Fuictlonolist Orgaaharion Thrort ll9;lll lij ;li:*lT:..fl r,"*r$,e* ;" ;'"; ;;

.,lJ*-

5. Functionalist Organisation f ffi ,ili;ti.*i.,*liiilii,llL{[g;:*h"1fln.,my'l'heory

ln rcccnl ycarc thc study of orSanisalions has cstablished itselfasln tncrcasingly significant arca of social-scicntilic invcstigation, lnlrrxrr of the numbcr of research sludics conductcd. thc volume oflltrrturc produccd and its gtablishmcnt as a rccogoiscd ticld of

$rly wilhin acadcmic institutions,lhc study oforganisations has a

|lrxl claim to being rcgarded as a distinct branch of social sciencct{ .o c importancc.

Yct in many respccts it is a confusing 6eld. It is usually pre-ullcrl as comprising of at lcast thrcc lincs of dcvclopment, eachfirwing upon a numbcr of dillercnt intcllcctual traditions, First,llrrc is what may be describcd as orSnnrsation thcory, whichrllrcsses itself to rhc study of 'formal organisations' and buildsrpr the work of the socallcd 'classical school' of managcmcntlrrl ldministrative thcory. As Salamsn and Thompson have noted,lllr ir often seen as thc 'orthodox approach' lo thc study of'u1llnisalions and 'tends to adopt thcorics and models oforganisa-llrxrrrl functioniog, and to focus on arcas ofcmpirical invcstigalion,lhrt nrc hiehlv oricnled towards manaecrial conccotions of orcanlhrt nrc highly towards managcrial conccplions of organ ,

oritics and problcms, and managcrial con;h.tk)ns. managerial prioritics andur nl for practical ortcomcr' (Sala

and managcrial conrompsonr 19/3,p. l);'outcomcr' (Salaman and Thompson. 19l3

I hc furndations ofclassicat thcory wcrc largcly laid bytr{rrgcrs with littlc or no social scicncc backgrornd. Sccond,tlorc is the approach which is somctimes describcd as therr1y of organi sations. For thc most part this builds upon thc fouttrr0r laid by Max Wcbcr, and it approachc! thcstudy ofthnr from a sociological as opposcd lo a managcrial perlhird. rhere is thc approach which is csscntially concerncdthr lrudy of the behaviour ofindividuals within organisations.l,urltls upon the work of thc human relalions movemenl and for

ill'fl;1tiilifflS.r#ffi "i*ilH{ffi

;.ri,i,rii''"dr[',i1ffi ,ffi ffi$n*.HUXtttc tcnn is oflcn uiJ:r,,,,#I;'$fff ;lqffitxr:x,ftiu*##:lllf,l;fi:ff't'il;,riliiiiffio"'lli,'Jfl'',fl :.;1P#*cnvironment.

l.r,lj:,:*:l;:r:.j** to ^c:eirinc

r widc renge of oecil:i*:r:ilt:ii*"*$i,,il][#!rfiE::lr':[oto:;;;3;*,;l'"-:ll*rligft{+ffi &iH?Xilt"i.X,#*l,,f

Li:lllLmJgil;F.'l}':"4#.l1Tf:rT.:Sl$:l$.ifin*::JhJti,*i.:;*:ji*::liii*.xi:+tH"r,if;tri[i;:f :jf il:+:,i!$.1jrfilHrH:,*ritts$iii: iii".iifl "ll;:tlr* fl ,ff ,f :sso.o,"rrc"siiliiiclh:::I|ffiff X,,,i,iijn1l"',li;o:lf :::various thcoricsrcflcct,

This is panicularly cvid.nr ,

fr fl fli*itrffii$.i{H'*i#Iu1,ri1?i,:,,i.#lr*rj*#*li"T[t*i:,$.iiiiffi.ixr"ri:ll,""H*.:.:,ry;lqi;i',;,i;:"d;:'#:b*Pqe'usuarrvtraccshowctas.ILX'"1'11'::":.ll'o'v.iii.iJ-li[l t::,?. f.H:;'[}"'I"ii:;::.j ::""1:Lr{r_,cms lhcory durins rhc,gjor; ili.;;;;T.:I.rr-u,:1_1cs_earcn ner rou8ht to c

il::i*:-:pf^'T9*--..ii,rili'roio.rlirHl.!"[iTf*:trl;9i,,1,.,,*ff ifii:.i-rfl [,*1,Ti":ll*;;[,,ti*rjrl:

unrributed to work conducacd from this point of vicw,llrcsc lhree lines of developmcnt thus draw upon a r

prrpectives and academic disciplincr. ln the coursc

f,,*f ,tI*f ffi lf,ilr"ffi llr:t;i:ffili'*:I3::fl ff l*i:1"'u:*il;if"rr,.yu.r:r

Iiffi [t.*iifi ll*#tiiirlEt#tlirflij:"er.lffidcvclopment they havc oftcn had a significant inlluence upon

I )O S o<'ioktgi<ttl Paradigms and Otganisational Anulysis

frrnctions (for cramplc, Kalz and Kahn, Tavigtock, Blau andseolD, lcctnoloSy (for cxamplc. Woodward, Blauncr. Thompron). re3ulation (Elzioni) and rlructure (for cxamplc. Ackoif,victcrs). As many of the author3 who cngagc in thc ionstructionof such rypologies rcadily rccognisc, thc ilissiticarions thus prorluccd arc rough and rcady snd havc many impcrfections. ftcyl(nd lo cmphasisc c.rtain aspccts ofthe work undcr rcvicw whilsttgnoring othcrs. Agein, ir is not uncommon to tind that a particulatlhcory can be lcgitimately classilicd undcr morc than onc of thctypologies produccd.

o[ organisarions. both the simplc lincar historical dcscription anittlrc construction of dcscriptivc typologics arc inhcrcntly limiringinpcrspective unless thcy scek to explorc thc hasic theorclicolttsumptions ol thc work which they purport lo dcscriDa. Unlessrhcy.dolhis, suc-h analyses can be positivcly misleading, in thal i0crnphasising differcnccs bctwccn thcorics, thcy imply; divcrsityrrr approach. Insofar as ihese diffcrcnccs are idcntiliei in tcrms ofrrrpcrficial characteristics rathcr than fundamental assumplions,

lt is ourview thai although they arehclpfu! in idcntifying somc ofthc dctailcd dirTercnccs bctwccn variors approachcs io thc study

Fuactlonallsl Organlsation?hcort l2l

ffi 3li3;"?,1Piffii'fi*"" within the

Plutllhrn

Action Th.o.l.ilrtme o,of buaatuc[tlcrotarcnc! dyttundlon!

SocLlryna,nth!ory

Ob,..tivtm

the diversity is morc apparcnt than rcal. As wjll bccomc ctcir fiomrhe discussion conducted in thc rcst ofthis work, wc bclicvc this tohc the case in the rield oforganisation studics. Whilst superliciallithcrc appears to bc a dazzling array ofdilfcrcnt kinds of ti\corvr csearch,. in poinl of fact thc subjcct tcnds to be vcry narrcftxrnded indecd, This bccomcs cridcnt whcn lhc thcoriesurmprisc lhc field are rclatcd to thc widcr back3round ofrhcory as a wholc. As will bccomc tppsrcnli most arc l<wirhin thc conlcxt of what wc havc cailid thciunctionalisrdigm. Thc olher rocirl scicnce paradi3mt rcmain almostplctely unexplorcd as far as lhaorics of organisarion aicccrned. Morcovcr, within lhc contcxt of lhtfunctionrlist(h8m, thc majoriry of cxisting thcorica tcnd to be locatcd rrclativcly narrow rangc of acadcmic tcrritory. DcsDitc lhccnt divcrsity reflcctcd in currcnt dcbstc. the issucs ixhich s,rhc partics in acadcmic conlrovcrty oftco tcnd lo bc ofrrthcr than of major signilicancc, Thc reslly big issucs arcrrmcr man-ot major signiricsncc, Thc really big issucs arc rdisorssed, lying hiddcn bencslh thc commirnai:ty of ocrsocwhich induces orgnnisation rhcorists to Bct rogcrlicr a;d lajk

FunctiomliJt rpprorchc! ao thc !tud, of ort ni.rtioo!

l, Social system theory and obJectivism

llii,:.*m,*:,f **[.:f-tE,,:-,rh.mosrobjectivistrc8ion, *13.fjif ,.rg:r. oi *I"it'"ilffi J;#ffi ;:tHi[.S""ll,,Ij,9lTL,I.^"::-.^"^f_",I"'i."-i6;;;:ffi:.l.i;t"rf, :;::ffi:l:hy of wriicrs on

ilfl liliF:Eii.i!fi Hl".,rl:;a';*lt;*,mi#*"9lltj;:1:i:Sil,.?-i:T

rr$ffi; ;i;;Iffi i"ili[,,i..?,lrlj]::l9f.1l!!,." tras rcin a coniiiuorrll;iil;ffi;l

#triiiiffi ffi*fr ##::"ff S,*irffi S

coch othcr in rhc lirst place.

thesc rtvo carcsorics or rmoii,iiiiiffi ilillffi iijiiil

l12 $sgisl6gi.t1 Poradigms aad Organisationol Analtsis

llrrs bctwccn thcm havc oot oflcn bccn rccogniscd. Wc willrrlcmpt lofollow somc ofthcse intcraclions and show how variousthcories have evolvcd. Thc overall pcrspcctivc broadly corres-y,nds to what Silvcrman (190) has describcd as thc 'systemsl'rlhodoxy', though, as wc shall arguc, it is posirivcly mislcading tovlcw many ofthc theories locatcd within it as systcms thcories inmythiru but name. It embraces a small amornt of genuine socialryrtcm theory and a larger clcmcna of bchaviourism, but it isrhrrninatcd by abstracted cmpiricism.

2. The actionframe of reference

llris pcrspcctive, which occtpics thc subjcctivc borndary of thcplradigm, is considerably lcss dcveloped. Deriving principallyft r,rn lhe work of Webcr, it has rcccived its clcarcst cxpression andlrrrrnulation in the work of Silverman (190). Contrary to Silver-rrrun's view, we do not sce it as constituting ao altcrnative para-rlltrn for the study of organisations. We see it Bs an altcrnativcqrrrspcclive which remains essentially within thc contexl of thclurctionalist paradigm. It is a perspccrive which, in terms of the

ralysis contained in Chapter4, is irkin to symbolic interactionism

4. Pluralist theory

ltis is another calegory of integrativc theory akin lo thc .conllIrrnctionalism' discussed in Chaptcr 4. Thcorists have arrivcd

Furrctlonallrl Orgonkatlon The*7 lB

ffiffi'I#ifficontemporary work in thc subjcct.

Social System Theory and ObjectivismThedominanl pcrspectivc within $cficld ofoqanisation studies is

ffiffig+,ti#[:fr{tfr'tril,,,mifrment,

*t:.f :,:i,',T,,iff :'iiilr**i.:i"Tr,lil;q:,,0,.311l:y".li$

ffJ'tt'i$*{ii!i#i.gfl illryr#;iH',+:'it{fr!-r.dlil!"*iul*:xtli'"1fl,:t%fl .*i{hf:f,*lJmdct_nminism, in wh-ich objcctivefacr"* i"-rti irlf ti"ffi#;i

ffi r+1in'i$[$'*]ffiHilli].ft i*ff;{cvjdcnt in rhc.work of eryonomistsl wor* iiuti r-ffftiilfr;:management rhcori3ts who conrinuc ro prc.cAUi.f .r.i'ifriiil]

;;;hl"$1n!trt"';l'i#i'f; iirFf *i::tivismtoaconsid'

tH::I;:i:',HBIr**ff jH:[.#fl #{rid#iflliiH'q'Jfl :[s,txr'Jtr,f"{J*if *,i',:,..:ill.Ja:objccrivism of carlicr ycars. Wc ocrotc ori',i"ii';;il;i;';

rnrl social action thcory.

l. Theoies of bureaucratic dysfunctionsllis perspective builds upon the category of intcgrativc theoryrlcrcribed in Chaptcr 4 as Menonian thcory of sociil and cutturalrrrrcture. It cmbraces a relatively small number oftheorists, whohrrvc specilically developed Merton's work and have carried thc1,cr spective to a position apprcraching thal of conflict funcrional.lrllr-

thir pcnpectivc by differcnt rottca. tn tcrmi of numbers thcy

;Eig

-d!6Ef,:E

3-EriE,EE:t369.goo.q€E!E:i.9.

isr^n :tre o AEOIHI 3rt:tls^s'tvltos SastNlSrfao

tt?

b

.(t

Fum .rnalls, Oryanlsatloa Theory l2S

99Tjdc_ralio.l ot this po_st-Hawthornc obJcctlvltm wtriclr hacoomtnalcd thc human rclalion3 movcmcni rnd rcscarch on JobL.li.!:I:.1: srorp dynemis, rcraimrrip ina m;il;; ;iiil,crc., ngnl up. ro lhr prcsenr day. This is followcd by aihonridonon socio-tachnical systcms thcory, drich in csccncc rcDrctcnts aorrec.r dcvctopmcnt of thc th.cgrcrical insights gcneraied in thcirawrhorne rcaeerch, and which has had such imajor innucnceupon rhc thcory ofjob dcaifn...A considcration of sociotechnlcol rystcms thcory tcads mtur.

ally toan cmmination oftheopcn syrtemr.pprorch to thc rtldy of:!.:ll.:1,_9L.1 lr! ordcr ro providc en-adequetc accounr of tf,is,nowcver, tt ls.nGces-lary to trtum lo thc Hrwthorne studicr andr.cc aoolhcr tinc of, dcvelopmcnt, which bcgins with Barnrrd.sucory ol organasltion. Brnafd.s work rcprcrintcd one ofthc Iirstattcmpls !t dcvelopinga cgmprchcnsivc ri,oad oran Jrs";,i;tl;n.An rnc othcr research which wc havc just mcntion-d foctsesattention upon behaviorr within orgrnisitionilJ l;;;;;;;with. thc individuat, social group and i"rk ;;ft;;:;i.i-;;;rdiwork reprcscntcd a clcar movc lowards an organisationat lcvcl ofanatysis. Larer in rhis chaprcr wc consia* g"ri;ia\iii"ii, iior,grvrlh thc work of Herbert Simon, as a quilibrium theories oiirCoi-isotion.

Barnard's $cory, hcavily inlluenced by thc Hawthorncresearch, tcndcdlo cmphe-sise social aspccts of organisation. Hcwas conccrncd, first and forcmost, to icc the orinistrion es-asocial cntcrprisc._This rcndcnsy wrs moditied 6v ,rUiiorinithconsrs su-qh- rs philip Sclznick and Hcrbcrt Simdn who. lnllu.cnceo Dy wcbcr end some of thc classical thcorists, lavc thcrational/lcgal or burcaucraric aspccrs of ;s;;i;ai;"-;"i;;promincncc. Simon did so wirhin'thc conr.*t'oi

"niquiffiinmodcl cmbracing ra onal snd socialfscrors. Sctznicr aia-il;ifii;Sc conrext of a structurel functionalirr approo.r, ro oisiltiiion.Dcvclopin3 ccrtain principlcr dcrivcd 'from rh.- u-;e;organtsmtc anatogyi structurrl ftrnctionalism hac had en i mportentr lucncc upon o]8rnisation thcory. Our ncrt rcction. rherjforc. irdcvotcd to a conridcnrion of Sclzhick'r carly rrork ai an;i;;i;d rhe structurol luacttonali approact o 5r*anisiiiii_ Having conridcrcd thcsc forndrdons for eihcory of omenlra.

tions, wc will rhen bc ln r position ro link up *ih ;-r;]fi;ilirdricus3ion of toclotcchnlcrl systsmr thcory, rnd wc icvotc rrccrion torconridcntion of rome of thc thccicr whlch cmcrjcd inthc 1960r trcltln8 organlsatlont N op.r, E rtcms. nril;iod;i; .rncorporatc thc insilht3 of Glrlicr tDpr(,8chcr rnd tcnd to ptrcc

126 Socit ogical paradlgms aad Organlsatktnal Analysltpd.mrrytmphasis upon thc rctationshlp bctwccn orjanlration andallvlronmcnl.

",,;#:,,i!:r,:i"::;l:),8"ffi::.f ,,:8ff ,{,*:i:#:i1,fi

:{rn,m sociat sysrem rhcory and rowards objcil"i;.-d;;:iri[.lrkrng wirh rhe open sysrcms moacis_of

-,fr;-i'dd: p;;:jil:l;"ilrrr a mdor- synthesis in tcrms q conti,tscncy theory. Thisi,iff il#itilili'"f ffi T;;lf ffi #titily#'i,fi ;,e',1i':

,iiffffifitr1trf.hffi*f,fi1"'ffi,fijiiHl,"j*,f-,$:human relalions movcmenl and

:,f .:h,iiilirlil'ffi ;';1il;Tt"::'*:1ff '"'J;iHff :llr(,clcly its a wholc.

Fanctlonalls t Organlsatton Thca*l lZ7

ff$S|ffitigTi,l1a:H'#ffi Tffi :Uf*sfrH'iffitrffiSffif;$,T$ffiffi.$"ffi.Hffiffiffifijffi$

uost of Taylor.r *oik ,iar- i

rrru*"uffiffi;1{fr$iffiS-*f#ffii,*:*'.,4*-:H'*,,"J"*#*,,H"T

ffi##$ffi*:*mrlrlfftr*}lxnnl:+:ffi

l/. W. 'faylor ( 1856- l9l5), fhc fotndcr of .rcicnriti^ -.

ffitr*ffi*t*$ffi-ffi

mffiin

f ,i'';'"'; :fj r;' n a I e m e n t t h e o ry a n d i n d u s t r i a t

;,,[iT'irl:#;ftrl1TJ";ri$sii,n"1..::tffi'ft#

*.:iilH,1?l:lli:#'";1tilsi:t.o-ry"oour his carcer in the

l;:Msffi T.*r#'ffi.'ffi ffi '};T]f#ljlffi

128 Soclological Paradigms and Organlsotionol Analysis

crn bc systcmalicatly invcstigatcd ln a way which rcyesls irsundcrlyin3 rcgularltics, Abovc rll clsc it Ir rworld of eausc andcttcsti lhc rask oflhe managcment thcoristisrccn as thc idcntitica-tion of tho fundamcnhl laws which charrctcrisc its dav.lodavrpcntion. Glvcn rhir ovcrafl vicw, lhc individui iiriiiliiJ"iessentially passive and responding rolcl the indiviOuot ind trijhchrviour st work ic recn as bcing dctermincd by lhc cituation towhich hc is exposcd. From rhis, rhc Soldcn mb 6f scienriirc nian-rScmcnt cmcrgcc: 'Oct fhc siauation rishl. a.rd the aoorooriatehuman bchaviour and organisational pcfoormancc witt'fbttdwJ. i

By thc beginning of World War I anblhcr movcmcnt which waslo hayc a considcrable impact upon theorics ofbchaviour in orcan_lrutiong was well undcr way in the USA, Britair and ccrtain oihcrl..uropcan counarics. Unlikc scicntific managcment. howcver,which was lhe subjcct of conlrovcrsy from irs-carlicsi Oavs.l t"lnduslrial psychology movcment adoirtcd a lower profilc. For tiiiflrost part it was ! consultancy-oricntatcd conclrn. suoolvincrdvicc to industrial managcrs on problcms associated wirti iniusltrral_fatigue, employcc sclcction, individual diltcrcnccs and thehkc.r As such, most of the work conducicd was pracrice_ rathc;lhan rcsearch.orientated and its rcsults oftcn con'fidential, As anncadcmic disciplinc, thercforc, ils devclopmcnt was scrci"t,

"on.rrraincd unril sfrcr 1915, when as part ofihc war cltort in Britain,rhe Hcahh of Munitions Workcrc Commitace was cstabliif,iO. Thi('ommittec

.a-Td iB .succcssor, thc lndusldal fatiui n'is-iarcrrItoard (csrablished in l9l8). did much ro .ponror-."r.ui.t, inioproblcms offatiguc and hcalth at work. with a vicw to c."rAiriii,to ftc gcncral elliciency of indusrry. Thc rcsults of rm rirc"rci(udacs conduclcd wcrc published on a rystcmatic basis and didrruch to launch industrial psychology as a fisld of enouirv. Thercscarc_h papers stimulalcd discussion of the psycholojical prohlcms of indusrry and furthcr rcsearch. prnicrjlally in itri-usi.

From its carlicsr qayt rhc industrial piyctrotogvhorimcnr-wasrt pains to emphasisc its hrrmanirarian is wctiis irs minao..iriarrcrcsrs. In parliolar it war anxious to disassociatl itsifilromrny conncction- wirh Taylor and rcicntitic .nanagcmc[t, ;iihwhiclt aa was oftcn idcntificd by workin3 men. Aa Luolon hasnolcdr whcn thc National lnstitute of tndustrial psvcholoev (ernystc foundalion supporrcd mainly by inOustrvl wiJ li'ii'o iiIrnrain in 1921, 'rhcrc wa! tomc suspicion that it was pracliiinsl'aylorism undcr anolher namc, whcicupon it was exoti*i-iir"irrc worf ot rhe NIIP was bascd upon sornd Dsychdlory rarhcrrhar on a mcchanical analoguc of thi human bciirg. tt turifir

"oiii

Funcrlonalls, Orgaaln on Theoq 129

l^r*]-T.:q:,|.{lom bchind bur roeasc hir dimcutrica. and by rhtr

ii+i1fr,:E,ili'ila;1Lt{r[sru",,

r y I u,"nii.a"iffi ffi # $]lf#.T:i:X'"::$ ::,*trupon Taylor and his syst-cm harhing., ri rayror.i ;"iffi;i1il: ?i"i'E:.?t[t3T:,"J'f[ir"i?:simplilietl modcl of .economi,y,i.,,ric_c,iiici;;il;;:,rfr::'lii"'",:.:"i"'hti.,i,T;:

fi:ifi iflf{il,lt;:;:ff i$$jl::tli;f;+",,fr I*tgrqivc.nj fq beticving rhor ir ir.nril:r:r:Hir.*r*,Til"Hi,H,,:+.tliitli$*}points of similarity betwecn Trindustrial psychologists. Tte wocxumplc, was largcly dirccted atand monotony al work snd thci

illi'iilili,,t#;lf .[:,fl ::X?.?,[li.-o:l?"*sill,*tii"I

l#*liil:i;*fl il,{fi.ii}f iill,-a,,cnrioneriir,"ii]iiiririiI;tf:1tt111il#:*:$fl .,,fl ;:i'i:i.,f..:fti::,Tl:x.J:it;ui. n i n r.ics ria i n'i; ; il ii: :';'i:$

ti llh:I"*,li.J#,f lil:

111iuoco rhc arrempr ro bring sclcncc ro bcar upon ir,*i jllf,rems, cvcn rhoush ir has nor bccn lhc s"l.n.J oi-rr,i .iii;iiiiIliili4it':lf ff x:il,;.,ff

.ffi [.,lsti*:tf fr rTffi1*:cx-a.mincd by.rlc psychologisrs (for cxamplc, p"inili"t.rviil-rrii.liii,Sii ii ii i,X',fl";tl.;, *,1;,;i1l,1Ji'ff.",1: l.g*li1r:ii*lmancc of 'spinning mute. workcrs Oh;;;;.;ii;;;i:.r'C;;-s,:.cjjns so. rhar rhcy cortd lic dow" i" iio",ri'ri uy ri.ii ffihi,i;cunng rcst pauses) and lhc illunr

trfl**ii:il]:fui'ir;',i,',1i,ljitimrffi H;*":'i"i:i

:,ril"mrin'*1h:"[::h]1ffiiiin$"{ffuTi

llll Sociol<tgi<.ol Paradigms and Organisatknal Andysis

lhlr vicw. as wc hwc indicoted earlicr, ir informcd bv a hichlvdu.ctirisr onloloSy and epi3lcmolo8y. fte woriO .i ;;;-i i'sI.rlcd as I world of hard concrctc rcality charactcriscd bvrnlformities and regularities which can bc unjcrstood in tirms offiurc.snd elfecr. Given thesc aisumptions, rhc individual islrcordcd an essentially passivc role; hij behaviour is rclarded aslrln8 deaermined by thc work cnvironmcnt. The main d-ifier.n".lrrwccn Taylorism and rhc work of lhe carly il.dustrial psychol_Ulrts is thus one not so much of principle as

-of detail. fnlv Oifer

ln thc sophisricarion of rheir dcrirminism. Wirhin itre .oni"ii-or'l rylor's scheme it is crude; man is no morr than a machin.. *irf,inlho lndustrial psychologists. schemc man ls a more Comoiix|lychological enrityt the relationship belwecn his cnvironmcntmrl his bchaviour cao only bc unravcilcd and undcrstooO rfrior"f,licusc ofa more complcx psychological modcl. tr is this which liis

rhc heart of rhc ditfercncc bctwien Taylorism anO rr"Jirion"iIrrlusrrial psychotogy and givcs risc ro rhi diftcre;i;;";i;;6;arhach they draw from their rescarch. Among thc psychologists ahctravioural as opposed ro a mechani*l

"*i;gtir;r;i;;r;d"i;;;h rrcated€s asophisticarcd machinc which caui6nly be unAeisrooalhr(xlgh derailed analysis of thc complcx rclarions of stimulus andr.rponse. As will become clear from subscqurnt discussion, thehtrtory of industrial psychology largcly reflects ;:;;;;;t';;.Icmpts ro plug dilfcrenr models of man into an esscr,riilv Jeic;:rrrrnisric rhcory of work behaviour characr..istic ofit e oUt"ri"i.rlxUndary of the funcrionalisr paradigm.

'l'h e II awt hor ne s t u die s

lhcr thclast lwenty-fivc yesrs or so lhc Hawihornc studies haveI'ccn subjected to an incrcasing barragc of criticism, to lhe exlentlhrt in many +,aricB they arc now largcly discrcditcd as a piccc ofurla! rcsearch. They have been criricisdd for ignoridiff;;i;;ir(,rulrct in the wo-rk placei for being ideologically bias-d in favourrur lict in the work placei for being ideologicaliy biaa;J i; i;;;r, management: for being paternalistic; foiadoiting aninapprof

Functlonalist Organlsation ficory lllHawrhorne studics, Most thcon*f,:*{*tffilTri::ff !il,,,Ii:titi,tHrffit,iil:,#d,[1f"lH#iuons movcmcnt..

fiI*ffii#r:ffiifritrffif_c.fl!l!

wirh overcimptitied accornrs anA rcporrr *i[cii;;il;..fi iiil*,*,ttj#!!h:i{i:{ffi }.*;r;}*i,.::HiT$tr

what-rhis study-brouSht homc to th-c indu rist psycholoSist rr! lhcrmporrancc of rhc.rooo, flctor _ thc dcBrGG r,i iir,]ii" i"iiffiiillmancc dcpcndcd nor oa rhc individuat a;*. il,i"i ii. iilriilitsocrat..rclarionships wilhin which t " G-.'iiflil.irl;.,:rilil 3

:ifi li:iii!ff [,fi t:"1r;*H,[:t,f,tiitli:h'*gd

Iilti'.1,si{l+1fi*f"iifiFi.r:i,t*iti:iffirnat psychotogy as indusrriat.rocla, psy"t,"i"iy:. is"liliii,-iffi,;:ni. From thc point of view of thir

:,,,tlr*[f liI.lin:r"iii*ijfl illip,I:ti:h"*,,# jrffi. r o rocus upon whai thc Hswlhornc rtudiB found out aboot manrn rhc work siruetlon 13. howcve, to mtrt trcpolnr. til ti;;ffiffiIconctusions. stven alt rhc crlriclr r otrr,. *"i l-,i'ii'r,l"r,-ril.jii,iili

[iF^,i'.*!i;f,lryl.',':l,liffi '{'ltli;.]illilii:l$ili[Dearri our this point.ln lher iB rcsults trarc pro.l.O- clr-aiirH[iil:ilTJl,,l,i..f :,.r**i"i....1f :l'l".1.e".v.riiJiiiiriili'il1Tin*_, h e s r u di ; ;;;i'ffi;;;;,ii::iiiil'ffi,1 iff Ii Hlii.;rmporrant ro discuss rhem in rcrms-ofrt ;,.;irliirr,.-.ii i" ii.iiiiiirie rhcorcrical approach upon which rhcy ;;;;;;;A'il[il

r{ management: forrhrtc vlcwof m_an andsociety; for ignoriry unidns ind rh;;66'of(( lcctive bargaining; for giving insullicienl atrcntion to thc role ofllctors in the outsidc cnvironmcnt; for bcing vcry unscicntilii inthcir approsch ro thcir rcscarch; and for miiinrerDrcrinr rt i irlrkncc whach thcy. collccrcd (Landsbcrger, tgsg; Carcr, 1967).(llvcn lhese criricitms, almost 8ll of w[ich arc vstid i;;";rH;rhgrcec, it ir ofrcn difiiorlt ro know prccisctv whar to mafet iiil

lli So<.iologicol Paradfunw and Organi.sutional A.nulysis

lirt'ortrnt bccausc. dcspite all rhc crilicism which has becnhv.ttcd al thc. Hawrhornc atudics. thc modcl which-ihim..rrchcrs finally adopled tor arplalnlng rtrcir rciulrc

-hai- Ui;irt.d ln more or lcss unchangcd form by numcrous subscoucnr

ti.rrrsts and rcsearchcrs. Thir point has bccn ctoudcd bri rncInr.lc a.r""n *"n.ratcd in the dcbare about thcir idcoior;. ;;.ri;;rnrl rlcrailcd melhodology. As wc shall ,t o* Ucio*. iti-iioi"n"iH, nrodet presented by Roethlisberger and Dckson movci "*",lllur thc. narrowly behavioural and deterministic

"pproucf,)hrrclcrisric of scientific management and earty indusrrialFy(hology and towards a mechaniial cquilibrium .vit"lnJrJiit[cd upon the ideas ofparelo, lt represenls a consci,ous shift fromr*ttcrivism ro social system rheoryialueir of a limiGu riil;;hi;tturrrrns wtthln it lhe core nolions characlerisuc of what laier camelr hc known as socio-rechnical sysrems ttreory. wfrifii iriiicisinrlrrl rrften dismissin-g rhc conrribriiion of the Hawrhornii;;;;il];hrlc proportion of lhe lheorists and researchers worktnc withlntlr licld. of organisation studies have continued ,o'b;"";#;Ir \pcctivcs upon clements of the Hawthorne model. elevatinc Ihetfllx rrtance

..of different pa s to meet their own pa icui".,"ra-u.ih

lnnrcsls. 'l'he Hawrhornc srudies are rtrus oi princioai iic;iii_n(c, nol so much becausc fhcy focused a[eniion uion ,s]ociatnrrr' as. beca-use they consrilurcd an imporlant lu;"ffi;i i, i;;.Ipl'cauon- of the syslems approach to organisational silualions-tr. wc snaI see. despilc all lhe criticisms. or3anisation theory hasrt proSressed.far bcyond the perspccliv; emerging i;; i-h;r.wroornc work; indccd, in somc areas of cnquiry it his actuallvtrlcssed.. Wirh-lhesc poinrs in mind, wc *i['p;;c;;ii;;6;i;?rrnllnauon ol the Hawthornc model. Nccdless to say. the rcaderrll,rniliar .wi-rh lhe original work

""n rnr.ii'r"i, ;;;;;lr,rulting ir for himself and is slronSly "ncour"g;

it ;;;;-. -,.

ttrc Ha*rhorne experiments repoiria Uy ioiifliiU*g.i ""alxrlson(1939) began in 1927. As rhey srarj, .ar ihc-uiri"'ri^i iilir cnqulry.the general interest was primarily in thc rc'iarionie_

t*ccn conditions of work and rhe incidencc of farier. i;rJ-;ii_hrrry.srneng employees. It was anaiciparcd rhar cx-aci k;;;i.-;;;lrrtd bc obrained about this relarion bi,.rr"Utiiirinrun i;;;;:i:hl rualion in which lhc cffect of iariautis iiii-il;.-;;i;;;lurnidity and hours of stcep cortd be m;;;;a;;;;;"fiilili,,r,',1,[cct or an €rpenmcnhlly imposed condition df worli. (Roerh.!:rrcrgcr snd L,ickson. 1939. p. 3). The cxpcrimcnts wcrc ihus in-flll y cssr tn the hi8hly objccrivist mould which characrerisedr.yror 3 sclenllttc mamgemcnt and csrly industrial psychology.

Functlonallst Orgonlsation Thcoty l3lThc cxpcrimcntcn wcrc slmply eonccrned to ldcntify cruro lndcllcct relationships bctwcen phFic.l work conditions end cm.ploycc pcrformancc rnd cfflclcncy. In thG courrc of thc Grpcd-mcnts thc inllucncc ofrcst paurer. horn of work, wagc inccntivct.supervision rnd social factore all camc to play a pan, whcther bydcsign or by dcfault.

Roethlisbcrgcr and Dickson's lcngthy rcport on thc rcscarch i3packed with backgrornd information rnd dctails of thc crpcri-ments conductcd and thc rcsult3 obtaincd. The cmphasis ln thcIirst halfis upon rcportlng what happcncd aod thc wai in whlch rhcrcsearch changcd as thc ioitial hypotheses failcd to commrnd thccxpectcd support, Thcy rcpofl that th. r.sults of thc crpcdmcntswere very confuscd, and that thc controlled cxpcriment.pproachwas replaced by an attcmpt to describc and undcrstand.tlicsocialsituations undcr eramination as 'e systam d intcrdcpendcnt clc-mcnts' ( 1939, p. lE3). Gradually attenrion shlftcd from thc physicalcharactcriitics of the work cnvironmcnt towards factors ruch assupervision and thc attitudcs and prcoccup.tion3 ofcmploycca. tnordcr to invcstigatc thesc lattcr factors, the Hawthornc mrnagc.mcnt. imprer3cd by 'thc atorca of latcnt cncrSy and productiveccopcration which clcarly could bc obtaincd from its workingforcc under thc right condhions', agrccd to thc initiation of anintervicw progrrmmc with cmployccs (t939, p. lt5). It was con-ductcd as a sort of action rcscarch projcct dcsigncd to lmprovcsupervisory training. As Rocthlisberger and Dickson notc, thisintervicwing programmc markcd a turning point in thc rcscarchand for a timc ovcrshadowcd all thc other activitics of the rcsearchgroup. Aftcr dcscribing at lcngth thc approach and findings of thcintervicw proSra/nnc, the authors finally sct out thcir systcmsmodel which informs thc sccond half of thcir work. It is this modclwhich litcrally stands at thc ccntrc of thcir analysis. Dcrivcd fromthc early Hawthornc work, and informing and dirccting intarcst inthe latcr stagcs of rcscarch. lt providca thc bcst sratcmcnt of thcirresearch pcrspcctivc as a whotc.

Thc modcl is prcscntcd as pan of a conccptual schemc for thcundcrstanding of cmployce dissatisfaction.. Likc thc rcst of thcirsubstantivc conclusions. thc modcl is almost submcrgcd bcncath adelugc of data precnting thc approach rnd cmpirical lindings ofthc intcrvicw programmc. ln lhcir roalyrlr of cmploycc attitudcrthcy makc much of thc di{fcrcncc bctwecn 'fact' and 'scndm.nt',and bct$|cen 'manifcst' and 'latcnt' complaints. Thcsc dirtinctionsarc important, 3incc th.y lcd thc rcacffchcr3 lo rcat ccrldn com.plainB no longcr 'as facB ln thcmsclvcs but as symptoms or indi-.

ll4 Sociological Parodigms and Organisational Aualysis

rrror3 of pcrsonal or social siiuations which nccdcd lo beIplored'(1939, p. 259). Employcc complainrs characicriscd byrrrgscration 8nd dislonion camc to bc sccn ar rymPtomaric ofrlrtcr of pcrsonal ditcquilibrium. It is worth rcproducing thc con'rhrsions of thc rcscsrchcrs ln full. Thcy rcpon that

ln ordcr to lit thcirfindings intoa cohcrcnl *holc. thc irvcsliSalors hadto cvolvc a ncw way of thinking aboul thc workcr and lhosc thinSsrbout which bc complalncd. Thcir conclusionr cmcrgcd in lcrms of aconccptual schcmc for thc intcrprctatioo of cmploycc complaiols,which can bc statcd s3 follows:

L thc sorrrcc of most cmploycc complainls cannol bc confiocd losomc onc singlc causc, aod lhc dissalisfaction of thc wotkcr, inmost cascs, ir thc gcncral cffcct of a complcx situalioni

l. thc analysis ofcomplcr situalions rcquirc$ a0 undcrstanding ofthc naturc of thc cquilibrium or discquilibrium and lhc naturc ofthc intcrfcrrngcsi

l. thc intcrfcrcnccs which occur in industry can comc from changesin thc physical cnvironmcnr, from changcs in thc social cnviron'mcnt 81 work, or from changca oursida lhc immcdiatc workingcnvironmcni, and thc 'unbalanccs' whi€h isruc from such inler-fercnccs may bc organic (changcs in lhc blood slrcam). or mental(obscssivc prcoccrrpations which makc it dimcult to atlcnd lowork), or bothl

t. thcreforc, to cloak industrial problcms undcr such gcncralcatcgorics as'fatiguc','monotony'. and'supcrvision' is somc-timcs to fail to discriminatc amonS thc dirfcrcnl kinds of inter.fcrcnccs involvcd. as wcll as amont thc dillcrcnt linds of dis-cquilibrium:r and if thc ditlcrcnl intcrfcrcnccs nod dirfcrcnt typcs ofdiscquilib-rium arc not thc samc ill in cycry instsncc. thcy atc not susccpt-iblc to thc samc kind of rcmcdy. (1939, p. 3)

llocthlisberger and Dickson illuslralc lhis position with the aidr{ n diagram which has bcen reproduced hcrc as Figure 5.3. Theyllrltcst that this schema

rhows thc mejor arcas from which intcrf$encc may arisc in industrialrltuations and thc kind of rcsponscs which can bc GrDcclcd if unbal-rncc ariscs. tt is appar.nt that thir way d lhinkiry subsiitutcs for a

rlmplc causc and cflcct aoalysis of humao rituations lhc notion of an

lntcrrclation of facto.s in mutual dcprndcncc: thal is. eo cquilibriumruch tbat any mqior changc in onc of lhc ftctort (intcdcrcncc or(onstraiot) bringr sboatl changcs in thc othar faclors, rcsulting in arrmporary sute ofdbcquilibrium untilGlthcr lhc formcr cquilibrium itr.rtorcd or r ncw cquilibrium is cslablishcd, ( 1939. p. 326)

Functlonalist Organlsation Theory llSPOSSIBLE SOURCES OF INTERFERENCE RESPONSES

Out.idr,actory

Wlthlnfactory

Wllhlnor0tnl!fi

Figurc 5.r- Schcmc for interprctin! coflrphints tnd raduccd work clTcclivcncsrsourcr: F. J. Rocthlisbcrger end W. ,. Dickon. Mono pcmenr and thc Worlcr(Harvard Univ$rity Prcss. 1939 p. !27.

Before procceding ro a fullcriiiquc aod cvaluation ofthis ovcrallposition, it will bc as *ell if we pause awhile and considcr thcadvances ovcr carlicr thinking reflcctcd in this modcl.e

(a) lt is quirc cxplicir in rcjecting rhc utiliry of rhe traditionalapproach of scientifrc managemcnt and industrial psychology as ameans of investigatinB social situations within oiginisario]is. lnIerms of the modcl presenled in Figure 5.3. these approachcs hadIended ro concentrare upon the relationships betwein the clcmentsin boxes C, D and G. The Hawthornc model emphasi3ca thatemployec attitudes and work behaviour can only bc understood interms of a complex network of interacting clemeots both withinand outside thc work situation and also wirhin the indlvidualhimself.

(b) Thir systems approach is consciously 'open' in naturc. inthat it recogniscs the influencc of outsidc forcei (box H). thou[h

. rttention is mainly paid to thcm insofar as rhey alfcct rhc pcrlon;l

llo Sociological ParudigmE and Organisalionol Analysis

hlrtory oflndividuals (box F), and thclrpotsiblc cffocts grc modcr-rr.d by thc conccpt of ?quilibrium.

(c) Thc analysis of faclo8 within thc fcoory idcnliticc thc clc-mrntr of thc societcchnical rystcms approsch to lhc etudy offllrnlsations (boxes G and H).

(d) ln linc with point (a) abovc, the investigators spcciticallyrrl.ct the vicw that any onc factor csn bc idcntiflcd as a sorrcc oflulustrial problems, They mention 'fatiguc', 'monotony' and'lrpcrvision ; with hindsight they would undoubtcdly hovc addcd'rocial needs',

Rocthlisberger and bickson proceed to apply this model to theryidcncc collectcd in thc rcsearch and thcn dcvclop ccrtainrrt)ccts in more derail. In brief, they sugScst that lhc cvidenccrollccted shows that thc sct of relationships characteriscd byh,,res G, C, D, A and B and thosc charactcriscd by boxcs F, E, D,A nnd B are less important as a source of discquilibrium 8l worklhnn thosc associared with l. H, E. D, A and B, ln other words,thry conclude that thc balance of evidcncc oftheir rcsearch placesIrrrt emphasis upon social factors bolh outsidc and within work astrllucnces upon cmployce attitudes and work cffcctiveness. Ontlrr basis of this conclusion, they focus upon lhcsc faclors in theirrurbsequent investigations and analysis, and thcy identify thclotions of the 'formal' and 'informal' organisation and the con-rrl,urion madc by social factors to cquilibrium in lhe work place. Itlrlrnportant to stress that thcsC conclusions. for which lhe studicsrlc bcst remembercd, resuh frorr the empirical aspecl of thernquiry and the interprclations placed upon thc cvidencc col-hetcd.

( )nc further point ir relation to their theoretical modcl is worthy

'll notc. Having idcntificd rhc importancc ofindividual attitudes iI

thc work situation, RoethlisbcrScr and Dickson go on to cl8boratcr fuflhcr conceptual schcmc for undcrstandinS cmploycc satisfac-tln and dissatisfaclion, reproduced hcre as Figurc 5.4. It

r(tcmpts lo show in tcrms ofthcir rclations lo onc anolhrr lhosc facaorswhich havc to bc takcn into acco.rnt whcn considcrinS cmploycc con.rcnt or discontcnt. AccordinS to lhis intcrprctstion it ir nol possiblc toIrcit. as in thc morc abitracl socisl scicnccs. mrtcriel 8oods, Physicalcvcnts, wages, and hours of work as thin$ in thcms.lvcs, subjcst torhcir own laws. Instcad thcy must bc inlcrprctcd ar carricrs of socirlvrluc. For thc cmploycc in industry, ftc wholc working cnvironmcntmu31 bc looked upon ac bciru pcrmcatcd tvih.rocial signilicanec,Aprrt from thc aocid valucs illhcrcrtt in hit cnvironmcnl thc meaning to

Functionallst Orgonln on Thcoq M

fl"r;ry,oroo ot".*n objccu or cvcn& c.nnor bc undcr ood, (t939,

$''H;i;r..:"nt,nt f- lntcrDrctiol complrin[ involvl4 rocial inrcncrrtioorhips

,flllh ,l;,i;IffjTll}TJrlll.y;j. ricrson. Maaascmcn, o,td ,h. w",,..r

.. To.rhc lisl of rdvances ovcr carlier thinkin8 rcflectcd In thcHawthornc modcl, wc can thus sdd:

. (c) An anticipation of whet has latcr comc into prominencc arthc 'acrion framc of rcfercncc.. Th" H;;ii;;,r';;;;';il;.;:cmphasised thar erptanadons must-6i il;il;;';i tli; ffiiI;mcanin8 to the lndividud invblvcd.r. meir-inii [i f,I;: ;ll;il:'l'Hil,',T,f,"T'Jrl:fl i$r,l3,li:',i:l,T.llr""g,Ui*$:cance. as arisin3 primarity from wirhin rhc conilii.f rr,iiiii.iiiirorgantsalon. As they put It:

to undcrstand thc meaning of rny cmploycc.r complainB or rricv.f,nccs. tt lt ncccaslry to trkc accoonl of his position-or rtetur fithl,rnc company. I his position i$ dclcrmincrl by thc rocial OrgunilrtlOn of

Porlt&on or rtatuaol

IndMdu.l

178 Socioloeical Parudigms and Oryanirational Analysisthc comp!ny:.that tysacm of pracriccs and bclicfr by mcens of whichthc hum8o valucs of thc orqrniserion rm ,-,.".-.r o-.r.r^-..-L-,^orgrnisltion arc.cxprcsrcd, and thc rymboliargl!.whic.h rhcy arc or3iniscd - .m;i;'.t;;;E;;;,:.

9] ,rl" :*1"] organisario.n of rhc company. Thc il;;il;. ., _ __-:: u sre rer[I,.llr. trlc mctrunl 8 Dcrso[:,r]ll:^,:,!,: ?o}li.9Jr dcpgnd! on wic.hcr or rol O8l;o3iiio;i;atlowile hjn.lo fulrilt rhc sriciat dcmandi i;i; ;fi;,ff ii';;i:iil;

Functlonallst Orgonlsatlon Thcory 139

. i!t"!r ", -riru* il' :liiillixH T[ii:L 1]u,:.:*js:. Bu...hG rctarioo of rhc i;dividud G;;toi;6;;;;;;;; ij ,", ,

closcd sysrcm. Al rht valucs of rhc indif dGi;il.G;'";;;i"il;.ffiilriirlt$r,.ruTr#$tlliill:r,tr':ffi

ultimatc signiticancc of his worl is nol d&icd-;nru1[.ilffi-rjiario"ro rhc compsny 8s by his rctarion ro ftc *tai.-.i*iii-r.iriiv.'iiii;;.,74-'

, Thcse imponant thcorcticat insights rclating to thc cmploycc,slntcrprctation of his siauation werc not dcvcloped and, along withrmny other aspecrs of rhe Hawrhorn. moa.i,'*.iil-Jz.ji'iui&under the dclugc of cmpiricat rcscarch gencratcd bt G;'r;El

r n any cyaluation o[ thc Hawthornc studies, thcrciore, it scc] shrportant to bc ctcar abour whcrher o"; i; "iJiG"'g-iilii iiriiili:i,[ their. contribu.tion ro rhcory o, in ieirr-oc iii;; il:dit:i:;

r (,nctusaons. l+'hilst $cre is undoubtcdly a rctarion U.r*iJn iirililwo factors, th€y arc by no rneans synonymous, and much of rh.trrrrcnt confusion.over rhc valuc of rir. ,rraies t,Li "riiii Lil;;.rrics. havc nor always disringuishcd bcrwccn thcs; i;;iil. -*

rn ucorctlcat tcrms thc Hawthotnc model ean best bc undcr.

i';:1,T,['fi1"-1':l*:ITf l;:,?:Htt*:lltiit**i,gii:i,:*"'"f f,'J,:?:lT,:;',,#,i#."#J;;[tr'i,i".t',,iil]XH;,r,vidcs rhc core notion undcrlying rh. H;;ii;;;; il;il'iil:r.icarch atso rcftccl! parcro, E ii,rci"si in

"o":f diiii:-.1il;;i:

.ttrc notion of 'scnlimenrs, dcrives dir"crfyrro, C"riiJ, i#ff;tr used by rhe Hawthornc ream ro dcscride atriL;i;;d;;;:;:il'{rcd upon'facrs'. Thc distincrion u"r*..i- ;r.i.iili,ij' :rlil

rhrcrrs-' ptays an imporranr p-r in ,;a;i ,'i,J'nii:,r,""i,iiIr ysts,

. Ihc notion of.social facts. is. of coursc. reminisccnt of Durk_harn's work, and Rocthlisbergei anU Dickion rruil;,fi;;;ffi;.1l: lil1r!n.. upon thc. way in which rhcy sought io anatvse

-rf,i.ruutrons encounrercd in the research,i, uo-wevei. ir,'., ii"ii.trq nrian

-infl uence .is much morc

"*i.^ir.- iir" ir,ii. ii*:ii ;;rr, r[cd from our discussion in Chapt".4ihai ii;;iil; ;id;:J;liil[,::tii,t.,1"'F$l'if :ni,it,T,,*i.iff #,f#liii:llrolilarily. Now, ir ir preciscly rhis rhcmc ;[i;filffiiirJs"ii,'J

ffi[igh:tritffi.$lflti*,ffi,.ffi,:{'.,',,,*H

*i[nffi,l.'tti*'gu']ffi]:H::i

r$,Hiffi*$ffil;sf"FtT,'JtI$.'Hlu*im#.*:lil,i:l**#]$,*"

ii:,',',i',,:l'J'r[:,ijl'..fr"it,'*.r.:,lil;;:#iijilpf ,".f ;,#:

illstlnclivc flsvour.il:;1:)[l"j*:.:dcr orrhc-oiliniiai'fr;[1"fi,:i;#il,i1,1ff;

U0 Sociologica! paradigmt ond Organlsatlonal Analysts

::*ll}:"1:lt-lfl:m, tnnuenccd by thc vartour crcmcnrr whtchll,Tff:: lt:il,_.rion wrrfiin aii iir,il; fi[.i;lli:,1iil.lff1I,:lllg.:f 11ilrc,,J6i.ri.-,iiii'i;;:,;iffi T;:li#T;l1,J:pi1,^T-f "j,t!".i;.i;;;;;i';i;:;il:,:-lh."i"hT:,181?::ili:Tll.^?ql.:1":,":,"rp"q;;;;,1i:',;il j;'il"'il['.i#rcts as one of the #mmm

*r,*m*txH'ffi,gflm*tr#ffim

,,##$l{:I#{flHH"#ffi-.fr:ffi

hrry wcu. cquippco ror rrrjiruaiiiilil;Uill Jl,Tf:Jffl;rttvisagcd by rhc Hawrhornc rcrir^iirili j iiji:'J-'::1,::'lI:lr,lron of.oritih;r, - ,. ,-r^^, , -:l^tt!crt'

At wc havc 8r3ucd, thc

iii:_:i,:t-:'{!!!1"1.,r.;.st'l*illrxl[it*#,"if ,T;

.ln cvaluatin_g rhc theorctical contrlbution .of.th? Hawthornc

I,llil',i;i; llitilffi;j,*;lffit ::lr i;.,;ii;d1.ii'iffiil"ii;;

flfl ii:iui:*"r*ti!j!,iii;Iikfl #ffi :[$:ir',i#r.,n

iiig;iel1filllt;*if #[,*,i[tr*#ii,j,ifrl,'*tfflrlruation lhe norion of homcostr

ii,'r,':i:; jrk"mr*iTh#s:i#',ffi ;lil'lf, :I,xtf,

1,,,,,,,,1'*"{,litilix.,"J..,l3*,::tliil;&;?j.::T,..",i:H jl#f i:lir fif]1l:trfl f#t"ri.sff it[*liil[ Jl;y.i#, nq[::'{lit?*,;it][j,,.+$sr,*iriir,lffi1p$-'trf'liutlil,tllifiixtljii}i'fi ffiii,,;;llifl [tiif if..",ml[:f il:il','ll:fi:1tlliIii'i,:,*ltt;i:,,rtriiffi g.*.;.;,,*lrl

iil#ji..:.r[]rtf ;.*"ili:mt:,.,ft1r*:'tur.l

ruffilllr'*Hi:itrl;i:,*i;{[*ffi{il'i-fl#(hprsr d,.rhe Hawrrrornc mojii ilil1-"'ii! ii'#ll,Ttiiionty panially so.

112 Soclologtcal Paradicms and Organlsutlonal Analysis

cconomlci social and othcr fsctorr upon wort bchaviour, thcroforc, lt is thc Durklrcimian inlluence ioon thc nodct lhrr ii bclnrchdlcngcd. A numbcr of crirics havc eitackid the rrudlcr on rhcsigrounds, without neccssarily rccognisinj thc Durkhcimian influ.cncc.r. Iltc attack ls launched on the basir of dctailcd mcthodol.ogy and thc interprctaaion of rcsults. Intercstingly enough, in notaddrcssins thc assumptioos built into thc Hawthdrne m6dcl - its

,r# -f,y: I ?,i:, flo*

c t iv i s m : i ob s d t i sfa c ti o ncquilibrium tendcncics, for cxamptc - 3uch criticismscqu tDnum tendcnqcs, for cxamplc - 3uch criticisms implicitlyendorsc thc modcl used as r lcgitimarc mcrhod of analysis. Thiproblcm with thc studics, from thisproblcm with tllc studics, from this poinl of vicw, lics in thcthcy havc bccn implcmentcd; whitit cndorsing thc theonframcwork, criticism i3 lcvcltcd rt thc way in which it hasuscd.

Hopefully,-the abovcdiscussion gocs somc wlry towards sorliEoua thc confusion which surrouirdi lhc intcrprctation of thcllrwlhornc sludi6. Thc vicw th.t they arc wd,nhless in lhcm,

ffi*,,rffiffiffiffir$ilt{i#ffi$i}d

m*trs+,m's*

#:sik[*]p"rd*rtffi *{rffiiStrffi

Functlonalltt Oryanlutlon Thra*t U3

fifi :{il,ffr k}i*:rH###ns,"?"jT,':1ffi

,frlqitnrfi iffi H,ffi ifiifr f#rtt+#ffiflffii*i1r:!ilfiriH!tre*Hi,ir;!,$ffi

ffifl.l'rffiwfi$lll,'ffiut:ffiiffi

I

IIj

IIIN

II.i

li

j:

;

derivcs-largcly from the fact that thcy arc judgcd onty frompcini of view of their conclusions and rcsutts. The irqioritycriticisms have bcen of this sort, This can be cxplaincdiocxtcnt by lhc facr that the results of thc jtudica wcrc &vrhforc the iheorcaical modcl, Rocthlisbergcr and Dcksondctaiied account. for examplc, was prccedcd by numcrous pubcations. Those of Mayo wcrc of a polcmical naturc and undou

rclvcs and mercly of importancc bccause of thcir hirtorical

rcdly did much to provokc criticism.of rhc studlcs,( lIlE) detailed prcscntation of rcsuhs also drcw attcntion lorubstantivc conclusions mthcr than ao lhcir thcorctlc8l

modclin too favorrablc a light, wc conclude orr discussion

tions, N_umcrous othcr publications havc Iaid stress uponpmctical relevancc, As a resuh, thc Hawthornc studica havcludgcd largelyin terms ofthcir contriburion to thc cmpirical I

lcdge of work behaviurr as opposcd to thc analysis df workrlons. In terms of the lattcr, their rccord farc3 much bcttcruon3. tn terms ot oe lancr, their rccord farcs much bcttcr.qu&lity_ of thc systcms lhcory progorndcd, whilst highly defiwhcn judgcd from a pcnpcctivc outsidc thc boundj of sryrtcm theory as a wholc, stand3 up wcll to many contcmDoruodcls of the work place. By way df redrcssing the unfavounhrlencc againsl thc Hawthornc modcl, but at rjrkofprcscnting

,[ffi#ii5;fr##;i,ffi'-I,#[f lffi"Ti,H

rrcmphasising that thc rcscarch, whatcveiB drawbacks;r clear-advancc in sophistication ovcr thc simple faclor rtlonr offercd by rhc classical managcmcat thcoristr and irpaycllologists. The rcscarch reprcaentcd onc of the lirst attemrt vicwing an organisational situalion in lcrms of a systcm

lll Sot'iotogical Parudigms and Organisationol Analysis

irurlng upon spccltic work variablct such lr supcrvilion, lcadcr'iii6 ;d[: proinotion opportunitica, rcmuneration,. stalus, iob--,,..i -,.it ;'." "nadirinn<, ..!ciel environmcnt. 8ttitudcs to thGm tcni, woiking condilions, social Gnvironmcntl to thc

to[lpony and iechnoloSy'r'lth ioh satisfaction. both irlnh job satisfaction'

It Manv of lhesc studies also sought toin rclation to soccific job factors and inspccific job factors_and in

rrr,Jrnl terms. to lcycls of cmDloyec work pc ormancc' absencc

[,rrn work, raie ofcmptoyee tJrn6vcr, accidents, etc, The mcthod

it rnatvsis'adoored in these studics focuscd upon measurement of0rt variables involvcd and a study of intcr'corrclati on coeflicicnts'0rc and a study of intcr-corrclation coellicicnts.

rr r scarch for i subsiitutc for Taylor's 'economic manl

Itchsviourist and dctcrminisl thcorics of human bchaviour

u3e of the work of humanistlc.prychologist3 such as Abrdtm. Maslow, whosc thcory ofa hicrarchy ofhuman nccds has provcdinllucntial (Maslow, t9{3). Somc spccilic ettcmpts havc bccnmade to tcst his modcl rt an cmpiricll lcvcl.r' thouSh thc m6a

. common spproech hr' bccn to usc it r! r pciot of rcfcrcnca forintcrprcting rcsultr achicvcd lndcpcndcntly d thc modcl at elch.

that thc naturc of mrn cen bc reveeled throoSh ryrtcmatic cmDlti-cal invcstigltion of hl3 irtitudc! rnd bdrrvlour.

ln thc aitcmpt lo idcntify rn lppropristc modcl of man fot lhcstudy of work bchrvlor. industdel rclcarchcri havc madc rDuch

, tn bdth carcs thc datr lcncrrtcd her provcd lncooclusivc. EvGn inthc casc of Herzbcr! a al. (1959 rimPlc two.fsclor lhcory oljobsatisfaction, which is in crscnce rclrtcd to Maslow's idces,

, rcscarch h as agai n provcd i oconclusivc. I ts rcsults arc consistcntlysupportcd only whcn thosc authors'own hi3hly idiosyocrrticm.lhod of tcating thc theory ir urcd.r'

Sincc thc t96G.'tho inabitity of such modclr of mln to providccoosistcnt crplanations of work motivrtion rnd bchaviour her lcdto incrcasing lntcrcat in coSnitivc modcls of thc motivational prccess, particularty 'cxpcctancy theoty'.rr This is a thcory br3cdcsscntially upon what Lockc has dcscribcd as 't form of caloila-tivc, psychological hcdoni s m in which thc ultimatc motivc of cveryhuman act is asscrtcd to bc lhc maximisation of pleasurc and/orthe minimisation of pain. The iodividual alseys chooso thatcourscofaciion which hc expccts willlcadtothc greatcst dcSrcc ofplcasure or which willproducc thcsmallcst dcgrcc ofpain'(Lockc,1975, p.459). ln cffcct, crpcctsncy thcory hargivcn thc kiss oflifcto objectivism in thc waning ycars of thc Hawthornc influcncc. lthas gencratcd a sprlc of.mpirical studicr rnd now sland3 !3 thcmost popular approech to motivstion among industrialrcscarchcrs(Lockc, 195, p.457). Somewhat paradoxically.lt turns the whcclofindustrial prychology dght bsck to thc days ofTaylorism. in thttin placc of rational cconomic man lt sccks to iubstitute rational,calcrrlativc, hcdonirtic man.

Tfiis cour3c of dcvclopmcnt clcarly undcrlincr thc csscntidly

Funcrtonallst OrlanlsationThcory 115

rnrl motivation'liavc also concludcd thar the field it characteriscdlty rruales yiclding a host of unrslated fragments bul littlc ]Gal

ui,lcrctanding of-thc subjcct srca (for cxamplc. Mincr and

l,nchlcr. 1973).'lhc abscncc of a clear rclationship bGlwGGn faclors in thc work

rnvironment and job satisfaction has'incviubly led to ln incrcas'hrr focus upon thi naturc of man. Thc attcmpt! ro ldcntify 8nd

rhlnc what constitutcsjob satisfactionhas carncd with it a nccd to-

il;;;d thc procesi of motivation al work' ln thc liSht ofn,,ir+i*tt orn" rcscarch lhc classical vicw of cconomic man has

I'i"nincrcasinglv discrcdited' Thc rcscarch of Rocthlisbcrger and

lrlcison ( 1939i, Whytc's study of thc rcstaurailt industry- (.194E)'

w.tf.i "na

Gucsr'j study of'the asscmbly linc (1952).' Likcrt's*ork on lcrdcrship and supcnision (t961 and 1967)' rnd lhe workr{ Lcwin el al. oi lcadcrship and Srorp dynarriss ( 1939)-' 8moo8

Irunllcss other rcscarch studics, hEvc bccn inlcrpfclcd as eri'rlcnce in suppon of thc view of man at work as o social bcitlS '

n.ui"t.O Uy'"nccdve necds. Thcsc and olhcrrcscatches' such.as ',

r, vr*rn not.o, whilst thcac-siudics suggestcd somc -sort.offrriric rctationsirip bclwecnjob satisfaction and thc probability

rjicsignation, absincc Srom work and accidcnts, therc was no

rhc iob satiifactioo studica of Hcrzberg c, sl' (1959)' havc also

hcci uscd in supporl oflhc vicw that man rt work altcmpts as wcll '

ro srrisfy higler-tcvet psycholoSical nccdr for rccoS,nilionlrrhicvcmcnt. self-sctualisation, clc.

tn csscncc, lhe attcmpt to idcntify and lcst throu8,h Gmpiricsl

rcrcrrch thc validity ofdiffercnt modcls o[man cgn bc undcrsiood'

hrvc utilitv if it can bc shown thal man is ptediclablc. Much oflrticctivisi tcscarch on work behaviour har aimed Gsscnlisllyrh6w preciscly this. It hal bccn underwrittcn by thc ossumpti rnalyticat 3chcmca, Tte indurtrial prychologi3k havc comc to tcc

Functlonollst O4anlsatlon Thcory 117116 Sociological Parodigms and Organisational Analysis

thc n turc of man ar incrcarin8ly complcr rlld problsmaric st fEm cxplaining behavlour in or3anirationa ir conccrncd, fhcy h.vcroerchcd for rolutionl in humanistic and cosniliyG psychology,t'rimarily with a vicw to ElottinS complcx piychol%ical mao inlothc fr8mcwork ofa detcrministic thcory of work behaviour, albcilonc bascd upon a contingcncy rathcr than I univcrsal mod? oforplanation. This csscntislly dctcrminist st ncc is thc classic marko(objcctivist thcory, and it is for this rcason thal much contcmpor-rry work in this arca, along with thc lhcory and rcscarch of thcrrrly industrial psychologicts, Taylor, and lhc classical manaSc-nEnt lhcorists, can bc regardcd ar reprascntalivc of tha moslobjcctivist rcgion of thc functionalist paradigm.

Soci*t echnical systems theory

As wc havc noted, thc clemcnts of sociotcchnical systcms lheorywcrc built into thc structurc of thc Hawthornc modcl for analysingwork situaiions. In thc immcdiatc post-Hawlhomc ycars, how.tvcr, thesc important insights were largcly neglcctcd in favourrf objcctivist studics ofjob satisfaction, grop dynamics, lcader-$ip slylc and othcr fgctors of inlcrcst to the human relalionsnrovcmcnt. Ccrtain studies had paid altcntion to thc rclationshipsbctwcrn technoloSy and social structurc,lt bui it was not unlil the195& lhat anything approching whsl migltt bc called a societcchnical systems approach camc into bcitu.

Thc term 'sociotechnical systcm' was firstuscd by mcmbcrs ofthc Tavistock Institulc to charactcrisc lhc intcraction of rcchnolog-lculand social factors in induslrial production systcmi. lt dcrivcdllrcclv from a studv conducted bv Trist and Bamforfh (1951).

rpcctiic focusing upon thc importancc of Sroup rclalionships. lcdrhc rcrcarchcrs to vicw lhc worl sltuation ln tcrmt of thc inlcr.

rns of an eouilibrium modcl. The rcchnological chanSein thc new lon8-well molhod w83 tecn l! disturbin3 lhcranircd aouilibrlum'. rnd tho tctoontc3 of thc minctrhanired couilibrlum'. rnd tho rctponlcs of thc minctl

cd a3 rcrcti,on3 to thir dirturbencc. Thc tltuation in thc pltinalyscd in tcrms ofa llcld ofpsychologlcal lnd sociaJ forca.balancc of which was inllucnccd by the iotcraction bctwccn

tcchnical and human factorr'Thc study was of importancc in rccognisins that socio

psychologicil factors wcrc built into thc naturc o-f work technol'igy, and itrat rhc work organisation also had socisl and psycholoS'

ii'l propcrtics of its own which wcrc indcpcndent of tcchnology.Howcvir, thc sociclcchnical systcm3 notion rcmaincd in encmbryonic rathct than an cxplicit and wcll dcvclopcd foryn'

"unit'ing rcfincmcnt throtr8h fun[cr tcscarch. This wes conductrd byvirious mcmbcrs of tf,c Tavistock 8tonp throrSlrout thc 1950! rhdrcsultcd in a number of important publications'lc Thcsc rc0cct tnincrcasing prcocctpation with lhc notion of syricm e3 an or8ani,3'ini Joncc-pl, notlusi si the lcvc] of thc work lrixtp-but for thc atudyofihc oreanisation as e wholc. and e movc eway from lhc cquilib'

rhc lorS-wall method of coal mining in ccroin British mincs' Thisrncchanised, mass produclion-lypc systcm of coal mininS, whichrcplaccd thc traditional 'hsnd-got' mcthod' involvcd s comPlclgrcor8lnisation of work and social rclationstrips within thc pit. Thcrtudy, which was hcavily informcd by a psychoanalyticsl pgr:

dum modcl to onc bescd upon an oqanismic rnalogy.Thc notion of thc sociGtcahnicrl 3Ftcm has had a mqior impect

upon dcvclopmcnts within thc licld of iob dcsiSn. particularlysincc thc mid'dlc 196{h, and upon thc quality of working lifc movc'mcnt which wc shall bc considcring latcr in lhc chaptcr. For enumbcr of ycars. howcver. its usc wus most prominent in British

flictt betrrccn tiic nccds ofhuman pcrsonality and thc charactctis'tics of formal organisation, rccognising that an adcquatc analysisof bchaviour in organisations must takc account of individuallactors, small inforial group factors aotl formal organisation fec'tors (stalT-linc. chain ofiommand, spcclalisation of tasks. produc'

particularly that of thc Tavistock lnstitute. Rcscarchiin the USA durine thc 19503 wss not so clcarly informcd

by the systcms concept, lhough it addrcsscd itsclf to similar con'rsiderations. T'lrc worhof Argyris providca thc mosi imprcssivcand

llrgcly from a study conducted by Trist and Bamfonh (1951),which was dircctcd at cxamining thc clfccts cf thc introduction of

outstanding cramplc, As cariy aC 1952 Argyris publishedlris studydThe lmioct oJ'Bud*ets upon People, followcd in 1957 by Pct'sonolity ond Orianisation. Both thcsc studics invcstigale the co-n'

rclation3 bctwccr rocial and tcchnological foctorl' Thc workiniyoup was rcSardcd not$ju3t8 tcchniCal systemora cocial syslem'lnrt is an intcrdepcndcnt socictechnical systcm. Ukc thc Haw.

tion lavout and control. ctc.).rr Argyris ls concerncd to intcgrrtcrrlcvanr bchavioural scicncc rcacarch through thc usc of a 3yt'timatic framcwork for thc atudy of what hc dcrcribcs ar organio'iion"t Ueh"rlour. and he gcneratcs many insiShts which parallel

iil;; ;il;h Afurcrisc- rocio'tcchni&l svitems thcorv. His-

work, like its British counterpatt, is undcrwrittcn by thc notion of i

iu,ornc iiuaics. ihi Tavistock *oii ",'"iu"oituiicn

uv oc

ll8 Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Anolysis

rqrrlibriu m. ccrrain crcmcnr.s a",li3iff! ffS.ir,tJ.$:J|il,iJ

:llLif.?'lXti;il*,ilf'S,S',il' coniext or-rhis open rvstcms

ri'nr.iirr i]i" irus-gucnt volume (Argvris' 196l)'

liuuilibrium theories of organisation:tlirnard and Simon

(tcslcr Barnard (1886-1961) was for many ycars. a promincnt

ii.ffr".lr:r$;"-"'"Il;iili"lii:r[$:k"#ffiil',$h";i*f*:li'tri*o'il*Tf tffil#lr':ii{G,ll'#t1TJ"'[?i',1',Hil{tit*:mr*;x".di.!l!ii[

il'itfi ffitisl:*ffi',frTii,tiq;f+[H';] Uii#;;e t

""ul." ; i r'i'cl v inllu cntial u non -sybL1

;,Jiii.ii.eii:i"d..d',-Pcnowhasgoncnsif :;;li:tff"'i['t;]would not bc much of an exagX

;#,ii':ffi ;;r;;;;vi.ie.4"ir.abv,Y"1-Y".P::fl d"^,c,l3:1ll

il"*#'i:# iiiiii,iig aitrcrtnr modcls' and thar rhc followcn '

;ffi;Jh;li ;umeriiar superioary' (Pcrrow, !n2,2. tll,-., ':'' iir.iJ"i"rit ihat his wor-k prescnls two trcatiscs' The first is

.r'iJiiiJ*ii:li'i"iirr.*"1"!1;";r^P1:fl f"':fl :l:i1""1s1il;i-il;::-.il il.-t'J.-ona "t 'a studv of thc functions and of-lhc

;:",ili1 ;';;;"tiin-#.r".rti".. i n formal orsani sa!'oi.c-(B-"ll

il;', lr3i: ;:;D:iiri unac,tvine rtrcmc rs rhat orsani"!i1n:.1t ihrr. tiscntiallv ceopcrativc syskms but rcquire scnsrll'

;ilfiH;ffi'ffi;uin i[J. in 't"i" -of :.q'ilib1ll'-l-':^':'];frffi;i;:;;iii"iuti'i rt. u"sis ora thcorv or

*fritf, *iti iontributc to this ovcrall aim'-'ffi#i;-.?;;;;; i;''oi organisation as 'a svsrcm of

.JJrr v .-t otOi *tcd activitics. or f or*1 of.lY: 9Il:':^*'ili.::i?ii*Tli*i::5ttt:ixll#"s1.'iili:#trii-ri:r,',j "ii

i'ir['"-gio "oniriuute

acrion, (3) ro sccomplish a

m'on pu rposc' ( t 9ia ' p. E2). Barnard arSu cs thrt thcsc ln rce Ii

Ftnctlonallst OtgonlsarionThcory 119

- communication, wlllin3ncst io rcrvc end common DutDo.a -erc rtccerrrqr rnd lumdcat condldont fornd ln elt fofod onerris{taonr. Tlta oigtnl[d_on,-thsrcforo, lr r coopcrailvc cntcrpirlrcot lndlvldudr ln punult of r conmon urooio. tt lr c[cnilellv'unitrry' ln mturc. ln Banrrd'r worf tti nbdonr * cooei-irioiand purposc ruumc a monl flevour. Bunard arrucs thritt ii rttinaturel tt tc of alfrin fot humen bcingr to coope;tc, s;Atrjcliiiphyiical, biologicrl, psydrological a-nd rocial'anumcnrr in .uo.port of his casc. He rcgardr piople .unfitted for io-opcntion. irpatholo8icel cese:, insanc end nat of rhlr wortd 093t: D. l3). ForBarnerd, thc fact that membcrr ofan onanisation parfir:ipaie andceopcratc willin3ly ir takcn as an cndoncmcnt of thc oumosc ofthc organisation. As hc put3 it. .a purposc docs nof lnditc coopcralivc activity unlcss it ir ecceptcd by lhosc whosc clforts willconstitutc rhc otSaniration' (t938, p, 36).

It ii a8sin3t thir rort of backgrornd that Barnard dcvctoos histhcory of crccutivc functions, In hir schcmc cxcculivcliithinorgani3stion3 src charycd with the task ofsustaininr thc onanisa.tion in i rtetc of cquilibrium and hcncc cnsurini itt tu-rriv"t.B-arnard rccogniaes that dlsequilib,rium it r vcry co-mmon ttatc ofallairs end thet ln practlcc Gvcn thc wllllngncss of ocnonr tocGopcratc may bc in dorbt. Hc thus dcvotcs considcriblc attcn-tion to con3idefing wayr ln which cquilibrium can bc rcstorcdlhrorgh appropriatc cxccutivc managcment. Thc cxccltivc isurgcd togivc considcration to ncccrsary edjustmcnts in rclation tothc environmcnt and within thc orgaiisstlon. tn rclation to rhclattcrhc is urycd to altcr thc conditionr ofbdraviourofindividualr.including conditioninS ofthc lndivldusl by trai nin8. by thc lnculca:lion ofallitudc and by thc construction ofinccntivcs ( t93t, p. l5).

Thus, although rhc co.opcration of individuals li rccri is ttiodc6ning charrclcristic of en organisation, Barnard't thcory o[cxccutivc functions ic bsscd upon tomcwhat conlrrdicioryassumptiont. This lr a mqior wcakncs in hit thcory and onc whic[has not pcrhapr bccn reco3niscd rullic-lcntly cicarly by thosethcoriiri who havc built upon Bamrrd.r w6rk, Hii thiory of'induccmcnt3' rnd 'contributionr', which lr dcvclopcd to cr;lainthc continucd participrtlon of mcmbcrr dthc organisation.:icmrparticularly prndorlcal within thc contcrt oian orjrnisationctaractcrircd !I e common purporc. Slmilarly Barnc-rd.r vicwthat one ofthc functlonr ofthc crccutlvc lr to .iidoctrinatc' thorcat lower lcvcls of thc oryanisatlon with itr 8cncral puoorct tecmrcqually paradoxical (193E, p. 233). Again his vici rliat.the finrltcst' of hir 'conccptual rchcmc ic whcth* irr usc will makc posr-

llll Sociological Parudigms and Organkational Analysis

lllh r morc clfcctivc conscior promotion 8nd manipulation ofro opcration amon3 ncn' (193E, p. 74), rbo coBtrsdicts hir ba$icHrumplions about tho co-opcrativc Drtl,c of or8anirations,

llrrnerd'c thcory ofoBanbationr, tihc thc Hswthornc atudics touhich it was so closcly rclalcd, is of 3omc importancG bul must bcqrproachcd with caulion. Givcn that Wcbcr'B lh?ory was not yctrvrihblc to thc English-speakin8 wodd, Barnard'r contributionpll lor many studcnB thc fir3t lheory d oqanlsation whish rhcylnc(llntcrcd. Its inllucncc has becn cnormqrs and it3 assumptionsrc rcflcctcd in much contcmporary theory, parlicularly that*hich approachcs organisation from E msqgcrid pcrsprctivc, Itrllcrcd a vicw of and an approrch to thc rtudy of organisations$ich di[fercd quitc rcmarkably from the convcntional approachr{ mroagcmcnt thcorists of thc day. Althcl8h a mqior scction ofhtr book is dcvoted to thc thcory and structurc offormal organisa-lkr0r. therc is, in pdnl offact, ycry littlc dirqrssion of rtocturc inlhc clessical managcmcnt scnsc. Barnard *as lesr conccrncd withrlmcribing managcrial hicrarchics, lincr of command, rpans oftontrol, job dcsign, clc,, lhan with dclincaring thc relationshio ofhrrlividual mcmbcn lo rho ongdnr cxecutivc Drocesr. Wf,illthrrlividual mcmbcrr lo fho ongdng cxeculivc. procccl.hrrcrcsted in thc co.ordination ofactiviticrln oursuit ofthcpur!uit oflhc gcncralpurporc of the orSanisation, Bsrnsrd rpproachcd thc problcmrrhach this pos.d in tcrms of rhc motivsrion of individurt rircmbers,Irr Barnard, thc thcory of formal orglni3ation wr! lar8cly con.r'rrncd with thc rclationships bctwccn

'lhis pcrspcctivc. thcn. diffcrcd rubr'lhis pcrspcctivc. thcn,rccn pcoplc.rubstsnlidly ill cmphrslr from

lhc crcation ofs goal-oricntalcd thcory oforganisatioi which took

rhc rpproach of thc classicel thcorirE. Unrilsi bcin8 Lt onc wilhlhoro lhcorists in vicwing organisetionr as goal-sccling cntitict,

I'lrt. lhc clirssical OcorisB paid vcry littlc alcntion to thc role ofhrrlividuals, their motivation and bchaviour. By thc 194(h, thcrc-lorc, lhc,timc was dpc for r fusion of rhcEc two pcrspcctivcs and

FunctlonoltEt OtgaalsationThcuy lSl

fi i"!litsli.,t:i,,3#;?*;ii':#:xf, ?,5":'"rj,Hg'itliu,ll$:.'*,Jlils:[1]**T,trHf i:i:tii#*::man' charecrcristic of ctassi:cd rt .-y l.-'piJ"riii;ir;;il-ih.vicw of man rcvcrlcd by rhc peychotdl';"d;ffi :.?$; ;ili"hcmcrges.from observadons in irvcrya;y *"riilip#Jiii. ollJ

"rhis solutions i3 ro introducc a ncw mod;l of mt; ::;i,ni;rt;r.man' - based upon $c norion of .b-;;;fi;;;i;'f;;t.assu.mprion lhrt m.n .$tirliccs. rart.i o*-;ri,,iiii*iii ii,work bchaviour.

.Thus, forSimon,.lhe ccnlrul concrren of admlnirtrurive rheor,r ls\:i !..,!: ! :y llil' b c t wa cn th c mtiiil'a ;i' ;;;:;;;;;;;i';;;:","',t3j#trif iifil'.i,iJiffi tlf *iH$,.,1.:[1i:1""1'I#H.1i;',T,T,:.'lt$#l:f i$:,r,S:Si"*,,,';::,,,,:ln*::n:ito buitd a rhcory of adminisrrarivc uctraviotir aiiirii" ,ri'Ji['.rhuman choicc or dccision meking whi"t, i,

"iri"il"iiy'u'illtr""crcatisric ro rccommodarc thc radotnd asp."ri ori-riJilGii-r,i",intercsted cconomists and thcrcrra,ioui;hr;;;;:ffi.Jii".-'ff :['"**lilLTif li":*which. is ptaced rr rhc ccntrc

"r'hil;iiiffi;;ir'"iriillril""i_contribution) model of the organisiiil;rd6;;iffi;.1ffi;.vanous propositions of intcrcst to thc administraroi

Drmon s theory of, administralion has provcd rremcndotstyinllucnriat and har stimutercd .on.lu.raurJini.riri ffi&;;.llti nl

"pp.".t .s ro rh*rudy oa;Es;"iiio',iilii-jil'.ii"rilllI*flp.';:I,-,I yT:."'r e1{li3 wltclpdarcd in an imponant votumc9IJ1:n 1n9:ipon ( l9St). which in cssenccsougirr ro coaifv enOqcunc rnc ttcld ot organisation thcory in tcrms ofiserics off6rmatproposirions. Thc boundcd rarionatiry 01.;d;ii,iiiriit".-iriiil6opposcd ro rhc^maximising bchaviour

"f .;fi;i;-;;G"

emerScs a3 the rocus ofanalysis and is uscd lo devclop linkr ;ithmc strucrurc o[ organisations. Thc characlcristics which arc scenas dcfi ning human problcm-solving p.o.i.r.i-ini oiioialrr-rri"nsnorcr arc accn a3 dctermjning thc basic fcaturcs of organigdon:.1lucl.ule

ang runction (Merch and Simon. l9jE. p. 16r). In rhisway lnc modct d.organisation which emcrgcs froh thc-ruthorr.8narysls rc cc.ts lhcir- assumptions with rqard to thc naturc ofman. rrstcntta y.thc theo.ry prcicntcd rcflccts e modificd form ofocnavlounsm, whilst allowing for an clcment of .subjectiverationati ry' d crivln3 from u,c 1 nori Juir.iiir'ii. it ilflrli'*.

rlrrc considcrarion ofboth human and structurat factor!, Thc foun-rhtioos ofsuch a pcrspcctivc wcrc laid in two quitc difrcrctrt wavshv Hcrbcrt Simoo and Philip Sctznick.

Simon, in his famour book Admjaisrralivc Salraviozr. first oubllrhcd in 1945, intc8ratc3 thc motivetional and

'rtnrciural

,l

s

152 Sociological Paradigms aad Oiganlsarlonol Analyishunun bchaviorr b rccn ac bcim chrD€d by influcnccr in thconvlronmcnt. Thcrc providc 0rc inirtd t-dnutrir ro which humlntrorpond in thc romcwhat mcchrnirdc mrnncr of .rdmlnlrtndvcmal'--_dc!ning OG situation.ln .Imitcd' wayr, .tcarchlng. and'udrlicing',

Thc March and Simon modcl has bccn furthcr dcvcloocd bvCycst and March (1963), who view the orranisatioo as an .adao-rivcly rational' systcm coping wirh E v8ric, ofinternet and exti,.tul constraints in arriving at dccisions. It sccr thc firm as anlnformation-proccssing and dccision-maling system which has tocope with various con licts from both wirhin ana outside itsboundarics. Ir focusca upo[ thc internal operations of thc firm,dcvclops the snalysis of conllict precnlcd in March arrd Sinron.iworl and arriyes et 8 lhcorcticat perspeclivc rvhich. althouehdominated by rhe norion of cquilibriuh,his many poinrs of similir-ity wilh lhe plurafusl lhcorics of orSanisation disiussed larer in rhischaplcr.

The struct-ural functionalist approach toorganasal,on

Itrilip Sclznick (t98), likc Simon, souShr !o dcvcloD a poat.()ricntarcd aheory oforgrnisalion which r;k duc considlrariin otboth human and structural factors. Howcver. whcrear Simontoclsed upon organisalions as decision making entitics, Selznickchcc to dcvclop c alructurat functionalist vic-w.

Sclznict begins his analysis by rcvicwing two dclinitions ofsnorganisation, one from the work of J, M, Gius. a clnssicsl thcorislin rhc public adminisrrarion tield. and thc othcr from Barnardiwo.rk. G-aus-delincd.organisation. as .thc alrangcment of pcrsonrrel for. facilimring

-thc accomplishnrcna of som; agrccA iurposcthrorgh the allocation offuncrionc and responsibilities, 1i9l'6,n.66), Barnard, it will be recalled. detincd a foimal organlsaiion aisystcm of consciously co-ordinatcd activitics or fdrccs of twomofc persons' (Barnard, 193E. p. 73). Sctznick suqresti lhrr'vicwcd in this light, formal organjisation ir thc strucruiat ernri:.sion of rational action' (t9{8,-p. 2D. As in rtre casJ oi i'iin,Sclznick thus linkr his vicw of organisation with thc notionratioaatiry and abo rccqgnises rhit oryanisarioni ;;'i;i;rotional in lhcir actual operations. ln tini with thc conclusions

Functlonallt Oganbatlon Thcrlrl lS,dysfuRction!, and Bernard.r ea

ffiHi#f#ffieIHffiffiftTffiTffi:ll[-mU,i*t#,1*-,jr,r,ff r::ffi ;.*:

ffit*fr htrisIlli[r*ffil,'tr$,rffi$j[:fir'3.",t f t,,r,r# ui ffil;lxtr's

.liT:ffi""[

ifffi :'l:i3lH'ti.il",#;l,r,i.'tr*ij#.t*lld,ffi iscarcc rcs.qrrccs and which miy oc mrniiirilil; i;ffi:i &t

ffi.,:u*,lffiHfluffiffi#tg*n$;[!ii.rit#i"1,,?T::ffi :*i$r:,**nt'#Xffilaltcnrion of organisation rhcori3is to rh. fi;;il;;. ih;il;;;3hips.b-etw.cnf oimalardinformato[a[i.;1i;;;;;;.H:;;

[i,ll[{ii,,,TtLiiff L:t#itT,T:.Tt[B'.3ii:*iiil*H::tl;g:', fi :,li'lr:?aneei

i i. orcani iaiiil;il;;ilff Il;Having intcaratcd the socirl and thc formal, cconomlc or tcchni.cal aspcctl of organisstlon in lhir

rl.f:Li$lil'*ixi*d[",rliril*r*f:lih:,,#,*inadequirc r'."n cna rn iiiii?';d ffii;",#;'#'"il"iffiil:

trji*ll,*:.$I,11ffi,ifffiI!ffi [#,$:'H{;,tllT,ffi'.[*lHs1l?,,i:#*i1..,*#ffiTf ?f; f#f; :thc Hawthornc atudi6, Mcrlon.r rrccarch on

154 Sociological Parudlgmt and Organbatlonal Analysb

Prrtoni.n achcmc dcscribcd ln tho prcvlu[ chrptcr, ln thEt hcrcolr to ldcntify thc functlonrl 'lmpontlvct' yhlch rcrvc thcovonll nccd of lhG 'mslntooaecc of lha 3yatcm' t3 r whole.

Thus, whilst sctting olf from e position rimilar to Slmon'c,Sclznick follows a ditfcrcnt route in ahc dcvclopment ofhis thcoryrforganisation. Howcvcr,in both thcorics thc notion ofrationalityrcmalns ccntral. Simon bcgins and cnds with rationality as adominant conccpt, evcn to thc cxtsnt lhat s ncw model of man -'ldministrativc marr' - is dcvclopcd to ]cconcilc lhc contradietionr bctwccn fonual and iDformal aspccat of oryanisationrtrctivitics. 'Administrativc man' (who catisficcr bccause hc docg'noa havc thc wits to maximisc') in esscnoc prrscrve3 raliona:ily asthc prc-cminent conccpt, Thc $alurc of man is rcdcfincd to rcrvc]hc lbcory of formal crganisuion, In Sclznisk't model lhc notionof rationality is allowcd to occupy a bactgrornd rolc &ough ancrtrtmcly pcrvasivc onc in tcrms ofthc purpooiyc naturc of orgnnisation. Thc organisation is prcsumed lo opcratc in s goal-directcdmanncr, geared to mairrtainirrg itsclfintcrnatly and in rclation to ias

cnvironmcnt. Thc adoption of an orgrnirmic analogy as a basis oflnalysis lcads to thc identilication ofe tcrics o[functiona! impcra-tivcc whicb scrvc rhc ncodr of the orSanisation ar rn 'cconomic' r

rnd'adaptivc sociol systcm'. Purposivc raGonality is stitl thedominrnt conccpl, thrxSh - in contrsit to Siflon's Echcmc - thcindividual is conspictorsly abscnt; purposivc ratiunlity bccomcte characteristic of thc systcm rs r rhole. Ar wc rhall scc, thcconccpt of purporivc rationrlity, particularly in fclation to lhcnotion of organisationa! goalc, is an imporlrlrl chErastcri$lic dmrny socinl systcm thcory approechcs to thc saudy of organia-tionr.

Organisations as open systems

Sincc ihc mid- l95ih lhe opcn systcms approach hasitscf as a popular means of studying organisstions. Thc reilslruclural functionalism as a dcscriptivc tcrm in this ticldrelatively short-lived, though, as we havc .rgucd inthcrc is. in effcct.littlc differcncc bctwccn structural fuand opcn systcms thcory whcn thc lattcr is limired ro lhc uscorganismic cystcm ana?ogics. In thc lstc 19fl)s, thcrdorc, rrr.r

structut"l functionalisS bcgan to describc thcmsclves as opsystcms lhcorisB and a numbcr of old functionslist modcls bcg

Ftnctlonollst Otrgaatuiton Thcatl lhs

&T""li:[13ffiff"1$: :rlr.. *rhi.n rho contcrt of, rn

itbf$im,ffi#*&ti,ffif#pxuqm.*"mff#,ffi**:rtrx;Hi1qfi iqil}sffi$',$sl,ffi $*"fr

,***fl;i:'; ;'J'#dlli;?lffil H.t* incorpocatcd i,ifi -;;;

m,pr##ffitm:ffi,t***:sl

trtriti'fr,iftEiff ffi i"tr#',$*#ru$$::f :,iiffili.$inr*{,#H,;il?,!,#"tfl Htr#

r!

l

ii.\

ii

to appcar in nerr guiscs. Thcorists who had adoptcdm i:{"ffi tr; f*:!!fr :P, :: :: h.n pp on cd bv p ow c dat o4 a t,,ipi,ioi'ii-i&ii'";;;;;f;::Yrii,Vi':X!:;:!ill!X

156 Sociologicol Paradigms and Organisational Anolysisated to pcdorm i,. and lhrl. as r dircca corollary. tht cllectivtp.t.ono.nce-et o primary tot* con pruyld. ar imDo on, "irr.. *'fi :trfi '#{r,'ff ;6if1.,f"fl l,l,,j;Jl;*fi llfi li.;ll;f l.,i,1ll*fi,_:l

*,* rhe job. They rlre prioc in ooiry iiwai.-ii{;;, filn;;:

rntcrprise is regardco as'cb;sisiing ;ld&ffiiiili::til ol';

Iu\=,i:t{,f tfr*f l*fi .+*ifiii'J;"ii;d,:;

Thc-organisation is thus vicwcd ar a unitary systcm under thcumbrclla-of a common task, Thc sociat sysl'cm is-;td;;.positive forcc conrriburing ro rast achievimiii. -i..in"f-o*?"

i,vrcwGo a6 atorcc whlchimposcs constraints upon possible m-odcsu orgaNsauon. but wiahan which choiceis pcssiblc. Thc imporlantvariablc., thereforc. is o.ganisationar ddra;:' Th;

-A;il;i;olpropnalc modc of work organisation which satiities therlcmands of_rechnotosy and the nieas * cmptoiiii ii scci as iii.kcy to producins a harmonious anA cfccrirJ oiganl*iio"l fii.nouon.ot.an open slciotechnical system is uscd as I lool forrnatyslnS the t€xtile llrm with this ovcrall pcrspectivc in mind. Thccomglcr relalionships bcrwcen sysrcms aio s,iusvsri;, ;'iiA;;::.:ig:y -'operating sysrems... .mannging systems,, .govcrningrysrems_', etc.--derive their signilicanccas conccptuat ioots frodrrre oo'ltcxt ol lhir ovcrall vicw of thc industrial lirm,D !t i! Irystcms view which is based upon a phitosoehioiiociai .n"iri"r-rog ano wDtch in essence sccks lo &mclioratc lhe problcms ieatedl,y tcchnoloaical chancc.x

Thc .sophistication- of rhc opcn socio-lechnical systcmsrpproach to rhc srudy of orgsnisario'n; t ".

Li.ririiiiijd#;.;e:llI:^IL" _.?"!:xr .of rhe abovc probtemaria, ;[il;;'fi;,rcrcarcn. conducted by various mcmbers of rtrc Tavisroil Iniri-l.5lltir yf*.rhe rctarionshtp bcr*..n rr,. G"nir"ri;;-"ilji:rrvrronmcnt ts givcn morc and more aflention.-ft! trls UJof< iiiii"x:Tfi ',.:r#:f .?;,##;k[:Tl*:*t",'*1i:lii]:i",:rhur rl tnust pcrform to survive' and rt e pririari rasi oii.";;;il;.. 'to manasc $c rctarions bctwccn ari;i6ffi;;d-i;r'iliil;Ii:::diiii,i,:q-,'#i5'fi f,Tiii"tf llixlffi Lf tf 'll:

Functlonafrst Oganlsatlon Thco,r, lrl-Ricc's work ( 1967), Borndary rrjuhtlon lr accn rr .thc 6.cnllrtq8n88cnat contrct in rny cnterprh. rnd coaddcreblc ettcntlon iiq-v9n lo rhi proDtcm3 rnd- lmportrDcc of bondary dctiol0o ofconror 3yrlcmt Doth withln cntcrprircr rnd bctwccn cntcrarlicrsnd thcir envhonmcnt. Ttrb *ock drpr.tuv ;ti"d ri]Cl,iliilIiirli"'rs a tool d.cri31ed prlmrrily for irst irlcm;;;J:T;ili;'numar nccdt - Ioc $tisfsction 8nd for dcfcncc rminst rnrldv _rnout0 bc rcaerdcd !t con3tdnt3 upon trsk Dcrfo;mancc. (Miilerrld Ricc, t96?, p. vi). Ihc rysrcmr imry*s itrtti Uiiicii"iiRft;oltcr ts. gcercd,to I tcrrch for optimum rolutions to thc oroHcmsposcd by thc frct thrt thc dcmandc of an oEanigation'i vrrious' subsystemt do not alwrys ctincldc.

Thc.nalurc of oqaniretional envircnmentt har also rccclvcd aSrcet dcal of r(enlion from rhc Trvirrock term in rcccni t;J;!965 lqcry and Trisr publishcd rhcir wcll-known ani;t;. .ifr;c.ausat Tcxlurc of Organisationil Environmcnts.. Tnis

-ruavslrltcd thc focu3 of opcn systcm3 lhcory awty from a soccifilconcern fff what Dill ( l9jt) has dcscribcd as ihc .rask cdviron-Dcnr towatds I morc gcncral conccrn ior lhc .epprcciation.

of, thcsocrar cnvronmc_nt as. a quasi-indcpcndcnt domain.2, Thc turtul-.ncc or tnc wortd cnvironmcnt as & wholc and ils implicationr forthc fulurc havc come lo be sccnas imponanr corrrcir.i"ii"fft;;;;upon organisatiohal activiticr. This widcr conccrn for contcrt hasled to an intcrot in thc licld of.sociel ecotory. tpmiiv

"na iii

1972). Thc amcmpr ro undenrand onanisajio,iiai,io.irirci-Jlcchnical systc_m! has carried with it-a co[ccrn for. undirstendingthc panerns of lifc charactcrisric of Dort-indusrriat ilictv:lii;manner.in which thesc patrcrnr ar. chinging and rhc impticiiioniwhich rhcy cary for the undcrstanding andihe influcncinr of thcopcrarion of orgrnisation3 as compt-x adaotivc systcmi. Thiiintcrcst in social ecology has tcd-to a furion Ueiwccn idotcchnical systcms thcory and thcodca of .oocl-indusrrirlirm;.which has lcd thc rcscarchcrr involvcd eway frim an crclusivcendnanowly bascd conccrn for theorics oforganiretion and or8anise.flonar changc towards a conccrn for social ihcory and sociat' changc. Thcir thcorieing now rc{Icct3 that of Oc social cn3inccropcrating on t lruly necro-scale.

''rvironmcnr..rhcnorion&uouniaii;i;r"liiiii"ih."'Jlll.,irLlh rlro given incrcased prominincc, pirricrr"rry in-'rrilii.r'"ni

Our sccond illustration of thc opcn systcms approach lo thcstudy of organisstionr ir tekcn from the 'iork of tiiu ena Krhn.Ihcir study Thc Social Psychology qf Oreaalsarjons ( 1960. hrrcstrblishcd iBclf as a clasric io thc ficld ind providcs-onc 6i thcmo3t frcqucntly citcd rystcms modelr of in onanisetion. lncssencc it conslitutcs a struclural functionalirt modcl of orjaniu. :!

158 Sociological Paradigms and Organisational Analysls

rlon, prcscntcd in the tcrminology and jerlon of opcn ryslcmsthcory, Thcir basic rpproach rc Oc rturti of rocirt phcnoricna lsvcry much in the tndilion of Radclilfo,Brown.

- ln thar rhcvcmphricc ahc nccd to rcglrd a toclat tyttcm !t r .rtruclurinr oicvcnts or happenings rather than of phisical irails. lnd !s hav-im'no structure aparl from irs functioninS' (Kalz 8nd Kshn. f !X6. oII l). They sce the opcn systctns approach ar a means ofanalysimrh€ 3ocial and instilutional conlcxt within which ocoolc live. anithcy dcvelop a proccssual modcl for undcrstandiig oiganisationsIn t-erTs. of encryic. 'input', .throrghput' 8nd .otrfuf , Thekrnalv-sis is largely bascd upon thc arsumption that social systcmrrrc homcostaric, porscssing tho charactcrirticr of nerativccntropy, fecdback, diffcrcntiation end cqui-tiBdity.:.

Mthin the contert of this opcn rystcms approach Kalz andKahnSoon toarguc that thcrc rrc fivc gencric types ofsubsystcm:

PRoDUcrto N oR r'c.l Ntc^L s!'#l!l#[t, *,* *.,,,"-

su ppoR,v E su BSysrEMs ffi"ffifixf*l!",f$ffi<r disposi4 of Oc clt ut o( ridita

MNNTEN^NIEs,rrrrr*rlltffi J,lff ifr,hoi,up.opr.i"

Funitlonalist Organlsatlon Theory lS9T}us for Kalz rnd Ka}n thc

itirfr i;:#itr.sr#*Iydt'i*;#hi:it;r.ll'njif:l'.'fl uiil,ff fi tr[T,:l:iJii,litr5;r*;,,,**rthc nature of thc cnvironmcnl of 6rgaoisarions"'il.;H;;ccrn is. with rhe proccas oe inpur_t[rodp,ri];6iil'I;[ccptuat scnse. F.a modcuini Oris erii[i'rfrev'ii;,'Jtl;iilli[:i':;S"1[11j;tf,f '.'-drv-q,rtinloin.rh;;;structure and ;- il; ;;;;i.;Y;l'lH,:"#,:ilil ?:#,*mcnts. Howevcr. ir is rhe biotogicat

"*r.iv.'ir-riiiili.iitJ'imuch. funcrionatisl analysis in soclai ici.;;;:ffir;ili;;ilt.j;

I

flit:i

r1

Th. Tavistock aod Katz and Kahn modclsA.r. iru r\tnn moocll rcprcscnt two of lhc3T:Il1'.l.rIryrcms ap.proachcs lo orc strai oi oisil;A;:::1 ^'::i-tlTu'posc on iiuiira-G;;;;'# ;i;';iTltil:i{[f ,ll';l;ff;:fl ::"Ji,T,1ffi,S;ili*"ii,"jli*i#fxrmpacr upoo approsch$ lothcwirh rcgard to the cmphasis whwhich is now placcO upon'jnairsren+

partiorlerly

H,'j:",'l:::'"".":9jgy:q.:tii;;;Hi'i,l"'ltli;fff ll,,j:,:ll":^r:r::i.-3tl!.ih";;';ilil;;, j,bilH,i::ly; j5.,i"*:fl ::*","u"co,"*Jiifi ft;i;a;;il:;*1;organisation thcorlcs.

thcir fumtionrl rolcci -

solcantcd Yllh ortanisaaionslchlnl!ludich dircct alrj e(irdicate amorgdl Oc oIhc.r.

(Ktlz rnd Kahn, 1966, pp, 39-,t7)

This classification is rcminisccnt of panons.s four .functionalimpcretives' discurscd in thc prcvious chaptar and rcflccts Katzrnd Kahn's predilcction for cxptaining rhe isctoru which they 3ce

ADAPTIVE SUESYSTEMS

NANAGEf/AL SUBSYSTETIS

ffi lqiiir:"i;lft fli:ds'.l"nr]f;[*lii*iiH,tr!Ti,L!"f Tf :i[:*:"t,""",1*,:*1,,*:if *,.j;i+i"Jl3]it j:

;1.rii}1l!i'1,1{,'#r;J;*iitffi }$;,ii,'fiit:'l;rystcDs mai ntain thcmsclves, and lhcir wholcanatysis is gcarcd tothis cndcavour. Thcy cxpucitly rccogolsc rhc f;itado;s of th!mcchanical modcl al a mcanr of rtudying rocial atfain , and argucthat lhc usc of such modctc ignorci lhc signiticancc'of stsiimopcnncss with rcspet to production and ntaintcnancc inouis and

soat.scuins proccss. Thc brsani jario;;aii;;;fi ii.i';,_:'#;viewcd as bcin3 oricntstcd t6wrr

:*,"10-11,1 TS. ro te i nrcrrigiti:h;iih'ff .L.r:H::Hfl1l

mind..A norm orpurpos;vc rarioliaiityl;r;iiiliJi,-,illiii riXit,llcnd srarc imptiB, rhu3 undcrwrirc; iil ;'r,iiJiiiliiil:.bi,ilrystcms arc dctiocd and rhciracrionsjras.d;ii;r;ff;;:;i; ih:j;H.,::::^,^ll",lh..-"j,]!.y_gr,!..,y*;r;""r,ulrliiiii.yrllilffi .1,',#:ff li',P."iif, :1i1,*i:lT;ii;-rF;;d;Iiffi Hffi

.;

[rarc.,r"in;i,,ipcii,i,t"il",1i"8l,Hli:iHli;Jt.,h'J$:ii:rpproach ir gcarcd to dclininS lhc impcrativcr wfricfr mafJ r-nc

rhc rociat iysrcm (te66. p.'3r). Trr;i qd tdi'$;iiimurt bc givcn to thcsc rnsintcmncc lnprB.

lnll Sociologiul Pandlgms and Orgunisational Anolysis

ryrrcm work, Thc nolion ofthc socio.tcchnlcal system, for cxam.Ih, Ir bascd csseniially upon the idea thst human and iechnicrllrrpcrativcs musl bc sstislicd in thc ilrtcrestr of lhc aystcm a! !wholc. Pcoplc, tcchnology, rcrources, ctc., sre rcgard3d as input!lu r purposively rational process gcarcd to ihc achicvcment of endrlllcs.

Functlonallst Organlsatlon Thcoo 16l'objcctivc' chtrrclcristica in thc, work riturtlon. As wa havcarsucd. rhi3 objcctivist rcarch for lhi j;i;-i;;6i,f ;;h;r:d;i;p_lslry{iolsf djvcrndwtfl rodryr;4il;ie;";iffi ;;;il:rEalrn8 lrlrnat3 in uc aubjcct itcr.

fl i."i#iid.il"Tff '#'fliff li::$i*"*ll:ff ::#,'#mrrc nas occn. distinct rnd lrowitg trcnd towards thi-iiir"-r,imcnt and . intcrcorrchtioo of oryrnirerioml

"d;.i-;rid;.Alongsidc devcl@mcns in rhc ryslcmr approch rhcii il'6;;;urons suryc of objecrivism. Thij har i.d -fi; ri;;;;;.H;;

U!'"',},',Xii:,'J$1,:X:;r,mlilhf :ru;:lfr :fl ]II

m$,mrg,lm'l*llliry,.,organisational srudics in thc objcitivisr mairion *as-if,ii ilnIductcd by Joan woodward in rhe iarty tgsorl*.i,a*Li-tr iiihlTil96s) s€r our rodiscovcr whcrhcr rhc irt*lpr* "r*iiiri.),iii?[iii'down by lhc classical managcmcnt ticorisir corr.tr"rJ;tril::incss succcssrvhcn put into practicc. Sinc" moit oi tiri-.. ;;;::menr principlcs wcrc concirned *irtr it c aiiign o'i';;;;i::ffi;structurcs, hcr survcy of lirms in sorth-east g-r*i irr."fr.-iiticottccrion of quirc a rridc rangc of quanir"iir.-a"i" ,iffiiii i'rilorSanisaaion of thc firm, manufacturinS pr(rc3s.3 ana mltoJi.

iiiffi !;:U::.:it;;nH'T*;;llJl?nli+hti#['f,ii:!L'l"'*,ff i':.rrfiTil1,"",1,"::..T*rl;::lri#ff :hypoth€scs dcrivcd from classicar management lhcory. thc atudv8cneratcd -a ncy,, one: rhat tcchnical ;;rfi;';;;,.' il; ;;,1important faclor in detcrmining organtsatton ttructurc and hed an

fl',,:'.1"11,lIfi lj?.:3fl ll:[x#'1;lilP1.:*1il;'?i#qusrons

..mcrgtng from rcsearch conduclcd clscwhcrc, Thc':f-r::l .in thc rclationship bcrwecn rcchnol;;, ;;;;ili$Sanrsation.was vcry much in rhc asccndcncy, ThI*oifof-iiliand- Bamfonh ( I e5 l), watkcr and Gu*iililri; d;;;;;;; ;tiL':;(1961), Saytc3 (l9jE) and ,.ny ortirr-*"r;ltdin;ffiilff;:

rnjinccring. It is this whieh accounls for its popularity withinllc context of manugemcna theory, a point lo n hich we shail reaurn.r lhc end of thir chapter.

Wc close our Ciscussion of open systcms approachcs to thcrtudy of organisations with a point which has links wilh our nertrrction: thc problem of operationalising systems notions within anl,nrpirical context. Mosl systems ar,alyses, such as llral of Katz and[uhn, are pitched at a lheoretical lezel anci. with appropriatcrpulifications with regard to iactors such as lhc dynamic andrrrangible noture of'struciure', the need to avoid .rcilication'

and.,rvcrsimplifi cation', are able lo prcsenl systcms thcory in prc,rssual terms. Theorists v/ho attempt to operationalise suih arrhcme within an empirical context. howcver, often lind theitot)cn systems approach rapidly turning into a mole tradilionalirructural. functional analysis, with an emphasis upon slructure.

'l}e use of the biologicalana!ogy.for thc saudy oforganisations islopular one because it is ureli suitcd to lhc DurDoscs of socialr popular one because it is suitcd to thc purposcs of social,

Ar a heuristic.dcvice the dynamic essence of the syitdms conccptr,r,r bc maintained as evcnts are concepluuliscd in tirms ofan opinicld of continuous acrion. Al on cripirical lcvcl, however,'thc,lr;uc ofboundary rlefinition almosl incvitlrbly lcads to anrrr irlentify relatively staric systcm parts. Open syslcms theoryl',.uenury relallvgty slalc syslcm p8rts. open systcms thecwhcn put into pra-cticc al an empirical lcvel, ottcn ends up asrl)stracted form of empiricism which defies the processualrlf the systems concept.

l.mpirical. studi es o! organisationalt',rArAC I en S lt cs

ln an earlier section we dcscribed how rescarch into behaviourrurganisalions in the post-Hawthornc periul revcrtcd to totrjectivism characieristic of early industrial psychology.\yslems notions implicit in the Hawthorne stuitids wcrJ-lalbandoned in favour of a search for corrclations bctwecnvirluol behaviour, job satisfaction, work performancc

i

(

ri

162 Sociological Poradigms ond Orgonisotional Analysir

ln csscnce, the Aston rcsearch hat soughl .o conccDtualisc andrnca-*ure orgarrisational s iuctu rcs, o,nO lt-.

"orlrri in'rri.i.f,iti,

o.rc acl., with a ricw to cxamining the rctarionstrioi Uerwctn'riirnrorgn a mJtlr-variate analysis of data. Or8anisitional structulcre conceptualiscd in rcrrns -of a num6er of di;c;;id;spccialisarion, srandardisadon, folmitiiaii"". ceirr-"ririii"illrguraaion and.flcxibility - which larScly dcrivc fom Wclcorcepruatisarion of burcaucracy in reimi of in idfi'i;;;.. il;noron ot 'contcxl' was congcptusliscd in tcrnt3 of faclori such arontrn and htstory, owncrchip and control, rizc, chartcr. technol._o8y, _localion, roourccr Lnd lnrcrdcjcnclirci--iiiifiorgadsations). Thc empiri_cat da.a Scn.rai.rt rt id,in iiiiiihar lc.d to revision and-relincmenr-of lhc var,oua dft;;-J;;;;assoeiatcd scalcs for mcasuri ng orSanisatioral chaila;;;i;;..;i1-?il3l1g" J.h,.

comparison of .nrotitcs' of ditfcren. lypcroryanisarions. t r har sh6wn rat rtre'norion of Uiicauc;;irT;mcans unidimensionat, arrd an empirical u*onorv Jiirii"-,i

Fancdonaltst Organlsatlon Thcory 16?

..,Orr discussion. of objcctivist rescarch on o.8anisations sinccw(xxrwaro-s study ca,l be no morc than illustrativc. Wc shsllcodinc our alrcrtion to lhc rnosl promincnt p:ccii oiworf, oircctrngurc rcadcr inter6lcd in obtaininga morc cncomDassinc vicwroissucs of idrzjarirra fivc Sciencc eiart rly or;ii[;l;;;i-";;;;;or so- This journal.is lircrally packcd with reporrs on reiiaic:. inrnc oDJccrivisr tnldition; indccd, onc miSht sai that it has helocd roralsc oDJec[vrsm as applied ro thc study of crganisations io thcrralus of an orthodoxy,

tional forms ha3 bcco contlnct .,,"ro.t,iicr.. fr .;;i'd#;.tlil"."n',;$.tlf."1Tl'",:l lilrrructurc has drlwn rlrenrion ro f!cr"r, .rtt iiiii., iJiiiili,ililx,ff ::1":iTt'.:ff fifl."Tl'l:f, ,$:j$;ffiiiiii,ilffiupon organisational structurc hrlrenrion and has lcd to dclailcd,-iill'.'fi

!I;l,f *ili"3i?[,ixli".,ffi m:.*,*:il^,""iliiiff ""?ilf S.:""i,'ff [1:'rlHfl,ttll',:'""*:'"1lf J*Slpromincnr. Much of rhis rescarciidilffiiilil;;;.".lIi'iilrcrcnt tcxr. produccd by ltett (tf2), wHctr, liic-if,c-1-riii

tr,t,1*hrryr':nr*f*ilt"$l$fficonctusions wirh rcsard ro thc mutiidimlilili';;i";; ;t.lri:ilti{liii::r#:":"x.,,ff

,if,.Ti:u*"1;;i",,ir,,,"*themselvcs with the mcasurcmcrionar strucruii.' iia-u ;;il;il::.:ll #irlll"l,irxil":,ruiilHiln., himsclf wirh rhc rclatiolrships berwc"n siru"ruiJani

Thc dcvclopmcnt of objectivist approaches to thc srudv of,organrsartons ovcr thc last tcn ycars h83 consumcd thc infcllciruei

,rlil*fn:l'*T:if#ill"tlrfir$1tii!fi ",1l1#itparadigm. Thcre is scarccly an organisalionrl va;;bi;;;ii;;not bccn mcasurcd in some form and cvcn conrclirca wiid lilfiiilL:.glj:.l1lir, scarch for,signifrc""cniiii,,-iiiii, i;ilh ;ilril:atty wilt prove .dcrcrminarcird fir; ryli-i"J-jiiii ipii'ir';:U;Atlminis.rrativc Sct.ncc euartalr, f;;- ;;;;r;i;.';il;i;objccrivisr rescarch on rte-rrmiiiai idil ;il'.;i;;;t;Ttrtntcturc, sizc and stn cturc, struclurc anc cfccri"inci,l Inidrucrurc rnd cnvironmcnr, as well rs many oui.iiiririirtiitiiiill!-Il9!li9*r human .retaiions ir.ri. L:'vJi'io,ii;;il ;ilii#fi ips wirhin. orjanisarions'r,aic-6cii;'ijicdi.'il,ft ' ffi:"1;mrlysis (Qulnn. lr7).#:.'Jli'iffi 'Iill*,'.'.,,:*g;iiH,lfli*[#lffi f iii*rork ha3 firmty cstrblshcd itrctf er ido;6;iil;il;il;: ilili;

ltA Sociological Parodigms and Organisatiitndl Analysis

organisation theory. lt sceks to advancc knowledgc and undcr.rtanding of organisations rhrough cmpirical analysis of a rcifiedrocid world. It is bascd upon an ontology, cpislcmology, mcthod.ology and view of human naturc chaBctcristic of the mostobjcctivist region of the funcrionalist paradigm.

Conting.ency theory: the contetnporaryltynthesis'lhe contingcncy approach to thc study of organisatiorrs has comerrto increasing promincnce during the lglG as a loosc sort of,lramework for synthesising the principal noticns of opcn systemsthcory with the resuhs of objectivist rcscalrh conductcd at aillcvels of organisarior,al analysis. Thc resuhs ofempirical rcscarchorr individual motivation, jcb satisfacdo;, teiierctip

-rrvfj,(nganisation structure, technology and mtn:, other organisetionalvrriablcs have been i:tcrpreicd witlin lhe'contcrt 6f a manac-crially orientated sst of proposilions, which assert lhal thcclfective opcration ofau errterprise is depcndcnt upon there being(rrecuve opcralton ol a,l errierprise is depcndcnl upon lhere beinSun appropriare match bet$een its intcrnal organisation and thinuturc ofthe demands placcd upon it by its tasks, its environment,,i

Funcrtonallst Otgonlsatloa The*t. 165

ffilo-1l1s,1nef

aaO rhrr rhc undcrsranding of rhe behaviour ofmana-gcrs In largc organisations neccorheraspe,io?r'hJffi #;:,,f-:;fiil;:#.i':,1'fl ?#i$:

fi,ilfili,li;1f:ffil'ullil,."",,orrch h8s ro bc in,c8rarcd h rhcsrstem as a whole ir to bc viabic. .rtcy draw an analogy hcrc withtne orsaos of rhc human bodv. whicti "r.

infiirar.i.itri,i,.irilii.ncrvous rystcm and the brein. Sccond, thcy arguc thlt anI WiJ'llt1'.:ilnf f

n|,'ro"' i'.a"ou"i ro ilr,"il',"-' diiii fi .Thus, rhc Lawrenii ana-Lor.,

r",*.:,.,".*r!-d.tt-IJJf:ilmfr [{ri,ii,liii*#!

H}$:flIIlit'jlrffiifiTit{itfi iiT,,-i*fffi,rifl*[dm#;il,:-:,*qfloversc and dynamic licld. such r

.n*i+',[1i:$i'$ifr:*lliit]"1]i,,ffi

rnd lhe needs of its mernbers.Thc.idea of a contiqgency theory of Jrganisation was lirst prc-

rcnted ie an explicit way by Lawrcncc and Lois:h in their b-ook

At thc most gcncral lcvcl wc lind it uscful tovicwrn orranization rs an:opcnsystcm in which the bchavion ofmcmbcnrrc thcirsclvcs intcrrolalcd. Thc bchavior of mcmbcrs of an octsrdestlon qrc alrblintcrdcpcndenr with $c formsl oryanizetionl the tasks to bciaccomplishcd. lhcpcrsonalitics of othcrindividualg,and thcunwrittru16 aborrt appropdutc bchavior for a mcmbcr. Undcr lhis conceorsyslcm. ficbchavi$of any onc managcr can bc sccn cs dctcrminci r

166 Soclological Parodigms and Organisotional Analysis

lheJarrc organisation. Thc human relatiom th€orists had slrcssedrhc importancc ofadopting organisational structurcs and managcr-irl stylca which permitted ahc satisfacrion of psychologlcal nccdsthrough, for cxamplc, participation in dccisions, the carrying ofr csponsibility, etc, In othcr words, they wcre 8encrally in favour oftn approach to organisation which movcd away from lhc formalrnd mcchanistic bureaucratic model towards a more flexiblc,loosely slructured and open organic model. The La\rrence andl.orsch study sugSeslcd lhal thc highly itnrclu:cd bureaucraticnrodel,from thc point ofview ofbusincss success, may be thc mostrllective in ccrtain circumstances.

Functlonallst Organlsation thcory 167

fl

I

tions was ncccalary lo Drovidc ar:L:ll.,i: i nf , h c

. concr u si ons J:il,il.,rllH iil j.i.ii,,# if,:

iltrT3::lr:"ll?'r"#iiJ'"tJi"'orsanititionsandbchavroui

nUr,xd#i*{rirrr*r,#,,*'',ffi ;[fi.:i!!i,'i".'Jxi::!if L*::ii"#J:i'"T,*.rT$ilx';HI*.r,f jlllig:-rlfl impllcarions of rhcir iltt"8dil;;;fi;:

Thc timc was ripc, thcreforc, for a reconciliation ofthe detailedpropositions of classical managcment thcory and human rclations,which for many years had stood in opposition to one anolhcr.t,l,rwrcnce and Lorsch's contincencv aooroach aoocared to show al.rwrcnce and I-orsch's contingcncy approach appcared to show a lway forward, suggesting that the appropriatcncss ol managcment :

principlcs depended upon thc narurc ofthe situalioll in which they :wcre applied. Moreover, Jther impcrtant crnpirical studics werc Igcneraling simiiar rcsults. Woodward's ( lgjE) study had demon.\trated lhat commercially successful firms organised thcmselvesin a manner compatiblc with thcir tcchnology. Bulrrs and Slalker( lflil)had demonstraicd that successfulfirms adopted anagrproachto organisation and managemenl which was'consisteni withrlcmandsplaced upon ihem by their environmcnt, particularly withrcgard.to the dcgrce of market and lcchnological ohangc. Emcryrnd Trisl ( 1965), wcrc also drawing artcntion to lhe ilnpirtancc olrnvironmental demands upon organisations and, aioni with othcr'luvistock collcaguer, had long argucd lhat orjanisition was a lvrriablc opcn to choicc (Trist al al., 1963). The cmpirical work on .

organisation structurcs conducted in thc 196{b by thc Astongroup '

(ltgh ar al., 196), and Richard Hall (19?2), anroir3 many orheri(for cxample, Udy, 1959), was poinling to th€ rangc aod diversity dorganisational forms and dirccting attention to thc nccd for somcform of explanation. Fiedler (1967) had dcvclopcd a conlingencythcory of lcadership. Thompson had suggcstcd that .rhc

basia[uoction of administration appears to bc CG,alignmcnt, not merelyof pcoplc (in coalitions) but of institutionaliscd action - oi,tcchnology and task cnvironment into a viable domain, and oforganisational design and structure appropriatc to il (Thompson, .

1967, p. 157). Burns and Stalkcr had urgcd that .thc beginnins dl.lministrativc wisdom is thc swarencss that thcrc ii no onc'optimgm typc ofmanaSemcnt systcm' (Burns rnd Statkcr. 196t,;, ;

fl [",:'.":L*'f#;yds,ii::1.ffi fl #it:ti,.Tli,*T$their lead, or conlincd rhcmsctvii i;'filit6;irffi;;'A;;;VlfiOUs esDaclr (tfthe r.aarir..^^- -^,.-r !- !.^ ^r.-r^.-.rious aspects.of rheconringcncy mdct in itl s*cttrairorm.iiii

resurr, rncreis within thc subject of orSanirafion thcory at rhi'cscnr umc e Dody of rcsearch which may bc dcscribcd ai rcprc-scntativc of a'conringcncy view. or .conringiili;;;;;;;r;.:';;i:1"-:::.11.":1-._911..!:l!itrl:l"-co.lof rhcnaturcof '.'contingincythcory' ar a conccprual tcvct.r. ln iB p;;;-a;i; ih.;;;i;#;:Iapproach rcally srand! for linlc mori than e looscir;rs;;i;e';:iof propositions- which in principie il;il;ii"d ifil;;3ysrems vicw of organisation, which are commiltcd lo somc f6rm0l mu tvanalc analysis of thc rclationship bctwccn kcy organisa-rionat variablcs as i. basis of organisatio'nal-a";tyiil, iia"iilf".j,cnuorse thc view that lherc erc no universall! valid rulcs oforganisation

"na .rn"g"riir. '- '" ''" "'*"' tduu r urcs oI

ln the rcst of this scction wc attcmpt to draw togethcr thc variousof thc conlingcncy approath and provlai' a

'.i-rr.-iiiiri)nr ol rhc pnnciplcs upon which it is based. Insoiar ar oncto anatysc organisations as social systems from a manager-

t gi li :^f-yl : y,, t h e conti n8e nc y modd ;h ich ;; ;;;;";i;;;;g way towards an integralion ofcontcmporery iisucs ani con-rs and provider a framcwork for exaininini rilsia.tm;;aty of thcory and rcsearch in this arca.

contingency model for organisationalalysr.t

The contingency theory of organisatlon Dostulatca thatorganisatioB and thcir functioning can bi undcntood intcrms of principlcs which appty to bioloSical organiims.It is bascd upon an opcn syrtcms vicw which rcgardr en

l

ITl{if,

-,fll2r. ln short, it appcsrcd thar a continScncy thcory of oryanisit