4474631 Political Sociological Theories

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LITICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES http://stmarys.ca/~evanderveen/wvdv/political_sociology/political_soc...

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POLITICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES:

THEORIES OF THE STATE AND POWER

1) PLURALISMBased on functionalism with emphasis on equilibrium, stability and gradual change, conservativeperspective.Key Pluralists: Arnold Rose, Peter Bentley, Talcott Parsons, Neil Smelser

Key features:

societal power is decentralized, widely shared, diffuse and fragmented, deriving frommany sources, i.e. power pie divided into many piecessociety consists of many diverse groups and associations (e.g. business, labour,professional, religious, etc) and constitutes a conglomeration of dissimilar and oftenconflicting interests, no none of which plays a singularly dominant role, through aprocess of democratic competition the nature and direction of society are determinedsociety is made up of a multitude of conflicting interest groups balanced by the state,groups are equally influential in their impact on government policy and majorinstitutionsassumption of a natural balance of power among various groups which is preservedthrough bargaining and compromise, win some and lose some, give and take, and thusequilibrium is reached in group struggleexistence of shared acceptance of basic political framework, i.e. consensus of values,democratic traditions, procedures & principleseconomic and governmental institutions are separate not overlapping power sourcestension between necessity for strong, modernizing, central coordinator on one hand anda relatively equal distribution of social powers on other reflects cross-pulls of twoallegedly functional pre-requisites need of autonomy and need of integration

Role of the state

Society is a struggle of competing groups within an arena refereed by the stateState represents institutionalized power and authorityState is supreme guardian of representative democracy in modern society, from tensionpaves way for political competition and pluralist democracyState serves neither its own interests nor those of any single group or classState can act as bargaining agent or mediatorPrimary task of state is to balance interests of a multitude of competing groups,represents interests of society as a whole, coordinating the other major institutions ORPrimary function is to promote harmony within system to secure equilibrium and orderOROr to police conflicts of interestFrom these roles, state is able to institutionalize its rule and maintain order in societySeparation of governmental power: plurality of competing governmental agencies,divisions and branches, existence of political parties, thus individuals/groups can havevarious points of access to decision-makers

Role/nature of the individual and of groups

Individuals with common interests exert influence on decision-makers by collectiveaction thus average citizens can have meaningful input into decision-makingPolitical power is distributed over as many citizens working through their associationsas want to take responsibility for power, through the voluntary association the ordinarycitizen can acquire as much as power in the community or nation as their free time,ability and inclinations permit them (Arnold Rose)Political process is made up of social groups and policy outcomes are result of groupprocess, each group being autonomous and democraticPotential groups: people who have shared attitudes, unorganized could organizeCross cutting group membership: overlapping membership of groups, one individualmay have many memberships and each group may have conflicting views on one issue,thus never have one all powerful group agreeing on all issues

In US, pluralism is popular; consider slogans of government of, by and for the people, equality beforethe law and separation of powerELITE PLURALISMSeymour Martin Lipset, RobertDalhs polyarchy, or democratic Elitism or strategic Elites

Fuses reality of Elite rule and democratic principlesMeaning of democracy is changed from one of direct popular rule to that ofcompetition between and within Elites to control the stateElites are not single integrated group, multiple centers of political powerAssumption of balanceAssumption that minority will have influence on EliteDistrusts of mass participation in politics


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CRITIQUEPertains to voluntary associations, class bias of interest group activity, inequality of power resources,role of the state, consensus of political values, and democracy

Rationale for status quo, defense of current US political system, parochial focus, notwidely applicable just to USActual versus perceived role of voluntary associations, simply another level ofbureaucracyUS society is not one of joiners, few are members of voluntary associations, usually thebetter educated, wealthier and higher social status

Those who are members of voluntary associations, the groups are social, cultural,youth, church or other whose primary interests are not political, and many of thesegroups lack any democratic control by ran an file and are bureaucratically structuredwhich prevents direct individual participation in decision-makingVoluntary associations are asymmetrical in the amount of power they wield permember, e.g. union versus business associationAssumption that there is a balance of power among various groups, from religiousgroups to business groups, and pervasiveness of economic institutions ignored, balanceof power as it is favors some and not othersState is not neutral mediator, rules change, agenda setting occursAssumption of widespread agreement on rules of the game, whose rules and whoagrees, what of those who opposeModern version of democracy or perversion of democracy in complex, modernindustrialized societiesNo concern for minimal participation of massesFocus is governmental, public and not including private sector politics, what of Elites

in educational sector, corporate sector, communication sector, labour sector, thuspicture of societal power is limitedPluralists are preoccupied with analyzing formal political institutions, confuses howpolitics is supposed to work and how it actually works under capitalism

2) ELITE THEORY

Societal power is concentrated in elite groups who control resources of key social institutionsand are not accountable to the masses, origins of societal power lie in control of socialorganizations, regardless of how (un)democratic a society maybe, Elites hold the bulk ofpower; use all and any means to retain power, power becomes end in itself.

Debated issues among Elite theorists

Initially are all societies stratified?Is power used for societys benefit and welfare or for personal gain?

Necessary for society or not?Elites closed and cohesive units or open and diverse?One or more ruling Elites?What are the characteristics and patterns of Elites?Are Elites and powerful persons the same?

CLASSIC ELITE THEORY (aristocratic version)Based on two ideas:

1) Fundamental psychological difference sets Elites apart from masses, natural process, havingpersonal resources such as intelligence, cunning or skill, and masses are apathetic, incompetent andunable to govern themselves OR2) Unavoidable product of modern social organization such that organizational complexitynecessitates a leader, i.e. functionally necessary, power lies in positions of authority in key politicaland economic institutions

Pareto

Stressed the psychological and irrational aspects of Elites, i.e. psychological andintellectual superiorityElites are the highest achievers essentially in any and all areas of intelligence,character, skill, capacity, etcHave two types of Elites - governing Elites and non-governing Elites who govern bymeans of coercion or cunningDeveloped fundamental idea of circulation of Elites comprised of two processes process in which individuals circulate between elite and nonelite, and process in whicha whole elite is replaced by a new one

Mosca

Stressed the sociological, organizational and personal characteristicsElites are an organized minorityThe ruling/political class includes the ruling Elite and sub-Elite (technocrats, managers,civil servants)Masses are not organized

Personal characteristics include the intellectual, material and moral superiority which ishighly esteemed and very influential in the society in which they liveDominant interests of society which are the social and political forces, i.e. prevailingideas and institutions of the time, become reflected in the ruling class and thus theydominate the structures and values


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Believed that all societies are divided into two groups, the ruling class and the classthat is ruled and thus argued for the universal necessity and inevitability of class rule.

Michels: Iron law of oligarchyTendency for most social and political organizations to be run by a few individualswho make most of the decisionsOligarchy arises out of complexity and size of organization the organizational form -where there is a delegation of power in terms of specialized expertise initially forefficiency and stability but transformed into self-serving conservative EliteSocial organization and division of labour are key variablesHave combination of apathy, insufficient time, lack of expertise and need for guidance

of the masses and the natural greed for power of the ElitesElites have resources of information and control its flow, credibility and prestige andcohesive organizationThree basic principles of Elite formulation that take place within bureaucratic structureof political organization the need for specialized staff, facilities, and above allleaders; the utilization of such specialized facilities by leaders within theseorganizations; and, the psychological attributes of the leaders (e.g. charisma)Believed all organizations to be elitist, the organizational form is basis forconservatism and this conservatism is inevitable outcome of power attained throughpolitical organization

WEBER'S THEORY OF BUREAUCRACY (not per say a theory of power or political sociology butrelevancy is clear)

Having arrived at the conclusion that economic relations, i.e. class relations based onwealth and income, lie at the source of power and politics, Weber focused on

manifestation of class power exercized through the stateAssigns a quasi-autonomous role to the state in which state bureaucrats appear to beserving their own interests and the bureaucracy appears to be a power unto itselfBureaucracies are skilled bodies of specialists and experts, a rational form oforganization organized on the basis of specific functions, not on basis of authority ofpersonalities and traditions, a social machine with individuals as depersonalizedobjectsWith modernization of society and greater legal-rational authority, there is increasingprofessionalization of leadership, power becomes concentrated in bureaucracies whichmaintain control over vast human, material and intellectual resources they havemonopoly of expertise and have capacity to carry out or not policies of political leaders(policy administration)Bureaucracies are stable but intransigent with a remote and unanswerable bureaucraticelite, thus with citizens removed from control of and input into politicaldecision-making

Question is determining who controls and directs the complex bureaucratic machineDoes not believe bureaucracy to be an autonomous power unto itself (as Michels does)but rather it is a tool or instrument of power, argues bureaucracy and power are themanifestations of the real material forces that dominate social-economic structure ofmodern society, to give primacy to analytic strength of these concepts is to studysurface phenomena

CONTEMPORARY ELITE THEORY

Power Elite theory aka Radical Power Elite theoty - C.W. MillsSocietal power rests in control of key societal institutions - corporation, executivebranch of government and Pentagon in US, i.e. the economy, the state and the militaryElites not inevitable or natural, nor that masses are incompetent, apathetic oruntrustworthy, masses are manipulated and exploited and kept in a state of ignoranceand thus powerless by Elites who rule in own interest, this accounts fornon-participation

Elites are from upper class and perpetuate themselves through selective recruitmentand socialization to Elite valuesGoverning Class model - W. Domhoff

Class hegemony framework combining Power Elite theory and Class theory,reconceptualizes the power Elite in class termsArgues in US there is a corporate upper class that owns major business assets andcontrols the bulk of wealth, including major banks, corporations; major newspapers,radio, television and other mass media; elite universities; foundations; importantadvisory groups and organizations e.g. Council of Foreign Relations and Committeefor Economic Development; executive branch of government, cabinet, judiciary,military and the regulatory agenciesThis class by virtue of its economic power, also controls and influences importantdepartments and agencies of the state and in this way becomes a governing class theAmerican business aristocracy

CRITIQUE Concerns Elite inevitability, cohesiveness and Elite-mass relationsDoes there maybe exist an iron law of democracy instead due to persistence offdemocratic ideals & tendenciesConsider how do organizations inhibit authority not just democracyIdea of coalitions, power changing moment to moment, issue to issue


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Increased specialization and complexity so different Elite groups, and several classesnot just twoAccountability functions of electoral politics and public opinion ignoredAltruistic motives do existOther groups benefit from Elites actionsAs social class rises apathy decreases

3) MARXISM - CLASSIC MARXIST THEORYSociety is ruled by those who control the means of production the economic systemKey features:

Marx Class basis of politics is the major determinant of political phenomena, must ask whichclass controls and dominates the stateReality is world of human effort WORK, people realize themselves through work andaround this productive process history unfoldsDynamics of society originate in its economic activity which is essentially theproduction of material life food, clothing, shelter - and culture arises out of thisprocess of economic activityFoundation or basis of society is the economy from which the legal, political, religious,cultural and educational institutions derive; i.e. societies in different stages ofdevelopments create different productive systems which are the economic institutionswhich in turn shape general nature of beliefs and practices in all areas of social lifeincluding political organizationA form of economic determinismObedience of all classes is found not on coercion but on virtual dependence of workingclass on capitalist class for subsistence and false consciousness

Powerflows from economic relations, who rules, those who control the economicresources, societal power is a product of economic forces, Political poweris notcentered in the state but in the nature of the class relations, who owns and controls themeans of productionEconomic dominance is translated into power in all other societal realms, especially thestate, thus dominant economic class is ruling political classSince classes are political groups, political conflict is class conflict

Gramsci

Focused on the ideological apparatuses of the capitalist stateIntroduced concept of cultural ideological hegemony the ruling class controls andshapes the ideas and hence consciousness of the masses, the dominant class uses itspolitical, moral and intellectual leadership to establish its view of the world as allinclusive and universal, and to shape the interests and needs of subordinate groupsThe ideological hegemony of the ruling class operates through the state itself

Role/Functions of the state

Perpetuation and legitimation of the social class system:- Maintaining and reproducing the capitalist system and its class relations- Protecting system of property relations- Propagating dominant values in schools, media and other social institutions, fostering dominant

ideologyAccumulation function

- Guaranteeing the conditions for capital production and accumulation- Intervening directly in this process through tax collection & spending- Financing economic growth

MARXISM - CONTEMPORARY MARXIST THEORIES

AlthusserStructural Marxist combines Marxism which relies on social & historical analysis

with structuralism which relies on ahistorical and asocial analysisDoes this by distinguishing between ideologies (historical/social) and ideology(structural): IDEOLOGIES are specific, historical and differing, there are variousideologies i.e. Christian, democratic, feminist, Marxist ideologies; IDEOLOGY isstructural and eternal and has no history since ideology is part of the superstructure,(links structure of ideology to the idea of the unconscious from Freud and Lacan);because ideology is a structure its contents will vary but its form remains the same;ideology is a representation of the imaginary relationship of individuals to their realconditions of existence, ideology doesnt represent the real world per se but humanbeings relation to that real world or to their perceptions of the real conditions ofexistenceExpands analysis of the base-superstructure relationship to include such othersuperstructural institutions as the cultural, religious, educational, legal and familyAs hegemony of ruling class in these spheres becomes critical for its control over thedominated classes, and society in general, the class struggle takes on a tri-level

character consisting of economic, political and ideological levelsState is a kind of governmental formation that arises with capitalism, i.e. a state isdetermined by the capitalist mode of production and formed to protect its interests


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Identifies two major mechanisms for insuring that people within a state behaveaccording to the rules: 1) repressive states apparatuses (RSA), e.g. police, armedforces, prisons (criminal justice and prison systems); 2) ideological state apparatuses(ISA), e.g. schools, religions, family, legal systems, politics, cultural activities such asarts and sports, system of mass communication, which are institutions which generateideologies (systems of ideas and values) which we as individuals and groups theninternalize

Poulantzas - STRUCTURALISM

Emphasis is on the structural imperatives of the capitalist system as they affect the stateand its relative autonomy, emphasized ideological factors

Focus on structural constraints of the capitalist system that set limits to the statesautonomy and force it to work within the framework of an order that yields resultsinvariably favourable to the dominant capitalist classArgues that it is by virtue of the system of production itself in capitalist society that thestate becomes a capitalist state even in the absence of direct control of the stateapparatus by capitalistsThe direct participation of members of the ruling class in the state apparatus is theeffect, not the causeStructure of political and economic institutions in capitalist society constrain thepolitical Elite so that it serves those interests regardless of direct/indirect role ofbusiness in state affairs, i.e. mechanisms are built into the modern capitalist politicaleconomyViability of state dependent on healthy economy, state leaders must promote interestsof big businessBelief that capitalist class is internally divided and thus state protects capitalist interests

in general, i.e. on behalf of all capitalists and thus state is autonomousMiliband - INSTRUMENTALISM

Simplistically and initiallly government serves interests of capitalist classThe idea is that the state is an instrument of the capitalist class as a whole and this classcontains fractions thus it has relative autonomy from one fractionEmphasis is on the direct and indirect control of the state by the dominant capitalistclassFocuses on the special relationship between the state and the capitalist class, and themechanisms of control of the state by this class that, de facto, transform the state into acapitalist stateCapitalists do not govern, i.e. do not occupy political offices, but they rule bycontrolling political officials and institutions, directly through manipulation of statepolicies or indirectly through exercise of pressure on stateSocial and strategic ties among corporate and government leaders is key, betweenindividuals occupying positions of power in different institutional spheres

NOTE: There is a convergence of 2 positions where the state is both controlled by and at thesame time relatively autonomous from various fractions of the capitalist class in order toperform its functions in advancing the interests of the capitalist class as a whole, and maintainits legitimacy over societyOffe (comes from Hegelian-Maxist tradition of the Frankfurt School, once a student ofJurgen Habermas, similar to Poulantzas)

Explains state through economic roleEmphasis on states necessity for capital accumulation involving extraction of surplusand the reproduction of capitalist relationsFocuses on internal mechanisms of the state in terms of its dependence on capitalaccumulation which is vital for its survivalIntroduced concept of selective mechanisms: negative selection - selectivemechanisms that systematically exclude anti-capitalist interests from state activity;

positive selection - from the range of remaining alternatives, the policy which is in theinterests of capital as a whole is selected over policies serving the parochial interests ofspecific capitalist groups; disguising selection the institutions of the state mustsomehow maintain the appearance of class neutrality while at the same time effectivelyexcluding anti-capitalist alternativesMechanism are contradictory in nature and present problems for state in carrying outits dual role of maintaining accumulation and legitimation, results in crisis oflegitimation

4) REALISM -Machiavelli &Hobbes: end justifies the means, might makes right

Politics is the way it isIt is autonomous - separate from moral or other nonpolitical strugglesNational interests of nation-states are what is key and from which there are struggleswith other nation-states vying for powerBelief in absolute power of the state, single minded pursuit of power, national security

and interestSix principles

Politics and society are governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature (determinism& darwinism)

1.

Political realism is defined in terms of interest with interest being defined in terms of power, not2.


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concerned with motives and ideological preferences (not psychology or emotions)Realm of moral principles and ethics is separate from realm of politics3.Moral aspirations of nation are not identical to moral laws which govern universe, e.g. foreign policybased on national interest not moral interest

4.

Objectivity5.

Neorealistsfocus more on international relations and foreign policy

CRITIQUE

ReductionistSeparating ethics from politics not possibleNot objective

5) CORPORATISM (post-Pluralism reformulation of the pluralist problematic; more sophisticatedform of Elite Pluralism; within capitalism, aka as Keynesian corporatism, see it in Europe more thanUS)

Strong central state, state is the supreme organ responsible for organizing and leadingsociety under its own directivesRepresenting the common good, state is guardian of order and moral authority then canbring about class harmony and national unityState takes on responsibility of leading the nation by taking an active role in majorinstitutions of society including the economy, i.e. direct interventionA partnership/alliance between state/government, business/corporations andunion/organized labor creating political stability, reciprocal relationships, i.e.

agreement between the state, capitalists (management) and trade unionists (workers) toguarantee high levels of employment, capital investment and accumulation, and citizenconsumptionCorporatist state included aims of economic redistribution and extension of citizenshiprights, reducing levels of unemployment and inflation in order to bring workers into themainstream of the capitalist systemOrganized interests are legitimateState interventions are acceptable as long as they fall within capitalist principles

Two types:

state (top down) corporatism which is closer to elitismsocietal (bottom up) corporatism which is closer to pluralism

CRITIQUESDesigned to protect interests of monopoly capital

Results in consolidation of capitalist class power since state is controlled by capitalistclassCan give rise to authoritarian states in crisis ridden states, and ultimately providingmaterial base for emergence of fascism in response to economic and political crises ofadvanced capitalism, .e.g Germany & Italy

Sources: see Political sociology bibliography

POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY SYLLABUS

Return to POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY COURSE DOCUMENTS

Return to CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY course documentsNotes on POWER

Return to MAINPAGERevised: January 16, 2003 .

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4474631 Political Sociological Theories