khan (1962) who, from theoretical considerations, argued that k2 should coincide with the flow direction. Later, the axis defining the magnetic lineation, k1, was used as the main indicator for flow direction,

26

with an application to dykes in the Koolau Complex on Oahu, Hawaii (Knight and Walker 1988). However, studies of Tertiary dykes in east Greenland demonstrated drawbacks with the approach of using k1; sub-vertical magma flow was indicated by the use of k1, which deviated strongly from the sub-horizontal flow directions interpreted from outcrop observa-tions (Geoffroy et al. 2002). Hence, Geoffroy et al. (2002) proposed the pole perpendicular to the magnetic foliation, k3, as a more robust parameter for interpreting magma flow direction. A thorough review of the development of AMS with applications to igneous rocks can be found in Cañón-Tapia (2004).

Figure 3.4. (a) The anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) shown as ellipsoids with oblate, neutral, and prolate shape. (b) AMS presented in a lower hemisphere equal-area projection. The data are from a carbonatite dyke in the Alnö Island. No-tice that k1 and k2 describe a great circle, typical for oblate shape ellipsoids. The parameters, illustrated in a polar plot: (c) Pj-T (corrected degree of anisotropy versus shape factor) plot of fine-grained carbonatites. Note that most samples have low degree of anisotropy. (d) Pj-T plot of coarse-grained carbonatites. Many samples show strong degree of anisotropy and mostly oblate shape.

k1

k2

k3

k1 > k2 ~ k3k1 ~ k2 ~ k3k1 ~ k2 > k3

k1

k2

k3

k1

k2

k3 k

1

k2

k3

oblate neutralprolate

AMS and ellipsoid shape (b)(a)

T= +1 (o

blate)

T= −1 (prolate)

T = 0 (triaxial)

Pj =1.6Pj =

1.4

Fine grained carb., n = 43

Pj

Isotropic: Pj = 1no preferredorientation

disc-shaped

rod-shaped

(c)

T= +1 (o

blate)

T= −1 (prolate)

Coarse grained carb., n = 286

Pj

(d)

27

3.2.2 Natural remanent magnetisation In the most simple terms, the remanence is measured in the laboratory with-out any experimental modification to the magnetic properties of the rocks, in which case the measured magnetisation vector is called the natural remanent magnetisation (NRM) (Butler 1992; Tauxe 2010). Rocks can acquire a pri-mary NRM in several ways, and a few relevant examples are (1) igneous rocks that contain one or more ferromagnetic minerals cool rapidly below their Curie temperature(s) and acquire a thermal remanent magnetisation (TRM) that is stable as long as the rock remains relatively cool, (2) ferro-magnetic crystals grow as a consequence of chemical precipitation until they become large enough to carry a stable chemical remanent magnetisation (CRM), and (3) deposition of ferromagnetic grains in a water or air column enables grains to settle with their magnetic moments parallel to the Earth's magnetic field, thus recording the field orientation as a depositional rema-nent magnetisation (DRM). It has to be kept in mind that all rocks become remagnetised to some degree over geologic time due to long term relaxation and that metamorphic reactions can give rise to secondary NRMs during burial. Primary and secondary NRMs represent the cumulative magnetic history of a rock, since its formation until measurements and demagnetisa-tion studies are made (Butler 1992).

3.2.3 Königsberger ratio Königsberger ratio (Q) is defined as the ratio of remanent magnetisation and induced magnetisation. This parameter can be obtained by considering the NRM and the induced magnetisation of rock samples that are investigated. It is calculated using

Q = NRM / kmH (3.6)

where H is the magnetic field at the location where the sample was sampled. If Q > 1, the remanence tends to dominate the magnetic anomaly whereas the induced magnetisation is dominating when Q < 1. This ratio is important for understanding of the geological source of a magnetic anomaly (Kearey et al. 2002).

28

Figure 3.5. Core sampling of a carbonatite dyke near the Stornäset harbour. Inset image shows a sample before being put into the KLY-2 Kappabridge susceptibility meter, which was used for the measurements of magnetic anisotropy.

29

4 Geophysical methods

4.1 Reflection seismic method A contrast in seismic velocity and density is a prerequisite to observe a seis-mic signal (e.g. reflection or diffraction). If such contrasts are expected to be found in the sub-surface with sufficient lateral continuity then a reflection seismic survey can be planned and conducted.

4.1.1 Seismic data acquisition In the reflection seismic method a seismic wave is often generated at the surface (using for example an impact or impulsive source); the generated seismic wave then spreads spherically away from the source point. A portion of the vertical (and nearly vertical) energy may be reflected at interfaces in the subsurface and travels back up to the surface where it is recorded by a series of receivers (e.g. geophones) that are planted in the ground. Depend-ing on the scale and aims of the survey different sources can be used to gen-erate the seismic waves, e.g., hammer, weight-drop, vibrator, explosives, or air gun. Typically the aim in 2D seismic data acquisition is to place the source and receiver points along a profile, which is as straight as possible. If dipping structures are expected one should aim at placing the line perpen-dicular to the strike of the structures, because structures at a lower angle to the line will be picked up with an apparent, and lower, dip (Yilmaz 2001). In crystalline environments, however, where many rapid changes in dip and dip direction of structures are to be expected, this setup can be difficult to fol-low. Moreover, logistical and economical restrictions often force data to be acquired with a rather crooked geometry. There are advantages and disad-vantages with crooked-line geometries that are discussed by Wu (1996). An example of the advantages is demonstrated by Malehmir (2009).

4.1.2 Seismic data processing Each receiver in a survey generates a seismic trace containing signals from the source (source-generated), reflections, scattering and diffractions from the subsurface, and ambient noise (wind, rain, traffic etc.). The signal (in this case reflections) can be enhanced using various techniques such as multi-fold acquisition that results in the stacking of several traces (high fold) from

30

a common subsurface location (CMP) and processing methods such as bandpass and deconvolution filtering methods. In the case of a dipping re-flector a common mistake made is that CMPs (common midpoint) and CDPs (common depth point) are used interchangeably. When only the normal moveout (NMO) correction, compensation for the multi-offset nature of seismic data, is applied then the CMP term is more appropriate. For dipping layers, the dip moveout correction (DMO) should be applied, which partially migrates the seismic data to their correct subsurface reflecting points. When DMO is applied, the term CDP is more appropriate. Poststack migration algorithms assume that the structures in the subsurface dip parallel to the stacking line, and if not, the dip of the structures will be underestimated and some smearing may occur. A detailed description of conventional seismic data processing is presented in Yilmaz (2001).

Figure 4.1. A tractor mounted hydraulic hammer (Vibsist) was used as the seismic source during the data acquisition. Large amount of snow covered the sensors planted on the side of the road (see the station markers). The recording truck is visi-ble to the left.

4.2 Gravity method Density contrasts in the subsurface are investigated with the gravity method, which utilise Newton’s Law of Gravity. The law states that the force of at-traction, F, between two masses, m1 and m2, whose dimensions are small compared to their spatial separation, r, is given by

31

F = (Gm1m2)/r2 (4.1)

where G is the gravitational constant (6.67 × 10-11 m3kg-1s-1) (Kearey et al. 2002). Due to density contrasts in the lateral direction, variations in the grav-ity field (gravity anomaly) can be measured. It is common to measure the gravity variation relative to a local reference point instead of the total gravity field, which requires more advanced equipment and is more time consuming. A gravimeter is a device that normally consists of a weight attached to a spring. Following Hooke’s law, the spring lengthens if the gravity field in-creases. The instrument needs to have a high sensitivity, so in practice it requires optical, mechanical, or electronic amplifiers. All effects that are not related to density contrasts in the subsurface must be removed before inter-pretation of the acquired gravity data. A gravimeter always has some instru-mental drift, which are corrected for by repeated measurements at a refer-ence station (base station) before and after a day of gravity surveying. Grav-ity varies with latitude due to the non-spherical shape and the angular veloc-ity of the Earth, requiring a latitude correction to be applied. The mutual attraction that the Earth and celestial bodies (in practice the Sun and the Moon) exert is corrected for with a tidal correction. Further free-air, terrain and Bouguer corrections are applied to compensate for the effect of topogra-phy and the excess (or lack) of mass. A detailed description of all necessary corrections can be found, for example, in Kearey (2002). Normally, the final product after all corrections is a Bouguer anomaly map (incomplete or com-plete), which should only represent gravity variations due to the geology in the subsurface. Depending upon the objective of the gravity survey, the re-gional gravity field, due to deep-seated bodies outside of the area of interest, may be removed to allow the density distribution in the sub-surface to be modelled. Various techniques for regional-removal exist, but some type of regression analysis of the regional dataset is generally performed (Li and Oldenburg 1998a). Most interpretations of gravity data involve a priori knowledge about the geology because there are an infinite number of models that can fit the data. However, the total mass that gives rise to the gravity anomaly is unique and this can be used to estimate, for example, tonnage of ore (e.g. Kearey et al. 2002).

4.3 Magnetic method The Earth’s (geo)magnetic field is locally disturbed by variations in the magnetisation of the rocks in the sub-surface (a combination of induced and remanent magnetisation). Total-field magnetic anomalies can be measured using a magnetometer operated on land, sea, or in the air (also by a satellite). The most common magnetometer is the proton magnetometer, which meas-ures the total magnetic field. The vertical or horizontal gradients can be

32

measured with two sensors placed at a fixed distance. The main components of the sensor are a container with a liquid rich in hydrogen atoms (e.g. kero-sene or water) and a surrounding induction coil. The hydrogen protons act as small dipoles and align to the geomagnetic field. When a current is passed through the coil, the orientation of the protons aligns with the stronger field from the induction coil. The current is then switched off, which removes the polarisation field and the protons re-align with the geomagnetic field. This takes 1-3 s, depending on the strength of the total magnetic field, and creates an alternating voltage in the coil of which the frequency is measured (Kearey et al. 2002).

For modelling of magnetic data the local anomaly of interest must be iso-lated from the regional trend of the magnetic field. To create a reliable mag-netic model it is important to know if the magnetic anomaly is mainly domi-nated by induced magnetisation or remanent magnetisation (or if there is a contribution from the remanence) and therefore petrophysical measurements are extremely valuable. For high accuracy, a diurnal correction based on an additional base station magnetometer should be performed because the in-tensity of the magnetic field changes over the day. Modern high precision magnetometers are light, GPS-mounted and can operate for a full day. As for gravity data, modelling and interpretation of magnetic data require a priori knowledge about geology and a large degree of ambiguity exists in the re-sulting models. Magnetic data are valuable for structural interpretations and in distinguishing different geological units (e.g. Blakely & Simpson 1986; Holden et al. 2012).

4.4 Forward and inverse modelling of gravity and magnetic data In forward modelling, a geological model of the subsurface is constructed using geometrical objects (e.g. rectangles, prisms and ellipsoids) with physi-cal properties that contrast to a defined background value. Potential field modelling is often done to determine if a geological model is plausible (e.g. Malehmir et al. 2006 and 2007; Fichler et al. 2011). The model can be con-strained by surface geological data, petrophysical data, or borehole logging information. The forward calculated response (gravity or magnetic) from the model is then compared to the observed data. Small adjustments (sometimes an inversion approach) to the model may be performed to reduce the misfit. Forward modelling is often done using analytical solutions for various known geometries and in most cases cannot account for a complex geology.

Inverse modelling is sometimes preferable and is done in an automatic manner in order to construct a model for the variations in the physical prop-erties in the subsurface from measured data and a priori information (Li and

33

Oldenburg 1996). To overcome issues with complex geology, a 3D mesh with rectangular cells (often small size) is constructed to represent the sub-surface in which each cell has its own constant physical property (density or magnetic susceptibility). The inversion is initiated with a starting model (homogeneous or constrained) and the property of each cell is updated through a conjugate-gradient inversion method until the forward response of the whole mesh matches the observed data within a predefined error value (data error or slightly higher). The geometry of the cells remains unchanged during this type of inversion. The inversion model is non-unique and more ambiguous at depth. A depth weighting function can be used to increase the contribution of the deeper cells to the solution. Without the depth weighting function the density/susceptibility variations tend to be concentrated close to the surface (Li and Oldenburg 1998b).

4.5 Interpretation of geophysical data Depending on the aim and the complexity of the problem, a successful geo-physical investigation usually needs to involve both petrophysical measure-ments, geological observations, and a combination of geophysical surveys. Without the petrophysical contrasts between various rock units, most geo-physical methods are incapable of extracting information from the subsur-face. The contrast also needs to be strong enough so that the signal suffi-ciently exceeds the noise. One obvious benefit from the use of a multiple, or an integrated, geophysical and geological approach is that different methods can complement each other and provide a scenario that is consistent with several datasets. Recent approaches in geophysical interpretations aim at the production of a common earth 3D (sometimes even 4D) model that is fully populated with various physical and geochemical properties (Jessell 2001; Hillier et al. 2014).

34

5 Summary of papers

5.1 My contributions

Paper I: Besides leading the fieldwork in the summer 2010 (which included gravity and magnetic data acquisition and collection of rock samples) and participating in the seismic data acquisition during February-March 2011, I processed two of the seismic lines and modelled potential-field data along all the three lines. I also performed petrophysical measurements and prepared the figures. The interpretation of the data was done in collaboration with my co-authors. The main writing was done by me and my co-authors helped to improve the clarity of the text by their comments and suggestions.

Paper II: I participated in the collection of oriented samples in summer and autumn 2013 (12 days). I prepared the samples for laboratory measurements and petrographic thin section studies. I performed all laboratory measure-ments, with the exception of the temperature dependent susceptibility and coercivity measurements. Petrographic thin section studies were performed by me with help from my co-workers. The data analysis was mainly carried out by me. I prepared all the figures with the exception of the conceptual scenarios explaining the data. The interpretation was done in collaboration with my co-authors. The main writing was done by me and co-authors greatly helped to improve the text with their comments.

Paper III: I participated for approximately one month in the gravity and magnetic data collections. I performed the inversion of potential-field data and preparation of figures with the help of my co-author. The interpretation was done in collaboration with my co-author. I wrote the main body of the manuscript and my co-author helped to improve the interpretation and the clarity of the text.

35

5.2 Paper I: Carbonatite ring-complexes explained by caldera-style volcanism 5.2.1 Summary The main aims of this paper were to investigate and determine the deep structures in the complex and to provide depth information to characterise the palaeo-magma chamber in order to better understand the intrusion mechanism(s) of carbonatite and alkaline intrusions. This was achieved through a combination of geophysical and petrophysical methods, to provide refined interpretations of the surface geological observations in the Alnö area. Three high-resolution reflection seismic, gravity, and ground magnetic profiles were acquired across the Alnö igneous complex. Petrophysical measurements of P-wave velocity and density acquired from a selection of samples helped to interpret the data.

5.2.2 Petrophysical measurements Representative samples were collected to better understand the seismic re-sponse from different rock types. While some samples were measured for their P-wave velocity at atmospheric pressure, most samples were measured at hydrostatic confining pressures of up to 65 MPa (Figure 5.1). The ultra-sonic measurements were conducted on 26 samples. The alkaline rocks in the igneous complex and the surrounding metasomatised zone with fenite, show higher seismic velocity (up to about 6400 m/s) when compared to the migmatised country rocks and the coarse-grained carbonatites that constitute the ring-dyke system (about 5100 m/s). The alkaline rocks have densities between 2800 and 3000 kg/m3, except pyroxenite where densities are more than 3300 kg/m3. This is in contrast to the migmatite and fenite, which ex-hibit densities typical of continental crust with a high silica content (about 2700 kg/m3). Carbonatites show the widest range of density. A contrast in density and/or seismic velocity is a prerequisite to generate reflections from different rock units. In Figure 5.1 we can see the petrophysical data, anno-tated with isolines of acoustic impendence for the Alnö intrusion. Given these results, strong contrasts between alkaline rocks relative to migmatised country rocks, and between carbonatites and alkaline rocks in the internal parts of the Alnö complex, are expected (Figure 5.1).

36

Figure 5.1. Velocity-density graph for samples collected from Alnö Island. Most velocities were measured while samples were pressurised at 65 MPa. The acoustic impedance contrast between alkaline rocks and country rock (migmatite and fenite) is high. Also alkaline rocks and coarse-grained carbonatites (sövites) have a high acoustic impedance contrast, suggesting that reflections can be generated if these rock types are juxtaposed. Number of samples used in the measurements is shown by “n” in the plot.

5.2.3 Reflection seismic survey Three seismic profiles using a nominal receiver and source spacing of 10 m were acquired. The source was a hydraulic hammer mounted on a tractor (VIBSIST), which was activated with 3-5 sweeps at each shot location. The acquisition lines were mainly following existing roads, resulting in a crooked geometry. The three profiles are in total about 17 km long (Fig. 2.1); Alnö1 about 9 km long (oriented NW-SE), Alnö2 and Alnö3, each about 4 km long (oriented SW-NE). The latter two profiles (Alnö2 and Alnö3) are semi-parallel to each other and crosscut Alnö1. Alnö1 starts in the country rocks south of the main intrusion, crosses the main intrusion and ends in the coun-try rocks to the northwest of the intrusion. Alnö2 and Alnö3 start on the country rocks in the southwest and end about 250 m out from land (geo-phones deployed on sea ice). Seismic data quality in all three profiles is gen-erally good with clear reflections observed in some of the raw shot gathers.

2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100 3200 3300 3400 3500

4600

4800

5000

5200

5400

5600

5800

6000

6200

6400

6600

Z = 15*106

Z = 20*106

Alnöite, n=2

Carbonatite, n=4

Fenite, n=4

Ijolite, n=4

Migmatite, n=4

Nepheline syenite, n=2

Pyroxenite, n=2

Sövite, n=4(silico-carbonatite)

P−

wa

ve(m

/s)

Density (kg/m3)

37

Seismic data were processed using conventional pre-stack DMO and post-stack migration algorithms with particular focus on the processing steps critical in crystalline environments such as refraction statics, velocity analy-sis and source-generated noise attenuation. Based on the petrophysical measurements and analysis of first-arrival velocities, a constant velocity of 6000 m/s was used for the time-to-depth conversion.

5.2.4 Gravity and magnetic measurements Gravity and ground magnetic data were measured along the seismic profiles prior to the seismic data acquisition. Gravity data were collected at 100 m intervals with a LacosteRomberg™ model G gravimeter. The coordinates for the gravity stations were acquired using a high-precision differential GPS system. Standard processing was applied (e.g. tidal correction, latitude cor-rection, terrain correction), the Bouguer anomaly was calculated with the assumption of a standard background density of 2670 kg/m3. The same equipment and data handling were used when the gravity dataset was ex-tended in later studies (Paper III). Magnetic data were collected at about 1-2 m spacing with a GPS-mounted magnetometer (GEM™ GSM-19), in a walking-mode.

5.2.5 Results The gravity field increases over the intrusion and is about 20 mGal higher than the background value. Magnetic data show a long-wavelength increase, punctuated by strong local “jumps” sometimes peaking at more than 2000 nT above the background, where carbonatite outcrops are present. All three seismic profiles show a strong reflectivity patterns down to about 3 km depth in the centre of the intrusion, where the high reflectivity terminates at a flat-lying transparent zone. Flat lying and deeper reflections down to about 4.5 km depth, although weak, suggest that this termination in the reflectivity is not due to the source penetration issues and represent geology. The shal-low part below the centre of the intrusion shows several steeply dipping re-flectors, best seen in Alnö3. Several of the steeply dipping reflectors corre-late, at the surface, with peaks in the magnetic data. However, no clear focal points and/or sheet structures are identified from these reflectors. Alnö1 shows outward dipping reflectors on either side of the intrusion (dipping away from the intrusion) that are continuous laterally for up to 3 km (Figure 5.2).

38

39

Figure 5.2. (a) Post-stack depth migrated seismic section (Alnö1) with significant reflections marked with red arrows. Surface geology (as in Figure 2.1) is shown along the top of the seismic profile. (b) Measured gravity/magnetic data and forward modelled gravity data along Alnö1. (c) The same profile as in (a) but with interpreta-tions. A complex reflectivity pattern extends down to a depth of about 3 km between CDPs 900-1500. The transparent zone below this depth represents the location of the magma chamber from which carbonatite dykes were fed. Gently to steeply dipping reflections observed in the southern and northern parts of Alnö1 represent up-doming structures (solid red lines). The boundary between the dipping reflectors outside the igneous complex and the chaotic interior marks the position of the main ring-fault system (steep dashed black lines). Note that carbonatite dykes correlate with the measured magnetic jumps, for example between CDPs 1000 and 1200.

5.2.6 Conclusions The zone of diffuse reflections, located at the centre of the intrusion, was interpreted to represent a shattered and sunken central caldera block that extends down to a depth of about 2.5 to 3 km, because no clear and coherent structure with sufficient acoustic contrast is likely present. The seismically transparent zone below this region (CDPs 800-1700 in Figure 5.2) is attrib-uted to the palaeo-magma chamber that is likely the location of a mixed car-bonatite-silicate pluton today. The top surface of this magma-chamber is saucer-shaped and marks the location from which the carbonatite dykes originate. Although the lower limit is poorly defined from the seismic image, 2.5D forward calculation of gravity data imply a maximum depth continua-tion of about 4 km, i.e. a thickness of not more than about one km for the palaeo-magma chamber. An initial up-doming pattern is evident from the seismic reflectivity pattern that begins with flat lying reflectors at about 4 km depth, grading into more steeply dipping ones closer to the surface (Figure 5.2). The inclination of these reflectors projected over the width of the intrusion suggests a central uplift of approximately 1-1.5 km.

Based on these data and the available surface geological studies (von Eckermann 1948; Kresten 1980; Kresten 1990) a multi-stage model for the emplacement of the Alnö complex is proposed (Figure 5.3). In stage one (Figure 5.3a), a low-viscosity silicate magma rich in CaCO3 ascends and gets trapped at about 4-5 km depth. It forms a laterally extensive sill-shaped magma chamber. This process initiates an up-doming structure and surface bulging forms early radial dykes. In stage two (Figure 5.3b), growth and inflation of the magma chamber increase the uplift of the overburden. Radial dykes and increasingly inward dipping cone-sheets intrude into the country-rock above the chamber. In stage three (Figure 5.3c), magma, now with a significant carbonatite fraction present, evacuates from the magma chamber via dykes leading to a pressure drop in the intrusion. This causes the central part of the overburden, or roof, to subside. In stage four (Figure 5.3d), con-centric outward dipping fractures form and intrude to make ring-dykes dur-

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ing progressive subsidence of the central block/roof during caldera collapse. It is likely that this causes the edges of the main chamber to migrate up-wards, at which point further carbonatite dykes may intrude into reverse and normal faults in the caldera periphery, leading to the eruption of carbonatites that are preserved in vent breccias to the north of Alnö Island (Figure 5.3a). One of the main findings in this paper is that although Alnö complex has an unusual lithological composition, this may not affect the fundamental vol-cano-tectonic processes or the general geometry of a traditional caldera vol-canism.

Figure 5.3. Schematic model suggesting the emplacement of the Alnö complex. Stage one (a): a silicate magma rich in CaCO3 is trapped at about 4-5 km depth and forms a laterally extensive sill-shaped magma chamber which initiates up-doming and a surface bulge. Stage two (b): radial dykes and increasingly inward dipping cone-sheets intrude into the country-rock above the chamber. Stage three (c): magma, now with a significant carbonatite fraction present, evacuates from the magma chamber via dykes and the central part of the roof subsides due to a pressure drop in the magma chamber. Stage four (d): concentric outward dipping fractures form and intrude to make ring-dykes during progressive subsidence of the central block/roof during caldera collapse.

5.3 Paper II: Magma transport in sheet intrusions 5.3.1 Summary Magma transport within the Earth’s crust occurs dominantly through sheet intrusions, such as dykes and cone-sheets, and is fundamental to crustal evo-lution, volcanic eruptions and geochemical element cycling. Anisotropy of

(d)

Stage 4

(c)

Stage 3

(b)

Stage 2

(a)

Stage 1

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magnetic susceptibility (AMS) in magmatic sheets has with various degrees of success been used to interpret the primary magma flow and emplacement. Magnetic fabrics can be modified by post-emplacement processes. The main objectives of this paper were to:

Determine reliable magma flow directions in carbonatite sheets in the Alnö complex in order to improve the understanding of near-surface magma transport of magmatic sheet intrusions.

Assess scenarios of syn- and post-emplacement processes that give rise to AMS in sheet-intrusions and test scenario(s) that can plausibly explain the emplacement of carbonatite sheets in Alnö.

Forty outcrop locations were drilled with a handheld gasoline-powered drill providing in total 219 drill core samples with a diameter of 25.4 mm. About half of the samples were drilled in carbonatite sheet-like intrusions while the remaining ones came from country rock outcrops (the alkaline rock suite and fenites), which were sampled in order to have reference data. In addition, eight oriented blocks were collected in a pilot study, from which cores were drilled in the laboratory with a pillar drill. After the measurements of their bulk density (full length drill core or blocks), the samples were cut to 21 mm long subsamples for AMS measurements. Drill core samples with a length of 21 mm and a diameter of 25.4 mm is a common standard for AMS meas-urements (Tarling and Hrouda 1993).

Three representative carbonatite samples from different locations in the complex were measured for their susceptibility as a function of temperature changes. They show Curie temperatures of 570 to 580 °C, which together with high bulk susceptibility for carbonatites suggests that magnetite miner-als dominate the magnetic susceptibility in the Alnö carbonatites. Field de-pendent measurements (i.e. hysteresis loops) were measured and indicated a mixture of magnetite with multi-domain and single-domain magnetic states. Because multi-domain magnetite typically has higher bulk susceptibility when compared to single-domain magnetite, the former domain state likely controls the low-field magnetic anisotropy in carbonatites. The AMS shape ellipsoids from the Alnö carbonatite sheets exhibit a generally oblate shape and their magnetic fabric is consistent with the strikes of the sheets and their macroscopic foliations (Figure 5.4). Most of the samples from the Alnö car-bonatite sheets can be visualised as steeply dipping oblate susceptibility el-lipsoids. Thin sections were prepared from a number of drill core samples in order to compare microscopic observations with the results from magnetic properties of carbonatite. The main minerals identified in the carbonatite samples were calcite, biotite, apatite, and magnetite, as well as minor amounts of non-magnetite opaque minerals.

The locations for which we could determine a magma flow direction were limited, due to the lack of exposed sheet margins. Two locations indicate sub-vertical downward magmatic flow and two locations indicate that in-

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clined magma flow occurred towards the west (Figure 5.4). The AMS meas-urements of the country rock suite do not show any obvious systematic ori-entation, implying that sheets and country rocks have fundamentally differ-ent magnetic orientation and thus a different origin.

Figure 5.4. Geological map with stereographic plots (equal area, lower hemisphere) of magnetic lineation (squares) and foliation (great circles) of carbonatite samples. The AMS results are divided into subgroups for those locations with more than one cluster of orientations. In the north, the magnetic lineation is mostly sub-horizontal, whereas in the south it is mostly sub-vertical. Interpretation of the magma flow in sheets is indicated by arrows and circles with a cross (positive downwards). Most of the flow calculations show steep to vertical downward flow direction.

5.3.2 Conclusions In Paper II we assess six syn- and post-emplacement processes that can mod-ify the AMS fabric of sheet-intrusions. The potential scenarios are summa-

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rised in Figure 5.5. Two scenarios, ‘laminar flow plus wall rock friction’ (Figure 5.5b) and ‘sheet closure at waning magma pressure’ (Figure 5.5c), is able to explain the observed magnetic fabrics in the Alnö carbonatite sheets. Both processes are expected to produce a small angle between the magnetic foliation and the intrusion wall. The calculated flow directions for the Alnö carbonatite sheets are mainly downward (Figure 5.4), which is not an un-common feature in dykes observed elsewhere (e.g. Delcamp et al. 2014). Although sheet emplacement may involve local lateral and downward flow, the overall magma propagation direction during the formation of cone sheets is assumed to be upwards (e.g. Galland et al. 2014; Rubin 1995). Therefore, the waning magma pressure and associated sheet closure probably is the most plausible scenario for the Alnö sheets. The dominant oblate susceptibil-ity shape of the ellipsoids from the Alnö carbonatite sheets further supports this, because the long-axis of magnetite grains tend to orient perpendicular to the axis of maximum compaction. Closing and contraction of a sheet occurs after magma injection ceases (Figure 5.5c), effectively overprinting, in part or in full, any existing primary flow-related AMS signature. This would consequently change the shape factor (T) from a prolate flow-induced fabric to an oblate compaction-induced fabric.

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Figure 5.5. Syn- and post-emplacement processes in magmatic sheet intrusions and associated hypothetical AMS fabrics. Different syn- and post-emplacement proc-esses can produce different AMS signatures in sheet intrusions: (a), (b), and (e) are syn-emplacement processes, whereas (c), (d), and (f) are related to post-emplacement processes. Note that the schematic scenarios consider simplified cases and avoid the complexities of different ferrimagnetic mineral grain sizes and the potential interaction of grain-scale magnetic fields. The relationship between AMS and preferred crystal orientation is so that the crystal long-axis represents k1 and the crystal short-axis represents k3, which is the case for a rock where multi-domain magnetite controls the AMS.

5.4 Paper III: Unravelling internal architecture of the Alnö carbonatite and alkaline complex (central Sweden) by 3D modelling of gravity and magnetic data 5.4.1 Summary The Alnö complex shows a strong positive Bouguer anomaly, around 20 mGal, and one of the strongest gravity gradients observed in Sweden (Figure 5.6a). It also shows a strong positive magnetic anomaly of more than 2000 nT (Figure 5.6b). The main objectives of this study were to:

Provide 3D density and susceptibility models of the deep interior of the Alnö complex by 3D inversion of gravity and magnetic data. 2.5D modelling work conducted in the first study was be-lieved to be insufficient to fully deal with the 3D nature of the complex.

Estimate the depth extent of the intrusion indirectly, providing complementary information for inferring the location of the pa-laeo-magma chamber.

Correlate density and susceptibility models together with the re-flection seismic sections and provide an integrated and common 3D model of the Alnö complex.

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Figure 5.6. Gravity and total-field magnetic maps of the Alnö area. (a) Bouguer anomaly map showing a major positive gravity anomaly associated with the Alnö complex. “Plus”-signs in the map indicate the locations of gravity stations. (b) Total-field aeromagnetic map (flight lines 200 m apart in north-south directions and 60 m flight-height) also showing a major positive magnetic anomaly associated with the Alnö complex. The magnetic anomaly in the south-eastern corner of the map is related to an c. 1.5 Ga rapakivi granite intrusion outcropping at Rödön Island (Welin 1994; Andersson 1997). A semi-circular anomaly with about 2 km extent (low-magnetic inside high-magnetic area) in the southern part of the map is related to an aluminium smelter. In both maps water surfaces are indicated with pale colour. The rectangle with a dashed line shows the area of interest for the inversion.

Complementary to the first and second studies, in Paper III additional den-sity- and magnetic remanence-data are presented and used to constrain the 3D modelling of the gravity and magnetic data. Density and bulk magnetic susceptibility measurements were carried out for more than 250 rock sam-ples (both drill cores and block samples). Magnetic remanence was meas-ured on 39 of these samples to study if remanent magnetisation should be taken into account when modelling and interpreting the potential field data from Alnö. The measurements indicate that induced magnetisation is domi-nant in the complex and only a few rock samples show a Königsberger ratio above one. The density measurements show that the alkaline rocks generally have higher densities than migmatites and fenites, whereas carbonatite densi-ties show the greatest variations (see Figure 5.1). Carbonatites also show the greatest variations of magnetic susceptibilities.

For this study, more than 400 gravity data points were acquired from 2010 to 2012 using a LacosteRomberg™ model G gravimeter. Gravity data points were collected along most accessible roads in the area with an average distance between the points of 100 m. Gravity transects were carried out when possible through the forests in order to fill in some “blind spots”, and additional measurements on sea-ice north of the Alnö Island. Although the gravity data coverage is relatively good, it was important to have data points from a wider area in order to calculate and remove the regional trend of the gravity field. All components of the anomaly related to geological bodies situated outside the inversion-volume had to be removed to obtain a success-ful and reliable model for gravity and magnetic data (Li and Oldenburg 1998a). To overcome this problem, the gravity data points measured in this study had to be adjusted and merged with additional gravity data provided by the Geological Survey of Sweden. An area extending well beyond the gravity anomaly was used to calculate the regional trend; a first-order poly-nomial surface was used for this. More than 580 data points from the anom-aly and the surrounding area were used for the gravity inversion. The Geo-logical Survey of Sweden provided aeromagnetic data (60 m flight altitude and 200 m flight line spacing) covering the area. The removal of the regional background value from the magnetic data was performed by subtracting a

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constant value to obtain values close to zero nanotesla outside of the target study area. This approach can be justified considering that the variation of the magnetic field at regional scale is low compare with the local anomaly of the Alnö complex.

Figure 5.7. Workflow used for the inversion of the gravity data (also similar for magnetic data). Note that the inversion uses surface topography and is constrained by the petrophysical measurements (upper and lower bounds).

Gravity and magnetic data were inverted using constraints obtained from the petrophysical measurements, i.e. density and magnetic susceptibility. The inversions were performed using GRAV3D™ and MAG3D™ software for gravity and magnetic data, respectively. The general inversion workflow is

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presented in Figure 5.7. The inversion model consists of a mesh with rectan-gular cells where each cell is populated with a constant density or suscepti-bility value. The model produced by the inversion is such that the gravity and magnetic response calculated from the model matches the observed gravity and magnetic data, respectively, within an acceptable misfit error. As the spacing between the gravity points was on average 100 m in this study, cells with lateral dimension of 100 m by 100 m were used. The vertical di-mension of the cells increases with depth. Above sea level the vertical cell thickness was 10 m. The vertical cell thickness ranged from 20 m at sea level to 2770 m at 8350 m depth. To reduce the edge effects from the inversion (Li and Oldenburg 1998b), the target area was padded by 2.5 km in all direc-tions.

5.4.2 Conclusions The modelling results indicate two separate regions within the intrusion that are associated with the gravity and magnetic highs, which are likely con-nected at depths of 800-1000 m. This implies a common source for the rocks observed in these two regions. The models also indicate that the complex and its associated lithologies have a depth extent of about 3-4 km below the present-day surface, which corresponds with the localisation of the palaeo-magma chamber interpreted from the reflection seismic data in Paper I.

The magnetic modelling results suggest that a more than 3 km wide ring-shaped magnetic anomaly observed adjacent to the main intrusion, in the Klingefjärden bay, is produced by a bowl-shaped body of high-magnetic materials (only on its rim). At the small islands north of Alnö and at Söråker, parts of this body outcrop mainly as carbonatites (see Figures 5.6b and 5.8b). The centre of the “bowl” consists of rock with a relatively low magnetic susceptibility that extends down to about 1.5 km depth, as indicated in Fig-ure 5.8. While inversion models suggest that the ring-shaped magnetic anomaly and the intrusion on the island are connected at depth, the inherent lack of depth resolution with potential field data and the non-uniqueness of the models means that significant uncertainty remains as to their connection (or a common origin) at depth. Moreover, the limited number of gravity data points in the bay adds to this uncertainty. Nevertheless, the positive gravity anomaly can be seen to continue onshore north and east of the bay (see Fig-ure 5.6a), which could be an indication of high-density materials in the sub-surface, extending to the other side of the bay. The Söråker intrusion, sug-gested to be a satellite intrusion (Kresten 1976), contains carbonatites sur-rounded by a narrow fenite zone, but no alkaline rocks similar to those found in Alnö Island have been found in Söråker (Kresten 1990). The 3D inversion magnetic model indicates that the magma chamber under Alnö Island may continue further north (across the bay) and link the Söråker intrusion to the main complex. We propose a scenario with a large caldera with collapsed

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structures in the middle. The magnetic ring structure was likely formed at the latest stage of magmatic activities in the complex when a large volume of carbonatite rocks was erupted to the surface (or near the surface). This led to a pressure drop in the magma chamber and formed the caldera. The periph-ery of the caldera is delineated by the high magnetic ring-shape anomaly (Figure 5.6a). The observed difference indicates that low-magnetic overbur-den may have been down-faulted into the caldera centre in the Klingefjärden bay in order to give the magnetic ring-shape pattern. Although no alkaline rocks have been found in the outcrops in Söråker, alkaline rocks are neces-sary in the magma chamber to produce the carbonatites proposed in this sce-nario. More data from the bay and eventually a deep drilling program would be required to validate these interpretations. Until then, the results presented in this paper should provide first-hand information about possible relation between the main intrusion in the Alnö Island and carbonatites found in the bay and north of it.

Figure 5.8. Depth slices (density and susceptibility) extracted from the 3D inversion models of (a) gravity and (b) magnetic data. Both the gravity and the magnetic in-version models suggest that the northern and southern intrusions in the Alnö Island merge at about 1 km depth (D1/S1 and D2/S2) and that the complex in the island does not extend below 3.5 km depth (D3/S3). This interpretation is based on a com-bination of the density and susceptibility models, as well as the reflection seismic results presented in Paper I. For the area under the Klingefjärden bay the magnetic model is more reliable than the density model, because there are no gravity data measured in the centre of the bay. The magnetic inversion model delineates a circu-lar low-susceptibility body with a high-susceptibility rim (S5). The low-susceptibility body extends down to about 2 km depth where higher susceptibility materials (S6) appear. The density model indicates that the satellite-intrusion in Söråker (D4) does not extend as deep as the intrusions in the Alnö Island. However, because the sea truncates it and the local anomaly is probably not fully covered, it might be deeper than the inversion model indicates.

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6 Conclusions

The work in this thesis presents the application of a number of geophysical and petrophysical methods to the Alnö alkaline and carbonatite igneous complex, aimed at unravelling its internal structures and emplacement mechanism(s). Papers I and III focus on large scale structures whereas Paper II is focused on dyke-scale structures. The integration of several geophysical and petrophysical methods, combined with detailed surface geological ob-servations, have been essential for these purposes. While earlier studies us-ing surface geological observations pointed towards an intrusion model with caldera-style volcanism and a shallow magma chamber, depth constraints provided by the reflection seismic data have validated this interpretation. A fossil magma chamber at 3-4 km depth was inferred from the reflection seismic data based on the diffusive nature of reflectivity at this depth, rela-tive to the surrounding reflectivity pattern. An up-doming reflectivity pattern is evident from the outward dipping reflectors in the country rock surround-ing the complex, which is likely to indicate a central uplift of approximately 1-1.5 km, probably due to inflation of the magma chamber. A highly reflec-tive zone in the central part of the intrusion was attributed to caldera-style volcanism, which, when considered alongside observations of lapilli-breccia, helps to suggest intrusive-extrusive carbonatite activity associated with the Alnö complex. The 3D inversion of ground gravity and aeromagnetic data was carried out to better delineate the 3D internal architecture of the com-plex (Paper III). The resulting models indicate that the complex extends to a depth of approximately 3-4 km. A weak horizontal reflectivity pattern which is continuous across 3 km of the profile at a depth of 4 km may be the lower surface of the pluton.

The magnetic modelling suggests a bowl-shaped body of highly-magnetic materials which give rise to an approximately 3 km wide ring-shaped feature in the magnetic data. The ring-shaped magnetic feature could be interpreted as a large caldera with collapsed structures in the middle, similar to the “Southern” caldera identified by the reflection seismic data. As the Söråker intrusion, the Northern intrusion, and the proposed Sälskär intrusion are lo-cated along the circumference of this magnetic feature; it can be inferred that these intrusions are linked. The observed magnetic anomaly indicates that low-magnetic overburden may have been down-faulted into the caldera cen-tre in the Klingefjärden bay in order to give the magnetic ring-shape pattern. The evidence for the existence of a “Northern” caldera is weaker than for the

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“Southern” caldera, and the magnetic signature is quite different between the two. However, their potential existence raises the question of the relative age of these calderas. The Northern intrusion (which cover approximately Säl-skär skerries to Hörningsholmen and also includes the northern shore of Alnö Island) has been interpreted from geological observations to be older than the Southern intrusion (the Southern caldera), but the magnetic ring-shape seems to crosscut the southern intrusion, indicating that it is younger.

The initial idea that led to Paper II was to determine the flow direction in carbonatite sheets by studying magnetic fabrics (AMS). The magnetic folia-tions in the carbonatite sheets were found to usually follow the orientation of the sheets, but the determined flow directions were elusive. Six syn- and post-emplacement processes that can modify the AMS fabric of sheet-intrusions were assessed. The magnetic fabrics from the primary flow are probably overprinted, giving oblate-shaped magnetic ellipsoids. This can be explained by the closure and contraction of the carbonatite sheets after the magma injection ceased, but before the solidification of the magma.

It is important to note that most geophysical methods provide only a snapshot of the present structures and this is not an exception with the stud-ies in this thesis. Although speculative, some initial or primary features are likely still present such as the up-doming features interpreted from the re-flection seismic data. Other features are overprinted by later processes such as several generations of carbonatite dykes, collapsed structures and likely explosive eruptions.

While the studies conducted within this thesis are of great importance for our understanding on how alkaline and carbonatite systems work and are emplaced, more studies to validate the interpretations should be conducted, for example:

Additional age determinations for the complex and if possible different generations of carbonatite dykes.

Studies to unravel the source of calcium carbonate in these unusual types of rocks.

Additional geophysical constraints (like magnetotelluric methods) to better understand the origin of the up-doming structures.

Acquisition of additional geological and geophysical data in the Klingefjärden bay in order to better understand the lateral extent of the complex and if a large caldera can be linked to the main intrusion in the island.

A detailed deep drilling program to validate the interpretations made in this thesis but also to provide an additional source of information about the way alkaline rocks and their associated carbonatites are formed and how this influences the surround-ing country rocks. A volumetrically rich carbonatite system

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can still be found at depth, which can have a great economic value, but this can only be verified and confirmed by drilling.

Future studies should also focus on other alkaline and carbonatite complexes of a similar type such as Fen in Norway and those found in central Finland or Africa. An integrated approach like those employed in this thesis is rec-ommended and likely to provide complementary and additional information about these unique types of rocks.

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7 Summary in Swedish

Alnön utanför Sundsvall är känd för de ovanliga bergarter som här trängde upp till den övre delen av jordskorpan för ungefär 580 miljoner år sedan (Kresten 1990; Meert et al. 2007). I området finns karbonatiter och alkalina silikatbergarter, se Figur 2.1. Karbonatiter har påträffats på ungefär 500 plat-ser på jordklotet i berggrund av olika ålder, från arkeikum till nutid (Rukhlov and Bell 2010). Karbonatiter är karbonatrika magmatiska bergarter vars bildningssätt inte är helt fastställt, men föreslagna bildningsprocesser är till exempel kristallfraktionering eller en magma med två vätskefaser som är oblandbara (Bell et al. 1999). Karbonatiter förekommer nästan uteslutande tillsammans med alkalina bergarter. Alkalina bergarter är en bergartsgrupp som är ovanligt rika på kalium och natrium, och relativt kiselfattiga. Låg kiselhalt gör att alkalina bergarter kännetecknas av att de har fältspatoider (till exempel nefelin) och att de saknar kvarts. Både karbonatiter och alkalina bergarter är sällsynta men av stor betydelse för förståelsen för processer i jordskorpan och manteln. Den enda nu aktiva karbonatitvulkanen är Oldoi-nyo Lengai i Tanzania. Karbonatiter är också ekonomiskt viktiga eftersom de flesta så kallade sällsynta jordartsmetaller bryts i karbonatiter.

Sedan upptäckten av Alnökomplexet har flera studier genomförts där, men tolkningen av strukturerna på djupet har mestadels utgått från analyser av geologisk data från markytan. Det huvudsakliga målet med denna av-handling har varit att öka kunskaperna om karbonatitkomplex, och hur de intruderar, genom att använda olika geofysiska och petrofysiska mätmetoder. Tre reflexionsseismiska profiler, tyngdkraftmätningar och markmagnetiska mätningar har genomförts. Vidare har ett stort antal prover från de olika bergarterna samlats in och petrofysiska egenskaperna har mätts (t ex densi-tet, hastighet av P- och S-vågor, magnetisk susceptibilitet och magnetisk remanens).

I Paper I presenterades resultaten från reflexionsseismik. De reflexions-seismiska mätningarna visar att Alnökomplexet kan förklaras med kaldera-vulkanism. Magma har letat sig upp mot jordytan, men fastnat på några ki-lometers djup, spridits ut lateralt och bildat en magmakammare. Från kam-maren har magma injekterat berggrunden ovanför, vilket i nutid kan ses i form av gångar på Alnön och i omgivande sidoberg. De många gångarna har perforerat berget ovanför magmakammaren, tills det var så försvagat att bergmassan ovanför kollapsade och sjönk ner under en så kallad kalderakol-laps. Troligen har detta pressat upp ännu mer magma i ytterkanten av kalde-

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ran. Extrusiv vulkanism kan ha förekommit, runda fragment (lapilli) som har återfunnits i stenblock i den så kallade Sälskärsbreccian indikerar detta. Re-flexionsseismiken visar ett reflektivt område ner till ungefär 3 kilometers djup under Alnökomplexet. Detta kan förklaras med att berggrunden består av sönderbrutna fragment som ger många reflexioner. Djupare ner än 3 km är berggrunden seismiskt mer transparent vilket kan förklaras med en stelnad magmakammare; då berget är mer homogent här ger det inte så många re-flexioner av de seismiska vågorna. I omgivande berggrund, utanför Alnö-komplexet, visar seismiken uthålliga reflexioner som är flackare längre ifrån komplexet men böjer upp och blir branta nära komplexet (Figur 5.2). Dessa reflexioner indikerar att berggrunden ovanför magmakammaren har hävt sig uppåt, troligen då den har fyllts på med mer magma och svält upp. Figur 5.3 visar hur Alnökomplexet kan ha intruderat.

I Paper II presenteras resultatet från mätningar av anisotropi för magne-tisk susceptibilitet (AMS). Resultaten från AMS-mätningar illustreras ofta som ellipsoider (se Figur 5.5). Vid laminärt flöde i en gång kan mineralkor-nen orientera sig efter flödesriktningen vilket kan ge magnetisk susceptibili-tet som inte är isotrop. Genom att mäta AMS på flera prover kan ibland flö-desriktningen i magmatiska gångar bestämmas (see till exempel Knight and Walker 1988; Cañón-Tapia et al. 1997), men eftersom den magnetiska sus-ceptibiliteten också kan påverkas av flera processer efter intrusionen så mås-te försiktighet vidtas. I Paper II summeras olika möjliga processer som kan påverka AMS-data, både processer som är samtida med intrusionen och se-nare processer (Figur 5.5). De flesta AMS-mätningarna från Alnön visade oblat form på ellipsoiderna. Detta tolkades vara resultatet av deformation av magnetitkorn i magma då gångarna började sluta sig när trycket sjönk.

Tillsammans med reflexionsseismiken som presenterades i Paper I gjor-des också 2.5D ”forward”-modellering av tyngdkraftdata som indikerade ett maximalt djup av intrusionen till cirka 4 km. För att få en bättre bild av de tredimensionella strukturerna i Alnökomplexet så gjordes 3D-inversionsmodellering av tyngdkraft- och flygmagnetdata (Figur 5.6), vilket presenteras i Paper III. Inversionsmodellering är en automatiserad iterativ modelleringsprocess som beräknar en petrofysisk egenskap (t ex densitet eller magnetisk susceptibilitet) för varje cell i en modell av berggrunden (Figur 5.7). För att styra modellen kan man inkludera begränsningar i vilka värden cellerna får anta. Modelleringen försöker anpassa cellernas värde så att modellen producerar en respons som liknar observerad data. En viss fel-marginal accepteras för att modelleringen inte ska försöka anpassa modellen till osäkerheter i observerad data. Resultaten från tyngdkraft- och magnet-modelleringarna indikerar att Alnökomplexet är cirka 3-4 km djupt, vilket stämmer väl överens med seismiken presenterad i Paper I.

Den flygmagnetiska datan visar en ringformad magnetisk anomali med en diameter på cirka 3 kilometer i Klingefjärden norr om intrusionen på Alnön (Figur 5.6b). Susceptibilitetsmodellen visar en skålformad distribution av

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magnetiskt material (Figur 5.8). Avsaknaden av tyngdkraftmätningar i Klingefjärden gör att densitetsmodellen är mindre pålitlig än susceptibili-tetsmodellen för detta område, men tyngdkraftmätningarna på norra sidan av fjärden styrker att Alnökomplexet kan kopplas samman med Klingefjärden. Detta kan innebära en magmakammare som sträcker sig betydligt längre norr ut än vad som föreslagits tidigare. Den ringformade magnetanomalin kan förklaras med en kaldera med en diameter på cirka 3 km. Det relativt låg-magnetiska materialet i centrum av ringen kan vara nerförkastad migmatit eller fenit. De hällar som finns i området för den ringformade magnetiska anomalin består mestadels av karbonatiter, både på Alnösidan i söder och på Söråkersidan i norr. Söråkerintrusivet har föreslagits vara en satellitintrusion, men kan vara en del av större karbonatitsystem som sträcker sig runt hela Klingefjärden. Vidare har en intrusion kallad Sälskärsintrusionen föreslagits ligga nordväst om Sälskär vilket är längs med den ringformade magnetano-malin. Sälskärsintrusionen har tolkats från Sälskärsbreccian, vars lapilli ty-der på att den har varit ytnära. Bevisen för att resterna av en kaldera existe-rar i Klingefjärden måste dock ses som svagare än för den på norra Alnön som föreslås i Paper I från reflexionsseismiken. Mer geofysiska mätningar i fjärden behövs för att säkrare belägga att en kaldera existerar i Klingefjär-den.

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Acknowledgements

During my five years in Uppsala I have had the privilege to work with many very skilled and enthusiastic people who have helped me to make my re-search successful.

I would like to express my gratitude to Alireza Malehmir. Soon after I started in Uppsala, you sent me out to the field and I got my own experience with the acquisition of reflection seismic, gravity and magnetic data. You have been patient while introducing me to the processing of reflection seis-mic data.

I am thankful to my co-supervisor Valentin Troll who has been supportive and always ready to discuss implications from the geophysical measure-ments and to translate the geophysical results to sound geology. You showed me the importance of writing a sharp manuscript, where the text is clear and not doubtful.

I am thankful to Chris Juhlin who has been my co-supervisor. You have always been willing to share your knowledge in seismic processing.

Bjarne Almqvist has been my co-supervisor during my last year as a PhD student, but already before you officially became my co-supervisor you were a great mentor. You have inspired me a lot and always been optimistic about my work about Alnö.

I am very thankful to Steffi Burchardt, Lutz Kübler, Ian Snowball, Maria Ask, and Azita Dehghannejad who all have contributed to the papers about the Alnö complex.

For the success with the research about the Alnö complex I am very thankful to a great number of people who have been spending days in sun, rain and snow in temperatures reaching from about -30°C to +30°C on the Alnö Island during the many geophysical fieldworks that we have con-ducted. It would not have been possible without you. I hope you all have good memories from the island. The list of people that have been participat-ing is long. A great thank to ALL of you!!!

During the writing of this thesis I have got very useful feedback on the text and support with proof reading. I would like to thank Steffi, Ian, Chris, Daniel, Joachim, Alireza, Bjarne, Val, and Alba for this.

I have had a great time sharing office with Emil and Silvia, thank you for almost accepting my way to slowly turn the office into a storage place for rock samples, gravimeter, DGPS and similar things. It has also been great to work with all people in the multicultural environment that is our department.

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I still only know some few words in each language but hope to break through at some point. Discussions during coffee breaks have always been a nice routine.

I would like to thank Daniel for being the great companion in our endeav-our to learn how to unicycle during the fieldwork in Lilla Edet. Thank you Marc for suggesting 90 km of skiing in Dalarna. Bojan: thank you for con-vincing me to start sailing again. Still; I think we need more sails but no engine! Ershad: thank you for all the fun we had while we shared apartment. Ingo and Josse: thanks for being so nice friends.

A big thank to Alba for being so supportive from across the ocean while I have been writing the thesis.

Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Börje and Marianne, and my brothers, Jonas and Linus, for always being supportive.

Magnus Andersson, Uppsala, April 2015

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3D Structure and Emplacement of the Alnö Alkaline and ...799076/FULLTEXT01.pdfCarbonatites are carbonate-rich magmatic rocks that are rare and of great relevance for our understanding