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Of these 4 denominations, the Roman Catholic and Kiribati Protestant Church are well established, each with active communities, churches and ‘mwaneaba’. The rest two are still in the process of establishing their church and meeting facilities. The SDA has a small ‘mwaneaba’ and no church while the Bah’ai are presently carrying out meetings in their clerics’ home as they do not yet have a church nor a ‘mwaneaba’. 4.3 POLITICAL AUTHORITY AND GOVERNANCE 4.3.1 Traditional political system – description and status The traditional ruling system differs from region to region, but based mainly on the chiefly ruling system and the ‘Unimwane’ (mwaneaba) system. The chiefly ruling system was common in the central and northern Gilberts, while the ‘Unimwane’ (mwaneaba) system was used in the southern Gilberts. In the chiefly system one person enjoys the powers and privileges over his subjects and resources. In pre-colonial times the central and northern islands of the Gilbert group were ruled by families of “Uea” (high chiefs/kings).The southern islands from Nonouti to Arorae were ruled by councils of ‘Unimwane’ who meets in the mwaneaba to discuss and address all kinds of social, economic and political issues. In this system the ‘Unimwane’, who consists of the head of each kainga (extended family), is the most powerful and sole decision-making body in the community. The decisions made by the ‘Unimwane’ are believed to be the best because they are the outcome of careful deliberation among the oldest, wisest and most experienced members of the community. The chiefly system of the central and northern Gilberts gradually disappeared because it was incompatible with the new Christian belief and democratic form of Government that were introduced into the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. On the other hand, the ‘Unimwane’ (mwaneaba) system, due to its similarity with the western democratic model, was encouraged and has continued to be the dominant traditional form of authority throughout the country. 4.3.2 Local government system The government system in Kiribati is made up of the central government, based in South Tarawa, and Island Councils based on each island. Teeraina Island Council was established on the 1st March, 1995 under a warrant which outlines the purpose, responsibilities, authority, powers and laws which govern the existence of Councils. The functions of the Island Council were spelled out in the Local Government Ordinance 1966 which had been revised a few times, the most recent being in 2006 and is now better known as the Local Government Act. The Island Council is made up of representatives from each village/ward who are elected every 4 years. There are also nominated and ex-officio members who, together with elected members meet every month to discuss matters pertaining to the operation of the Island Council and issues affecting the various wards and the island as a whole. As already mentioned, a seat on these Council meetings is reserved for a representative from the ‘‘Unimwane’’, the women and the youth. The parliamentarian or member of parliament from the island is an ex-officio member of these council meetings at which the Chief Councilor presides/chairs while the ‘Clerk’

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seconded from the Ministry of Internal & Social Affairs acts as ‘Secretariat’ and Chief Advisor. Among its core functions as stipulated in the Local Government Act 2006, the Island Council is also responsible for the following general areas:-

• Agriculture, livestock and fisheries, • Buildings and village planning, • Education, • Forestry and trees, • Land, • Relief of famine and drought, • Markets, • Public health, • Public order, peace and safety, • Communications and public utilities, • Trade and industry

All Island Councils have management and support staff that are seconded by central government (The Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs) in South Tarawa and stationed on the outer islands. These staff include the Council Clerk, the Treasurer, the Assistant Treasurer, the Island project Officer, and the Assistant Social Welfare Officer. In addition to this administrative and support team who work directly with Councils, there are also other government personnel who are placed on the islands to assist in other important areas, such as police officers, agricultural assistants, fisheries assistants, medical assistants, and teachers. Island Council staff still lacking includes an Agricultural Assistant, Fisheries Assistant, KOIL and DBK agents. The Island Council otherwise have their own typist, drivers and radio operator. The main staffing problem on the island is not just the lack of seconded officers from relevant fields such as an Agricultural Assistant or a DBK agent but the time it takes for a seconded officer to be replaced or reach the island. Travel to and from the island has proven to be a real hassle as Teeraina is not only remotely placed but also lacks an air service. Teeraina Island Council has elected members from Abaiang, Kauamwemwe/Uteute/Te Kaaitara, Matanibike, Arabwata and Mwakeitari/Onouea, a total of 5 elected members, a ‘unimwane’ and a women’s representative on the council. The revised Local Government Act 2006 is aimed at transferring to Island Councils more autonomy and responsibility, to enable them to shoulder the burden of running their islands with increased confidence and sense of stewardship. The revision of the Local Government Act is but part of a wider plan to improve services to people on the outer islands. In addition central government is committed to undertake, among others, the following:

• improve key development infrastructures (transport, communication, health, education, etc.) through sustained development financing,

• promote participatory planning and decision-making especially in relation to matters pertaining to the island as a whole,

• streamline operation and output of Island Councils through human resource development and stricter management where appropriate,

• develop new income generation initiatives, and secure new employment opportunities overseas, etc. Generally, while Island Councils may welcome new initiatives of central government to assist them and their people, it may take a long time to build the financial capability of Councils so that they could operate with

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minimum support from central government. Central Government still provides support to the Island Councils through what is known as “Support Grant”. According to sources from the Local Government Division of the Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs, central government provided a total of $1.24 million to Island Councils in 2007. From this grant Teeraina was given $37,281.00 (about 3% of total grant) to assist its recurrent budget. Apart from the support grant that the Government gives to the outer island councils, Island Council projects are also funded by the government and donors most notably the Taiwan embassy in South Tarawa who gives out AU$10 million every year to fund these island council priority projects. Table 11: Teeraina Island Council priority projects Year Project Name Approved funds 2004 Council Truck $ 58,500.00 2005 New Council office $ 149,010.00 2006 Guesthouse renovation $ 30,000.00 2007 Housing project $ 267,300.00 $ 504,810.00

4.3.3 Interface between Local Government and Traditional Political System The leadership role of the ‘Unimwane’ is well appreciated and continues to be respected by the society and hence central government. The modern legal system is indeed crucial to the maintenance of peace and order in Kiribati, but there are many instances where modern law fails to provide a solution to certain situations, and this is where the community under the leadership of the ‘Unimwane’ intervenes to provide the solution. To avoid confrontation between central government and the traditional leaders, it is therefore resolved that the ‘Unimwane’ association must be represented in local government, not as an elected councilor but as a nominated member who assists, advises and in many instances instructs Council to make the required decisions. Councils and other institutions cannot disengage themselves from the ‘Unimwane’ who basically hold the power to community support and/or resources. The cultural respect for ‘unimwane’ as decision makers is not lost on Teeraina, even though the islanders are now a mixture of people from Polynesia during the copra years and those from all over the Gilbert group that were later re-settled on the island. The ‘Unimwane’ association is still active, strong and influential in making decisions concerning the island as a whole such as in representation of Teeraina in national functions such as inter-island sports championships and keeping the peace on the island. Although the ‘Unimwane’ association is represented by a single member on the Council, such a member has the full support of the ‘Unimwane’ Association thus the island community. Clashes of opinions and decisions between the Council and Unimwane has not been experienced since the establishment of the Council in 1995 thus the interface between the Local Government and the tradition systems is presently working well on Teeraina. 4.3.4 Crime and Justice System A Court Clerk from the Judiciary in Tarawa is also stationed on the island to administer the court system on the island. Duties of the Court Clerk include recording minutes of the magistrate court proceedings, executing the order of the court, collecting court fees, and processing claims and appeals to the High Court located in South

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Tarawa. Table 12: Committed offenses 2006 G/Age Charge Sentence 1 M/15 yrs Criminal trespass 3 mth imprisonment 2 M/16 yrs Damaging property 3 mths imprisonment 3 M/17 yrs Damaging property 3 mths imprisonment 4 M/17 yrs Cycling without a light $20.00 fine Table 13: Committed offenses 2007 G/Age Charge Sentence 1 M/15 yrs Criminal trespass 6 mths imprisonment 2 M/15 yrs Criminal trespass 6 mths imprisonment 3 M/17 yrs Criminal trespass 6 mths imprisonment The above cases were as extracted from his records but others were not mentioned in the book, clarified by the court clerk as normal minor offences such as riding pushbikes or motorbikes at night without lights or driving motorbikes without licenses. These are normal occurrences throughout Kiribati, however, the offenders which are males have never failed to meet their sentence fines. Imprisonment is carried out at the Police headquarters where the convicted stays with the residing police officer and does community work daily for as long as the sentence dictates. Most of the time, due to these offences being minor in nature, most offenders are allowed to stay with families but required to show up/report to the Police station daily whence he can assist with tasks assigned by the residing police officer. As can be seen from the above court cases, Teeraina suffers minimal crimes and only from teenage males who are on the edge of turning into men and still hot-blooded as the locals would say.

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CHAPTER 5: TE TABOMOA – ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES, INFRASTRUCTURE AND UTILITIES 5.1 ISLAND ECONOMY 5.1.1 Subsistence Economy A subsistence economy is one where people perform traditional activities to meet their individual and group needs for security, and have no reason to accumulate wealth except to ensure their future survival. In such a system, the concept of wealth does not exist hence there is a high degree of reliance on existing natural resources, development and maintenance of the natural environment and the skills to harvest and maintain these resources. The nature of the subsistence economy is reflected in the social organization of families, who

join together to form large kinship groups (kaainga) which survives according to a set of rules and roles. Each member of a kaainga performs a different set of activities which are assigned on the basis of sex and age. It is important for the survival of the group that each member fulfils the roles and responsibilities assigned to him/her. Typical subsistent activities include fishing, toddy cutting, cultivation and harvesting of food crops mainly coconut, pandanus, breadfruit and bwabwai. These activities are performed by the

adult members of a family, while the younger members are expected to collect firewood and fetch water, clean the dishes and kaainga’s compound, and assist the adult members to do the easy part of their chores. Unfortunately, subsistence living cannot be upheld in the whole of Kiribati due to the increasing need of money to pay for the basic necessities but instead has now been merged with the now trading/commercial trend. Where most of the fishing was done for subsistence, it is now sold and where there is a surplus, it is either given freely to relatives or preserved for later consumption or sale. Due to the increasing dependence on imported goods which are sold to the general public by small stores, the importance of cash as a medium of exchange, though a dominant trend in this age, barter trading is still carried out on Teeraina. Monetary institutions such as the banks and other financing institutions are not available on the island and thus the availability of money can be affected, setting the way for the existing customs of borrowing (tangobwai), asking (bubuti) and or bartering. While some people may be more skilled in one thing compared to others, the concept of specialization which is a strong feature of cash-based economies is absent on the islands topped up by the isolation of the island and thus the slow inter-changes of products and cash.

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5.1.2 Copra cutting Copra production remains the most important commercial activity on the outer islands or rural areas that provides a reliable and sustainable source of income for most islanders especially those in the Line group of islands. Other than private or business leased lands, the rest of the islands are Government owned and

therefore anybody can cut copra where they like – kind of a first come first serve system. This way, coconut collection is similar to that of Makin and Butaritari where family lands prevent a single family member to own a piece of land but instead the lands are opened for family members to collect their livelihoods from. Copra cutting provides the main income generating activity on Teeraina including a lot of other uses such as fuel for cooking and night fires for lighting. Figure 15 describes the annual copra production for Teeraina for the past 11 years, showing that in general copra production on the island has been fluctuating between 400 to 1400 metric

tonnes with the highest production achieved in 2005, a whopping 1241 tonnes and the highest production of all the islands in the whole country on record for the year 2005. This soar in production from 699 tonnes (2004), is accredited to the new Government coming into power and increasing the price of copra from AU$0.50 to 0.60/kg of copra. In contrast, the sharp decline in 2001 could have been caused by a nationwide drought that lasted for more than a year or the increase in other income earning opportunities such as sea cucumber exportation. Copra cutting provides the main source of income for households on Teeraina. At $0.60 cents a kilogram, the total revenue from copra production in 2005 was AU$744,600.00 (Total production*cost/kg) bringing in an estimated average income per household of $3,760.60 (Total copra income/total household) in the year 2005. By looking at the graph on copra production and price, there is a discernible relationship between price and production, for which it can be said in general that copra production fluctuates when price is low, but rises steadily or swiftly when price increases. Teeraina however due to its rough seas most of the time have to await good weather for harvested copra to be loaded onto visiting ships. In these cases, copra storage becomes a problem and copra is not bought from the communities awaiting the transfer of those in storage to ships. The council mwaneaba at these times is normally in Teeraina to store the copra before convenient loading onto visiting ships. Table 14: Copra production and revenue 2000-2005

Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Production 1,181 717 811 757 699 1,241 Income $496,020 $301,140 $340,620 $317,940 $349,500 $744,600 Av. Income/HH $2,505.15 $1,520.91 $1,720.30 $1,605.76 $1,765.15 $3,760.61

Source: National Statistics Office, 2007

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Fig. 12: Teeraina copra production

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Source: National Statistics Office, 2007 Compared to copra production with its neighboring islands, Kiritimati and Tabuaeran, Teeraina out-produces Kiritimati island by 184 tonnes and Tabuaeran by 8990 tonnes since 1990. One would have expected Kiritimati to have the highest production of the Line islands since it is the biggest atoll in the world, but then, where Teeraina has been naturally covered in coconut forest and has a high rainfall, Kiritimati was naturally covered with saltbush (Scaevola sericea), beach dodder (Cassytha filiformis) and heliotropes (Messerschmidia) and is still being planted with coconut trees. Fig 13: Line group copra production

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Based on the last census it was found that 92% households in Teeraina own coconut and ’bwabwai’ trees which are two of the most important traditional food crops in Kiribati. 81% of the households own and grow pandanus,

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72% own and grow breadfruit, 1-9% owning and growing banana, pawpaw,, local fig, ‘kumara’ (sweet potato and cabbages. 46% of these households also cut toddy (coconut sap), traditionally used as a drink mix (cordial), medicine, boiled into a syrup or fermented into a local brew. Among the food crops and extract mentioned, coconut trees are the main income generating providers for people on Teeraina. 5.1.3 Employment The Island Council serve as the biggest employer for Teeraina islanders, employing about 20 islanders as village wardens, village nurses, drivers, hotel keepers, and office (typing, treasurer, clerk) assistants. Depending on the need, Council may from time to time engage contractors to undertake short carpentry or auto-mechanical jobs. Seasonal employment is usually available when Government or large Council projects are undertaken, especially those which require the service of casual laborers. Manual labor is also regularly needed in the stevedoring of visiting supply ships, which make monthly or more regular runs to Teeraina carrying food, fuel, timber, and other general goods. These are offloaded on reaching the island thus requiring casual laborers. On the return trip, these ships are loaded with copra, empty fuel drums and some local bagged produce like ’bwabwai’ or de-husked coconuts. Stevedoring provides an alternative way to earn income and in Teeraina, priority labor selection can be given to those requiring funds for a community project such as in youth requiring funds to attend the 2007 Line Inter-island Championship in Kiritimati. Apart from a handful number of jobs offered by the Island Council in its limited service, the opportunity for paid employment for the islanders is otherwise non-existent. The Cooperative also employs a few other people to run the main branch of its wholesaling activities in Matanibike as well storekeepers for other Cooperative branches in the villages. There are also government employees stationed on Teeraina such as teachers and medical nurses, Island Project Officer whose jobs are not available to the islanders due to most islanders not meeting the minimum qualification requirements that these jobs entail. The Island Council can only recruits a typist, assistant treasurer, assistant clerk, village aides, drivers, mechanics, and carpenters, to name a few. To solve the high unemployment problem in the country Government is now increasing its effort to look for and exploit overseas employment markets especially the Pacific-rim countries of Australia, New Zealand, Japan and the United States. Casual work such as fruit picking, elderly homecare attendants, peace keeping and sailors are some of the employment markets being explored. To this end, Teeraina, like the rest of the islands in the country can only await the outcomes and decisions of the Government as they come and go. The lack of opportunities to generate income in order to be self-reliant is a far off goal as all Island Councils including Teeraina Island Council rely heavily on central Government to support their administration which is provided annually in support grants.

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5.1.4 Trade and Commerce Commercial/cash trading is an introduced concept in Kiribati society and has become an important part in the lives of the people. To carry out any business activity involving trade on Teeraina, requires that one purchases a business license of which the cost varies depending on the type of business to be carried out. The most common business licenses on record are those of wholesaling, retailing, hawkers and fishing. Wholesaling and fishing licenses cost $150.00/annum while retailing and hawker licenses cost $60.00/annum. Bigger companies wishing to establish themselves on the island such as BKL, MOEL or TAOTIN would need to pay a $300 dollar fee per annum. The latter three companies though have yet to think of establishing themselves on the island. The isolation of Teeraina, though beneficial in maintaining their environment could also be a factor in slowing down the island and the people’s development. Whichever way it is looked at, Teeraina will still thrive and flourish if development planning is carried out with due consideration of its land, lake and ocean resources and the impacts that overpopulation can do. In Teeraina, the barter system still exists and is used widely by the people on the island. In this system, where cash is not available, other things of importance are traded amongst each other to get what each other needs and is very much widely practiced in stores and other fundraising activities. A 25kg bag of rice will normally cost a 50kg bag of sun-dried copra or 8 coconuts can get one a cup of rice. Since copra is the main income generating product for the islands, the island’s barter system is therefore confined to exchanging of goods and products for certain amounts of dried copra or coconuts. A 50kg bag of dried copra will bring AU$30.00 (50*.60 copra price), nearly twice the price of a bag of rice if it were paid for with cash Fig 14: Types of businesses on Teeraina

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As a small island with undeveloped infrastructure and a dualistic economy characterized by a high dependency on imported consumables, trade and commerce on Teeraina is an important activity. The bulk of supplies that are normally shipped to Teeraina on MV Momi consist of rice, sugar, flour, tinned food, tobacco and fuel. Most of the times, these are transported as ordered from the island. . It is also important to note that products or

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consumer goods tend to be costly in Teeraina owing to transporting costs from the Gilbert group to the Line group. All cargo ships from overseas only bring imported products to Betio in South Tarawa which are then distributed to the rest of the islands all over Kiribati. Compared to product prices in the Gilbert group, product prices in the Line group generally tend to be higher especially during times when ships have not been visiting with cargos for some time. Prices at such times can double e.g. An Irish cake can be sold for $10.00 a piece in Teeraina when it normally costs AU$3.25 in the Gilbert group. Retailers have a shop to support and confine their activities in whereas hawkers (‘bwakaukau’) do not have a shop made specifically for their trade but instead use their homes. Where retailers sell products such as rice, flour, sugar, tinned food and other general shop stuff, the hawker products are limited to 1-5 products. A survey carried out for the Trade & Commerce in Kiritimati showed that typical hawkers on Teeraina can sell only rice and local cigarettes (imported tobacco rolled in peeled pandanus leaf – ‘rauara’), while another can sell rice, sugar, flour, tobacco and plastic bowls/basins and yet another only sold tobacco, rice and sugar. Orders are forwarded to major supply companies in Kiritimati such as BKL, TAOTIN Trading and MOEL from the Teeraina Cooperative who then distributes these to its branches or sells it to other existing stores on the island. Nonetheless, the existence of this Cooperative has not stopped other private retailers and hawkers from ordering their own supplies from the same companies in Kiritimati or boarding the visiting ships to purchase their own supplies from the ‘floats’. These floats are basically the supply companies going for roundtrips during ship-runs taking with them new supplies to promote or supplies that may have been overlooked by the importers from the islands which they then sell to the island customers waiting for such floats. All trade on these floats are paid for in cash without credit contrasting to orders made to the suppliers in Kiritimati which are all paid later after receipt by TTs (telegraphic transfers). Some retailers prefer to go to Teeraina to purchase their own supplies as there are always issues of misplaced/missing orders, orders taking too long to come and orders not being what they were intended to be. A return trip to Kiritimati from Teeraina is AU$110.00 yet, despite this, the traders most of the time think it worthwhile as they could then get what they wanted, in the form they wanted and also learn or update themselves of trade news and also family news. Due to it’s remoteness, Teeraina suffers a lot from lack of cargoes and though they can and do live without being affected wholly, tobacco most of the time has been reported to be the only product in the shops whose price can soar so high as to triple or quadruple its normal price but still be purchased. It is normal to hear Teeraina people say that money is not an issue yet as the land and marine resources on the island are still abundant for the locals to live wholeheartedly on imported foodstuff or money for that matter. For these problems relating to lack of cargo and foodstuff from the shops due to lack of transportation, the Government assigned the ‘Betiraoi’, a fisheries vessel to be based in Kiritimati island with the intention of also providing transport services for the Line Islands and including Kanton in the Phoenix group.

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5.1.5 Local Finance In 1995, the Village Bank project was initiated by Government to serve as a micro credit facility for village communities in the outer islands. The objective of the project is to enable families to have easy access to a credit facility from which they could borrow money to start a small business. Funding for this project was provided by Government and shared among the islands and its village communities on a population basis. In the villages, a committee, consisting of a chairman, a secretary and a treasurer, is established to manage and administer the Village Banks funds. The Island Project Officer (IPO) based at each Island Council provides auditing and monitoring services to this project to ensure proper use of funds and sustainability. The operations of the Village Banks are governed under the Village Bank Act. Table 7 illustrates the distribution of funds that have been made to Teeraina’s Village Banks under this project. Altogether Teeraina has received to a total of AU$6,446.50 (total of the first, second, and third shares) between 1995 and 2007. In 2007, a team comprising the Kiritimati IPO, an officer from the PWD and another from the Works & Energy from Kiritimati were assigned by RPD from the Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs to visit Teeraina as part of a national exercise to review the performance of the Village Banks. Based on this review Government will be able to decide what step(s) need to be taken next. Table 15: Village Bank share per district (Get village figures from RPD)

KIRIBATI GOV'T FUND OF 1$MILLION UNDP GRANT OF $90,000 1ST 75% SHARE 2ND 25% SHARE 3RD SHARE

Bank Name PAID DATE DW NO: PAID DATE

DW NO: PAID DATE

DW NO:

Arabata $ 3,493.99 18/06/99 94/99 $ 1,164.66 8/6/2004 66/04 $ 460.70 22/10/01 383/01 Uteute $ 215.70 22/10/01 383/01 Mwakeitari $ 246.80 22/10/01 383/01 Abaiang $ 131.60 22/10/01 383/01 Kauamwemwe $ 257.75 22/10/01 383/01 Tangkore $ 475.30 22/10/01 383/01 $ 3,493.99 $ 1,164.66 $ 1,787.85

Source: RPD, MISA 2007 5.1.6 Remittances With limited employment, copra income-generating activities make up the flow of cash to households. Unlike people on some other islands depending to a great extend on remittances sent to them by relatives working in Tarawa or overseas, Teeraina locals are presently self-reliant money wise. Their only issue is the lack of things in general such as fishing equipment, cooking accessories, planting equipment and foodstuff. Remittances are therefore not relied on heavily by those in Teeraina as a means income generation. Even so, only two people collect remittances from their sons working on German ships as is the system from SPMS – SPMS seamen employees are required to send a portion of their salaries to their parents when alive. The general flow of seafarer’s remittances into the country is continuous and has increased over the years with more engaged in seafaring employment. There are now two major employers of seafarers from Kiribati; 1. South Pacific Marine Services (SPMS) and; 2. The Kiribati Fishing Services (KFS)

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Seafarers are employed as general deck workers on German ships through SPMS while Japanese employees are employed to be fishermen on the Japanese fishing vessels through KFS. The seafarer’s salaries are paid straight into the individual accounts in Kiribati or family accounts. Money is also sent back to churches depending on individual seafarer obligations. Families are dependent on decisions made by their seafarer husband or son on how much remittance they will receive (M. Borovnik 2006). Whitley (1980) reported that the amount of remittance sent back to Kiribati in 1974 was AU$800,000 with an additional AU$200,000 brought back in the form of leave pay at the end of contracts. Remittances grew to $1.3 million in 1979, $9.7 million in 1998 and $12.29 million in 2003 (MFED 1987). Of this $12.29 million, 86% came from those employed by SPMS while 14% came from those employed by KFS. Remittances sent to parents and wives differ. Parents usually receive more money from their son when he is not married yet but once married, the son generally sends more money to his wife and family than his parents. There is also a tendency for smaller amounts being sent to the outer islands as most families tend to move to South Tarawa especially the wife and children while the parents are more happy to stay back home. Remittances can be sent directly to families or they can be given after a special request (bubuti) to other extended family members for sudden needs such as ‘botaki’s (feasts) or for school fees. These kinds of requests usually vary and directed to straight to the members of the family employed by SPMS or KFS. A lot of these remittances have also been invested in homes (permanent buildings), cars, motorbikes businesses, home equipment (TV, media players, instruments) and to a big extent, school fees.

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5.2 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 5.2.1 Agriculture One only needs to get on Teeraina to see that the potential for agricultural development and land resources is high given that the island is not that populated as yet. Not only does it have high annual rainfall and very fertile soil, but it is also free from most major pests and predators that are found in Kiribati especially in the Gilbert Group. Beside coconut, a good variety of fruit and vegetable crops such as breadfruit, banana and pumpkin also grow well on the island without or with little cultivation. Imported vegetable crops such as English cabbages, corn, rock melons, eggplants etc are cultivated presently by the Agricultural nurseryman on the island, an Agricultural Officer being absent. The ‘bwabwai’ beetle (taro beetle), scale insect, sooty moulds are but some of the pests and plant ailments that are still to reach Teeraina thus only with strict quarantine measures established and maintained for visitors and visiting ships can this pest free environment of Teeraina be achieved. There are no proper inspection codes as yet for transport of foodstuff, plant materials and animals on the ships on arrivals between the islands in the Line Group. Most people therefore have no second thoughts of taking out or bringing to the island such foodstuff, plant materials and animals that takes their fancy. The extensive coconut stands on the island crosses out the need for coconut rehabilitation programs that have been and are still being carried out throughout Kiribati also notably in Kiritimati island. Exotic breeds of pigs and chicken have yet to be introduced for cross-breeding with the local breeds. The most in demand are the exotic breeds of pigs that locals would like to own and cross with their own local pigs and to a lesser extent, exotic chicken breeds. Understandably, pigs are more popular as domestic animals as they are the major source of meat during family, church and island feasts, which are a lot as it is the way of life in Kiribati. Whole baked pigs grace these feasting tables and is the most sought after food at these feasts and other important functions. Fig 15: Access to food trees

The predominant food crops on Teeraina are coconut, ‘bwabwai’; breadfruit and pandanus. Even though Teeraina is government owned, locals have, through habit of always harvesting and cultivating bwabwai from one site, assigned themselves with bwabwai areas amidst the ‘bwabwai’ swamps on the outer rim of the freshwater lake. Like the harvesting of coconuts being a ‘first come first serve’ system, so are the ‘bwabwai’ swamps. Home gardening presently does not seem to be a popular household activity as was observed in the 2007 visit to the island

Source: 2005 Census of Population 5.2.2 Livestock The main animals reared by the islanders are pigs and chickens, for home consumption and every now and then, for sale as and when required during big village or church feasts. In 2005 the total number of pigs on Teeraina was approximately 766, with 53% of households owning at least 3 pigs, 40% owning at least 4 or more pigs, 6% of the households do not own pigs and the last 1% not stated. Only two households own cross bred pigs while the rest own the general local pig breeds (a typical local pig breed – pictured right below).

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rain

a

BreadfruitBabaiBananaPawpawOther Vegs.KumalaToddy

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There were approximately 1134 local chickens of which 52% do not own chickens, 12% own at least three chickens, 35% owning 4 or more chickens and 1% was not stated most probably out of the home during the census interviews. Chickens are free ranged and never kept in houses. Chicken eggs are rarely eaten if at all but left to hatch and grow into more chickens. As free range chickens, they inter-mingle with chickens from other households and at times cannot be told apart. It is therefore not an unusual sight to see chickens with claws clipped off or have ribbons or tags tied onto their legs or feathers as if they are being marked for research. This has been a local practice of marking free range chickens for better recognition especially during times when they are needed to grace feast tables. Pigs on the other hand used to be free ranged but with the establishment of the island councils in 1995, free ranging of pigs is now an offense against the law, liable with fines or confiscation of the pigs. The confiscated pigs can be released to owners at a fee of $10.00 and where not, they are auctioned off to the general public. Owing to the difficulty in accessing building materials such as mesh wire and steel posts, most pigs spend their lives tethered to trees come rain, sun or wind. Both pigs and chickens are kept for own consumption but sale opportunities are never passed by especially when one has a lot of pigs and does not have a coming family or village function. Pigs are sold at $2.50/kg live weight as most would rather buy them live due to pig blood at slaughter being a local delicacy when cooked.

Agricultural activities on the island are carried out by a nurseryman as there is no Agricultural assistant on the island yet. Agricultural quarantine or safety measures are carried out from Kiritimati Island and there are no regulations or quarantine inspection routine work as yet on the island. People and visitors alike can therefore bring in or take out animals and plant material as they wish. These green cockroaches are new to the island as observed by the nurseryman who first observed them in 2007. Sample specimens are now with the Division of Agriculture for identification and further advice to the

Teeraina nurseryman. General vegetable plants are grown in the Agricultural nursery such as English cabbage, Chinese cabbage, corn, tomatoes, cucumbers, rock and water melons and egg plants amongst others and these are all sold for consumption to the general public. Seeds are provided from Kiritimati who are kept in supply from the Agricultural department in South Tarawa.

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5.2.3 Fisheries Teeraina is without a real lagoon, however, the freshwater lake is what must have once been a lagoon and it

also harbors marine resources such as the ‘tuna’ (Anguilla marmorata), the ‘barebuu’ (Caranx sp.) tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) and milkfish (Chanos sp). Ocean fishing and reef flat fishing also provide other fishing alternatives for the islanders and are the most popular forms of fishing. The 2005 census records show that out of the 198 households on Teeraina, 143 (72%) fish on the ocean flat, 154 (78%) venture out in small canoes

and boats to fish in the deep ocean surrounding the island, 72 (38%) also fish in the lake and 6 (3%) fish on the lake flats. (See fishing patterns graph – Fig 5). Fishing is a routine activity for the men which they carry out when the seas are calm and whenever home fish reserves have run out. Despite its small size (land and reef) Teeraina’s offshore tuna, flying fish and other ocean fish resources are plentiful. Teeraina’s households have been harvesting the sea in one way or another, both for domestic sale, to satisfy their own subsistent needs and to send salted fish (fish jerky) to relatives in other parts of Kiribati mostly, Kiritimati and South Tarawa. Table 16: Households by Village and the location of fishing 2005 VName Ocean flat Lag. Flat Ocean Lagoon Net Abaiang 1 1 16 1 1 Kauamwemwe 5 0 16 5 3 Uteute 12 0 12 12 2 Kaaitara 8 0 5 2 4 Tangkore 31 0 29 29 5 Matanibike 23 0 25 20 9 Arabata 26 0 25 18 24 Mwakeitari 12 1 9 8 11 Onauea 25 4 17 15 13 143 6 154 110 72 Source: Population Census 2005, Statistic Office Bairiki

The Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resource Development supports fisheries development on the outer islands through: the provision of technical staff for training, advisory and resource monitoring/evaluation purposes; research and trialing of new fishery-related projects; the sourcing of funds for implementation of national projects (such as cold storage, etc.) the provision of affordable fishing gear.

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Owing to it’s rough seas and remote proximity, Teeraina has not as yet been surveyed for fishery and marine resources, catches and marketing. However, with the recent establishment of Kiritimati island as an urban and administrative centre for the Line group, there should be increased opportunities for such surveys and studies for Teeraina and other islands in the Line & Phoenix group. 5.2.4 Handicrafts Unlike Tabuaeran and Kiritimati, Teeraina does not have a thriving handicraft market as hardly anybody goes to the island owing to the lack of air service and rough sea landing. Its situation is relatively similar to that of the outer islands in the Gilbert group where handicrafts for commercial purposes remain insignificant, mainly due to the lack of a market to sell them. Those with families in Tabuaeran, a touring site for the Norwegian Cruise Lines, make attempts every now and then to send some locally made handicraft for their families to sell during these cruise line island calls. The most popular handicraft are the mats, woven by the women from processed pandanus leaves. These mats never cease to be wanted in markets mostly because it is something that everyone, despite age, race and religion can use. These local handicrafts also make great giveaway gifts from the islanders to visitors as is the tradition in Kiribati to always present visitors with gifts to remind them of their stay on the islands. A few years ago Government established the Kiribati Handicraft and Local Produce Company (KHLP) to encourage people to make handicrafts and local products for commercial purposes. The company buys materials from the outer islands and then re-sells them to the urban population, as well as foreigners. However, despite the existence of KHLP, the level of production is still very small. Among other reasons, KHLP faces staffing and funding difficulties that results in its inability to adequately absorb production from the outer islands. Unfortunately, Teeraina is too far off to benefit from the company’s activities. 5.3 INFRASTRUCTURE The establishment and maintenance of development infrastructure on the island is the responsibility of government. The central government normally takes responsibility of implementing new development projects while the local government is given the responsibility of maintaining such projects upon completion. Local government authorities are allocated some money every year under a “Support Grant” to enable them to perform this role. The project funds from donors and Government for island council priority projects have also assisted greatly in the development of infrastructure on the outer islands including Teeraina. Council priority projects since 2004 have been infrastructural in nature. 5.3.1 Land Transport Well known for its isolation and high waves, Teeraina is one of the least favorite islands to travel to as the only way to get there is by ship/boat as there is no airfield on the island yet. The Council records show that in 2007, only 5 trucks are in operation on the island, two owned by the Council and one owned by each of the island Cooperative store, Try Store (a privately owned store) and the KPC ‘Tetaobe’ (not the KPC boat also called TeTaobe). Twenty five (25) motorbikes have been registered as well as 96 pushbikes. Some of the pushbikes are not registered according to the Assistant Treasurer and therefore the 96 registered pushbikes are not the actual number of pushbikes on the island. Two more motor bikes have been registered since the 2005 census according to Council records 2007. Council trucks provide the main transport for Primary and JSS students to and from their schools and general

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use by the Council. The other trucks are used for the respective services by the owners such as in transportation of cargo and other products from docks and to other branches while the KPC Tetaobe is used to support the KPC members in their church activities and functions. They are also hired by the general public for transportation as and when required. Table 17: Vehicles hire costs Vehicle Hire Cost in AU$ Truck Local – hired by islanders $12.50/day Government visiting officials $20.00 + $0.50/km Big companies – Copra Society

etc $70.00/day

Fare $0.20 (students and others) Motorbike Council $10.00/day (24 hrs) Private $30.00/day (working day) Boat Council $15.00 + $10.00 Boatman fee +

gas used Private $160.00/trip in the lake Pushbike Private $10.00/day

Source: Assistant Treasurer, Teeraina Island Council The most common form of land transport is the bicycle, of which there were 211 in 2005. Motorcycles ranks second in popularity, with a total of 23 motorcycles recorded in 2005. Due to the high cost of truck vehicles, difficulty in transportation and remoteness of Teeraina, there were only 5 trucks on Makin during the census survey. Two of these trucks are owned by the Island Council of which one was donated by the people of Taiwan for the purpose of transporting primary and junior secondary pupils to and from school. The other is used generally for local hire and other council work. Council charges a small fare for pupils and inter-village travelers in order to raise funds to meet the truck’s operational cost and future maintenance - $0.20/trip. Apart from this, the truck can be hired out to meet the need of the general public and visiting officials.

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5.3.2 Sea Transport and Shipping Inter-village travel between the nine villages of Teeraina is done through the use of canoes and small boats, since the villages are separated by sea. Canoes, boats, and skiffs can be used both as transport and for fishing. According to the latest statistics, the proportion of household owning a canoe is apparently high compared to other types of sea vessels. Makin has 48% of the household owning a canoe, while Kiebu has 37%. In comparison, those owning a skiff are typically low in number with Kiebu having 3% while there are none on Makin. 5.3.3 Air Service This service unfortunately is lacking in Teeraina even though literature states that at one point in time, there was an airport built by Dr. Martin Vitousek in support of his research work on climate which required recording rainfall data from Teeraina amongst other islands in the Line & Phoenix group. Unfortunately, the airstrip has now been overgrown with weeds and shrubs as it has not been used since Dr. Vitousek’s research years.

5.3.4 Issues facing Transportation Having one of the most risky landing places in Kiribati, bringing in big vehicles such as trucks, cars and buses to Teeraina remains a challenge to transport ships. Still, there are now 5 trucks on the island that provide transport services for inter-village travel and school. The only issue is the lack of a good road throughout the island and especially through the coconut forest which still cannot be accessed using a truck. Canoes and boats are used as such to transport copra from other parts of the forest that otherwise cannot be transported through the forest by pushbikes or manual carrying. At these times, the canals become the issue especially during dry spells when the lake and canal waters go down. The canal beds are full of coconut and pandanus leaves, logs, wood and mud obstructing the passages and blocking the engines system. One of the locals interviewed remembered a time when the canal passages used to be cleaned up by the Council boatman but could not remember the exact year. The clean up activity comprised taking new fallen leaves out of the

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canals as well as removing logs and loose rocks. However, the boatmen have lived there long enough to know the dangers of these canals to attempt stepping into the canal. The canals are full of soft mud/peat that one can sink into and thus is a danger to step into the canal unknowing or alone. 5.3.5 Communication Kiribati is a nation of fragmented islands dispersed over a vast ocean area that extends almost 3,000 kilometers across the central Pacific, bordering the Marshall Islands in the east and French Polynesia in the west. This fragmentation and vastness of ocean give rise to major communication and transport problems that have been, and will continue to be the greatest development challenge for government. Shipping is a critical service that needs to be provided and maintained between Tarawa and the outer islands, in order to facilitate the transportation of supplies to and from the islands. Government has been the major shipping operator since colonial times, and still continues to dominate this service, although private businesses have secured an increasing share of the market. Still, central government attempts, through its shipping line – Kiribati Shipping Services Limited (KSSL) – to serve all islands in the country near and far. Due to their isolation from the rest of the Gilbert group of islands, the Line Islands have been provided with MV Momi, to be their main means of transport to and from Tabuaeran and Teeraina alike as both these island do not usable airports or a plane service as yet. Instead MV Momi serves as a freight and passenger ship for the Line Islands. ‘Betiraoi’ is owned by the Fisheries and it serves to carry out fisheries requirements as scheduled by the Fisheries Division in the Line islands. Even so, other ships from the KSSL still make trips the Line Islands as required eventually returning while MV Momi serves only those group of islands including Kanton in the Phoenix group and is based in Kiritimati island The improvement of both airport and seaport facilities across the country is a priority development objective of central government, with focus to be given to islands which hold the potential for viable economic operations. Kiritimati island in the Line Group is a major tourist attraction with visitors having to fly through Hawaii or Fiji to get to it and is already being planned for development. The improvement utilized potential of air services in Kiritimati could in the long run initiate the earliest development of airstrips and services for the islands of Teeraina and Tabuaeran who as yet need of air services. Until a few years ago, the main mode of communication between the islands was through the use of HAM radio communication systems operated by TSKL. Each island has one such system based at the Island Council headquarter on the island. Members of the general public normally use this for inter-island communication, as does the Island Council and central government in Tarawa. However, despite the fact that the system has been dependable and effective, there were a few problems relating to its use, among which are:

• the system is not safe for sharing of private information, since the frequency used can be accessed by anyone with such a radio, and the radio equipment is operated by a TSKL agent.

• the use of the radio is dictated by a schedule, hence only available for 1-2 hours daily, and only from Mondays to Fridays.

• the radio operator lacks the skill to undertake major repair works if the radio breaks down. Communication with the island could be cut for at least one week during which the radio is sent to Tarawa for repairs or awaits a technician from South Tarawa.

• since there is only one radio, people from distant villages must take long journeys in order to use it.

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In order to address these problems TSKL has decided to slowly introduce a new technology, a satellite-based telephone system which connects directly to the telephone system in Tarawa. The new system also supports the use of facsimile and internet, and therefore was considered to be a major accomplishment as far as progress is concerned. This system on the outer islands is powered by 450 solar panels that harness this solar to 1000 amp. batteries (Turabu pers. comm.). However, this system not only has to be extended to Teeraina, it also costs more to use compared to the radio; connection is vulnerable to rough weather conditions, and people still need to travel to Council headquarters to make a call. Nonetheless, it provides more privacy when talking to relatives on other islands especially South Tarawa. It is also important to note that the government through TSKL is making an effort to improve the communication systems for the outer islands and as such has plans to establish telecenters on the rest of the outer islands including Teeraina. .

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