4.4. Slavery & Empire, Slavery & Empire, 1441-17701441-1770

““I tremble for my country I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is when I reflect that God is just. . . his justice cannot just. . . his justice cannot sleep forever.”sleep forever.”

Thomas JeffersonThomas Jefferson

IntroductionIntroduction

W.E.B. DuBoisW.E.B. DuBois Stanley Elkins – “sambo” and Nazi Stanley Elkins – “sambo” and Nazi

HolocaustHolocaust Robert FogelRobert Fogel 1839, Amistad // 1830 Nat Turner1839, Amistad // 1830 Nat Turner

1839, Amistad1839, Amistad

Chapter Review QuestionsChapter Review Questions Trace the development of the system of Trace the development of the system of

slavery, and discuss the way it became slavery, and discuss the way it became entrenched in the Americas.entrenched in the Americas.

Describe the effects of the slave trade both on Describe the effects of the slave trade both on enslaved Africans and on the economic and enslaved Africans and on the economic and political life of Africa.political life of Africa.

Describe the process of acculturation involved Describe the process of acculturation involved in becoming an African American. In what in becoming an African American. In what ways did slaves Africanize the Southways did slaves Africanize the South??

Explain the connection between the institution Explain the connection between the institution of slavery and the building of a commercial of slavery and the building of a commercial empireempire..

In what ways did colonial policy encourage the In what ways did colonial policy encourage the growth of racism? growth of racism?

Historiography of US SlaveryHistoriography of US Slavery Carter G. Woodson, Carter G. Woodson, Journal of Negro History Journal of Negro History (beginning in (beginning in

1920s) 1920s) W.E.B. Du Bois, W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in AmericaBlack Reconstruction in America (1935) (1935) Ulrich B. Phillips, Ulrich B. Phillips, American Negro SlaveryAmerican Negro Slavery (1918), (1918), Life Life

and Labor in the Old Southand Labor in the Old South (1929) (1929) Herbert Aptheker, Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave RevoltsAmerican Negro Slave Revolts (1943) (1943) John Hope Franklin, John Hope Franklin, From Slavery To FreedomFrom Slavery To Freedom (1947) (1947) Kenneth Stampp, Kenneth Stampp, The Peculiar InstitutionThe Peculiar Institution (1956) (1956) Alfred Conrad & John Meyer, Alfred Conrad & John Meyer, The Economics of Slavery in The Economics of Slavery in

the Antebellum Souththe Antebellum South (Journal of Political Economy, (Journal of Political Economy, 1958) 1958)

Stanley ElkinsStanley Elkins,, Slavery: A Problem in American Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual LifeInstitutional and Intellectual Life (1959) [“ (1959) [“Sambo Sambo steriotype & Nazi genocidesteriotype & Nazi genocide” ”

Lerone Bennett, Jr., Lerone Bennett, Jr., Before the MayflowerBefore the Mayflower

John W. Blassingame, John W. Blassingame, The Slave CommunityThe Slave Community (1972) (1972) Robert W. Fogel & Stanley Engermann, Robert W. Fogel & Stanley Engermann, Time On The Time On The

Cross: The Economics of American SlaveryCross: The Economics of American Slavery (1974) (1974) Eugene GenoveseEugene Genovese, The Political Economy of Slavery, The Political Economy of Slavery

(1965); (1965); Roll, Jordan, RollRoll, Jordan, Roll (1974) (1974) Keith Aufhauser, Keith Aufhauser, Slavery and Technological Change Slavery and Technological Change

(Journal of Economic History, 1974)(Journal of Economic History, 1974) Herbert GutmanHerbert Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and , The Black Family in Slavery and

FreedomFreedom (1976) (1976) Don Fehrenbacher, Don Fehrenbacher, The Dred Scott CaseThe Dred Scott Case (1978) (1978) Leon Litwack, Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So LongBeen in the Storm So Long (1979) (1979) Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Within the Plantation

Households: Black and White Women of the Old SouthHouseholds: Black and White Women of the Old South (1988) (1988)

Robert W. Fogel, Robert W. Fogel, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slaveryand Fall of American Slavery (1989) (1989)

ChronologyChronology

1441 1441 African slaves first brought to Portugal African slaves first brought to Portugal 1518 1518 Spain grants official license to Portuguese Spain grants official license to Portuguese

slavers slavers 1535 1535 Africans constitute a majority on Hispaniola Africans constitute a majority on Hispaniola 1619 1619 First Africans brought to VirginiaFirst Africans brought to Virginia 1655 1655 English seize Jamaica English seize Jamaica 1662 1662 Virginia law makes slavery hereditaryVirginia law makes slavery hereditary 1670 1670 South Carolina founded South Carolina founded 1672 1672 Royal African Company organized Royal African Company organized 1691 1691 Virginia prohibits interracial sexVirginia prohibits interracial sex 1698 1698 Britain opens the slave trade to all its merchants Britain opens the slave trade to all its merchants 1699 1699 Spanish declare Florida a refuge for escape Spanish declare Florida a refuge for escape

slaves slaves 1702 1702 South Carolinians burn St. Augustine South Carolinians burn St. Augustine

ChronologyChronology

1705 1705 Virginia Slave Code establishedVirginia Slave Code established 1706 1706 French and Spanish navies French and Spanish navies 1710 1710 English capture Port Royal English capture Port Royal 1712 1712 Slave uprising in New York CitySlave uprising in New York City 1713 1713 Peace of Utrecht Peace of Utrecht 1721-48 King George's War 1721-48 King George's War 1741 1741 Africans executed in New York for Africans executed in New York for

conspiracy conspiracy 1752 1752 Georgia officially opened to slaveryGeorgia officially opened to slavery 1770s 1770s Peak period of the English colonies' slave Peak period of the English colonies' slave

trade trade 1808 1808 Legal importation of slaves into the Legal importation of slaves into the

United United States endsStates ends

A. Building an African American A. Building an African American Community in Coastal GeorgiaCommunity in Coastal Georgia

In coastal Georgia, slaves taught In coastal Georgia, slaves taught inexperienced planters how to cultivate inexperienced planters how to cultivate rice. Africans carved out a place for rice. Africans carved out a place for themselves in the brutal slave world by:themselves in the brutal slave world by: forcing masters to operate on the forcing masters to operate on the task task

system [not gang system]system [not gang system];; running away or attacking their masters; running away or attacking their masters;

andand building an African American community building an African American community

and culture.and culture.

B. The Beginnings of B. The Beginnings of African SlaveryAfrican Slavery

Sugar and SlaverySugar and Slavery Before the arrival of Europeans, Africans Before the arrival of Europeans, Africans

were source of slaves for Islamic world.were source of slaves for Islamic world. In 1441, the Portuguese opened the trade In 1441, the Portuguese opened the trade

by bringing slaves to the sugar plantations by bringing slaves to the sugar plantations on the island of Madeira.on the island of Madeira.

The expansion of sugar production in the The expansion of sugar production in the Caribbean increased the demand for slaves.Caribbean increased the demand for slaves.

Caribbean sugar and slaves were the core Caribbean sugar and slaves were the core of the European colonial system.of the European colonial system.

Columbus introduced sugarcane to West Columbus introduced sugarcane to West Indies!Indies!

““Salt-water” slaves Salt-water” slaves

West AfricansWest Africans Slaves came from well-established societies and Slaves came from well-established societies and

local communities -- local communities -- West Africa, Mali, SonghayWest Africa, Mali, Songhay More than 100 peoples lived along the West More than 100 peoples lived along the West

African coast.African coast. Most West African societies were polygamous Most West African societies were polygamous

and based on sophisticated systems of farming and based on sophisticated systems of farming and metalworking.and metalworking.

Extensive trade networks existed stimulating Extensive trade networks existed stimulating the rise of military empires.the rise of military empires.

Household slavery was an established Household slavery was an established institution in Africa, but not necessarily a institution in Africa, but not necessarily a permanent condition.permanent condition.

C. African Slave TradeC. African Slave Trade

The African Slave TradeThe African Slave Trade

The Demography of the Slave TradeThe Demography of the Slave Trade The movement of Africans across the The movement of Africans across the

Atlantic was the largest forced Atlantic was the largest forced migration in history.migration in history.

Between ten and eleven million Between ten and eleven million African slaves came to the New African slaves came to the New WorldWorld

The Slave Trade to British North The Slave Trade to British North AmericaAmerica

Only one in twenty Africans--Only one in twenty Africans--approximately 600,000-- were approximately 600,000-- were transported to what became the transported to what became the United StatesUnited States..

Slavers of All NationsSlavers of All Nations

All Western European nations participated All Western European nations participated in the African slave trade.in the African slave trade.

The control of the trade changed from:The control of the trade changed from: the Portuguese in the 16th century;the Portuguese in the 16th century; the Dutch in the sugar boom of the 17th the Dutch in the sugar boom of the 17th

century; andcentury; and the English who entered the trade in the the English who entered the trade in the

17th century.17th century. Europeans generally made arrangements Europeans generally made arrangements

with local African headmen and chiefs to with local African headmen and chiefs to conduct raids to capture potential slaves.conduct raids to capture potential slaves.

Olaudah EquianoOlaudah Equiano

In 1756, Olaudah Equiano was eleven years In 1756, Olaudah Equiano was eleven years old and living with his family in Nigeria.old and living with his family in Nigeria.

He was captured by African slave raiders and He was captured by African slave raiders and transported to America.transported to America.

Purchased first by a Virginia tobacco planter Purchased first by a Virginia tobacco planter and later by an English sea captain, Equiano and later by an English sea captain, Equiano served as a slave for ten years before buying served as a slave for ten years before buying his freedom.his freedom.

He published his autobiography in 1789 as He published his autobiography in 1789 as part of his dedication to the antislavery causepart of his dedication to the antislavery cause. .

The Shock of EnslavementThe Shock of Enslavement

Enslavement was a unfathomable shock.Enslavement was a unfathomable shock. African raiders or armies often violently African raiders or armies often violently

attacked villages to take captives.attacked villages to take captives. The captives were marched in The captives were marched in cofflescoffles to to

the coast, many dying along the way.the coast, many dying along the way. On the coast, the slaves were kept in On the coast, the slaves were kept in

barracoons where they were separated barracoons where they were separated from their families, branded, and from their families, branded, and dehumanized.dehumanized.

The Middle PassageThe Middle Passage The Atlantic voyage was called the Middle The Atlantic voyage was called the Middle

Passage.Passage. Slaves were crammed into ships and packed Slaves were crammed into ships and packed

into into shelves six feet long and thirty-inches highshelves six feet long and thirty-inches high.. They slept crowded together spoon fashion.They slept crowded together spoon fashion. There was little or no sanitation and food was There was little or no sanitation and food was

poor.poor. Dysentery and disease were prevalent.Dysentery and disease were prevalent. Slaves resisted by jumping overboard, refusing Slaves resisted by jumping overboard, refusing

to eat, and revolting.to eat, and revolting. One in six slaves died during this voyageOne in six slaves died during this voyage..

Arrival in the New WorldArrival in the New World

The sale of human cargo occurred in several The sale of human cargo occurred in several ways.ways.

A single buyer may have purchased the A single buyer may have purchased the whole cargo.whole cargo.

Individual slaves could be Individual slaves could be auctionedauctioned to the to the highest bidder.highest bidder.

The scrambleThe scramble had the slaves driven into a had the slaves driven into a corral and the price was fixed.corral and the price was fixed. Buyers rushed among the slaves, grabbing the Buyers rushed among the slaves, grabbing the

ones they wanted.ones they wanted. In the sale process, Africans were closely In the sale process, Africans were closely

examined, probed and poked.examined, probed and poked.

Political and Economic Effects Political and Economic Effects on Africaon Africa

The slave trade:The slave trade: resulted in the loss of millions of people resulted in the loss of millions of people

over hundreds of years;over hundreds of years; weakened African states who became weakened African states who became

dependent on European trade;dependent on European trade; caused long-term stagnation of the West caused long-term stagnation of the West

African economy; andAfrican economy; and prepared the way for European prepared the way for European

conquest of Africa in the 19th century.conquest of Africa in the 19th century.

D.D. The Development of The Development of North American Slave North American Slave

SocietiesSocieties

Slavery in North AmericaSlavery in North America

Slavery spread throughout the Slavery spread throughout the Caribbean and southern coast of Caribbean and southern coast of North America.North America.

By 1770, Africans and African By 1770, Africans and African AmericansAmericans numbered 460,000 in numbered 460,000 in British North America-- comprising British North America-- comprising over 20 percent of the colonial over 20 percent of the colonial populationpopulation..

Slavery Comes to North Slavery Comes to North AmericaAmerica

African slavery was not the primary labor system in African slavery was not the primary labor system in the Chesapeake region until after the 1670sthe Chesapeake region until after the 1670s..

Between about 1675 and 1700, a slave society Between about 1675 and 1700, a slave society developed in the Chesapeake because:developed in the Chesapeake because: planters consolidated their control after Bacon's Rebellion and planters consolidated their control after Bacon's Rebellion and

became concerned about future rebellions by former became concerned about future rebellions by former indentured servants;indentured servants;

improved living conditions the increased survival rates made improved living conditions the increased survival rates made slavery more profitable; slavery more profitable;

European immigrants had better opportunities in other European immigrants had better opportunities in other colonies; andcolonies; and

the Royal English African Company began shipping slaves the Royal English African Company began shipping slaves directly to the region.directly to the region.

Expansion of slavery prompted Virginia to develop a Expansion of slavery prompted Virginia to develop a comprehensive slave code.comprehensive slave code.

The Tobacco ColoniesThe Tobacco Colonies

Slave societies arose in areas where a commodity Slave societies arose in areas where a commodity was produced that commanded an international was produced that commanded an international market.market.

Tobacco was the most important commodity Tobacco was the most important commodity produced in 18th century North America, accounting produced in 18th century North America, accounting for 25 % of the value of all colonial exportsfor 25 % of the value of all colonial exports..

Slavery allowed the expansion of tobacco Slavery allowed the expansion of tobacco production since it was labor-intensive.production since it was labor-intensive.

Tidewater v. PiedmontTidewater v. Piedmont Using slave labor, tobacco was grown on large Using slave labor, tobacco was grown on large

plantations and small farms.plantations and small farms. The slave population in this region grew largely by The slave population in this region grew largely by

natural increase.natural increase.

The Lower SouthThe Lower South

South Carolina was a slave society from its South Carolina was a slave society from its foundingfounding..

Rice and indigo were the two major crops.Rice and indigo were the two major crops. ““One out of every five ancestors of today’s One out of every five ancestors of today’s

African Americans passed through . . . African Americans passed through . . . [Charleston, South Carolina[Charleston, South Carolina] on his or her ] on his or her way to the rice and indigo fields.” textway to the rice and indigo fields.” text

Slave Quarters in South Slave Quarters in South CarolinaCarolina

In South Carolina, large plantations In South Carolina, large plantations employing many slaves dominated.employing many slaves dominated.

By 1770, about 80 % of the coastal By 1770, about 80 % of the coastal population of South Carolina and population of South Carolina and Georgia was African AmericanGeorgia was African American..

Slavery in the Spanish ColoniesSlavery in the Spanish Colonies

Though the papacy denounced slavery it Though the papacy denounced slavery it was a basic part of the Spanish colonial was a basic part of the Spanish colonial labor system.labor system.

The character of Spanish slavery varied The character of Spanish slavery varied by region:by region: in Cuba, on sugar plantation, slavery was brutal;in Cuba, on sugar plantation, slavery was brutal; in Florida, slavery resembled household slavery in Florida, slavery resembled household slavery

common in Mediterranean and African communities; common in Mediterranean and African communities; in New Mexico, Indian slaves were used in mines, as in New Mexico, Indian slaves were used in mines, as

house servants, and as fieldworkers.house servants, and as fieldworkers.

French LouisianaFrench Louisiana

French Louisiana was a society with French Louisiana was a society with slaves.slaves.

French settlers used slave labor but French settlers used slave labor but slaves made up about one-third of slaves made up about one-third of the Louisiana populationthe Louisiana population..

Slavery in the NorthSlavery in the North

Slavery was a labor system in some northern Slavery was a labor system in some northern commercial farming areas but only made up commercial farming areas but only made up ten percent of the rural population in these ten percent of the rural population in these regions.regions.

In port cities, slavery was widespread.In port cities, slavery was widespread. By 1750, the slave and free African By 1750, the slave and free African

populations made up 15 to 20 % of the populations made up 15 to 20 % of the residents of Boston, New York, and residents of Boston, New York, and PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia..

Antislavery sentiment first arose among the Antislavery sentiment first arose among the Quakers of New Jersey and Pennsylvania.Quakers of New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

E. African to African E. African to African AmericanAmerican

Towards an African American Towards an African American CultureCulture

Increasingly, the North American slave Increasingly, the North American slave population became creole and created population became creole and created an African American culture.an African American culture.

African American slaves also built the African American slaves also built the South.South.

Malcolm X’s “house” verse “field” Malcolm X’s “house” verse “field” NegroesNegroes

Broomstick marriages Broomstick marriages

The Daily Lives of SlavesThe Daily Lives of Slaves As agricultural peoples, Africans were used to As agricultural peoples, Africans were used to

rural routines and most slaves worked in the rural routines and most slaves worked in the fields.fields.

Slaves were supplied rude clothes and hand-Slaves were supplied rude clothes and hand-me-downs from the master's family.me-downs from the master's family.

The monotonous diets of corn and pork were The monotonous diets of corn and pork were varied by vegetables from small gardens, game varied by vegetables from small gardens, game and fish, and wild plant foods.and fish, and wild plant foods.

On small plantations and farms, particularly in On small plantations and farms, particularly in tobacco region of Chesapeake, Africans may tobacco region of Chesapeake, Africans may have worked along side their mastershave worked along side their masters..

Black women nursed & raised white childrenBlack women nursed & raised white children

Families and CommunitiesFamilies and Communities

In the development of African American In the development of African American community and culture, the family was community and culture, the family was the most important institution.the most important institution.

Slave codes did not legalize slave Slave codes did not legalize slave marriages and families were often marriages and families were often separated by sale or bequest. separated by sale or bequest.

Slaves created family structures Slaves created family structures developing marriage customs, naming developing marriage customs, naming practices, and a system of kinship.practices, and a system of kinship.

African American CultureAfrican American Culture The formative period of African American community The formative period of African American community

development was the 18development was the 18thth century century.. The resiliency of slaves was shown in the development The resiliency of slaves was shown in the development

of a spiritually sustaining African American culture of a spiritually sustaining African American culture drawing upon dance, music, religion and oral tradition.drawing upon dance, music, religion and oral tradition.

Until the Great Awakening, large numbers of African Until the Great Awakening, large numbers of African Americans were not converted to ChristianityAmericans were not converted to Christianity..

Death and burial were important religious practices.Death and burial were important religious practices. Music and dance formed the foundations of African Music and dance formed the foundations of African

American culture.American culture. The invention of an African American language The invention of an African American language

facilitated communication between American-born and facilitated communication between American-born and African slaves - Gullah and Geeche dialects, African slaves - Gullah and Geeche dialects, RootsRoots by by Alex HaileyAlex Hailey

The Africanization of the SouthThe Africanization of the South

Acculturation occurred in two directions--Acculturation occurred in two directions--English influenced Africans and Africans English influenced Africans and Africans influenced English.influenced English.

Africanization was evident in:Africanization was evident in: cooking: barbecue, fried chicken, black-eyed cooking: barbecue, fried chicken, black-eyed

peas, and collard greens;peas, and collard greens; material culture: basket weaving, wood material culture: basket weaving, wood

carving, and architecture;carving, and architecture; language: yam, banjo, tote, buddy; andlanguage: yam, banjo, tote, buddy; and music and dance: banjomusic and dance: banjo. .

Violence and ResistanceViolence and Resistance

The slave system was based on force The slave system was based on force and violence.and violence.

Africans resisted in the following Africans resisted in the following ways:ways: Refusing to cooperate and malingering;Refusing to cooperate and malingering; Mistreating tools and animals;Mistreating tools and animals; Running away; andRunning away; and Revolt.Revolt.

F.F. Slavery and the Slavery and the Economics of EmpireEconomics of Empire

Slavery the MainspringSlavery the Mainspring

““The slave trade was the foundation The slave trade was the foundation

of the British economyof the British economy.”.” Slavery contributed to the economy bySlavery contributed to the economy by::

creating a large colonial market for exports creating a large colonial market for exports that stimulated manufacturing;that stimulated manufacturing;

generated huge profits that served as a source generated huge profits that served as a source of investments; andof investments; and

supplying raw cotton to fuel British supplying raw cotton to fuel British industrialization.industrialization.

British Colonial ExportsBritish Colonial Exports

The Chesapeake and Lower South The Chesapeake and Lower South accounted for two-thirds of colonial accounted for two-thirds of colonial exports in the late 18th century.exports in the late 18th century.

““The slave colonies accounted for The slave colonies accounted for 95% of exports from the Americas to 95% of exports from the Americas to Great Britain from 1714 to 1773.”Great Britain from 1714 to 1773.”

The Politics of MercantilismThe Politics of Mercantilism

MercantilismMercantilism was based on: was based on: the idea the colonies existed to benefit the idea the colonies existed to benefit

the mother country;the mother country; the economy should be controlled by the economy should be controlled by

the state; andthe state; and the economy was a "zero-sum" gamethe economy was a "zero-sum" game

where profits for one country meant where profits for one country meant losses for another.losses for another.

Wars for EmpireWars for Empire

The English, French, and Spanish The English, French, and Spanish struggled for control over North struggled for control over North America and the Caribbean in a America and the Caribbean in a series of wars that had their series of wars that had their European counterparts.European counterparts.

British Colonial RegulationBritish Colonial Regulation European nations created state trading European nations created state trading

monopolies to manage the commerce of its monopolies to manage the commerce of its empires.empires.

The Navigation Acts passed between 1651 and The Navigation Acts passed between 1651 and 1696 created the legal and institutional 1696 created the legal and institutional structure of Britain's colonial systemstructure of Britain's colonial system..

The Wool, Hat, and Iron acts reduced colonial The Wool, Hat, and Iron acts reduced colonial competition with British manufacturing interestscompetition with British manufacturing interests..

Great Britain did not allow colonial tariffs, Great Britain did not allow colonial tariffs, banking, or local coinage.banking, or local coinage.

The increase in colonial trade led Britain to The increase in colonial trade led Britain to economic policy of "economic policy of "salutory neglectsalutory neglect."."

The Colonial EconomyThe Colonial Economy The colonial economy grew rapidly.The colonial economy grew rapidly. The New England shipbuilding was stimulated The New England shipbuilding was stimulated

by trade.by trade. The greatest benefits for northern port cities The greatest benefits for northern port cities

came from:came from: participating in the slave trade to the South participating in the slave trade to the South

and West Indies; andand West Indies; and trading foodstuffs for sugar in foreign colonies.trading foodstuffs for sugar in foreign colonies. Between the 1730s and 1770s, the commercial Between the 1730s and 1770s, the commercial

economies of the North and South were economies of the North and South were becoming integratedbecoming integrated..

G. Slavery and G. Slavery and FreedomFreedom

The Social Structure of the The Social Structure of the Slave ColoniesSlave Colonies

Southern white society was Southern white society was characterized by:characterized by: a small elite of wealthy planters;a small elite of wealthy planters; small planters and farmers; andsmall planters and farmers; and renters and tenant farmers.renters and tenant farmers.

White Skin PrivilegeWhite Skin Privilege

Skin color determined status.Skin color determined status. Legal and other racial distinctions Legal and other racial distinctions

were constant reminders of the were constant reminders of the freedom of white colonists and the freedom of white colonists and the debasement of all African Americans, debasement of all African Americans, free or slave.free or slave.

"Duly constituted, the court would try for his life (without "Duly constituted, the court would try for his life (without a jury) a slave who had been accused, perhaps, of a jury) a slave who had been accused, perhaps, of breaking into a storehouse to steal hams, bolts of cloth, or breaking into a storehouse to steal hams, bolts of cloth, or other commodities. If the judges found him guilty and set other commodities. If the judges found him guilty and set the value of the stolen goods higher than five shillings, he the value of the stolen goods higher than five shillings, he would be sentenced to hang near the courthouse - a yet would be sentenced to hang near the courthouse - a yet more awful ceremony that would take place within a few more awful ceremony that would take place within a few days. If the court saw fit to set the value of the theft at days. If the court saw fit to set the value of the theft at less than five shillings, the slave was eligible for "Benefit less than five shillings, the slave was eligible for "Benefit of the Clergy" - he would then be 'burnt in the Hand. . . in of the Clergy" - he would then be 'burnt in the Hand. . . in open Court,' lashed and released. It was 'usual upon such open Court,' lashed and released. It was 'usual upon such occasion' for the condemned person as sentence was occasion' for the condemned person as sentence was passed and the hot iron brought forth, to cry out, 'God passed and the hot iron brought forth, to cry out, 'God save the King.' Public stigmatization by branding was yet save the King.' Public stigmatization by branding was yet another ritual for memorization, appropriate to a another ritual for memorization, appropriate to a community in which oral culture and traditions were still community in which oral culture and traditions were still vigorous." vigorous."

Paul FinkelmanPaul Finkelman