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CHAPTER 11LANGUAGE CHANGE:

THE SYLLABLES OF TIME(461-504)

PowerPoint by Don L. F. NilsenPowerPoint by Don L. F. Nilsento accompany to accompany

An Introduction to LanguageAn Introduction to Language (8e, 2007) (8e, 2007)by Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman by Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman

and Nina Hyamsand Nina Hyams

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HISTORY OF ENGLISH BEFORE ENGLAND

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FOUR MAJOR LANGUAGE FAMILIES SINO-TIBETAN

e.g. Mandarin Chinese

FINNO-UGRIC e.g. Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian, etc.

HAMIDO-SEMITIC e.g. Arabic and Hebrew

INDO-EUROPEAN e.g. Romance, Germanic, Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, and Celtic

NOTE: GIVE OTHER LANGUAGE FAMILIES PLUS EXAMPLES:

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INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES ROMANCE

French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish BALTO-SLAVIC

Bulgarian, Croation, Czech, Macedonian, *Old Church Slavonic, Polish, Russian, Serbian

INDO-IRANIAN *Avestan, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Pashto, Persian, Urdu,

CELTIC Breton, Cornish, Irish, Scots Gaelic, Welsh

GERMANIC Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, English, Flemish, German,

Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Yiddish

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*PROTO INDO EUROPEAN LANGUAGES(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 489)

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SOUND CHANGES BEFORE ENGLISH

ABLAUT

UMLAUT

FIRST CONSONANT SHIFT (GRIMM’S LAW)

SECOND CONSONANT SHIFT (TO DISTINGUISH HOCH DEUTCH FROM PLATT DEUTCH)

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ABLAUT

begin-began-begun break-broke-broken choose-chose-chosen come-came-come eat-ate-eaten fly-flew-flown raise-rose-risen sing-sang-sung

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UMLAUT

child-childrengoose-geeseman-menmouse-micewoman-women

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GRIMM’S LAW

/bh/, /dh/, /gh/ => /b/, /d/, /g/

/b/, /d/, /g/ => /p/, /t/, /k/

/p/, /t/, /k/ => /f/, /Θ/, /h/(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 464, 479)

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GRIMM’S LAW (Herndon 413)

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GRIMM'S LAW 1st GERMANIC CONSONANT SHIFT

/b/ => /p/: bursa-purse, labial-lip /d/ => /t/: decade-ten, dozen-twelve, dent-tooth,

duet-two /g/ => /k/: agriculture-acre /p/ => /f/: pedestal-footnote, padre-father, plate-

flat, pyre-fire /t/ => /θ/: tricycle-three /k/ => /h/: courage-hearty, corn-horn, canis-

hound (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 481)

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VERNER’S LAW

“When the preceding vowel was unstressed, /f/ /θ/ /x/ underwent a further change to /b/ /d/ /g/.”(Fromkin Rodman Hyams

481)

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2nd GERMANIC CONSONANT SHIFT: HIGH/LOW GERMAN

penny-pfennig

too-zu

water-wasser

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INDO-EUROPEAN NUMBERS

ENGLISH:

one

two

three

four

five

SPANISH:

uno

dos

tres

quatro

cinqo

GERMAN:

eins

zwei

drei

fier

funf

FRENCH:

un

deux

trois

quatre

cinque

PERSIAN:

yek

do

seh

chahar

panj

(FRH 488)

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HISTORY OF ENGLISH IN ENGLAND

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499-1066: Old English 1066-1500: Middle English 1500-Today: Modern English

499: Saxons invade Britain 6th Century: Religious Literature 8th Century: Beowulf 1066: Norman Conquest 1387: Canterbury Tales 1476: Caxton’s Printing Press 1500: Great Vowel Shift 1564: Birth of Shakespeare

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 462)

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Note that before English root syllables became stressed and English suffixes lost their stress and became lost, Old English was a very highly inflected language.

In fact, at that time it was a synthetic language (with many inflections) rather than an analytic language (with prepositions and auxiliaries instead of suffixes).

Here is an overview of Old English inflections. Contrast it with Modern English, but don’t sweat the details.

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SINGULAR ADJECTIVES, NOUNS & PERSONAL PRONOUNS

ADJ: N: PERSONAL PRONOUNS:

1st 2nd 3rd

Nom: wīs bāt ic þū hē/hit/hēo

Gen: wīses bātes mīn þīn his/his/hiere

Dat: wīsum bāte mē þē him/him/hiere

Acc: wīsne bāt mē þē hine/hit/hit

Inst: wīse bāt mē þē hine/hit/hit

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DUAL ADJECTIVES, NOUNS & PERSONAL PRONOUNS

ADJ: N: PERSONAL PRONOUNS:

1st 2nd Nominative: wit git

Genitive: uncer incer

Dative: unc inc

Accusative: unc inc

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PLURAL ADJECTIVES, NOUNS & PERSONAL PRONOUNS

ADJ: N: PERSONAL PRONOUNS:

1st 2nd 3rd

Nom: wīse bātas wē gē hie/hie/hie

Acc: wīse bāta ūs ēow hie/hie/hie

Gen: wīsra bātas ūre ēower hiere/hiere/hiere

Dat: wīsum bātum ūs ēow him/him/him

Inst: wīsum bātum ūs ēow him/him/him

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VERBS

IND: SUBJ: IMP: PAST TENSE: SINGULAR: 1st drīfe drīfe drāf 2nd drīfest drīfe drīf drīfe 3rd drīfeþ drīfe drāf

PLURAL: drīfaþ drīfen drīfaþ drīfon

VERBALS: INFINITIVE: drīfan GERUND: tō drīfenne PARTICIPLE: drīfende

SUPPLETIVE VERBS, which come from two different paradigms: ēom, eart, is, sindon, wæs, wære, wæron NOTE: “go” comes from the “to go” paradigm; but “went” comes

from the “to wend” paradigm

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SOUND CHANGES IN ENGLISH

1. Loss of Duals (Revisit Slide 18)2. Intervocalic Fricatives become

contrastive (phonemic)3. Loss of Vowels in Unstressed Syllables

(Suffixes)4. Great English Vowel Shift5. Number Becomes Intimacy (thou, thee,

thy, thine, ye, you)6. Loss of Verb Endings (-est, -eth)

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Intervocalic Fricatives become contrastive (phonemic)

bath vs. to bathe calf vs. to calve half vs. to half house vs. to house lath vs. lathe safe vs. to save teeth vs. to teethe use vs. to use

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 465)

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Loss of Vowels in Unstressed Syllables (Suffixes)

boat: stone:

Nominative: bātas stān

Accusative: bāta stānes

Genitive: bātas stāne

Dative: bātum stāne

Instrumental: bātum stān (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 468)

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GREAT ENGLISH VOWEL SHIFT(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 466)

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Great English Vowel Shift

A: bāt => boat, nāme => name

E: mē => me, hē => he, wē => we, gēs => geese

I: wīs => wise, ic => I, mīn => my, þīn => thine, mīs => mice

O: ēow => you, gōs => goose

U: þū => thou, mūs => mouse (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 466)

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OLD ENGLISH: “The Lord’s Prayer”

Fæder ure, þou þe eart on heofonum, si þin name gehalgod. Tobecume þin rice. Gewurþe þin willa on eorþan swa swa on heofenum. Urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us to dæg. And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfaþ urum

gyltendum. And ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele. Soþlice.

(Roberts 64)

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MIDDLE ENGLISH, from Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales

Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote The droght of March hath perced to the

roote… When April with its sweet showers The drought of March has pierced to the

root…. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 462, 469)

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MIDDLE ENGLISH, from Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales

Ther was also a nonne, a Prioresse, That of hir smyling was ful symple and coy, Hir gretteste oath was but by Seinte Loy, And she was cleped Madame Eglentyne. Ful wel she song the service dyvyne, Entuned in hir nose ful semely. And Frenshe she spak ful faire and fetisly After the scole of Stratford-atte-Bowe, For Frenshe of Parys was to hir unknowe.

(Roberts 67-68)

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EARLY MODERN ENGLISH: Shakespeare’s Hamlet

A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm.

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 462)

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SEMANTIC GAPS AND SOURCES OF NEW WORDS

BORROWINGSBORROWINGS FRENCH:FRENCH: hotel-hostel, chief-chef, bayou, levee, hotel-hostel, chief-chef, bayou, levee,

perfume, haut coutureperfume, haut couture SCANDINAVIAN:SCANDINAVIAN: ship-skiff, shirt-skirt, dish- ship-skiff, shirt-skirt, dish-

discus (they, them, their, etc.)discus (they, them, their, etc.) GERMAN:GERMAN: kindergarten, beer, pretzel, kindergarten, beer, pretzel,

hamburger, frankfurter, seminarhamburger, frankfurter, seminar SPANISH:SPANISH: rodeo, corral, desperado, pinto, rodeo, corral, desperado, pinto,

tornado, cockroach, canyontornado, cockroach, canyon

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DUTCH: cole slaw, cookie, poppycock, saw DUTCH: cole slaw, cookie, poppycock, saw buck, spook, boss, Yankee, dopebuck, spook, boss, Yankee, dope

YIDDISH: kibbutz, kibbitz, schlep, chutzpa, YIDDISH: kibbutz, kibbitz, schlep, chutzpa, schmaltz, schmooze, shlemiel, schlemazel, schmaltz, schmooze, shlemiel, schlemazel, mensch, dreck, schnozmensch, dreck, schnoz

AMERINDIAN: mackinaw, squaw, wampum, AMERINDIAN: mackinaw, squaw, wampum, moccasins, sequoia, woodchuckmoccasins, sequoia, woodchuck

(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams 474-476)(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams 474-476)

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LOAN TRANSLATIONS SPANISH: “luna de miel” from English “honeymoon”SPANISH: “luna de miel” from English “honeymoon”

SPANISH: “perro caliente” from English “honeymoon”SPANISH: “perro caliente” from English “honeymoon”

FRENCH: “chien chaud” from English “hot dog”FRENCH: “chien chaud” from English “hot dog”

FRENCH: “marriage of convenience” from French “marriage FRENCH: “marriage of convenience” from French “marriage de convenance”de convenance”

PERSIAN: “sib-zamini” from French “pomme de terre,” cf. PERSIAN: “sib-zamini” from French “pomme de terre,” cf. German “erd apfel”German “erd apfel”

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 476)(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 476)

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SHIFT IN DENOTATION OR CONNOTATION

GENERALIZATION:GENERALIZATION: coke, bird, kleenex, chauvinist coke, bird, kleenex, chauvinist

SPECIALIZATION: deer, SPECIALIZATION: deer, zest, starve, hound, meatzest, starve, hound, meat

AMELIORATION:AMELIORATION: surgeon, bad (Black English) surgeon, bad (Black English)

PEJORATION:PEJORATION: silly, knave, villain, saloon silly, knave, villain, saloon (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 477-478)(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 477-478)

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METAPHORICAL SHIFT

METAPHORICAL EXTENSION: METAPHORICAL EXTENSION: bright, bright, sharp, blanket of snow, teeth of a combsharp, blanket of snow, teeth of a comb

FOLK ETYMOLOGY: FOLK ETYMOLOGY: hamburger, cold slaw, hamburger, cold slaw, chaise lounge, woodchuck, hotdogchaise lounge, woodchuck, hotdog

FOREIGN (HIDDEN) MEANING: FOREIGN (HIDDEN) MEANING: walrus, walrus, porpoise, punyporpoise, puny

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LENGTHENING SUFFIXATION: SUFFIXATION: action, active, activity, actor, action, active, activity, actor,

actress, activateactress, activate

PREFIXATION (NOTE ASSIMILATION OF “IN-” PREFIXATION (NOTE ASSIMILATION OF “IN-” MEANING “NOT”): MEANING “NOT”): irreligious, illegal, immoral, irreligious, illegal, immoral, indecent, ignobleindecent, ignoble

COMPOUNDING: COMPOUNDING: blackbird,blackbird, bluebird, boathouse, bluebird, boathouse, greenhouse, hotdog, houseboat, redcap, Redcoat, greenhouse, hotdog, houseboat, redcap, Redcoat, tightrope, White House, yellow jackettightrope, White House, yellow jacket

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 289)(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 289)

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SHORTENING CLIPPING:CLIPPING:

ENDS: inFLUenza, reFRIGEratorENDS: inFLUenza, reFRIGErator MIDDLE: StOCKingS, FEDeral officerSMIDDLE: StOCKingS, FEDeral officerS BACK END: POLIOmylitis, VETeran, VETerinarianBACK END: POLIOmylitis, VETeran, VETerinarian FRONT END: VietNAM, telePHONEFRONT END: VietNAM, telePHONE

BLENDING:BLENDING: brunch, motel, urinalysis, electrocute, smog, alcoholidays, brunch, motel, urinalysis, electrocute, smog, alcoholidays,

NABISCONABISCO

BACK FORMATION:BACK FORMATION: edit, peddle, begedit, peddle, beg

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ACRONYMING AID: Agency for International DevelopmentAID: Agency for International Development AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeAIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome BIRP: Beverage Industry Recycling ProgramBIRP: Beverage Industry Recycling Program CREEP: Committee to Reelect the President (during Nixon’s CREEP: Committee to Reelect the President (during Nixon’s

term)term) GASP: Group Against Smoking PubliclyGASP: Group Against Smoking Publicly MANURE: Man and Nature United in Rational Enterprise (an MANURE: Man and Nature United in Rational Enterprise (an

environmentalist organization)environmentalist organization) MASH: Mobile Army Surgical HospitalMASH: Mobile Army Surgical Hospital NOW: National Organization of WomenNOW: National Organization of Women NUT: National Union of Teachers (in England)NUT: National Union of Teachers (in England) SAG: Screen Actors’ GuildSAG: Screen Actors’ Guild VISTA: Volunteers in Service to AmericaVISTA: Volunteers in Service to America ZIP: Zoning Improvement PlanZIP: Zoning Improvement Plan

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!! Positive Reinforcing: NOW, ZIP, AIDPositive Reinforcing: NOW, ZIP, AID

Negative Reinforcing: GASP, MANURE, Negative Reinforcing: GASP, MANURE, BIRP, CREEPBIRP, CREEP

Positive Contradictory: AIDSPositive Contradictory: AIDS

Negative Contradictory: MASH, NUT, Negative Contradictory: MASH, NUT, SAGSAG

Bilingual: VISTA, VIVA, COLPA, ACCIONBilingual: VISTA, VIVA, COLPA, ACCION

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!! METATHESIS: ross-horse, brid-bird, pretty-

purty, aks-ask

ONOMATOPOEIA: meow, gurgle, clap, snap, crackle, pop, bang, tinkle, gong

REDUPLICATION: mama, bowwow, ZsaZsa, hanky panky, tooty fruity, zig-zag

PART OF SPEECH CHANGE: act, convert, house, minute, pervert, record, subject, use (NOTE stress change and final vowel change)

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 287)

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!!! Pease porridge hot. Pease porridge cold. Pease porridge in the pot nine days old.

(Fromkin Rodman Hyams 476)

EXPLANATION: On the first day of a march, prisoners used to be served hot pea soup.

On the second day they were served cold pea soup.

And on the ninth day of the march they would be served pea soup that had been in the pot for nine days.

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References # 1:References # 1:

Aitchison, Jean “Language Change: Progress or Decay? (Clark, 431-441) Aitchison, Jean “Language Change: Progress or Decay? (Clark, 431-441)

Clark, Virginia, Paul Eschholz, and Alfred Rosa, eds. Clark, Virginia, Paul Eschholz, and Alfred Rosa, eds. Language: Language: Readings in Language and Culture, 6th EditionReadings in Language and Culture, 6th Edition. New York, NY: St. . New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1998.Martin’s Press, 1998.

Eschholz, Paul, Alfred Rosa, and Virginia Clark, eds. Eschholz, Paul, Alfred Rosa, and Virginia Clark, eds. Language Language Awareness: Readings for College Writers, Ninth EditionAwareness: Readings for College Writers, Ninth Edition. Boston, MA: . Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.

Fennell, Barbara A. Fennell, Barbara A. A History of English: A Sociolinguistic ApproachA History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. . Oxford, England: Blackwell, 2001.Oxford, England: Blackwell, 2001.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams. “Language Change: The Syllables of Time.” An Introduction to Language, 8th Edition. Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007, 461-504.

Falk, Julia. “To Be Human: A History of the Study of Language” (Clark, Falk, Julia. “To Be Human: A History of the Study of Language” (Clark, 442-476) 442-476)

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References # 2:References # 2:

Herndon,Herndon, Jeanne H. “Comparative and Historical Linguistics” (Clark, 411-419) Jeanne H. “Comparative and Historical Linguistics” (Clark, 411-419)

Moore, Samuel and Albert Marchwardt. Moore, Samuel and Albert Marchwardt. Historical Outlines of English Sounds Historical Outlines of English Sounds and Inflectionsand Inflections. Ann Arbor, MI: Wahr, 1969.. Ann Arbor, MI: Wahr, 1969.

Nilsen, Alleen Pace. “Changing Words in a Changing World.” Nilsen, Alleen Pace. “Changing Words in a Changing World.” Living LanguageLiving Language. . Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1999, 427-473.Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1999, 427-473.

Nilsen, Alleen Pace. “Technology and Language Change.” Nilsen, Alleen Pace. “Technology and Language Change.” Living LanguageLiving Language. . Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1999, 379-426.Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1999, 379-426.

Nilsen, Alleen Pace, and Don L. F. Nilsen. “Anachronism,” and “Comic Zeitgeists.” Encyclopedia of 20th Century American Humor. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000, 31-32 and 95-97.

Ohio State University Files. “The Family Tree and Wave Models” (Clark 416-419).Ohio State University Files. “The Family Tree and Wave Models” (Clark 416-419).

Roberts, Paul “A Brief History of English” (Clark, 420-430, Eschholz, 61-71.) Roberts, Paul “A Brief History of English” (Clark, 420-430, Eschholz, 61-71.)