5 ﺕﺎﻬﺑﺮﭘ ﻢﮨusbrl.org/him-vi.pdfChief Electrical Engineer/USBRL B.B.S.Tomar Chief Engineer/North Sandeep Gupta Chief Engineer/South Associate Editors Mudit Bhatnagar

5

Surinder Kaul

Chief Administrative Officer

Editor in Chief Mohit Sinha

Financial Advisor & Chief Accounts Officer/USBRL

Editorial Board R.K.Choudhary

Chief Electrical Engineer/USBRL

B.B.S.Tomar

Chief Engineer/North

Sandeep Gupta

Chief Engineer/South

Associate EditorsMudit Bhatnagar

Chief Engineer Bridge/KRCL

Rajesh Agarwal

Executive Director/IRCON

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Contents From editor’s desk: - 2

Project news: - 3-10

Employees of the month: -11

Officers joined the project:-12

Technical section

Indian Railways Vision: 2030 Some Suggestions :- 13-20 Indian Railways Vision: 2030 Some Suggestions Supplementing

Data/Explanatory Notes :- 21-43 Tunneling Through Water Bearing Strata :- 44-51 Steel Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete and its Comparison with Wire Mesh :-

52-53 Solar/Wind Hybrid Power Plan :- 54-55 Indian Railways : Vision for Solar Energy The Way Forward :- 56-59 Implication of Himalayan Geology in TBM Working :- 60-64 Design and Proof Checking of Steel Mega Bridges – Part 1 :- 65-72 Stability Considerations in Rock Slopes :- 73-74 Estimation of Rock Load for the Design of Tunnel Lining :- 75-80 Quality Control of Steel :- 81-84 Introduction to Arc Welding Process :- 85-97 Solar Energy: Theoretical Perspectives :- 98-99

. General section

Town Along USBRL project Gool :- 100-101

Probiotics and Prebiotics as Functional Food :- 102-104

Children’s Art :- 105-106

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Project Alignment

From the Desk of Editor-in-Chief

As we all know, the project is passing through the most difficult geology. Surprises and challenges abound. So does the human ingenuity and the undying spirit of engineers, geologists, and other experts in the field. They work out solutions and move ahead. Their experiences are once again chronicled and recorded in this issue of Him Prabhat. The project is not isolated to the Indian Railways, rather a part of it. Mr V.K.Agarwal, former Chairman Railway Board, in his article on Indian Railways Vision 2030: Some Suggestions has given a guiding note arising out of his experience on Indian Railways from his association of around four decades. The vision is a remarkable piece which spans the entire gamut of working of Indian Railways inter alia covering operations, maintenance, human and other resources, customer aspirations, management, industrial relations etc. hardly having left any significant aspect unattended. The article is accompanied by certain supplementary data and explanatory notes without which the vision statement would not have been complete Water, is a necessity for life. But when engineers encounter water while tunnelling it is a challenge that can test the nerve and the skills of engineers. Mr. Ram Pal, XEN / Sangaldan / USBRL is a young engineer and he deftly handles the serious subject of water in tunnelling in his article, Tunnelling Through Water Bearing Strata. He has discussed different approaches for handling this commonly encountered but difficult problem. Another brilliant engineer of this project Mr Sumit Khajuria, XEN / USBRL posted in Udhampur has in his article titled Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete And Its Comparison With Wire Mesh has taken up for discussion this technique that adds to strength on one hand while being easy and cost effective on the other. Global warming and other green issues recently attracted leaders from all over the world to aim at a 2 degree Centigrade reduction in global temperatures. This is possible by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and gradually moving to alternate sources of energy. Solar and wind are one of the prominent and most visible and viable alternatives in hands of mankind. Mr Nitin Verma, a promising engineer posted as Deputy Chief Engineer in the Electrical Engineering Department of this project has taken up the excitement of solar and wind energy in his article Solar / Wind Hybrid Power Plan.

Mr R. K.Choudhury, Chief Electrical Engineer / Con / USBRL Project has shared his experiences on installation of a 1 Mega Watt Photovoltaic Cell Solar Power electricity generation plant installed on the roof of Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Katra Railway Station. Mr Chaudhary outlines the technical parameter, technical issues that were encountered and how were they were met in his article.

The project of Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) is chiefly a tunnelling project. One of the frequently asked questions on the project is use of Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs). The TBMs in this project encounter one of the youngest mountains and young as they are – they are still rising and not unexpectedly, they in their youthful step they are unpredictable and spring surprises without any notice. Mr B.B.S.Tomar, Chief Engineer on USBRL Project as a senior contributor and his younger colleague Mr Amit Kumar, Deputy Chief Engineer / Chenab / USBRL have discussed these and other aspects in their article Implication of Himalayan Geology in TBM Working.

This project has attracted best of expertise available in different fields. Mr R.K.Singh, Deputy Chief Engineer / KRCL is one such repository of Bridge Design and the design and building of mega structures like that of Bridge on River Chanab has him working there. This bridge has experts from all over the globe in collaborating. The experience of this kind needs to be recorded and shared. Mr R.K.Singh, comes out with his first instalment of experience from this and other bridges on the project and his past experience in this field in his article Design and Proof Checking of Steel Mega Bridges – Part 1.

The natural slopes have fascinated not only the poets and artists. They are a matter of keen interest and serious concern for geologists and engineers and Dr. T.Ramamurthy, former Professor in Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi with his years of experience brings forth for the readers the issues related to slope stability in Stability Considerations in Rock Slopes. He has dealt with the failure of natural slopes and has given insights into rock falls, slides etc with a view to steps required for enhancing stability.

Mr Rashmi Ranjan Mallick, Deputy Chief Engineer / Design in Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd. has contributed his article on Estimation of Rock Load For The Design of Tunnel Lining where he takes the readers through rigorous methods of estimation of tunnel rock loads – imperative in NATM.

Bridge on River Chenab has bought to fore the best among all those who are involved in building it. Mr Kishan Rawat is a young engineer posted as XEN/Chenab. He shares his experience in his article Quality Control of Steel (Mechanical, Micro and Chemical Tests) and Mr Vinay Mani Tiwari posted as AXEN/Chenab has prepared an Introduction to Arc Welding Process.

While the USBRL project has done a major first by installing a 1 MW Solar Power Plant, an article Solar Energy : Theoretical Perspective touches upon the potential, issues and difficulties to be overcome in a fully solar energy dependent future.

Mr Deepak Singh, Executive Engineer posted at Sangaldan on USBRL Project takes forward the series Towns Along USBRL Project where he walks the readers through the geography, climate and other economic aspects of town of Gool.

Bacteria necessarily are not always harmful. Mr Mohini Prabha Singh, daughter of Mr M.B. Azad, Assistant Engineer at Jammu Tawi brilliantly introduces the readers to the importance of certain micro-organisms whose presence in gastrointestinal tract is not only healthy but necessary. This makes her article Probiotics and Prebiotics as Functional Foods is a must read for everyone.

The section belonging to children brings freshness and happy sparkle to this bouquet of serious articles on engineering. The art of Miss Poorva Gupta student of Class II, daughter of Mr Neeraj Kumar, brings the marvels of nature in bright colour with soaring birds and bright sun in her contribution. Miss Ashmia Jahangir student of Class VII and Master Adil Jahangir of Class VI, niece and nephew respectively of Mr Jameel Ahmed bring to the readers the fascination of a huge load of tongue twisters. Try reading them aloud with your family and I can guarantee hours of fun and laughter. Hope this issue shall make the compilation extremely interesting for readers.

Mohit Sinha EDITOR - IN -CHIEF

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P R O J E C T N E W S

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MEETING WITH THE CONSULTANTS AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 13TH OF APRIL 2015


GM VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 22ND OF JUNE 2015

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AMBERG TEAM AT T-45/P2 SANGALDAN ON 6th OF NOVEMBER 2015


MOSR VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 24th OF JUNE 2015

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CONSULATIVE COMMITTEE AT SRINAGAR ON 9th OF JULY 2015

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INDEPENDENCE DAY CELEBRATIONS AT HEAD OFFICE SATYAM COMPLEX JAMMU

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ED RDSO VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 15th OF SEPTEMBER 2015

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DESIGNERS REVIEW MEETING HELD ON 17th OF SEPTEMBER 2015

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CRB VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 16 & 17th OF OCTOBER 2015

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Employees of the Month

Sh. Ashwani K. Bhardwaj

Sh. Santosh Kumar

Sh. Ashwani Kumar Bhardwaj, CA, is an obedient, sincere, hard working and intelligent worker. At

present, he is working as CA with CE/South of USBRL Project. He joined Railways as English

Stenographer on 10th April, 1996 and worked in Hd. Qrs. Office at Baroda House, New Delhi in

Confidential Cell of Personnel Branch. After that, he got transferred to USBRL Project in

September, 1997 and was posted under Dy.CE/S&C-II/UHP. He has done commendable job in

office work for the opening of UHP-Katra section of USBRL Project. He has also rendered his best

services under deputation with KRCL from 2006 to 2010. Thereafter, he joined back to USBRL

Project in 2010 at Udhampur & later on at Jammu HQ Office of USBRL Project in April, 2012. He

is doing his assigned duties very efficiently. He likes simply cooked food. He likes decent clothing

and a great love for music. He loves the nature and is regular in yoga.

Best moment of life: To find a son of soil from J&K in Railway’s highest officer.

Sh. Santosh Kumar is working as PA to Chief Engineer/North/USBRL. He is sincere, hard working and intelligent worker. He had joined JURL Project in Jan., 1995 under Dy.CE/Const/Udhampur as CA. Since inception of office of Dy.CE/C/Udhampur there was no typist available. He has handled all the typing works very efficiently. After the opening of JURL Project he joined USBRL Project in Jan., 2005. He has done commendable work for typing of estimates of Banihal-Qazigund section & Tunnel T-80. He also assisted in typing work of book published on Tunnel T-80. He has also done a commendable work during the time of opening of Qazigund-Baramulla section in inclement weather conditions and typing of CRS papers. After the opening of Qazigund-Baramulla section, he joinedunder CAO/USBRL/Jammu. He is doing his assigned duties very efficiently. He has also done a good job in control room during the opening of Udhampur-Katra section in July, 2014.

Favourite Food: All foods simply cooked.

Favourite Colour: All light colours

Best Moments: Opening of Jammu-Udhampur section

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S.No. Name Service & Batch

Previous Posting Educational Qualification

1.

Sh. Amit Kumar Dy.CE/Chenab

IRSE - 2003 Sr. DEN/3/Ferozpur B-Tech (Civil)NIT Kurekshetra

2.

Sh. Niraj Kumar Dy.CE/Reasi

IRSE - 2001 Sr. DEN –II/FerozpurM-Tech (Geo-

Technical Engineering)

IISC, BangaloreB-Tech, BIT Sindri

3.

Sh. Mohit Kumar Dy.CE/Banihal

IRSE - 2001 Sr. DEN-I Moradabad AMIE (Civil)

4.

Sh. B.K. Sharma Dy.CE/Anji

Induction in Group A-2001

DITS 12.06.2003

Dy.CE/BD/Baroda House

M.E (Structure)(DCE Delhi),AMIE (Civil Engineering)

5.

Sh. Radha Mohan Singh Dy.CE/HQ/JAT

IRSE - 1998 Dy.CE/Br./Lucknow/Northern Railway

M-TECH (IIT Kharagpur)B-Tech MIT Muzaffarpur

6.

Sh. R.K. Sood Dy.CE/JAT

IRSE - 2001 Deputation RLDA 2013-15 (SG) as Real

Estate AND Urban Planner

AMIE(Civil Engg), MBA

7.

Sh. K.S. Baweja Dy.CE/Sangaldan

Induction in Group A-2004

DITS 19.06.2006

Track Supply Officer Baroda House

Diploma in Mechanical Engineering

Officers Joined the Project

12

Indian Railways Vision 2030: Some Suggestions By

V. K. Agarwal

Indian Railways is the Lifeline of the Nation. Indian Railways has a glorious past, a turbulent

present and a bright future. Honourable PM Shri Narendra Modi wants to see

Railways as the backbone of India’s economic development.

Source: White Paper on IR (Feb. 2015).

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Indian Railways (IR) is not only an organization but an institution in itself, and while external factors may affect it, it also has a profound effect on them. A holistic approach in problem solving and future planning is required for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the system, thereby restoring public confidence. In the present environment when commercial focus has assumed predominance, the Indian Railways has also to keep the interests of the lower strata of the society in mind, especially those below the poverty line.

1.2 A system of I.R’s size and complexity is difficult

to examine holistically, while isolated examination of specified areas will not give optimum solutions. This is a dilemma which a railway manager has to face. May be, this is the reason why it is said that the Indian Railways is the most studied organization, but the implementation of the Study Reports is lacking. Action in one area may have adverse repercussions/problems for other areas and unless the total package is decided, part implementation will not be fully effective.

1.3 The present situation on IR and the various challenges it is facing have been outlined in the White Paper (Indian Railways – Lifeline of the Nation – Feb. 2015). It has been highlighted that IR has suffered considerable under-investment during the last several years and as a consequence capacity augmentation as also the quality of service have suffered.

The Honourable MR Shri Suresh Prabhu during his Budget Speech (26th Feb. 2015) has announced several measures to mitigate the problems and outlined the need for developing a Vision 2030 document.

1.4 Developing a long term Vision (Vision 2030) for such a gigantic and complex organisation is not an easy task. The problem gets further compounded by the fact that IR’s development at an accelerated pace is not only needed for the Transport sector per se but also for the larger canvas of Environment (Reducing GHG emissions) as also to give a Kick-Start / Boost to the Economy. Further, while several New Technologies are evolving fast but these have to be suitably selected / modulated also to address concerns of Climate Change, Inclusive Growth, and Sustainable Development. The problem solving approach has not only to be based on the popular commercial dictum where More is produced from Less for More profit but where More is produced from Less for More people (not just More profit).

1.5 The following, inter alia, highlight the direction in

which IR has to move: 1.5.1 The National Transport Development Policy Committee

(NTDPC) in its recent Report (2014) envisages growth of Rail’s market share in freight traffic to 50% (from existing 30%) by the end of 15th Plan (2032). It has accordingly proposed an increase in the investment in Railways from about 0.4% of GDP in the last two decades to around 0.8% in the 12th Plan (2012-17) and then rising to around 1.1 to 1.2 percent of GDP in the following three Plans (2017-2032).

1.5.2 A recent Report on “Low Carbon strategies for

Inclusive Growth – Report of the Expert Group (April 2014)” of the Planning Commission, Government of India highlights the need for completion of Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) on the Golden Quadrilateral connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai & Kolkata and its two Diagonals by the year 2030 for improving the market share of Rail to 50%. This will reduce GHG emissions as Rail is 4-6 times fuel efficient vis-a-vis Road.

1.5.3 Economic Survey 2014-15 placed before the Parliament

on 27th February 2015 (one day after the Rail Budget) forsees fast development of Rail Infrastructure as a means to ‘Kick-Start’ the Economy as was done earlier during the NDA Regime through Road projects viz. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY) and National Highways Development Programme (NHDP).

Supplementing Data / Explanatory Notes are attached. These have been referred in this Note wherever considered necessary.

13

V. K. AGARWAL

Former Chairman Railway Board &

Ex-Officio Principal Secretary to Govt. of India

1.5.4 It may not be out of place to mention that a study by Balance Research Institute, Melbourne regarding Changing Relativities between the Road and the Rail (1999) had also predicted growth on Rail Traffic at a much faster pace vis-a-vis Road traffic (Refer Para S.4.10).

2.0 Brief Overview

2.1 Transport is an essential pre-requisite for development / growth. In addition, transport by itself also accelerates growth. Integrated development of various transport modes is essential for optimum utilization of the resources. One major factor which has come to fore in recent years is the need for making the transport ‘greener’ that is basically reducing the Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. The transport mode selection has to keep this vital aspect also in view.

2.2 About 90% of the traffic in our Country is carried by Rail /

Road modes. Rail is 4-6 times fuel-efficient vis-à-vis Road and therefore reduction in the market share of Rail vis-à-vis Road is a serious concern for environment too. It may not be out of place to mention that the market share of Rail in freight traffic has gone down from 89% to 30% and for the passenger traffic from 69% to 15%, since 1950-51.

2.3 Planning Commission and other recommendatory bodies like

the recent National Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC) have all been proposing a growth in the market share of Rail to a value of around 50%.

2.4 Growth of rail traffic, and that too at an accelerated pace

to make up for the lost market share, is not possible only by doing some system improvements. The rail infrastructure needs major capacity expansion inputs. The capacity expansion on Indian Railways (IR) has lagged behind due to paucity of resources. To give example, the rate of construction of New Railway lines in the pre-independence era was roughly 3 times faster than that after the Independence. The rail network has grown by about 23% while the traffic has grown by more than 1400 per cent, since 1950-51. (Refer Para S.4.11)

2.5 The Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals connecting

the metro cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata (Delhi-Kolkata; Delhi-Mumbai; Delhi-Chennai; Mumbai-Kolkata; Mumbai-Chennai; Chennai-Kolkata) constitute about 16% of the Route kms of IR but carry around 60% of traffic and are having severe capacity constraints.

2.6 To relieve the traffic congestion, Dedicated Freight Corridors

(DFCs) are planned for the Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals. Work on Delhi-Kolkata and Delhi-Mumbai Corridors is already in progress and is likely to be completed by 2017-18. However, the speed at which the work is being done needs special inputs and efforts so that all the six DFCs are available for use, say in a period of next 10 years

2.7 Construction of these DFCs which are being built more or less parallel to the existing double line tracks will release the congestion on the existing tracks as these will then be carrying only the Passenger traffic as the Freight traffic will shift to the newly constructed DFCs. Average speeds of travel both for passenger & freight trains will also improve. This opportunity can be taken to provide better safety for passenger trains on the existing routes by suitably upgrading them through signalling and track inputs and speeds increased to 160 kmph, and for some trains the speeds can also be enhanced to 200 kmph.

2.8 It may not be out of place to mention that International

Union of Railways (UIC) defines a speed of 200 kmph or more when obtained on an existing track as High Speed. However, for the newly constructed track speeds beyond 250 kmph are defined as High Speeds but in such cases (where the new tracks are constructed for the purpose of achieving High Speeds) generally speeds of 300-350 kmph are targeted. So broadly we can have two types of High Speed Rail Systems namely:

1. Trains running at 200 kmph on the existing tracks.

(We can term these as Common Man’s High Speed trains.)

2. Trains running at 300-350 kmph on newly constructed tracks. (We can term these as Conventional High Speed trains.)

2.9 One more issue which is intimately related to

environment is to provide a mechanism so that some Road traffic could shift on to Rail and for that construction of New Railway lines in the areas where such traffic is available is essential. In addition, some new Railway lines are also needed from Social / Economic considerations. As has already been mentioned in para 2.4 our New Line construction has been very slow and there is an urgent need to boost it. While the Railway Vision document of 2009 indicated construction of New Railway lines at the rate of 2500 km per year but at least 1000 to 1500 km per year appears essential.

2.10 Appreciating the need for faster growth of Rail

Infrastructure, the National Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC) headed by Dr. Rakesh Mohan in its recent Report (2014) has proposed an increase in investment in Railways from about 0.4% of GDP in the last two decades to around 0.8% in the 12th Plan (2012-2017) and then rising to around 1.1 to 1.2 per cent of GDP in the following three Plans (2017 to 2032). It will be seen that proposed increase is more than 2 to 3 times the present levels.

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2.11 The Railway’s Vision Document of 2009 had also suggested an investment of Rs. 14 lac crore on the IR in a ten year period i.e. about Rs. 1.4 lac crore per year. For an organisation having an yearly revenue earning of Rs. 1.4 lac crore (year 2013-14) it is a tall order. In his Budget Speech (26th Feb. 2015) Honourable MR has indicated an investment of Rs. 8.5 crore in the next five years on the IR i.e. an average of Rs. 1.7 crore / year. For this level of funding innovative financing models / strategies will be required coupled with a significant support from Government of India.

3.0 Needed Interventions by Government of India for

Accelerated Development of Rail Infrastructure Government of India (GOI) could support the following

four projects by declaring them as National Projects: 3.1 New Railway Lines Construction of New Railway Lines at the rate of 1000

km/year according to a ten year blue print made for the purpose. This can be done on the same pattern as the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) for Road projects and full funding provided for the purpose by the GOI.

3.2 Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFCs) All the six legs of Golden Quadrilateral connecting

Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata and its two Diagonals should be provided with Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) wherein 40% grant could come from Government of India as a Viability Gap cum Accelerated Development Fund. This will be more or less on the pattern of National Highways Development Program (NHDP) for the Road sector.

3.3 Common Man’s High speed – 200 kmph on Existing

Tracks The Common Man’s High Speed (200 kmph on the

existing tracks) should be planned on the existing lines of the Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals simultaneously with the shift of freight traffic to the DFCs.

Provision of such High Speed trains will necessitate removal of level crossings (which in any case is being done because of parallel running DFCs), fencing of tracks and signalling inputs for providing ‘cab signalling’. These measures will also improve the safety of travel for other passenger trains running upto speeds of 160 kmph. It is expected that this work will cost on an average of around Rs. 15 crore per km.

This will put IR on the World High Speed Rail Map with about 16% of its Route length being classified as High Speed Rail Network. This will also full fill the Vision of the Honourable PM in regard to running of Bullet trains on the Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals.

3.4 Conventional High Speeds of 300-350 kmph Financial / economic justification for these lines may be

difficult for our Country but their provision is essential for the image of IR as well as for gaining knowledge / access to modern technologies which will also benefit the existing IR system. These lines may cost around Rs 100 crore per km to construct and the following three lines could be planned for completion in the next ten years. The work can be planned through PPP mode / Foreign Assistance.

1. Mumbai-Ahmedabad 2. Delhi-Chandigarh-Amritsar 3. Chennai-Bangalore

4.0 Expansion of Rail Network – Action Plan by IR

4.1 For any Transport organisation basically three broad areas

viz. Maintenance of assets, Operations, and Expansion of capacity are very relevant. On the IR all the three areas have suffered, primarily due to paucity of resources, but the major casualty has been the expansion of network / capacity. This has caused severe traffic congestion especially on the busy routes. The average point to point speeds of trains which should be 70-75% of maximum speeds are much lower being about 33% for Goods / Freight trains and less than 50% for most of the Passenger trains. Expansion of network (New Lines / Doublings) will greatly reduce traffic congestion, permit much higher point to point speeds, and enhance capacity of the System.

4.2 With the suggested interventions by the GOI in four

National Projects outlined in Para 3.0, the Indian Railways can now concentrate on Doubling of other busy routes, and on financially viable / strategic New Line Projects. Presently IR undertakes construction of about 700 km of Doublings and about 500 km of New Lines every year. This pace of construction can be continued in a planned manner, based on a ten year blue print made for the purpose with defined priorities, completion schedules, and assured funds.

5.0 Making Loss Making Passenger Traffic Self

Sustaining 5.1 Indian Railways earn about Rs. 1,40,000 crore in a year out

of which contribution by the Goods / Freight traffic is 67% and by the Passenger traffic 26%. The IR bears Social Service Obligations of about Rs. 25,000 crore per year by carrying Passenger services below cost – making the Passenger traffic a loss making segment and needing subsidisation from the Goods segment. If this money was available to the System it could have been gainfully utilised for network expansion and capacity augmentation.

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6.2 Growth / Development 6.2.1 Financial performance alone cannot be taken as a

measure of Growth / Development for a major organisation like the Indian Railways. Organisation’s impact on issues / areas like Sustainable Development, Climate Change (Mitigation / Adaptation) and Inclusive Growth have also to be considered (Refer Paras S.4.1 & S.4.2).

6.2.2 Sustainable Development / Sustainable Performance need

that all the actions / activities are guided by Five Es (Efficiency, Effectiveness, Ethics, Environment, and Evolution). This is equally true for Individuals, Group of Individuals (Teams), Systems, and Organisations. (Refer Para S.3.12)

6.3 Management Ethos 6.3.1 Indian Railways has a large customer base and not

counting other rail uses, about 2.3 crore passengers travel by it every day (1 out of 50 in our country). With 13 lac employees (13x4 = 52 lac including family members), 1 out of 250 in our country is a Railwayman or his family member. This number will further increase if about 10 lac railway retirees are also counted. Railwaymen by and large have an inherent loyalty to the Organisation and this trend can be seen in several other world railway systems too. The Organisation is under single management. The System has the support of Staff Unions who have shown signs of maturity and by and large good Industrial Relations have been maintained over the years.

6.3.2 It is, therefore, essential that the System is handled with

extreme care and efforts made to improve the matters even further. This will not only benefit the IR but will have a favourable impact at the National level too. ‘Participative / Democratic styles of Management’ to ensure willing and deeper involvement of employees (Refer Para S.3.4), attention to ‘Employee Contact Areas’ to check employees falling prey to corruption (Refer Para S.3.8), and use of ‘Thought Dynamics’ to improve the bond between the Management and the Employees (Refer Para S.3.9) are some of the styles / systems which can be consciously used / followed. Further, use could also be made of Ancient Indian Philosophy e.g. for making ‘Ethical Values’ sustainable and for a deeper understanding of Sustainable Development / Holistic Development. (Refer Paras S.5.13 & S.5.14)

6.3.3 The effort should not only be confined to improving the

bond / faith between the Management and the Employees but also between IR (through its Management / Employees) and the Rail Passengers / Users (Refer Para S.3.2). For the purpose, Value inputs to all Railwaymen and Fair and Transparent Systems will greatly help. Systematic use of ‘yoga’ to train railwaymen and their families will be an added assistance.

5.2 It may not be out of place to mention that loss making Passenger traffic occupies more than 60% of IR’s Capacity while generating less than 30% of IR’s Revenue. The growing needs of having more and more Passenger trains compels IR to increase their numbers with consequent increase in traffic congestion and also in revenue loss.

5.3 Passenger fares on IR were deliberately kept low since

inception and in the year 1950-51 the value of Traffic Ratio (Ratio between the average passenger fare per km to the average freight rate per tonne km) was 0.5 (Financially desirable value for the Tariff Ratio is around 1.0; on Chinese Railways its value is 1.2). However, over the years the Tariff Ratio has further declined to 0.3 resulting in loss in the Passenger segment of traffic. If the Tariff Ratio is restored to its original value of 0.5, the Passenger traffic will no more remain a loss making segment (Refer Para S.5.4).

5.4 The argument that subsidised passenger fares benefit the ‘poor’ is also not entirely true. The Economic Survey 2014-15 (Feb. 27th, 2015) clearly highlights that the subsidised fares on IR benefit the wealthy Households more as in non-suburban passenger segment only 28.1% are from the bottom 80% of the Households. (From this it can be inferred that this percentage from “below the poverty line” Households will even be lower.) It may be desirable to enhance the passenger fares gradually to make the Passenger segment financially self sustaining. Further, in consonance with the DBT (Direct Benefit Transfer) approach, subsidy could be targeted to the ‘poor’ through the Concession route (say 30-50% concession on the tickets purchased) to cover all those “below the poverty line”.

5.5 To make the system of fare fixation more rational, transparent, and acceptable to general public it may be desirable to link it to some national index like the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Changes can then be done automatically say once or twice a year.

6.0 Some Broad Policy Directions 6.1 Problem Solving Approach

6.1.1 Every problem has several angles / dimensions and all of them have to be dealt with holistically. Further, depending upon what weightage is given to each one of them a suitable solution has to be evolved. This is not an easy task. (Refer Para S.3.1).

6.1.2 Indian Railways is a gigantic and complex Organisation and the problem solving approach has to keep in focus its “Special Features” for optimal results. (Refer Paras S. 2.1 to S.2.10)

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7.5 Common Man’s High Speed – 200 kmph on Existing Tracks : The proposal is to cover the entire Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals with some trains running at 200 kmph with very small inputs as mentioned in Para 3.3. This will be a low cost solution and the length covered will also be large (more than 10,000 km of double line). The work will also get completed early say in a period of about 10 years i.e. along with the completion of DFCs. It will benefit large number of passengers by providing High Sped Trains to them at affordable cost.

7.5.1 Indian Railways are already working to enhance speeds to 160 kmph on some selected stretches on these routes. R&D efforts will have to be directed to find solutions for enhancing speeds to 200 kmph by suitable inputs to existing tracks and / or providing special types of coaches for the purpose. International experience which is available for Standard Gauge (SG) High speed Systems will need examination / modulation for our Broad Gauge (BG) network.

7.6 Conventional High Speeds of 300-350 kmph: For the purpose new tracks will have to be constructed which may cost around Rs. 100 crore per km as mentioned in Para 3.4.

7.6.1 In this case technical support and other assistance from pioneering countries like Japan, France, and China could be sought in the initial stages. The track gauge could be Standard Gauge (SG) as is available on these High Speed Systems. Efforts made to develop a ‘fixed infrastructure’ which can take the ‘rolling stock’ from these three countries. Finally through the TOT (Transfer of Technology) route the manufacture of rolling stock for High Speed Trains can be started in our Country also with a view to export them at a later stage.

7.7 Electric Traction vs Diesel Traction: Basically from fuel economy and traffic output considerations boost to ‘electrification’ is proposed. If we examine the issue from ‘environmental’ considerations this approach will have merit provided the used electric power is from cleaner sources. Power from Coal may be 2-3 times more polluting than the Power from Diesel. (Refer Para S.4.6-C)

7.0 Technology / Engineering

7.1 To make the boundaries between Science, Technology, and Engineering more explicit the recent UNESCO Report (2010) can be a good guide. This relationship has been indicated in sketch shown below : (Also Refer Paras S.4.3, S.4.4 and S.4.5)

It will be observed that ‘Engineering’ using ‘Theories’ from ‘Science’ and ‘Tools’ provided by ‘Technology’ provides ‘Products and Benefits’ to ‘Society and Nature’ keeping in view the ‘Resources and Needs’.

Role of ‘Engineering’ is becoming more and more difficult and complex because ‘Needs’ are increasing, ‘Resources’ are becoming scarce, ‘Nature’ e.g. Environmental considerations are dangerously close to being breached and ‘Society’ needs Inclusive Growth. All these requirements need newer and different types of ‘Technologies’ and applications of ‘Science’.

7.2 Dr. R. A. Mashelkar has suggested MLM approach, also termed as Gandhian Engineering, wherein More (performance) is obtained from Less (Resources) for More (People), not just for More (Profit). This MLM way of innovation takes into account the aspects of affordability and sustainability. (Refer Para S.3.11).

7.3 Technology Foresight in this complex environment, needs people with T-shaped skill profiles viz. People with an open mind and having in depth knowledge of their own domain as well as competence in a much broader spectrum of managerial, interpersonal and other skills. (Refer Para S.4.7).

7.4 Regulated use of Natural assets / Resources (Nature) and of the Technology (also includes using the right type of Technology) is essential for Propserity. Collier (2010) has summarised this Challenge as under : (Refer Para S.4.6-B)

(a) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION = PROSPERITY(b) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY - REGULATION = PLUNDER(c) NATURE - TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION = POVERTY

Regulation requires Good Governance.

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7.7.1 Efforts are on in our country to significantly increase the

share of Clean ‘Solar’ and ‘Wind’ powers in the total energy-mix. However, this will pose problems of Energy Storage as extra Solar / Wind power will have to be stored for use in other periods to balance the Grid. If suitable Energy Storage Systems (ESS) are not in place than precious Clean Solar / Wind power will be wasted. Capacity of Energy Storage Systems (like Pumped Hydraulic system, Batteries) is rather limited. To avoid wastage of Clean Solar / Wind power, one approach could also be to use it during the period it is available for activities like (i) Conversion of Captured CO2 from Coal Plants into Fuel (ii) Generation of Hydrogen for use in Transport (iii) Its use on the IR’s Electrified Routes during periods of availability.

7.7.2 Diesel Locos can be of two types viz. Diesel-Electric

Locos and Diesel-Hydraulic Locos. On IR, mostly Diesel-Electric Locos are used. In these Locos electricity generated through the use of Diesel, powers the propulsion motors. The Electric Locos on the other hand collect electric power through the overhead ‘Catenary’ from the ‘Grid’ which after stepping down the ‘Voltage’ through ‘Transformers in the Locos’ is used for propulsion. Efforts can be made to develop a ‘hybrid’ Loco which can use both Diesel and the Electric power. Even though more expensive, such a ‘Hybrid Loco’ will provide the flexibility to use Electric power when Clean (e.g. Solar power when in excess in the Grid during day hours) and use Diesel during other periods when supply is primarily coal based. Further, it is also suggested that IR can also attempt to develop Locos which can use ‘Hydrogen’ as fuel.

7.8 Making Power from Coal Plants ‘Cleaner’ : It has been

brought out in the Report of the Expert Group on “Low Carbon strategies for Inclusive Growth”, Planning Commission, Government of India (April 2014) that even in the year 2030 about 63% of the power will be coal based. To make the power from the coal cleaner, the CO2 emissions from the coal plants could be captured and the captured CO2 then converted into fuel using extra solar power from the grid during the period it is available. This will permit continued use of coal for power generation from environmental considerations and the extra solar power could also be used (sort of storage of solar power) to convert CO2 into useful fuel.

7.8.1 Indian Railways should support the R&D efforts in this

regard not only from environmental considerations but also from their larger business interests as the coal traffic is major component of their freight traffic.

8.0 Customer Focus / Business Development

8.1 Strengths and Weakness of the Indian Railways should

always be kept in focus while making changes / improvements. (Refer Para S.5.1)

8.2 Any small wrong act damages the image of the whole Organisation. On major organisations like the IR its impact is proportionately much greater and so concerted efforts and surveillance are needed to avoid such situations. This is essential for developing a bond of faith between the Rail Passengers / Users and Rail Management / Employees. (Refer Para S.3.2)

8.3 While higher levels of Service Quality / Facilities are

welcome but it is essential to ensure that at least the Minimum specified levels of Service Quality / Facilities are provided to the Rail Passengers / Users all the time. (Refer Paras S.3.6 & S.3.7)

8.4 An Organisation seeking to improve its market share of

Freight traffic to 50% (from existing levels of 30%) and to cater to the full demand of Passenger traffic will need several innovative measures and efforts towards Customer Focus / Business Development. Advise / Support of external experts will help.

8.5 One suggestion is to capture piecemeal Freight traffic, when

the capacity becomes available after the construction of DFCs, through Roll-on Roll-off (Ro-Ro) service where road trucks are carried on rail wagons. These trains can be run regularly to a fixed time schedule. This will be a win-win situation both for the Truckers and the Rail as explained in detail. (Refer Para S.5.10)

8.6 As the capacity becomes available, especially after the

completion of DFCs, the System could be suitably deregulated wherein ‘private players’ could run selected specified Freight and Passenger trains on the IR. (Refer Para S.5.9)

9.0 Project Management

9.1 For speedy development of IR Network and Capacity,

timely execution of large number of Projects will be an inescapable need. Project Management is a complex and involved activity. (Refer Para S.4.8)

9.2 Effective systems for Dispute Resolution like Dispute

Review Boards, Integrity Pacts overseen by Independent External Monitors, Conciliation and Arbitration methods etc. would have to be in place.

9.3 It is good that IR has appointed a Committee (Dr. E.

Sreedharan Committee) for the purpose and action could be planned based on the recommendations of this Committee.

10.0 Cleanliness

10.1 This is an area which is not only vital but also needs

continuous activity / monitoring. Indian Railways is actively participating in Government’s flagship programme ‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ and Honourable MR in his Budget speech (26th Feb. 2015) has also announced formation of a new Department for keeping the Stations and Trains clean. Railways also plan to set up ‘waste energy’ conversion plants near major washing terminals to dispose waste in an environment-friendly manner.

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10.2 Toilet facilities of stations and in Trains are being improved.

Bio-toilets are being fitted in more coaches. The RDSO has been tasked with making available within a period of six months a design for vacuum toilets.

10.3 Efforts will have to continued relentlessly to achieve world

class ‘cleanliness’ norms.

11.0 Human Resource Development / Training 11.1 Management Ethos as discussed in Para 6.3 with

‘Participating / Democratic’ styles of management and other inputs will improve the bond / faith between the Management and the Employees. Active participation of Employees in the organisational working with ensue and several new innovative suggestions would follow. Relationship between Rail Passengers / Users and the IR Organisation will also improve.

11.2 Indian Railways have an elaborate system of Training which

is imparted to railway officials at various stages covering initial recruitment training, periodical refresher training, promotional training and training in special areas as required. Besides the aspects of ‘Skills’ suitable inputs in ‘Values’ should also be given to them during such courses to ensure their holistic development.

12.0 Organisational Structure

12.1 The existing structure of I.R. is intrinsically sound and is still

perfectly capable of delivering the goods. What is exactly required is to allow the LR. to run on commercial principles (subsidies to be duly compensated), provide a level playing field to it vis-a~vis other transport modes for free and fair competition, duly compensate I.R. for correcting the capacity constraints and asset rehabilitation arrears which are basically the outcome of heavy social service obligations which the system has carried over the years, and lastly relax excessive Government controls allowing it to fix tariffs on Commercial (rather than Political/Social) considerations. (Refer Para S.5.5)

12.2 Organisational reforms on IR as suggested by the National

Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC) – 2014) are difficult to implement and may take upto 5 years for implementation as per their own assessment. For this period, some interim recommendations have been made by the Committee. Such an approach cannot be allowed on IR where war like activities go on 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. (Refer Para S.5.5)

12.3 Railway Board is responsible for the policy laying

(Ministerial functions) and its implementation (Operational functions), and this is a good system. This ensures better accountability and avoids any conflict between the Ministry and its Operational arm, both being the same. (Refer Para S.5.5)

12.3.1 “The distinctive character of combining both policy and

operational responsibilities and the flexibility and control that this offers” has been seen as a positive ‘Strength’ of IR in a Study by M/s A. F. Ferguson & Co. (Refer Para S.5.1)

12.4 Merger of Departmental Cadres is not desirable as has

been explained in detail. (Refer Para S.5.7)

13.0 Project Financing 13.1 For faster growth of Rail Infrastructure sizeable

increase in investments on Railways is needed. Brief details in this regard can be seen in Paras 2.10 & 2.11.

13.2 Mr. A. V. Poulose, Former Financial Commissioner,

Ministry of Railways in his Article titled “Evolving Methods of Funding Projects” – RITES Journal (January 2009) discuss the issues at length. He observes as under:

“Given the massive requirement of resources for

development projects across the world, and the inability of any sector by itself to raise the resources, there is no escape from joint efforts by all the sectors. In this background, no method of funding can be rejected out of hand. All the methods would need to be adopted, by the Public and Private sectors pulling together, for implementing projects for the benefit of society.”

13.3 The Report of the High Level Committee (D. K. Mittal

Committee) for ‘Improving the Financial Health of Indian Railways” (Dec. 26th, 2014) could also provide some inputs.

13.4 For making arrangements for Funds on such a large

scale for Infrastructure Projects. several innovative systems / methods will be needed. It will be desirable to get advice of external experts for the purpose.

14.0 Need for an Expert Group cum Think

Tank Indian Railways on its fast growth path and for

effectively achieving the Vision 2030 will need assistance in three broad areas :

(i) Technology / Engineering (ii) Customer Focus / Business Development (iii) Project Financing It may be desirable to have a Group comprising of

suitable experts from these areas who meet jointly say once a month to address the issues, suggest innovative solutions and also act as a ‘Think-Tank’ for the IR. Joint meetings are being suggested for ensuring integrated / optimal solutions to issues / problems

15.0 Indian Railways – Vision 2030

• Indian Railways should be a financially viable system

and carry more than 50% of Country’s Freight traffic and also meet fully the demands of Passenger traffic, with least cost to the Society / Nature.

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• Rail network should reach all parts of the Country having at

least a total Route Km of 80,000 km (65,000 km existing + 15,000 km to be added).

• Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals connecting metro

cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata should have Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) for running Freight trains at speeds of 100 kmph / 160 kmph.

• With the shift of Freight traffic to DFCs, the existing network

on the Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals should be exclusively used for Passenger traffic and with suitable inputs like elimination of Level Crossings, provision of Fencing, Cab-Signalling, etc. ‘safety of travel’ improved on the System and speeds of Passenger trains enhanced to 160 kmph, with some Special Trains achieving speeds of 200 kmph (Common Man’s High speed – 200 kmph on existing track).

• Conventional High Speed Trains at 300-350 kmph should be

running on the following routes : - Mumbai – Ahmedabad - Delhi – Chandigarh – Amritsar - Chennai – Bangalore • System being a major provider of Transport and also being

under Single Management should closely interact with other Transport modes for achieving optimal transport output.

• Indian railways should not only be a part of larger Transport

System (both National & International) but should consciously play its role as a part of larger Environmental system (Climate Change; Swachh Bharat Abhiyan; Waste Management) and of the Economic system (Boost to Economy; Job creation, Inclusive Growth) for Sustainable Development.

• Safety of travel should be accorded the highest priority and

zero failures of Men, Materials, Machines and Systems ensured in all areas of IR’s working.

• The System should manufacture Locos, Coaches, Wagons and

other materials / equipments in its own Production Units or through other India based Units. ‘Zero Defect Zero Effect’ and ‘Make in India’ should be the guiding dictums of manufacture / production.

• Railway Management / Employees should not only be Fully

Skilled in their respective areas of working but should also possess High Value Norms, a Deep Loyalty to the Organisation and Extreme Concern for the Rail Passengers / Users.

• By precisely assessing the needs of the Rail Passengers / Users and accordingly providing high quality service to them, the Organisation should not only have a satisfied Rail Passenger / User base but also a Segment which has complete faith in the IR.

• The image of the Organisation should be that of an Efficient and Modern Rail System comparable to any other Advanced World Rail System.

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Indian Railways Vision 2030: Some Suggestions

Supplementing Data / Explanatory Notes

By Sh. V.K. Agarwal S.1.0 Select Data about Indian Railways (IR)

• Indian Railways (IR) is one of the world’s largest rail networks with 65,808 Kms of Route length. The size of the network – gauge-wise as on March 2014 is as follows :

Gauge Route

Kms Running track kms

Total track kms

Broad Gauge (1676 mm)

58,177 81,914 107,513

Metre Gauge (1000 mm)

5,334 5,708 6,688

Narrow Gauge (762 mm and 610 mm)

2,297 2,297 2,564

Total 65,808 89,919 1,16,765

• With its more than 150 year old history, IR is a state-owned public utility of the Government of India under the Ministry of Railways.

• Indian Railways carried during the year 2013-14,

8397 million passengers (about 2.3 crore passengers per day) and 1051 million tonnes of freight traffic (about 3 million tonnes per day).

• The Golden Quadrilateral (connecting four metro

cities of Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai) and its two diagonals, which constitutes about 16% of Route Kms or 25% of Running Track Kms carries around 60% of the traffic of the Indian Railways (IR).

• Due to Severe Capacity Constraints market share of

Rail in Freight traffic has gone down from 89% to 30% and for the Passenger traffic from 69% to 15% since 1950-51. This is a major concern for Environment too as Rail is 4-6 times fuel efficient vis-à-vis Road.

• Indian Railways has : Bridge Important 741

Major 10,944 Minor 1,25,035

Total 1,36,720

Level Crossings Manned 18,785 Unmanned 13,563 Total 30,348

Locomotives Steam 43 Diesel 5,633 Electric 4,823 Total 10,499

Conventional Coaches 51,288

EMU Coaches 8,337

Wagons 2,45,267

Number of Passenger Trains run daily About 12,000

Number of Goods Trains run daily

About 7,000

Total Staff 13.05 Lakh

• The IR Organisation is very vast and intimately connected to several actions / organizations :

About 2.3 crore passengers use the IR system daily

i.e. one out of every 50 in our Country. IR has about 13 lac employee (13x4 = 52 lac family

members) meaning thereby that 1 out of every 250 in our Country is a Railwayman or his family member.

Carries about 30% of freight traffic and is associated with several related organizations.

About 19,000 trains (12,000 Passengers + 7,000 Freight) run on the system daily i.e. about 70 lac trains per year.

Close association and interaction with Public / Politicians – MPs – MLAs / Press / Media.

Interacts with practically all the Departments of GOI and the State Governments.

Works round the Clock – IR never sleeps. Has separate Rail Budget since 1924 and so its

financial performance is explicitly measurable. The Budget is discussed with keen interest in the Parliament.

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V. K. Agarwal

Former Chairman Railway Board &

Ex-Officio Principal Secretary to Govt. of

India

• Indian Railways, functioning as Ministry of Railways, is headed by the Minister of Railways. The apex body entrusted with the management of this mega enterprise is led by the Chairman Railway Board (CRB). Members of the Railway Board include Financial Commissioner, Member Traffic, Member Engineering, Member Mechanical, Member Electrical and Member Staff who represent their respective functional domains. For administrative purposes, Indian Railways is divided into 17 Zones, each headed by a General Manager. Zonal Railways are further divided into smaller operating units called Divisions. There are 68 operating Divisions in Indian Railways at present, each under a Divisional Railway Manager. In addition, there are a number of Production Units, Training Establishments, Public Sector Enterprises and other Offices working under the control of Railway Board.

S.2.0 Special Features of Indian Railways (IR) Management

S.2.1 Controlled De-centralisation Essential

Indian Railways cover a large part of the country carrying heavy traffic, both passenger and freight, with the assistance of about 13 lakh employees. For promoting uniformity of action (non-uniformity can affect safety or invite public/staff reactions), provide integration of the total operations (essential for effective optimization), as also to handle emergencies, it is essential that a centralized approach is used for managing/administering the system. On the other hand, a fair degree of de-centralization is also required so that effective and speedy decision making is possible at the lower levels including the grass root levels. We, therefore, need controlled de-centralization which has a judicious mix of both centralization and de-centralization.

Centralisation and de-centralization are the opposite ends of an organisation continuum. In practice, there can be neither complete centralization nor complete de-centralization, both being relative concepts. Further, any de-centralization is possible only when a fair degree of centralization has been achieved. Railway managers have to ensure a dynamic balance between these two requirements for different issues, situations, problems etc.

Need for uniformity, coupled with efficient and effective decision making down the line, requires that a broad framework of rules and regulations should be centrally issued and then the field staff should have the necessary freedom to take decisions keeping this broad framework in mind. The centralized issue of rules and regulations is thus essential for the system. The 'Core' could be issued centrally (By Railway Board/Ministry) and details issued by Zonal Railways/ Production Units/Divisions within the frame work of the rules and regulations prescribed through the 'Core'. In many situations this approach is being followed on LR. in letter and spirit but needs further inputs.

S.2.2 Delays Affect Very Large Numbers All activities on the railways affect very large number

of persons and can be termed as ‘high leverage activities’, Railways carry 2.3 crore passengers and 3 million tonnes of freight every day. Passenger trains having 24/26 coaches carry about 1500 to 2000 passengers. Any delay in train running, decision making, any ‘bandh’ disrupting traffic etc. affects a very large number of people as not only the concerned train is affected but the trains which are following also get delayed. Punctual running of trains is normally upper most in the minds of all railwaymen. A conscious feeling that this is an activity with such a high leverage will further enhance their commitment to the cause and they may also be able to convince other citizens to avoid actions resulting in delays.

S.2.3 Optimisation an Inescapable Need

The Railway organisation is divided geographically into seventeen Zones and further into 68 Divisions. Several Departments also exist on 'Functional' lines in each Division/Zone. In addition, there are several Production units/PSUs. For achieving best results, co-operation / co-ordination amongst various Units/Functions is not enough and planned efforts have to be made to achieve the best possible optimization. The Units/Functions cannot be allowed to maximize their outputs at the cost of the overall optimization process. In view of enormous size of I.R. even a small improvement in the optimization process can result in significant gains and managers have to be conscious of this fact all the time. This puts a great strain on them in view of a large number of Units/Functions.

S.2.4 Round the Clock Working – IR never sleeps

The operational working on the Indian Railways is such that work goes on, round the clock, 365 days in a year. Workers at lower levels work in shift duties. However, most of the Supervisors and Managers working during specified duty hours have to be responsible for round the clock functioning too. During emergencies or abnormal working, the stress on the system increases manifold, as the total output has to be generally maintained. Supervisors and Managers have to be conscious of these special requirements and act accordingly.

S.2.5 Management of Change Difficult

Change is the law of nature and the system design has to be such so as to accept it with ease. On railways this poses special problems because of several reasons which, interalia, include the following:-

(i) Any change has to be done in a manner so as not to

affect the running of trains and the work has to be managed either by suitable line blocks or diversion of traffic to other available routes. Making a temporary diversion on the existing route is generally very difficult and costly.

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(ii) Induction of any modern equipment, e.g. long welded rails/ concrete sleepers will give full benefit only when full sectional lengths are completed. This takes considerable period of time as generally premature renewals are not resorted to keeping the scarce financial resources in view.

(iii) The new movable stock e.g. modern diesel and

electric locos, coaches etc. when introduced cannot be restricted to specified areas from operational considerations and have to ply on long stretches of the system needing maintenance facilities. The existing movable assets have a life span of 25-30 years. The maintenance facilities are thus required, both for the existing and the modern stock. The facilities, therefore, have to be provided for the new stock and the existing facilities have to continue, till the old stock remains in use.

From this it will be clear the any change has to be

planned with care and must be monitored with precision to ensure that both the new and the old systems work safely and efficiently. An incremental model may be more useful than a radial approach. Further, change may start yielding financial returns late, i.e., only after work associated the change is completed and so the change should be planned when absolutely necessary and after due technical / financial analysis.

S.2.6 Customer Focus Extremely Important The system has a large number of customers and has a

large area of activity and even a small slip by I.R. is bound the effect the customer interface. Large organizations always have more of this problem as any wrongful act on the part of their employees affects the image of the whole organization. This highlights the need for much greater precision on the part of railwaymen in their activities and to take special care to ensure that the customer needs are met.

S.2.7 Inputs in Ethics and Values Extremely Beneficial We have 13 lakh employees and if an average family

size of 4 is considered, the railwaymen and their families will account for 52 lakh out of a population of about 125 crore i.e. one out of every 250 persons in the country is a railwaymen or his family member. This does not include the rail users and people dependant on railway activities, whose number is much larger. Any positive inputs to railwaymen will not only benefit them and their families but also a large number of citizens who come in contact with the I.R. system.

Railways have an elaborate system of staff training. This is essential because railway working is very complex and specialized, and staff have to not only be trained at the time of recruitment but suitable inputs have to be given to them at periodical intervals by way of refresher courses, promotional courses, and courses designed for specialized areas. While aspects of ‘skills’ are largely covered in these training courses, it would be extremely useful to include, in a planned way, major inputs for the aspects of ‘values’ also.

. This has special significance in the present environment

when value erosion is being observed in all walks of life. Further, it is observed that a skilled employee may be efficient in his work, but need not be a good citizen. While on the other hand, a value oriented employee will not only be a good citizen, but will also be an efficient worker, Value inputs help in all round development.

The advantages of these value inputs will not only be limited

in the concerned employee but will favourably affect his family and in turn affect him. Further, the people including the rail users who come in his contact, will also benefit from it.

S.2.8 Excellent Industrial Relations a Must

The Organisation is highly labour intensive. Stoppage of work and train running affect very large number of people. The I.R. is rightly considered a Strategic Department by the Government of India. It is said that war like activities go on in the Indian Railways, 365 days a year, 24 hours a day. The need for excellent relations between the Management and the Workers and ensuring that I.R. have well satisfied and loyal staff is thus a prime need. Excellent Industrial Relations are a must and in this direction railways have taken several measures which have to be regularly monitored and further fine tuned.

S.2.9 Safe Operations – Need Zero Failures of Men,

Materials, Machines and Systems Safety of train running is extremely important and in an

organization having a huge volume of activity (19,000 trains being run daily; 12,000 Passenger + 7,000 Freight) this is possible only if Zero failures of Men, Materials, Machines and Systems are ensured. This is an extremely difficult task and a major challenge to all railwaymen. Public have a lot of faith in the safety of the railway system and most probably, this is the reason because of which even a small accident on the I.R. attracts much wider publicity and criticism.

Railwaymen should not be guided by the accident statistics of rail vis-s-vis road and also that about 0.32 accident occurs on I.R. in a day (117 in a year) inspite of 19,000 trains being run but should respect public sentiments by making their travel absolutely safe. This will need a complete change in attitude in addition to several technical and training inputs on the journey towards ‘zero failures’ of Men, Materials, Machines and Systems.

S.2.10 Indian Railways have an All India Character

Indian Railways is a department of the Central Government, and State Governments do not have any direct role in its management. On the other hand, most of the other activities in the domain of Central Government have corresponding set-ups at State levels also. To give an example, the Ministry of Transport of the Government of India directly controls the 'National Highways' and the State Governments control the State roads / District roads, through their State Transport Departments.

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S.3.2 Need for Mutual Faith

Confucius when asked about the greatest necessities in a good Government, replied that the ruler should be able to provide enough food to its subjects, should have enough weapons for their protection and people should have faith in the ruler. When further asked about the priorities of these necessities, he mentioned, “Weapons are the last priority. If we choose between the remaining two, food can be dispensed with for one must die one day. But if the people do not have faith in their ruler, they cannot exist”. What is true of Rulers/Administrators is equally true for Leaders and Managers.

Faith primarily relates to the

emotional/intellectual/spiritual planes and not to the physical plane. One develops faith in an individual/organization based on his personal contact as also the image or the reputation of the concerned individual/organization. Any act resulting in breach of faith results in a situation where its restoration becomes extremely difficult and invariably takes a long period of time. If one wants to enjoy the reputation of being a ‘gentleman’ he has to be continuously considerate to others.

This poses special problems for organizations as any

wrong act on the part of any of their employees not only damages the image of the concerned individual but of the organizations as a whole. Bigger organizations, therefore, need much greater surveillance on their part to ensure that their employees act ethically and the faith of their clients/customers is not breached by any one of them.

S.3.3 Human, Technical, and Conceptual Aspects in

Management

At the time of my joining Indian Railways (I.R.) in the year 1962, Management as a subject was not very popular. However, inputs in various forms through articles, lectures, experiences of the seniors etc. were passed on to the junior officers. One such article influenced me the most and was a guiding factor throughout my career.

It was brought out in this article that for every manager,

the job entails three broad aspects/areas of management, viz. (i) Human aspects (ii) Technical aspects and (iii) Conceptual aspects. As a manager progresses from the lower to the higher level, the ‘Human aspect’ broadly remains constant at around 50% while the ‘Technical aspect’ reduces from 40% to 10% and the ‘Conceptual aspect’ increases from 10% to 40% of the total managerial activity. This clearly highlighted two things to me. Firstly, the ‘Human aspect’ is extremely important and will be required throughout the service period and secondly as one progresses in the hierarchy there is a great need to develop conceptually, i.e. to understand and feel the System as a whole.

Management of I.R. is more akin to Defence Organisation, where the Chief Executive is responsible for the functioning of the entire network in the country. Management of I.R. system is difficult due. to its vast expanse and need for coordination with a large number of People / Organisations / State Governments which, interalia, include Members of Parliament and Members of Legislative Assemblies.

S.3.0 Some Broad Concepts

S.3.1 A Problem has several Dimensions Jhuggis (Slums), alongside railway tracks in the

metropolitan areas, are a common sight. These are constructed by poor people needing shelter, sometimes with the tacit approval of the concerned government officials. As the density and numbers of dwellers increase, they become a problem for the safety of Railway track, thereby requiring speed restrictions for the trains. In some cases, train speeds have also to be checked further, to safeguard the Juggi dwellers and their families including the children, who roam about freely in the Railway track area. Eviction of these dwellers is extremely difficult due to socio-political considerations and in many situation mafia groups also take charge of such areas. State Governments see the problem mainly from the angle of rehabilitation of slum dwellers and want Railways to bear/share cost of such rehabilitation programmes. On the other side, the Courts issue directions for their removal as the land belongs to Railway and Jhuggi dwellers are un-authorised encroachers. Eviction drives usually fail due to stiff resistance from the dwellers, mafia groups and politicians. If strong action for eviction is taken, it can result in a law and order problem. Social organizations feel that it is a human problem. Railways find that they are not able to get back their own land and train safety is jeopardized.

If we examine this problem critically, we find that it has

several angles namely:-

i) Human angle (Need for shelter/shelter after eviction)

ii) Corruption angle iii) Financial angle iv) Legal angle v) Law & Order angle vi) Political angle vii) Social angle viii) Safety angle

To find a solution to this apparently small problem, one will agree that all these angles/dimensions have to be dealt with holistically and depending upon what weightage is given to each one of these, a suitable solution has to be evolved. This is not a simple task as different groups have conflicting claims and the solution may need negation of some of these

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Under normal working conditions managers will generally follow the management styles matching their own temperament/nature. However, the style is sometimes consciously modified to suit some special situation e.g. in an emergency one may resort to style I (Exploitive Autocratic) to achieve immediate results. Better and sustainable performance with reduced stress levels will be possible with Styles III & IV and, therefore, managers following styles I and II should try to gradually transform themselves towards styles III & IV. We were advised by our Seniors to develop a favorable ‘emotional bank balance’ with Junior officials. This needed a management approach more akin to styles III & IV. Such an approach helped in better relations with the junior officials, made them motivated and loyal to the management, and reduced the stress levels. Mutual faith between the Seniors and the Juniors also improved. In such a situation even some annoying act on the part of the Senior, was not taken amiss by the Junior, unless it surpassed the levels of existing ‘emotional bank balance’.

S.3.5 Four Management styles – Time Lag Effect

It will be interesting to study the time lag effect as suggested by Likert. Style I manager takes over an operation and may have good performance results. (In the mean time, however, the Intervening variables are declining). As a result style I manager is promoted. Intervening variables basically reflect the internal climate of the organisation like performance goals, loyalties, attitudes, perceptions, motivation etc. These affect inter-personal relations, communication and decision making in the organization.

My choice to work as Senior Divisional Personnel Officer (and not as Divisional Superintending Engineer) of a major Division (Lucknow Division of Northern Railway) and later my posting as Member Staff in the Railway Board were to a very large extent an outcome of this perception. Working as Advisor (Vigilance) in the Railway Board also helped in understanding the ‘Human aspect’ better and even while working as Chief Engineer (Construction), the Personnel and H.R.D. functions were under my charge. My scientific temper coupled with a holistic approach to management and interest in Yoga philosophy and ancient Indian wisdom further helped. Logic and intuition were both used in problem solving and also to get a better ‘conceptual’ feel of the I.R. system and its various sub-systems.

S.3.4 Four Management Styles

The management styles followed by managers can be

broadly classified into four groups as under:

I. Exploitive Autocratic. II. Benevolent Autocratic. III. Participative IV. Democratic.

Table below indicates the Manager’s confidence and trust in subordinates, subordinates’ feeling of freedom, and involvement of subordinates, for the four types of management styles. Surveys have clearly indicated that high producing units followed styles III & IV irrespective of manger’s field of experience or whether the manager was in ‘line’ or ‘staff’ position.

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Management Styles Manager’s confidence and trust in subordinates.

Subordinates’ feeling of freedom.

Manager’s seeking involvement of subordinates.

I Exploitive Autocratic No confidence or trust. Do not feel at all free. Seldom get ideas and opinions.

II Benevolent Autocratic Condescending confidence and trust (Master Vs Servant)

Do not feel very free. Sometimes get ideas and opinions.

III Participative Substantial but not complete confidence and trust.

Feel rather free. Usually gets ideas and opinions.

IV Democratic Complete confidence and trust.

Feel completely free. Always gets ideas and opinions.

Table : Four Management Styles

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A style IV manager now takes over the operation (Because of the time lag, the Intervening variables, which were adversely affected by the style I manager, now start to adversely affect the performance). Under the style IV manager, performance starts to decline, but the Intervening variables start to improve. However, top management sees that since the style IV manager took over, performance started to decline. The style IV manager is replaced by style I manager to tighten up the operation. The Intervening variables favourably affected by the style IV manager now start to affect performance favourably and the cycle repeats itself.

In other words, the cause and effect relationships that

appear on the surface, may be very misleading because of the time lag impact of the Intervening variable. Top management may give credit to a wrong manager.

Ref.: AIMA (All India Management Association ) –

“Managing Change Through Organisational development” – HR series No. 30 (2002).

S.3.6 Service Quality

The capability of any organization to provide service to

its users can be broadly grouped into five levels:-

Level I Even Basic requirements not provided. Level II Basic requirements just managed. Level III Basic requirements are maintained and

continuously improved. Level IV Break throughs are made in new areas. Level V Services could be Benchmarked vis-à-

vis World standards. Some users may be satisfied with Level II Services while

large numbers will be satisfied when Level III is ensured. Levels IV and V will give them higher levels of satisfaction (Delight – Ecstasy).

For any organization, it is necessary that in its various

wings, there should be a broad similarity and the differences in service levels should not be high. To give an example, Level V in some areas will not be providing a high level of satisfaction if it is present along with Level I in some other areas. For satisfaction levels to be maintained in a uniform manner on a longer time frame, it is essential that the differences in service levels (or phase differences between them) should be low. To elucidate the point further, if an organisation has most of its Service Quality falling in Level III, some in Level II or some in Level IV may be acceptable but not in Level I (which may create negative impact) or in Level V (which may not create desired favourable impact).

A case history will further elucidate the point. On I.R., Stations have been classified into A,B,C,D,E and F categories according to their commercial earnings/functioning. Stations in A & B categories are major stations of the I.R. system. Details of ‘Passenger amenities anf facilities’ for all the six categories of stations have been notified. On many Stations however, these could not be provided fully due to financial or other constraints. It was seen that while at one Station the most modern announcing system has been provided, on the other Station (In similar Category) an outdated system exists which does not even function, most of the time.

It was, therefore, considered appropriate to group the

facilities, to be provided for each category of Stations, by dividing them into three broad levels viz. (i) Minimum Essential Facilities, (ii) Recommended Facilities and (iii) Additional Facilities. It was stipulated that Minimum Essential Facilities must be available at all stations in perfect working condition. Divisions or Zones were not to consider provision of Recommended or Additional Facilities unless the Minimum Essential Facilities were available. This greatly helped, as the effort to gain mileage by providing the most modern facilities at some isolated locations, at the cost of Minimum Essential Facilities got checked, Minimum Essential Facilities were ensured in working order at all Stations and the phase anomaly between minimum level service and higher level service reduced considerably.

S.3.7 Service Quality – User Capacity Levels

The capacity levels of the Users have also to be kept in the

mind by the organizations. Higher level service, even though excellent, may not be of any use to a User if he does not possess the necessary capacity for its use. Travel in ‘upper class’ even though more comfortable may not be possible for a poor man as he can barely afford ‘second class’ rail travel. Railway notifications, e-mail, internet may not be of any use to an illiterate/semi-literate person who may have to be guided by signages or announcements in local language.

S.3.8 Employee Contact Areas

In early 1980s (when working with the Government of Iraq)

I had come on a short leave to India and by chance accompanied a friend who was going to attend a ‘lecture’ in the Baroda House (Headquarters of Northern Railway). In this ‘lecture’, a Security Expert from U.K. gave the details of various ‘gadgets’ which were used in the Departmental stores to check thefts. The Expert started his lecture by mentioning that design of ‘gadgets’ is made on the premise that 10% people will be honest under all circumstances and so will not steal things, 80% are those who may steal provided they know that they are not being observed, and balance 10% are people who will always find some ways and means to steal. The gadgets were thus targeted against that majority 80% who were ‘fence sitters’ and once they knew that they are being observed, will not steal.

This concept I thought could be made use of in

management too. The percentages may vary but it highlighted that majority of the employees will be ‘fence sitters’ and in case they know that the Management (which is personified in the form of Managers, Supervisors, Employees and Systems) is vigilant and alert they may not fall prey to temptations and may maintain better levels of integrity. The items like overcharging in Over Time and Travelling Allowances, Non-payment of Electric bills and House rents, Misuse of Passes and other such activities which were not given major Managerial thrust earlier were seen as areas where financial returns may be small but monitoring of which will definitely improve the value structure of the employees. Such areas were termed as ‘Employee Contact Areas’ and greater importance and thrust was given to them.

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S.3.9 Thought Dynamics

As Senior Divisional Personnel Officer (Sr. DPO) on

Lucknow Division of Northern Railway ( Joined in the year 1976) a close inter-action with the Union Officials and the Staff was involved. The Division had an employee strength of about 30,000 including the casual workers and as Head of the Personnel Branch, the job, in addition to involving Human Resource Development (HRD) functions, also needed lot of inputs for maintaining good Industrial Relations with the two recognized and several un-recognised unions.

The Division was known for its poor Industrial Relations.

The situation at the time of my taking over the charge was especially bad as my predecessor had been on sick-list for about four months and a lot of arrears and problems had accumulated. Tempers were running high. In some cases rightly so, because of the delays in decision making, and many a times the situation was also being exploited by the Union officials and the Staff for their selfish ends. Both the recognized Unions had differences among themselves and opposed each other, putting the Management in difficulty.

I was advised by a ‘spiritual man’ to make effective use of

the concept of Thought Dynamics where purer thoughts are generated to make the situation less troublesome. It was explained to me that a person can hurt the other person at three levels, i.e. (i) by physically assaulting him, (ii) by hurting him through words and (iii) by having hostile thoughts about him and thus hurting him through these thought waves unconsciously. The ‘spiritual man’ further mentioned that in the present day environment the managers generally do not indulge in the first two but the thoughts which are not visible are kept hostile towards others. I was advised to make my thoughts purer to the extent possible by auto-suggestions to Self, before discussing problems/issues with Union officials/Staff and see its favourable impact. Only one rider was mentioned that such an action should not be for a selfish end but should only be for the Organizational good and for the benefit of the Staff.

While dealing with the Staff and the Union office bearers,

this aspect was given due importance and hostility through thought waves was reduced to the extent possible by giving auto-suggestions to the Self. The results were rather dramatic and in a period of about six months both the recognized Unions developed complete faith in the Senior DPO, which was an unheard of situation. Industrial peace and co-operation naturally ensued and remained so during my three year stay. Of course, there were minor problems, off and on, as will always be the case in a major Division having a staff strength of 30,000.

S.3.10 Modular Matching

Big Organizations and Systems will have enhanced efficiency

if ‘Modular Matching’ is ensured at various Organizational levels and in various Systems/Activities. The first experiment in this regard was made by me in the year 1988 when working as Divisional Railway Manager (DRM), Northern Railway, Lucknow.

The Division had eight Assistant Engineers (AENs)

each incharge of a sub-division, eight Traffic Inspectors (TIs), eight Welfare Inspectors (WLIs), eight Personnel Inspectors (PIs) and seven Electrical Chargemen (ELCs). Their beats (i.e. jurisdictions) were not matching and, therefore, co-ordination was difficult. One AEN may have to deal with three WLIS for non-payment cases and vice versa. It was thought proper to match the beats of the various Departmental Officials even though it resulted in some mis-match in the work load of the Supervisor of a particular Department. The mis-match of work load was taken care of by suitable adjustments in the grades of the concerned Supervisors who had 3 to 4 grades available (Higher grade – More workload). The Division had now eight Sub-divisions and they were taken as ‘Modules’ for the beats of the various officials. As far as AENs, TIs, WLIs, PIs and ELCs were concerned, each was incharge of a Sub-division (this needed creation of one post of Electrical Chargeman to increase their number from seven to eight). The Signal Inspectors (SIs) and Commercial Inspectors (CMIs) were lesser in number and each was given one or two Sub-divisions are required. This greatly enhanced the efficiency and effectiveness as co-ordination became easier and responsibility became more pin-pointed.

Later, as General Manager (G.M.), Northern Railway,

the ‘Modular Matching’ of beats was extended to the entire Northern Railway and as Chairman, Railway Board to whole of the Indian Railways, duly reflecting them in the concerned Working Time Tables.

Modular matching of the Organisational set up at the

Board’s level, Zonal level and the Divisional level was also attempted to a fair degree of success. Later a suggestion was also made through the All India Management Association (AIMA) to adopt it in various activities of the Central Government, State Government and District Administration. The benefits which can accrue due to ‘Modular Matching’ are immense, and the bigger the Organisation the greater will be the advantage. Further, changes are easy to effect in organizations which have ‘Modular Matching’.

S.3.11 Gandhian Engineering: More from Less for

More (MLM)

• Dr. R. A. Mashelkar in his Lifetime Contribution Award Lecture 2012 (INAE – April 2013) mentions two tenets propounded by Mahatma Gandhi :

(i) ‘I would prize every invention of science made

for the benefit of all’. (ii) ‘Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s

need but not every man’s greed’.

He further elaborates that the first tenet refers to affordability and the second tenet to sustainability.

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• He explains that industrial enterprises strive for getting

more (performance) from less (resource) for more (profit) but the Gandhian Engineering has a different message. It means getting more (performance) from less (resource) for more (people), not just for more (profit).

• Getting More from Less for More (MLM) strategy

forces us to measure an opportunity by the ends of innovation – what people actually get to enjoy – as opposed to just an increase in their means. In important ways, this rationale invokes a return to the traditional case for innovation – its ability to produce breakthrough improvements in the quality of life – alongside the usual objective of competitiveness.

• The objectives of MLM type of innovations would not

be just to produce low performance, cheap, knock-off versions of rich country technologies so that they can be marketed to poor people. Rather, the objective is to harness sophisticated science and technology know-how to invent, design, produce and distribute high performance technologies at prices that can be afforded by majority of people.

• Gandhian Engineering is all about getting more from

less for more people – this MLM way of innovations is anchored on the solid foundation of affordability and sustainability. It will create a more equitable society and will also help us in designing a sustainable future.

S.3.12 Five E’s of Sustainable Development

If one is asked to choose parameters which can help an individual to perform all his actions/activities, on a sustainable basis, in the best possible manner, the following Five E’s could be listed :

i) Efficiency ii) Effectiveness iii) Ethics: Essential for sustainable

performance. iv) Environment: Be in tune; Don’t damage;

Improve, if possible. v) Evolution: Create positive impact on the

value structure.

Efficiency covers all activities, which make actions efficient and will, interalia, include efficient time management, good physical and mental health, possession of adequate knowledge and skills, will to do the job, positive attitude, doing things right the first time, low stress levels, etc. Effectiveness will mean that the actions result in achieving useful goals for which it will be essential to have necessary vision, broad idea of goals to be achieved, systems to be followed to reach the goals, necessary co-ordination/co-operation with other individuals/organizations, conscious realization of one’s capacity/capability levels etc.

Ethics is essential for sustainable development and performance. It also helps in arriving at solutions, which are more equitable (concern for Equity). It reduces stress levels, as ethical paths can be very clearly charted as against the paths which are followed for achieving the goals through unethical means. Environment has to be seen in a broader context and may include physical environment, working environment, political environment, financial environment and the like. Activities have to be performed keeping these in mind, lest they trigger reactions which may be difficult to control. Further, actions should not damage the Environment rather, improve it to the extent possible. Actions must support the process of Evolution and Development in the positive direction for all those connected with the activities. Decline in human values can be detrimental to society. For better performance on a sustainable basis these parameters, i.e., the Five ‘Es’ are equally relevant to a Group of Individuals (Teams), Activities, Systems, Organizations and even the Nations. Efforts should be directed to continuously improve upon them.

S.4.0 Explanatory Notes

S.4.1 Growth / Progress / Development Most countries use Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to measure the standard of living. Economists, policymakers, international development agencies and even the media use it as an indicator of the economic health of a nation. The advantages offered by GDP are that it is widely and frequently used and its data requirements are readily available. Since the definition is common among countries, consistent comparisons can be made between and among them.

• The countries at the top of the GDP list take the lead in terms of total economic activity taking place within their boundaries. However, it does not necessarily mean that their citizens are better off than the rest of the world in terms of overall well being. For example, a high level of manufacturing and industry related activities (with consequent high toxic emissions) may contribute to a higher GDP but the people will suffer living and working in a polluted environment. Further, certain activities that have a negative impact on the people’s well being could end up being recorded as positive contributions to GDP. Take for instance, Crime. Rising criminal activities can increase the country’s GDP through greater expenditures towards maintaining law and order (e.g. hiring of additional police force, purchase of guns, prisons, etc.). The GDP is also criticized because it does not take into consideration other aspects that define human well being like life expectancy and educational attainment.

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• It is for these reasons that alternative ways of

measuring standard of living have emerged. One of these is the Human Development Index (HDI) developed by the United Nations. The HDI takes into account the GDP and adds more factors to measure other aspects of human development: knowledge, longevity, and decent standard of living. HDI values range from 0 to 1. The HDI, however, has its own share of critics. Some point out that it is difficult to chart a country’s growth using HDI. There are also others who say that HDI does not capture the moral and spiritual aspects of human development. World rankings in GDP and HDI of some selected countries can be seen in Table below.

Table: GDP & HDI – World Ranking

Country GDP Rank

USA 1 China 2 Japan 3 Germany 4 France 5 Brazil 6 UK 7 Russia 9 India 10 Norway 24 South Africa 29 Bhutan 165

Source: IMF (2011) for GDP & UNDP Site for HDI.

• Bhutan has begun to use Gross National Happiness (GNH) as a broader and more nuanced measure of national progress than GDP. Bhutan’s audacious solution is to build its society from the ground up using what it calls the “four pillars” of GNH : sustainable economic development, conservation of environment, preservation of culture, and good governance. Bhutan’s happiness experiment has captured the fancy of economist and politicians from Brazil to Britain, Tokyo to Taiwan, who are looking for a new path to free-market prosperity – one that doesn’t do so much damage to the environment, social equity and family life. Joseph Stiglitz, a Nobel Prize-winning economist has become world’s leading advocate for developing better measures of national well being and he leads an influential Commission funded by the French Government for the purpose. Canadian researchers have created a composite of 64 existing statistics, including work hours and incidence of violent crime, that are considered proxies for various components of well being. (Ref.: Time Magazine – 22nd Oct. 2012)

• The above discussion clearly highlights that even

though adequate tools to measure growth/progress/development may not be available but economic growth alone is not enough. Indian planners are emphasizing ‘inclusive growth’ which broadly takes into account the aspects of poverty reduction and also of reducing disparities. Our growth/progress/development model has to necessarily take into account the following three issues/areas besides the economic growth :

- Sustainable Development - Climate Change: Mitigation and adaptation - Poverty reduction / Inclusive Growth

S.4.2 Sustainable Development

The Brundtland Commission (UN) in their Report (1987)

defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This broad definition however needs further elaboration as detailed below:

• A triple bottom line perspective, that considers

environmental, economic and social aspects.

• A time dimension, which incorporates short term to long term, and considers impacts along the lifecycle, including impact on future generations.

• A resource context with respect to scarcity, over-

abundance, or potential to disrupt resource availability in the future.

Sustainable development will be possible only when it is recognized that economic growth, social welfare and environmental issues are linked and have to be addressed together, rather than in a fragmented way as practiced currently. The figure below indicates the relationship among the three pillars of sustainability viz., economic, environmental, and social aspects.

Three Pillars of Sustainability

S.4.3 Science

• Science covers the broad field of knowledge that

deals with observed facts and the relationships among those facts.

• Science also differs from other types of knowledge in

that scientific progress depends on new ideas expanding or replacing old ones.

Social

Bearable

Equitable

Sustainable

Environment

Economic

Viable

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• Science has enormous influence on our lives. It provides the basis of much of modern technology – the tools, materials, techniques and sources of power that make our lives and work easier. The term applied science is sometimes used to refer to scientific research that concentrates on the development of technology.

• Scientific study can be divided into four major groups:

(i) Mathematics and logic are not based on experimental testing but they can be considered part of science because they are essential tools in almost all scientific study.

(ii) Physical sciences examine the nature of the universe and include physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy and meteorology.

(iii) Life sciences also called the biological sciences or biology, involve the study of livings organisms. The two main fields of life sciences are botany which deals with plants, and zoology which deals with animals.

(iv) Social sciences deal with individuals, groups, and institutions that make up human society. The main branches of social sciences include anthropology, economics, political science, psychology and sociology.

• As scientific knowledge has grown and become increasingly complicated, many new fields of study have emerged, boundaries between scientific fields have become less and less clear cut, and today numerous areas of science overlap. For instance, both chemistry and physics deal with atomic structure, and both paleontology and geology study the age of rocks in the earth.

• In some cases, sciences have come to overlap so much that interdisciplinary fields have been established. For example, biochemistry combines areas of biology and chemistry in studying chemical processes that occur in living plants and animals.

S.4.4 Technology

• Technology refers to all the ways people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their needs and desires.

• Technology involves the use of tools, machines, materials, techniques and sources of power to make work easier and more productive.

• Science has contributed much to modern technology. But not all technology is based on science, nor is science necessary to all technology.

• The word technology is sometimes used to describe a particular application of industrial technology, such as medical technology or military technology. The engineering profession is responsible for much of today’s industrial technology.

• It has been mentioned by Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (2001) that technology includes techniques as well as the machines that may or may not be necessary to apply them. It includes ways to make chemical reactions occur, ways to breed fish, eradicate weeds, light theaters, treat patients, teach history, fight wars or even prevent them.

S.4.5 Engineering

• Engineering is the profession that puts scientific knowledge to practical use. The word engineering comes from the Latin word ingeniare, which means to design or to create.

• Engineers use principles of science to design structures, machines, and products of all kinds. They look for better ways to use existing resources and often develop new materials. Engineers have had a direct role in the creation of most of modern technology – the tools, materials, techniques, and power sources that make our lives easier.

• The field of engineering includes a wide variety of activities. For example, engineering projects range from the construction of huge dams to the design of tiny electronic circuits. Engineers may help produce guided missiles, industrial robots, or artificial limbs for the physically handicapped. They develop complex scientific equipments to explore the reaches of outer space and the depths of the oceans. Engineers also plan our electric power and water supply systems, and do research to improve automobiles, television sets, and other consumer products. They work to reduce environmental pollution, increase the world’s food supply, and make transportation faster and safer.

• Tony Marjoram and Yixin Zhong (UNESCO Report – 2010) diagrammatically depict the role Engineering plays (using ‘Theories’ from ‘Science’ and ‘Tools’ provided by ‘Technology’) to provide ‘Products and Benefits’ to ‘Society and Nature’ keeping in view the ‘Resources and Needs’.

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• Tony Marjoram and Yixin Zhong (UNESCO Report – 2010) further elaborate that almost every area of human interest, activity and endeavour has a branch of engineering associated with it. They also provide an illustrative list of engineering branches mentioning various disciplines / sub disciplines.

• Unlike earlier periods when resources were in

abundance and societal needs low, the current situation is altogether different. The current needs are of a much greater order of magnitude; environmental constraints are dangerously close to being breached; worldwide competition for scarce resources could create international tensions; and the freedom to power our way into the future by burning fossil fuels is denied.

Resolving these issues requires tremendous

innovation and ingenuity by Engineers, working alongside other technical and non-technical disciplines. It requires the engineer’s ability to synthesize solutions and not simply their ability to analyze problems. Further, engineers need the ability to take a systems view at a range of scales, from devices and products through to the large-scale delivery of infrastructure services.

• Society today is making ever-greater demands on Engineering, ranging from those caused by exploding urbanization and by the endemic poverty of a quarter of world’s population in the face of overall global affluence, to the mounting concerns about availability of critical resources, the consequences of climate change and increasing natural and man-made disasters. This confronts Engineering and Society not only with unprecedented technical challenges, but also with a host of new ethical problems that demand the development of Global Engineering Ethics. How far should Engineering pursue the modifications of Nature? What are Engineering’s’ roles and responsibilities in Society? How should Engineering address problems of equity in terms of the availability of resources and services of and between current and future generations? Should concerns about global warming take precedence over the urgent problem of poverty, or how can they be addressed together?

• It is unfortunate that, under these circumstances of growing need for multi-talented Engineers, the interest in Engineering among young people is waning in so many countries. Awareness of the importance and the changing nature of Engineering needs to be raised in circles of Government as well as amongst the general public.

S.4.6 Role of Technology

A. It has been mentioned by Collier (2010) in his Book “The Plundered Planet” that Technology can turn Nature into an asset by giving these natural assets the potential to become valuable to the society. However, for natural assets to be valuable instead of being dissipated in competitive struggle, their ownership and use must be regulated. Regulation requires good governance. Unregulated use of Technology can turn Nature nasty; the Technology that has given us cheap energy has also given us carbon-dioxide that will over-heat the Planet. The challenge of harnessing Nature has been summarised by him as under:

(a) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION = PROSPERITY

(b) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY - REGULATION = PLUNDER

(c) NATURE - TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION = POVERTY

B. In his Book “Ten Technologies to Save the Planet”, Goodall (2008) shows considerable optimism and mentions that each of the ten Chapters of the Book looks at a technology or technique that could reduce carbondioxide emissions by atleast 10 per cent of the annual world total. All these technologies are comfortably within our scientific and technological reach and so the Author argues that we should be able to ‘decarbonise the economy’ at an affordable price. The Ten Technologies mentioned are :

• Capturing the Wind • Solar Energy : The sunlight hitting the earth’s

surface every day contains around 7,000 times more energy than the fossil fuels that humanity consumes.

• Electricity from the Oceans : Tapping tides, waves and currents.

• Combined Heat and Power (CHP) : (i) Use of fuel cells powered by hydrogen created from renewable sources for individual buildings, and (ii) Use of small power stations close to homes or offices fired by wood or other biomass and piping the ‘waste’ heat to where it is needed.

• Super-efficient Homes • Electric Cars • Motor Fuels from Cellulose : Second-generation

biofuels. • Capturing Carbon : Clean coal, algae and scrubbing

the air. • Biochar : Sequestering carbon as charcoal. • Soil and Forests : Improving the planet’s carbon

sinks.

C. While discussing “smart energy” Piccioni (2010) in his Book “Einstein for Everyone” cites Einstein’s most famous equation E=mc2 and its implications for generating energy, namely that all useful energy ultimately comes from the conversion of mass into various forms of energy. If we convert 1 ton of mass into suitable energy and define it as ‘1 ton of energy’ then Table below will indicate the current huge resource use (and consequent pollution) vis-à-vis the position if we are able to use hydrogen fusion.

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S.4.8 Project Management

S.4.8.1 While we can boast of our ‘Planning’ abilities but our ‘Execution’ record on most fronts has been below par and Project execution is no exception. Project Management today is no longer an issue concerned only with Planning, Scheduling, Estimating and Cost Control but several other issues and processes have got integrated with it like Total Quality Management, Concurrent Engineering, Risk Management, etc.(See Box on the next page.)

Box: Project Management

(A) In his Book titled “Project Management”, Dr. Harold

Kerzner addresses the various issues / problems concerning the Project Management in detail. Dr. Harold Kerzner is an eminent engineer / manager and has very wide experience. He is / was President of the International Project Management Association (IPMA) and the Book under reference is in its Eight Edition and thus clearly testifies the experiential learning on which it is based. Some of the observations of Dr. Kerzner are mentioned below which indicate the changing trends and the increasing need of integration with other related disciplines in this vital area of Project Management :

1. In the 1980s, we believed that the failure of the

project was largely a quantitative failure due to :

• Ineffective planning • Ineffective scheduling • Ineffective estimating • Ineffective cost control • Project objectives being ‘Moving

Targets’

2. During the 1990s, we changed our views of failure from being quantitatively oriented to qualitatively oriented. A failure in the 1990s was largely attributed to :

• Poor morale • Poor motivation • Poor human relations • Poor productivity • No employee commitment • No functional commitment • Delays in problem solving • Too many unresolved policy issues • Conflicting priorities between

executives, line managers and project managers

Process Tons of Fuel Needed to Supply “1 ton of

Energy”

Clean

Burn Coal 5,000,000,000 No

Burn Gasoline

2,000,000,000 No

Uranium Fission

50,000 No

Hydrogen Fusion

133 Yes

Table Sun uses hydrogen fusion to generate energy. Our

research activities must be directed with a much greater vigour to use the energy from the Sun and also towards generating energy from ‘hydrogen fusion’.

S.4.7 Technology Foresight needs People with T-Shaped

Skill Profiles

• Futures studies have been with us for a long time, but the term ‘foresight’ has only come into wide use in recent years. A striking development in the last decade of the twentieth century was the growing prominence of large scale foresight exercises conducted at national and international levels. This trend was amplified in the new millennium. These exercises, usually funded by governments and intended to provide insights for innovation policy, priorities for research and development funding, and the like, frequently went by the name ‘Technology Foresight’.

• Several factors converged to foreground foresight. First was the need to prioritize research budgets – choices needed to be made as to where to invest, as governments were not able to continue funding across the whole spectrum. Second, there were growing concerns about the implications of science and technology and how to shape development so that new technologies could prove more socially and environmentally beneficial. A third set of factors concern innovation. Innovation has come to be recognized as a key element in competitiveness, national performance and achieving socio-economic objectives.

• One lesson learned early on during Foresight exercises was that it was important to bring together expertise in social affairs, business management, financial issues and policy together with expertise possessed by scientists and engineers.

• What was proved to be at a premium is the capability to

possess (and share) highly specialized knowledge but also to be able to relate this understanding to the issues raised in a wide range of other fields : people with T-shaped profiles (people with in depth knowledge of their own domain as well as competence in a much broader spectrum of managerial, interpersonal and other skills). Additionally, foresight required open minded people.

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3. During the 1990s, the following processes were integrated into a single methodology :

• Project Management • Total Quality Management • Concurrent Engineering : The process of

performing work in parallel rather than in series in order to compress the schedule without incurring serious risks

• Scope Change Control • Risk Management

4. In coming years, companies can be expected to

integrate more of their business processes in the Project Management methodology like :

• Supply Chain Management • Business Processes • Feasibility Studies • Cost Benefit Analysis (ROI) • Capital Budgeting

(A) In any Project organisation there are ‘class or

prestige’ gaps between various levels of management. There are also functional gaps between working units (Departments) of the organisation. If we superimpose the management gaps on top of the functional gaps we will find that the Project organisations are made up of small operational islands. For effective and purposeful communication between these operational island systems are necessary (see figure – Why systems are necessary?)

Fig.: Why are Systems necessary?

Ref.: Kerzner, Harold: “Project Management – A Systems Approach” – John Wiley (2003).

S.4.8.2 Design and implementation of engineering projects takes

care of the objectives but not of the consequences. To give examples: Water-logging following irrigation as well as

depletion of ground water.

Insanitation following water supply.

Traffic jams following boost to automobile industry.

Dry patches in rivers following a hydropower project.

This is an area which is mostly neglected resulting in below par performance of the executed projects, needing additional inputs to correct the matters.

S.4.8.3 Further, so long as there will be persons who have

authority but little responsibility and persons who have responsibility with little authority, development will be either distorted or stunted. We must envision a governance in which authority and responsibility are commensurate with each other. This highlights the need for having competent Engineer-Managers for successful execution of Projects from conception to completion.

S.4.9 Improving the ‘Image’ and ‘Role’ of Engineering

The Government/Society must recognize the Role which Engineering/Engineers are playing in Development and should take adequate steps to suitably empower them. In this direction, following are suggested:

(i) Boundaries between Science, Technology and

Engineering have to be made more explicit. Engineering should no longer be the ‘Unsung Partner of Science’.

(ii) The scope of the present ‘Science and Technology Policy’ of the Government of India (currently there is no Engineering Policy) has to expand to include ‘Engineering’ also or else a separate ‘Engineering Policy’ needs to be developed.

A more holistic view of science and technology needs to be taken, better integrating engineering into the rather narrow linear model focusing on basic sciences, research and development. To do this, we need to emphasise the way engineering, science, and technology contribute to social and economic development, promote sustainable livelihoods, and help mitigate and adapt to climate change. We also need a better integration of engineering issues into science and technology policy and planning, and of engineering, science, and technology considerations into development policy and planning, in order to reflect a more useful, beneficial and accurate position of reality. This apparently difficult task might best be achieved by taking a more cross-cutting and holistic approach, with greater reference to the important role of engineering, science, technology, and innovation in economic and social development, poverty reduction and climate change mitigation and adaptation.

(iii) There is a need to have an ‘Engineering Advisor’ to

the Govt. of India on the lines of the present ‘Scientific Advisor’.

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(iv) To have Engineers in Government who have direct contact with the ground realities in the States and who come to the Centre for short stints to get an overall National View and also share their Field experience from their respective States, there is need to have an ‘Indian Engineering Service’ which should be an All-India Service on the patterns of IAS, IPS & IFS. Formation of such a Service will not only send a signal about the importance of the role of Engineering/Engineers which the Government acknowledges but will also enhance Inter-State cooperation in this vital field of Engineering. More talented Engineers from diverse States joining the proposed “Indian Engineering Service” will also help in National/Technological integration.

(v) Various Institutions and others should project the

important role which Engineering/Engineers are playing/have to play in Development to educate the Public. This will enhance the Public image of Engineering and will also result in better public support for related Projects in addition to attracting better talent to the Profession.

S.4.10 Changing Relativities between the Road and the Rail :

Study by Balance Research Institute, Melbourne With the relentless growth of the world economy it is quite

probable that in next 100 years the total transport would be about four times today’s levels according to the studies made at the Balance Research Institute, Melbourne. These estimates appear rather conservative and traffic growth may be faster. However, future is difficult to predict on such a long time horizon; and changes in the patterns of production and consumption, more intense use of IT, improved logistics, etc., may contain the growth to the levels as indicated.

The Study further mentions that the growth of road traffic

by four times will not be a practical reality with congestions already visible with the existing levels of traffic, cost of road service growing faster than the cost of rail especially because of sharply rising fuel costs, concerns for environment (road being much more polluting than rail), etc. The governments with the support of industry will have to find ways to keep highways available for tasks that rail cannot perform. The governments will be led to reinforce this with deliberate policies leading to more and better rail services. For the transport and logistics industry, this will mean opportunities to offer better services at lower costs than they otherwise would, with continuation of present policies.

The Balance Research Institute Study highlights the following :

• Governments will always need to subsidise transport in some way, but the investments they make will have to support the mode which uses less resources. If this is the policy direction, highways will increase greatly in quality and safety but not so much in capacity. The rail will absorb the transport needs with innovations in technology and management, much of which will be undertaken by the private sector responding to signals from governments.

• Including all known costs and revenues perhaps rail freight is 80% commercial at present, whereas road freight is perhaps 50%. If they both had to pay 100% of the economical and societal costs then the modal split would change towards rail.

• With rising energy costs rail will have an

advantage vis-a-vis road as it consumes less fuel per unit of task. Further, rail can use electrical energy also, unlike road vehicles which basically use petroleum fuels.

• In the medium to long distance corridors rail may

run freight services at 100/160 kmph and passenger services upto 200 kmph (excluding high speed passenger trains).

• For rail traffic from a major terminal, port or depot

an automated central transfer or sorting facility for containers would eventually be developed in each metropolis. Trains would unload their containers automatically (self strip) on to a conveyor system. Each container would then be directed automatically to its destined train which would then self-load.

• In metropolitan areas where several freight stations

have been closed for many years, changes will even be greater. If container technology had come to local transport a couple of decades earlier, the freight service would have become more efficient and some of these stations would have remained.

• A new kind of intermodal service may evolve

wherein direct freight services will feed small intermodal stations which will have short road legs typically upto five km.

• Economically sound ways will be found for rail

to play a vital role in limiting road traffic growth. To achieve a ‘four times traffic growth’ the rail will have to grow not four times, but to eight, ten or twenty times its present level of passenger and freight traffic.

(Ref.: Changing Relativities Between Road and Rail -www.balanceresearch.com subs / conf1999 / paper.htm.)

S.4.11 Indian Railways: An Efficient System but with Severe Capacity Constraints

S.4.11.1 Indian Railways have done reasonably well within

the constraint of resources. The Input vs Output indices shown in Table No. 1 and Select Data shown in Table No. 2 are ample testimony to this fact. The elaborate further, while the Route Kms have increased by 23%, the Traffic Volume has increased by more than 1400%; Numbers of Rail Accidents have come down; and Wagon Turnaround has improved.

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Table No. 1: Input vs Output – Indian Railways

1950-51 2013-14 Input Indices • Route Kms 100 123 • Running Track Kms 100 152 • Wagon capacity 100 330 • Coaches - Passengers 100 383 Output Indices • Freight Traffic – NT Kms (Rev. + Non Rev.)

100 1511

• Passenger Traffic – Pass Kms (Non-Sub)

100 1571

Source:IR Year Book 2013-14.

Year Track Renewals (Kms)

Number of Accidents

Wagon Turnround (days)

Operating Ratio (Percent)

1994-95 2,763 501 9.5 82.6

1995-96 2,893 398 9.1 82.5

1996-97 2,795 381 8.5 86.2

1997-98 2,950 396 8.1 90.9

1998-99 2,967 397 8.2 93.3

1999-00 3,006 463 7.7 93.3

2000-01 3,250 473 7.5 98.3 2001-02 3,620 415 7.2 96.0 2002-03 4,776 351 7.0 92.3 2003-04 4,986 325 6.7 92.1 2004-05 5,566 234 6.4 91.0 2005-06 4,725 234 6.1 83.8 2006-07 4,686 195 5.5 78.7 2007-08 4,002 194 5.23 75.9 2008-09 3,841 177 5.19 90.5 2009-10 3,840 165 4.98 95.3 2010-11 3,465 139 4.97 94.6 2011-12 3,300 131 5.08 94.9 2012-13 3,296 120 5.10 90.2 2013-14 2,885 117 5.13 93.6

Table No. 2

Select Data – Indian Railways

Source: IR Year Books. S.4.11.2 The argument, that capacity constraints and adequate

inputs are not the IR’s problem but it is basically the inefficient operation and lack of focus, does not cut much ice. Following may elucidate the point further:

• In early 1980s, problem of lack of capacity was

solved in an adhoc manner by permitting running of only “rake loads” of traffic thereby making movements faster but in the process loosing high rated piecemeal traffic. Planned inputs for ‘capacity generation’ and ‘containerisation’ in time could have avoided such a situation.

• Asset rehabilitation arrears had to be wiped out

through a Special Railway Safety Fund of Rs. 17,000 crore (year 2001-02 onwards) indicating inadequate investments in maintenance and upkeep of the system.

• Recently also, the capacity constraints had largely

been overcome by an adhoc increase in axle loads from 20.3 tonne to 22.9 tonne. This can be broadly translated into an annual freight traffic increase of 90 Mt and a corresponding extra yearly income of Rs. 6,000 cr. (Ref.: Sudhir Kumar and Shagun Mehrotra – 2009)

S.4.11.3 There is severe congestion on the Golden Quadrilateral

(connecting four metro cities of Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai) and its two diagonals which constitute about 16% of Route Kms but carry around 60% of the IR’s traffic. Large number of sections falling on these routes is having line capacity utilization exceeding 100% (see Table No. 3).

Table No. 3: Line Capacity Utilisation on Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals (2007-08)

Routes No. of Sections

Sections having Line Capacity Utilisation

Critical Sections$ (%)

More than 80%

More than 100%

More than 120%

Delhi-Howrah

41 11 12 17 70%

Mumbai-Howrah

42 10 17 13 71%

Delhi-Mumbai

28 5 5 15 71%

Delhi-Chennai via Jhansi, Nagpur-Ballarshah

24 2 5 16 88%

Howrah-Chennai

17 5 6 5 65%

Mumbai-Chennai

25 6 5 10 60%

Total 177 39 50 76 71% Source: White Paper on Indian Railways – Dec.2009.

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Notes: 1. Sections having line capacity utilization of 100% or

more have been assumed to be critical sections. 2. About 60% of IR’s traffic moves on the Golden

Quadrilateral and its two diagonals. 3. About two-third of the sections are showing a line

capacity utilisation exceeding 100%. 4. In next 7-10 years traffic will double. Immediate

action for capacity enhancement is called for.

S.5.0 Some Points to Ponder

S.5.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Indian Railways

Strengths

• A successful track record of managing one of the world’s most complex network organizations with a record of being able to deliver.

• The distinctive character of combining both policy and operational responsibilities and the flexibility and control that this offers.

• Railways are the only mode of transport that can use any form of primary energy.

• I.R. has one of the largest skilled, dedicated and qualified pool of professionals in the country.

• I.R. has a great legacy as a nation builder, almost equal in stature to the defence sector in its role during national emergencies.

• India is suited to railways on intrinsic economic grounds. Long leads and high traffic densities are well suited to railway operations.

• The railways have an installed infrastructure base and time-tested and relatively efficient systems and execution processes.

• The rail sector is superior to other modes in terms of safety, environmental and noise pollution, energy consumption, and land take.

• I.R. has proven capability to execute new projects. • No major industrial relations problems. • As against road transport General stability of freight rates for a year. No transhipment en-route. Less proneness to vagaries of weather in covered

wagons. Less prone to accidents. Less prone to fire damage. Less prone to damage and looting in disturbed areas. Less transit time once the movement starts,

especially true for rake loads and parcel traffic. Ability to move without waiting on inter-State

barriers. • For very heavy urban and suburban transport

demands in peak periods, the rail-based transport system is the only solution.

• Being part of the Central Government, Indian Railways have Government’s financial backing.

• Railways have entered in the multi-modal transportation business by setting up CONCOR.

• Continued concern for Human Resource Development. Established large number of training Institutes at all levels to upgrade the technical and managerial skills.

• Production units to manufacture locomotives, coaches, wheel and axles for wagons accredited with ISO 9001 Certification.

• Introduced several state-of-art technologies.

Weaknesses

• The large and increasing element of cross-subsidization of loss making passenger business by freight; further price increases already have started undermining I.R.’s competitiveness in freight.

• I.R. as an organization has tended to be inward-focussed and lacks in customer focus.

• Lack of adaptability to a fast-changing environment;

• Pricing of services not specifically linked to costs on a more rational basis.

• There is lack of emphasis on solutions tailored to customer needs; Lack of long-term relationships with customers.

• Subsidies are not targeted adequately at the appropriate income segments.

• Financial systems do not allow for accurate measurement of financial performance by Division, Passenger segment, etc.

• Procurement systems are sub-optimal for adequate component quality and availability; lack of long-term relationships with suppliers.

• Taking up a large number of unremunerative projects and for maintaining the status-quo in fare-freight distortions in the name of distributive justice.

• Performance parameters not geared for measuring user needs and satisfaction.

• Arrears in asset renewal. • Time lag in technological upgradation and keeping

up with the management practices. • Concentration on bulk freight cargo segment. • Railway transportation, except handlings in sidings,

is essentially multi-modal. It involves additional handlings, costs and damages/loss, etc.

• Declining budgetary support from the Government, declining internal generation, greater dependence on high-cost market borrowing.

• Persisting resource constraints in the past have adversely affected the Railways’ programme for capacity generation, which has also contributed to the loss of market share.

• The Railways carry a substantial social burden in the form of continued operation of unremunerative lines, subsidy on passenger and suburban travel and even freight subsidy on certain commodities.

Ref.: Study by M/s A. F. Ferguson & Co. (April 1999) for the Indian Railways.

S.5.2 Savings in Fuel: Rail vs Road

Planning Commission’s Integrated Energy Policy (August 2006) mentions that carriage of 3000 BTKM of freight traffic by Rail instead of by Trucks (in the year 2030) will save 50 million tonne of diesel oil. Thus saving in the cost of diesel oil for each net ton-km (NTKM) of freight carried by rail vis-à-vis road works out to Rs. 0.60 (one ton of diesel = 1.2 kilolitres; cost of diesel Rs. 30 per litre).

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A study by Deutsche Bank (7th April 2006 ) indicates that cost of carriage of freight by Road per NTKM is Rs. 1.10 out of which 58% is fuel cost. On the other hand the cost of carriage by Rail is Rs. 0.50 per NTKM out of which fuel cost is 14%. This translates into the following :

(a) Fuel cost per NTKM-Road = Rs. 0.58x1.1 = Rs. 0.638

(b) Fuel cost per NTKM-Rail = Rs. 0.14x0.5 = Rs. 0.070

(c) Difference in Fuel costs per NTKM = Rs. 0.568

This also brings out that the road transport consumes nine times more fuel in carrying one NTKM of freight vis-à-vis Rail.

This cost data (fuel cost per NTKM for Road Rs. 0.638; cost of carriage by Rail per NTKM Rs. 0.50) further indicates that carriage of trucks on rail wagons (similar to RO-RO service in operation on the Konkan Railway) will not only be a financially viable option for the truckers but will also benefit the national economy by reducing the fuel consumption. However, this can be a practical reality only when adequate rail capacity to allow free flow of traffic exists, to ensure fast movements in guaranteed time, by the Railways.

S.5.3 Need for Level Playing Field to Rail vis-à-vis Road

In our country 91% of the traffic is carried by Rail (31%) and Road (60%). For carriage of freight traffic, Rail is nine times fuel efficient vis-à-vis road but is loosing its market share (from 89% in 1950-51 to 30% as of now) resulting in enhanced pollution for the transport sector as a whole. Efforts to contain this decline in Rail’s market share have not succeeded but the environmental concerns now necessitate urgent action to rectify the situation. The main reason for the Rail to loose vis-à-vis Road is that ‘social costs’ are not suitably factored in. While authentic data in this regard is not available for our conditions, recourse to other international studies clearly highlights that its impact is substantial. The findings of the Balance Research Institute, Melbourne (1999) indicated below further testify these facts:

“Including all known costs and revenues perhaps rail freight is 80% commercial at present, whereas road freight is perhaps 50%. If they both had to pay 100% of the economical and societal costs then the modal split would change towards rail.”

This also highlights the need for a detailed Study and evaluation of the Social Costs for our conditions and till this is done to provide inputs to Rail on the same pattern as being done for the Road very much like the National Highways Development Programme (NHDP) and the Pradahan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). As a matter of fact Rail should be given some additional inputs so that the skew already created could be rectified with speed.

S.5.4 Low Passenger Fares on the IR – Tariff Ratio On the Indian Railways (IR) passenger fares were deliberately kept low as will be evident from the following (Court of Directors – East India Company – 1845):

“According to the experience of this country (Great Britain) by far the largest returns are procured from passengers; the least from the traffic of goods. The condition of India is in this respect directly the reverse of that of England. Instead of a dense and wealthy population, the people of India are poor and in many parts thinly scattered over extensive tracts of the country. But, on the other hand, India abounds in valuable produce of nature which are in a great measure deprived of a profitable market by want of cheap and expeditious means of transport. It may, therefore, be assured that remuneration for rail-roads in India, must for the present, be drawn chiefly from the conveyance of merchandise, and not from passengers.”

Tariff ratio is defined as the ratio between the average passenger fare per km to the average freight rate per tonne km. The financially desirable value for the Tariff ratio is around 1.0 while the Chinese Railways have adopted a value which is greater than 1.0. The values of Tariff Ratio for some selected countries are given below:

Korea 1.4 France 1.3 China 1.2 Austria 1.1 Indonesia 0.9 Greece 0.4 India 0.3 Bangladesh 0.2

Source: White Paper on Indian Railways,

December, 2009. In the year 1950-51 the value of Tariff Ratio on the IR was around 0.5 which has since come down to 0.3. The IR’s passenger earnings for the year 2008-09 were about Rs. 21,000 crore and the loss on passenger segment about Rs. 14,000 crore. (White Paper on Indian Railways 2009) If the Tariff Ratio was maintained at 0.5 then at least this loss in passenger segment would have been wiped out making the passenger segment break even. For a system already having a policy of keeping passenger fares low (Tariff Ratio as 0.5 earlier) this further lowering of passenger fares (Tariff ratio 0.3 at present) is resulting in heavy loss in the passenger segment. This is partly responsible for the higher freight rates on the IR (as given below) as also for the paucity of adequate funds for maintenance, modernization, and growth.

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The problem got further compounded due to the non-availability of level playing field to Rail vis-à-vis Road, the two primary transport modes carrying about 91% of the traffic. The solution lies in having a Policy which ensures a level playing field to Rail vis-à-vis Road; and the Rail correcting its Tariff ratio to 0.5 (from the existing value of 0.3) so that the Passenger traffic does not remain a loss-making segment.

Average Freight Revenue: World Scenario

Country Average Freight

Revenue per ton-km Germany 751 India 395 South Africa 281 France 218 Japan 207 China 185 Russia 122 USA* 100

*Freight charges for countries are benchmarked as a comparison to the US (taken as 100) and calculated as freight revenue/tonne-km.

Source: White Paper on Indian Railways, December, 2009. S.5.5 Need for Change in the Organisational Structure of

the IR

It is felt by some quarters that the organizational structure of I.R. has become outdated. It is too bureaucratic, inflexible, un-responsive to the business needs etc. and should, therefore, be recast on business lines. Measures like privatization, corporatization, deregulation, shedding of ancillary activities are suggested along with attendant organizational restructuring. The proponents of this view hold that unless some such action is taken, l.R. will not be able to meet the needs of the growing and liberalized economy, nor the aspirations of the users. On the other hand, some others feel that the role of LR. in the Indian economy is very much different from that of other world railways. It is a strategic department, and the life line of the Nation, and so it is too crucial to be experimented with lightly. Failure of any restructuring experiment can be disastrous. Further, restructuring is a very costly exercise, as restructuring of U.K. railway (one third the size of LR.) costed 600 million pounds (Rs. 4,200 crore) and took several years for completion. They also feel that privatized system does not attach the same degree of importance to rail safety and the U.K. Government had to give a safety grant of one billion pounds (Rs. 7,000 crore) to the privatized U.K. rail. Some others go a step further and say that the existing structure of I.R. is intrinsically sound and is still perfectly capable of delivering the goods. What is exactly required is to allow the LR. to run on commercial principles (subsidies to be duly compensated), provide a level playing field to it vis-a~vis other transport modes for free and fair competition, duly compensate I.R. for correcting the capacity constraints and asset rehabilitation arrears which are basically the outcome of heavy social service obligations which the system has carried over the years, and lastly relax excessive Government controls allowing it to fix tariffs on Commercial (rather than Political/Social) considerations. Focus has to be on commercialization rather than privatization / corporatization.

Author is in agreement with the approach as suggested in the para above. This will mean that the existing organizational structure of the I.R. working as a Departmental Undertaking of the Government of India should continue. However, it should be with relaxed Government controls, the organisation basically working on commercial principles with social costs duly compensated by the Government. With a separate Railway Budget, (since the year 1924) the financial performance of the organisation is explicitly measurable and a change from Government accounting system to Commercial accounting system can make it even more transparent. Railway Board is responsible for the policy laying (Ministerial functions) and their implementation (Operational functions), and this is a good system. This ensures better accountability and avoids any conflict between the Ministry and its Operational arm, both being the same. The corporatisation of LR. is also not desirable as it will separate the Ministerial and Operational functions. Further, the LR. being a Strategic department (Defence, Atomic Energy and Railways are the Strategic departments of the Government of India) needs explicit support and involvement of the Government, which the existing system ensures. It may not be out of place to mention that the Railway Reforms Committee set up in the year 1981, based on a study by the Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad and opinion of Experts and Associations concluded in 1985 "that from the point of view of financial viability, stability of the organisation, the burden that dwells on the organisation to face situations like internal and external emergencies, the Departmental form is most suited for the Railways"

S.5.6 Organisation Reforms on IR – NTDPC (2014) The National Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC) headed by Dr. Rakesh Mohan in its Report (2014) mentions the following with regard to Organizational Reforms on Indian Railways:

a) NTDPC recommends the separation of Railway management and operations from the Government. The Ministry of Railways ( or the unified Ministry of Transport) in the future should be limited to setting policies; a new Railways Regulatory Authority would be responsible for overall regulation, including the setting of tariffs; and the management and operations should be carried out by a corporatized entity, the Indian Railway Corporation (IRC), to be set up as a statutory corporation, which would retain many of the quasi-governmental powers endowed to the Railway under the current Act. Existing railways corporations such as CONCOR, DFCCIL, and the like will become subsidiaries or joint ventures of the IRC.

b) These reforms will be very complex and the NTDPC recommends widespread consultation with major stakeholders, including the staff and unions of the railways system. This process may take upto five years. During this period, the Railway Board should be reorganized along business lines consistent with the recommendations of the 2001 Expert Group on Indian Railways and those of the 2012 Expert Group for Modernisation of Indian Railways. This is being cited to indicate that the NTDPC which examined the Transport Sector as a whole for a period of about 4 years (Feb. 2010 to Jan 2014) duly assisted by its several Members as also serving Secretaries of concerned Ministries, has come to a conclusion which appears difficult to implement especially on the I.R. organization where war like activities go on 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.

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S.5.7 Merger of Departmental Cadres – Is It Desirable? It can be argued that separate cadres can be formed, corresponding to the three wings (viz. Infrastructure, Rolling Stock and Operational) and this will obviate the necessity of having several Departments in each Wing, which in turn, will reduce problems of co-ordination and optimisation. Tandon Committee (March, 1994) had suggested for Indian Railways-a unified service cadre where no differentiation was to be made amongst the eight services, viz. Indian Railway Service ef Engineers, Indian Railway Service of Mechanical Engineers, Indian Railway Service of Signal & Telecommunication Engineers, Indian Railway Service of Electrical Engineers, Indian Railway Traffic Service, Indian Railway Accounts Service, Indian Railway Personnel Service and Indian Railway Stores Service and suggestion was to have only one Indian Railway Management Service instead. It was also further argued by some, that there are organisations which do not have specialists and that the specialized work can be managed by engaging suitable consultants. This recommendation of Tandon Committee was further examined by the Gupta-Narain Committee (Nov. 1994) and after an in depth study and consulting various railway officials and organisations they concluded that such a change should not be done. The Committee observed that "The younger generation should be weaned away from 'management cult' and instead encouraged to taking on important technical assignments in the field - even in inhospitable areas. Professionalism should never be put at a discount, rather it should be further strengthened. Any arrangement which leads to wholesale obliteration of the specialized functional streams, would have disastrous consequences affecting the efficiency of the Railways and the safety of operations and of human lives." It will be appreciated that in major organisations, needing specialized knowledge of various disciplines, especially in an era when the need for specialization is increasing, a unified cadre will neither be desirable nor practical. A technically qualified person with some inputs may be able to handle jobs which do not require high degree of specialization but the reverse will not be true. The consultants will not also be available easily as the railway activities are highly specialized in nature and the numbers needed will also be large. To substantiate the point further, a mention can be made that International consultants in Baghdad were having problems in getting railway experts for New Railway Implementation Authority projects (1980). Another case is of British Rail which recently faced problems (2002) due to non-availability of design specialists for Signal and Electrical installations and for which services of Indian Railway Engineers were obtained by them through RITES. This invoked severe criticism by the U.K. Press and Public who felt that the Country which was responsible for giving the railway system to India had reached a stage that they did not have adequate technical manpower for their own system!

S.5.8 Single Unified Ministry of Transport The NTDPC (2014) recommends a single unified Ministry of

Transport with a clear mandate to deliver a multimodal transport system that contributes to the country’s larger development goals including economic growth, environmental sustainability and energy security.

It is felt that such a system can solve two major problems facing the Indian Railways today viz need for Level Playing Field vis-à-vis Road, and provision of resources for Capacity Augmentation.

However, for a Country of our size and population, in appears difficult to have several Ministries under one umbrella and so an approach of controlled decentralization appears more pragmatic. In this connection following observations are made:

(a.) Integrated development of various transport modes is essential for efficiency and optimum resource utilization as also for making the transport ‘greener’. Many a times a unified Transport Ministry is seen as a solution covering various transport modes like Rail, Road, Water and Air. For a country of our size and population it appears difficult to have several Ministries like (i) Ministry of Railways, (ii) Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, (iii) Ministry of Shipping, (iv) Ministry of Civil Aviation, etc. under one umbrella. Further, Ministries like Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Rural Development, and Ministry for Development of North-Eastern Region also have a ‘transport’ connect. Then there are Transport Ministries of the States.

(b.) An approach of controlled decentralization appears more pragmatic to ensure Integrated Development of Transport coupled with freedom to act with speed. For the purpose having a Group of Ministers from all the concerned Ministries under the Chairmanship of Prime Minister appears a more logical solution more so as the Transport is a vital need for Development / Growth.

S.5.9 Deregulation / Privatisation Deregulation involves abolition of all forms of institutional, legal or statutory impediments to the entry or exit of firms in a given industry, irrespective of who owns the firms, the aim being to promote competition in the product/service market; whereas privatisation implies transfer of ownership rights from public to private sector. Privatisation is an antithesis to nationalization but deregulation can co-exist with both public and private ownership of the means of production and distribution. Some believe that private ownership is better placed to achieve productive efficiency than public ownership while the other group feels that if the constraints which are there before the public ownership are eased or removed, there is no reason why the public ownership should not function equally well. Some examples where the private companies have done better than the public companies as also cases where public organisations have excelled are cited to prove the point. The conventional wisdom of welfare economics is that while private ownership does better than public ownership in terms of productive efficiency, it fails badly to achieve allocative efficiency, i.e. non-commercial objectives pertaining to external effects and distributional consequences etc. In many cases these aspects are as important (sometimes even more important) than those concerning the productive efficiency and profitability. This has been historically the main rationale behind nationalization. Generation of competition is a central point for enhancing efficiency and effectiveness. Privatisation or de-regulation per se may not result in creating a competitive environment. If we consider a privately managed organisation which has a large market share for a given activity and in the absence of adequate competition is behaving more as a monopoly, then de-regulation may help in generating competition. However, this will be possible provided large investments are not required by the new entrants and even if required, could be retrieved to a significant degree in case their efforts fail.

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This can be further clarified by taking the examples of road and rail transports. In a road system where several transporters exist, the new entrants can join as the system is de-regulated. Such new entrants will have to invest in transport vehicles and allied areas and can thereafter start competing with others. In case they want to exit the system the losses will not be large as transport vehicles can be suitably disposed. Contrary to this, if we examine the case for a railway system, huge amounts will be needed for the fixed infrastructure and such investments cannot be retrieved later if one wants to exit the system. Assuming that the fixed infrastructure is provided to all the operators as a level playing field (as has been done in some of the countries), and the operators have to own the trains then also the investments will be heavy and exiting will have its own problems due to non-availability of suitable market for such trains. In such situations, even with large number of entrants, the tendency will be to join hands and gradually turn into a monopoly (On the privatized British Rail, 17 Rolling Stock companies grouped into three) reaching a stage of little or no competition. The Privatization/De-regulation of railway systems has to be seen in this context. Since Independence, the LR. has functioned primarily as a Department of the Government but number of activities have been off loaded to Public Sector Undertakings as also to the Private contractors. Privatization / Corporatization has often been suggested as a panacea for all the ills but the IR's approach has been cautious in this regard. The privatization experiment of the British rail has not been a complete success, while the Japanese Railways have benefited from it.

S.5.10 Roll-on Roll-off Service RoRo service operates on the Konkan Railway, where the road trucks are carried on rail wagons, rail freight more or less equals the fuel cost which the truck would have otherwise incurred in its road journey, and the time of travel by rail is roughly half of what it would have been by road. It is a win-win situation for the rail, truckers, and the environment. However, such a service has not picked up on other IR sections primarily because of capacity and congestion factors. Once Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) are constructed, many more such services should be a practical reality.

The Ro-Ro service will have the following advantages: (i) Win-Win situation for the Truckers and the Rail. (ii) Saving in fuel hence environment friendly. On Swiss

Railway System, road trucks are carried on rail wagons to reduce environmental pollution.

(iii) Will provide speed and reliability of Rail and flexibility of Road (at loading and unloading legs) for the freight traffic.

(iv) Will reduce congestion on existing roads. S.5.11 Accidents on I.R. as Measured on the ‘Sigma’ Scale

The ‘Sigma’, a Greek alphabet, is a symbol used in the statistical notation to represent standard deviation of a population. Standard deviation is an indicator of the amount of variation or inconsistency in any group of items or in any process. Sigma level of performance is a term commonly used to measure the performance levels with a view to reduce the variations, e.g. if the variations are reduced to six standard deviations, it would be termed as Six Sigma.

Sigma levels of performance are also expressed in terms of Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) . The DPMO indicates the errors that would show up if an activity was to be repeated a million times.

The broad relationship between the Variation levels, DPMO and Sigma is as given in Table below:

Table: Simplified Sigma Conversion Table Variation Level DPMO Sigma

30.9% 6,90,000.0 1.0

69.2%

3,08,000.0 2.0

93.3%

66,800.0 3.0

99.4%

6,210.0 4.0

99.98%

320.0 5.0

99.9997% 3.4 6.0

While some world organizations are working to reduce Variations to achieve Six Sigma quality but taking all processes even to Four Sigma (99.4 percent variation level) would be an enormous achievement for most of the companies. With about 70 lakh (7 million) trains being run every year on the I.R. and about 120 consequential train accidents yearly, the DPMO value works out as 17 accidents per million trains. The quality performance, therefore falls between Five and Six Sigma levels (approaching Six Sigma Level) and is definitely a good performance. For improving the safety levels further, directed inputs are needed, and achieving Six Sigma quality level will mean that accidents are reduced from the present level of about 120 accidents per year to about 20 accidents per year. Even though this is a Herculean task but the I.R. can do it. It will, however, need adequate technological inputs, high quality and reliable materials and machines, absolute precision in systems, concerted efforts towards Human Resource Development including intensive Staff Training, and above all the commitment and conviction of the Management in achieving this goal. Management will have to ensure Six Sigma quality levels in all areas/activities concerning the Men, Materials, Machines and Systems in this regard.

S.5.12 Formation of a Centralised Metro Rail Transport Authority Metro Rail projects are not only essential to carry heavy urban traffic but also considerably reduce environmental pollution. The Integrated Energy Policy of the Planning Commission, August 2006 lays special emphasis towards development of rail-based urban transport systems in major cities to conserve fuel/energy. Construction of metro rail projects in our country has far lagged behind. Even though urban transport is a State subject but the Metro Rail projects need highly specialized knowledge and inputs. To give a boost and direction to this activity constitution of ‘Centralised Metro Rail Transport Authority’ appears necessary. This will ensure faster and effective coordination between the Ministry of Urban Development, Ministry of Railways, concerned State Governments, Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and other Stake holders.

S.5.13 Ancient Indian Philosophy – Sustainability of Dharma (Moral Values/Ethical Values)

It is difficult to define Dharma as at different times different Seers have given different definitions. Further, detailed Dharmas (Duties) have also been prescribed for the various category of people like a King, Householder, Housewife, Priest, Guest, etc.

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The following three definitions, however, should be able to provide a reasonably good appreciation about Dharma :

1. Truth, Purity, Compassion, and Charity are the four pillars of Dharma.

2. Patience, forgiveness, restraint, not coveting others’ possessions, purity, control over sense organs, talent, knowledge, truthfulness, and absence of pride are the ten characteristics of Dharma.

3. Dharma of a human being is humanity and the ‘humanity’ comprises of all the good qualities like kindness, forgiveness, truthfulness, honesty, purity, etc.

Indian philosophy recommends four pursuits (Purusharths) for healthy living and evolution of every individual. These are :

i) Dharma (Duty/Moral Values/Ethical Values/Humanistic Values)

ii) Artha (Wealth) iii) Kama (Sensory pleasures) iv) Moksha (Attainment of everlasting freedom/Spiritual

goal) It does not advocate man to simply target Moksha, the

ultimate goal of life. It considers man’s need to earn wealth (Artha) and the desire to satisfy his senses (Kama) as legitimate and essential to life. However, it recommends that Artha and Kama must not be pursued indiscriminately and must be tempered by Dharma. Further, even the Dharma for its sustenance has to be guided by a Higher Principle, i.e., Moksha.

Our organizations are consciously recognizing that Ethics (Dharma aspect) is needed for sustainable performance/development and all out efforts are also being made to imbibe it in the organizational culture. However, glaring ethical system failures in some reputed international organizations like Enron, Arthur Anderson, Satyam, etc., point towards the need for Ethics to be rooted in some Higher Principles for its sustainability (Very much like the Dharma rooted in Moksha). One remembers an old saying in this regard :

“Physical prosperity cannot be sustained without Moral Values; and Moral Values cannot be sustained without Spiritual Values”.

Ref. : Agarwal, V. K. : “Ethics and Environment” – RITES Journal, Jan. 2010.

S.5.14 Development Paradigms and Ancient Indian Thought Subhash Sharma (2008) succinctly brings out the need for

Dharma (Duty/Moral Values/Humanistic Values) for Sustainable Development and the need for even higher values for Holistic Development as detailed below.

Development Paradigm

Values Rootedness

Value Expression

Expression from ancient thought

Economic Development

Market Value Human resource development Economic value addition

Artha & karma

Sustainable development

Market values & social concerns

Human & social development ,Ethical value addition & Ethical duties

Dharma, Artha & Karma

Holistic Development

Balancing between Market Values, Social values &Spiritual values

Human, Social & spiritual development ,spiritual value addition

Dharma, Artha , kama & moksha

Ref. : Subhash Sharma : “New Mantras in Corporate Corridors – From Ancient Roots to Global Routes” – New Age International Publishers (2007).

S.6.0 Make Power from Coal Plants Clean / Capture CO2

and Convert it to Fuel using Solar Power S.6.1 Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth

The Report of the Expert Group on “Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth” - Planning Commission, Govt. of India, (April 2014) in their Low Carbon Inclusive Growth (LCIG) Scenario mentions as under:

• Solar : The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission

(JNNSM) has set a target of 22 GW ( 20 GW of grid-connected and 2 GW off-grid/decentralized) of Solar power by 2021-22. The Report (April 2014) in their Macro Model estimates solar capacity of more than 100 GW by the year 2030. The Report further mentions that the cost of Solar power has already come down to Rs. 6 per kwh and it expected to reduce further and is expected to achieve grid parity in the coming few years.

• Wind : In the Report (April 2014) the Macro Model

suggests, a Wind power generation capacity of about 120 GW by the year 2030 which is more than six times the present installed capacity of about 20 GW. This is reasonable to expect since wind is cost effective and the wind industry in India has reached maturity after over two decades of experience.

• Hydro : The present hydro-power installed capacity is

about 39 GW. There is an estimated potential of 150 GW but most of this is in the North Eastern Region and it is not clear how much of it could be exploited given the environmental and ecological constraints. The LCIG Scenario projects a hydro-power capacity of 75 GW by the year 2030.

• Coal : Even in the low carbon scenario, the India’s coal

based power generation capacity is expected to increase to about 315 GW in the year 2030. However, about 50% of the installed capacity in the year 2030 is projected to be from supercritical coal technology and possibility with ultra - supercritical technology. This would help in reducing emissions from the sector as supercritical and ultra-supercritical technologies are less carbon intensive.

• Electricity Generation: The fuel-wise Electricity Generation in LCIG Scenario in the year 2030 will be as under:

Coal – Sub Critical 27% Fossil fuels 67% Coal – Super Critical 36% Gas & Diesel 4% Wind 8% Renewables 18% Solar 8% Bio-mass 2% Hydro 7% Hydro & 15%

Nuclear Nuclear 8% • Energy Storage : Most utilities manage the intermittency

associated will renewables (Wind, Solar, Biomass) using Hydro and Gas generation. The Report mentions that while the matter has not been examined by them but it is clear that grid will need Energy Storage System (ESS) to prevent costly renewable curtailment. Pumped Hydraulic System (PHS) is one of the cost effective and proven option for energy storage. It is a mature technology and has low operating costs.

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There is an estimated potential of 94 GW of pumped storage in India. The PHS system has a long lifetime and is easy to operate. However, it is not clear how much of the estimated potential can be achieved given that PHS systems are capital intensive and are associated with environmental and ecological challenges.

Grid level batteries are an option to consider but they still have high capital costs. Na-S, Flow Battery and Li ion battery systems are among the leaders in the international grid level battery sector. However, detailed studies are required to ascertain their viability under Indian conditions.

S.6.2 Need to make Coal based Power Plants Cleaner – Carbon Capture / Carbon Storage / Carbon Use

• Carbon Capture : Even for the LCIG Scenario about 63% of power generation in our country will be from coal based power plants in the year 2030. There is thus an urgent need to capture carbon dioxide emissions from these plants (Carbon Capture) to reduce environmental pollution. Fast growing needs for energy and availability of adequate coal deposits in the country point towards the compulsive use of coal based power plants for some more time but this can be a practical reality only if adequate measures are taken to make the energy ‘cleaner’. Even though costly, carbon capture seems unavoidable. Rough estimates indicate that for a conventional coal plant, the provisions for carbon capture, will reduce the amount of electricity generation by about 25% while for new plants (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle or IGCC) this reduction may be about 15%. (Ref.: Goodal, Chris – 2008) While currently there is resistance to use carbon capture due to high costs involved but the growing environmental concerns are very likely to result in an increase in the levels of carbon tax. In such a situation the balance may tilt in favour of carbon capture vis-à-vis paying the carbon tax. • Carbon Storage : The carbon dioxide as captured can be

compressed until it liquefies and then can be sent by pipeline to a place where it can be stored. This can be stored in depleted fossil fuel reservoirs or injected deep into the saline aquifers composed of porous rocks etc. However, many environmentalists and policy makers worry about whether some of the carbon dioxide will eventually leak, returning to the atmosphere. Some also talk of the risk of escaped carbon dioxide concentrating at ground level and asphyxiating living creatures.

• Carbon Use – Biofixation : The algae – a group of several thousand water-living organisms, ranging from large seaweeds to single cell plants – are extremely efficient at breathing in carbon dioxide. Under controlled cultivations, the weight of algae can more than double in a day provided light, water and nutrients including carbon dioxide are available. Further, for certain types of algae, upto half the weight is a form of vegetable oil which after extraction and simple modification can be used as fuel in standard diesel engines. Instead of using captured carbon dioxide some experiments have also been done for fertilising the algae by using unmodified exhaust gases from coal and gas power stations. This can save cost of carbon capture. However, the success of all these experiments / efforts have only been marginal. One of the main problems has been that algae do not respond well to industrial cultivation. Further, in large open ponds, controlling the water temperature is difficult and undesirable species of algae can take over, reducing the useful yield.

• Carbon Use – Electro-chemical Approaches : Cheaply converting carbon dioxide to useful products by techniques that don’t require lot of energy, is an area of active research. Some of these efforts are mentioned below :

- Converting carbon diaoxide (CO2) using catalyst and electricity from solar energy into carbon monoxide (CO) that can be used for a range of industrial applications, including liquid fuel.

- Conversion of carbon dioxide to liquid methanol using copper oxide nano-wires and sunlight.

- Experiments are on to produce ‘kerosene’ from CO2 using a multi-step process and concentrated sunlight (Solar Reactor at ETH, Zurich).

- Work is also on to convert carbon dioxide and water into liquid motor fuels but this reaction requires large amounts of energy. Effort is to make it economically viable.

S.6.3 Solar Energy – An Overview

• Solar energy is a non-polluting source and is also available in abundance. The sunlight hitting the earth’s surface everyday contains 7,000 times more energy than the fossil fuels which we consume. Potential thus is enormous. Technologies already exist for its production (Solar Thermal; Solar Photovoltaic) but are being used to a limited extent primarily due to higher cost of Solar power (Costs have come down drastically over the years; Rs. 6 per kwh at present; May soon achieve grid parity ), need for large areas for power collection, and energy availability only during a limited period of the day.

• The Planning Commission Report (2006) on the “Integrated Energy Policy” projects for our country the potential of Solar Thermal and Solar Photovoltaic as 1200 Mtoe (Million tonnes of oil equivalent) for each, the total being 2400 Mtoe which is about four times our Total Primary Energy consumption. The waste land requirement envisaged is 5+5=10 million hectares and with improving technologies may reduce significantly. It may not be out of place to mention that our country has a total land area of 329 million hectares out of which about 30 million hectares is waste land. Further, with an all India Power Grid connectivity Solar power transmission will also not pose any problems and Solar power can be produced in areas where sunshine is better and/or the waste land is available. The major problem (besides the need to make solar power commercially viable; cost has come down to Rs.6 per kwh and is likely to achieve grid parity in future) is the need for ‘storage’ of energy during day hours, for use in the other periods. This becomes particularly relevant if the Solar power has to find a dominant place in the energy mix.

• Power Grid will need suitable Energy Storage Systems to prevent Solar power being wasted. Pumped Hydraulic System (PHS) and Grid Level batteries are the main options to consider. Such a storage may give an energy efficiency of around 70% i.e. about 30% power will be

42

consumed in the storage process. Another approach could also be to use the extra Solar power during the period it is available, say for production of hydrogen (by electrolysis of water) and/or production of Fuel (by conversion of CO2

captured from coal based power plants). This approach should be seen as an effort to store Solar power in the form of useful products like Hydrogen and Fuel rather than being wasted. The economics of the conversion process should get credit for the loss of energy, inherent in the ‘storage’ process, to evaluate its financial viability. It is very likely that carbon dioxide conversion to Fuel using Solar energy from the Grid may prove a financially viable option.

S.6.4 Make Power from the Coal Clean / Use Extra Solar Power to convert CO2 to Fuel / Balance the Power Grid

Power stations produce a large fraction of world’s carbon dioxide emissions. In developed countries, more than a third of the total greenhouse gas output typically enters the atmosphere from the smokestacks of fossil fuel power stations. If this carbon dioxide is captured it will be a large volume and the relief to environment will be significant. Instead of storing this carbon dioxide in underground depleted fossil fuel reservoirs or in the deep sea saline aquifers it will be much better to convert it into useful Fuel using Solar power. This will also avoid waste of Solar power and will balance the Grid besides production of Fuel. Energy from coal plants will no longer be a polluting energy and will qualify as the clean energy. Coal can continued to be used for power generation without any adverse impact on the environment.

References / Selected Reading 1. Abdul Kalam, A. P. J. : “Wings of Fire – An Autobiography”,

University Press, India, 2001. 2. Agarwal, M. M. :”Indian Railway Track (19th Ed.)”, Prabha

& Co., 2013. 3. Agarwal, M. M. : “Objective Railway Engineering – Track,

Work & Others”, Prabha & Co., 2011. 4. Agarwal, S. R. : “50 Years of RDSO – Powering Indian

Railways”, Research Deisgn & Standards Organisation, Lucknow, 2007.

5. Agarwal, V. K. : “Managing Indian Railways – The Future Head”, Manas Publications, 2004.

6. Bhandari, R. R. : “Indian Railways – Glorious 150 Years”, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India, April 2005.

7. Bhushan, Arya and Agarwal, M. M. : “Indian Railways Safety – Ultimate Goal to Prevent Railway Accidents”, Bahri Bros, 2015.

8. Chandra, Satish and Agarwal, M. M. : “Railways Engineering (2nd Ed.)”, Oxford University Press, 2013.

9. “Changing Relativities Between Road and Rail – www.balanceresearch.com.subs/conf 1999/Paper.htm

10. Chopra, A. K. : “Indian Railways – Silent Transformation”, Institute of Rail Transport, 2007.

11. Collier, Paul : “The Plundered Planet”, Allen Lane, 2010. 12. Freeman, Roger and Jon Shaw (Ed.) : “British Railway

Privatisation”, McGRaw Hill, 2000. 13. Goodall, Chris : “Ten Technologies to Save the Planet”,

Green Profile, UK, 2008. 14. Government of India – Economic Survey 2014-15 presented

in Lok Sabha on 27th February 2015.

15. Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) : Indian Engineering Heritage (Railways), Second Report, January 2008.

16. Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) : Indian Engineering Heritage (Railways), Third Report, June 2012.

17. Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) : First Report of Technology Foresight and Management Forum for Addressing National Challenges (March 2014).

18. Indian Railway Budget Speech 2014-15 by Honourable MR Shri Suresh Prabhu on 26th February 2015.

19. Indian Railways : Vision 2020, December 2009. 20. Indian Railways : White Paper, December 2009. 21. Indian Railways : Year Book, 2011-12. 22. Indian Railways : Year Book, 2012-13. 23. Indian Railways : Year Book, 2013-14. 24. Indian Railways : Annual Report & Accounts, 2011-12. 25. Indian Railways : Annual Report & Accounts, 2012-13. 26. Indian Railways : Annual Report & Accounts, 2013-14. 27. Indian Railways : Report of the Expert Group (headed by

Sam Pitroda) for Modernisation of Indian Railways, February 2012.

28. Indian Railways : Report of the High Level Safety Revenue Committee (headed by Anil Kakodkar), February 2012.

29. Kerzner, Harold : “Project Management – A System Approach”, John Wiley, 2003.

30. National Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC) Report, Rakesh Mohan Committee, 2014.

31. Piccioni, Robert L. : “Einstein for Everyone”, Jaico, 2010. 32. Planning Commission, Government of India : “Integrated

Energy Policy – Report of the Expert Committee”, 2006. 33. Planning Commission, Government of India : “Low Carbon

Strategies for Inclusive Growth – Report of the Expert Group”, April 2014.

34. Seema Sharma (Ed.) : “India Junction – A Window to the Nation” – Select Essays, Rail Travelogues and Photographic Features, Rupa Publications, 2014.

35. Singh, K. P. : “High Speed Rails : A Worldview and its Relevance to India”, RITES Journal, January 2013.

36. Soft Mobility Paper – Measures for a Climate-friendly Transport Policy in Europe, July 2006. www.stopclimatechange.net.

37. Sudhir Kumar & Shagun Mehrotra : “Bankruptcy to Billions – How the Indian Railways Transformed”, Oxford University Press, 2009.

38. UNESCO Report : “Engineering : Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for Development”, UNESCO, 2010.

39. Vir, R. K. : “Story of Chittranjan Locomotive Works”, Chittranjan Locomotives Works, 2003.

40. White Paper : Indian Railways – Lifeline of the Nation”, Government of India, Ministry of Railways, February 2015.

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http://www.balanceresearch.com.subs/conf�

Tunnelling Through Water Bearing Strata By

Sh. Ram Pal GENERAL

All the serious difficulties that may be encountered during the construction of an tunnel are directly or indirectly due to the percolation of water toward the tunnel. Therefore most of the techniques for improving the ground condition are directed toward stopping the seepage.

The control of ground water is of utmost importance in soft ground tunnelling. The presence of a small amount of water in granular soils above the water table may be beneficial in providing an increase in stand-up time because of apparent cohesion brought about by negative capillary forces (until they dissipate), but below the water table the presence of water serves to reduce the effective strength drastically, and seepage pressures cause rapid and complete failure in non cohesive soil. The presence of water in clays is of primary importance in determining the strength, sensitivity, and swelling properties of the material. The type of control to be exercised, whether in construction or in design of the final lining, is directly dependent on these properties.

METHODS OF CONTROLING THE GROUND WATER

To control ground water, the engineer has four principle methods:

1. Dewatering 2. Compressed Air 3. Grouting 4. Freezing

Fig (1) Shows the applicability of these methods for grain sizes of the soil.

1.) DEWATERING Sumps and pumps typically are the most economical means of dewatering, but they more applicable in large open excavations. Therefore, in a tunnelling operation it is found only at the portals.

Fig-1. Methods of Controlling ground water.

Well point systems Fig-(2) are the most versatile dewatering tool and can be used to draw the water table down in soils ranging from sandy silts to coarse sands and gravels. The usual practice is to install two lines of well points, one line on either side of the tunnel.

The effectiveness of well points is limited to shallow tunnels because the suction lift limitation restricts the draw-down to 5 to 7 mtr, the latter limit requiring special techniques. In contrast to open cuts, for tunnelling it is usually not possible to extend the effective depth of well points by installing in stages. The effectiveness of well point in fine-grained soils sometimes may be extended by special techniques such as applying a vacuum or electro-osmosis. Eductors or ejectors can be used to lower the ground water table significantly more than 5 mtr, but they have a lower efficiency and more complex design requirement then wells points systems.

Deep wells have a larger diameter then well points. Thus, under applicable geological conditions, each deep well generally has a larger drawdown area then does each well point. In addition, because the pumps are submersible each deep well typically attains a greater drawdown; wells can be installed at depths up to 30 mtr, with drawdown typically three-quarters of that.

44

Sh.RAM PAL IRSE

XEN/C/Sangaldan

Fig-(2). Schematic design of wellpoint and deep well.

Deep well installation typically ranges from 10 to 30 cm in diameter with the corresponding range in capacity being 4.4 to 63 lit/sec. Compared with well points, deep wells have a high unit cost for both installation and operation. Thus, the designer and contractor must continue to observe and test continuously as the construction proceeds, making changes (even during installation) if actual conditions prove to be different from those assumed.

In any dewatering operation, the drawdown of the groundwater level causes a corresponding and often significant increase in the effective stresses in the soil within the drawdown zone. This increase in effective stresses results in a settlement that can be roughly estimated by consolidation theory in cohesive soil and elastic compression in granular soils. Particularly in soft cohesive soils, this settlement is often large enough to produce worrisome differential settlements at overlying structures. Each case must be evaluated independently, but a few approaches to mitigating this situation are summarized below:

• Allow the settlement to occur and then repair the building. This may be acceptable where the settlements are small, the building is forgiving of differential settlement, and/or the building is low-level.

• Install cut-off walls (typically slurry walls) along both sides of the alignment, restricting the drawdown (hence the settlement) to the immediate area of the alignment.

• Recharge the groundwater immediately outside the alignment. This also has the effect of restricting the drawdown to the immediate area of the alignment.

2.7 Compressed Air Compressed air can be an effective and productive means of stabilizing the soil and controlling groundwater, especially in granular (sandy) soils below the water table or in squeezing soft cohesive (clay) soils.

In granular soils, compressed air is used to offset the water pressure at the tunnel face, thereby preventing the flow of the water (and accompanying fines) in to the face. However the engineer is faced with a dilemma. It is impossible to strike a perfect balance:

• If the air pressure is balanced at the invert, the water at the crown will be driven away from the tunnel. This can dry the sand. Leading to possible running conditions and even the risk of an air “blow.”

• If the air pressure is balanced at the crown, the water at the invert will be under a pressure of 0.43D, enough for troublesome flows of water into the tunnel and possibly for flowing conditions to exist.

The usual approach to this dilemma is to adjust the air pressure so that it balances the water pressure at the tunnel spring line. This compromise generally is the best solution available, but the engineer and contractor must recognize that both of the problems enumerated above remain a possibility, although each should be minimized. When used in cohesive ground, the goal is to provide enough air pressure so that, in combination with the soil’s natural strength, the tunnel will be stable for the tunnel excavation and support operations. To obtain a measure of tunnel stability, Peck has proposed Equation (1.1) given blow. For this application, Pa in that equation is the air pressure above atmospheric. Table -1and 2 summarize the approximate relationship between the stability factor (Nt) and the behaviour of a tunnel. Table-(3) shows the tunnel behaviour in sands and gravels.

Nt = Pz-Pa {Eq-(1.1)} Su Where Nt- The stability factor Pz- Over burden pressure to the Tunnel center line. Pa- Equivalent uniform interior pressure applied to

the face. Su- Undrained shear strength. Table-1 Tunnel Stability: Cohesive Soils.

Stability Factor, Nt

Tunnel Behaviour

1

2-3

4-5

6

Stable Small creep Creeping, usually slow enough to permit tunnelling May produce general shear failure. Clay likely to invade tail space too quickly to handle

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Table-2 Tunnel Stability: Silty Sands

Stability Factor, Nt Tunnel Behaviour

0.25 - 0.33 0.33 – 0.5 0.5 - 1

Firm Slow Raveling Raveling

Table 3- Tunnel Behaviour: Sands and Gravels.

Designation Degree of compactness

Tunnel Behavior Above water table

Below water table

Very fine clean sand

Loose, N<10 Dense, N>30

Cohesive running Fast Raveling

Flowing Flowing

Fine sand with clay binder


Rapid Raveling Firm or slowly Raveling

Flowing Slowly Raveling

Sand or sandy Gravel with clay binder


Rapid Ravelling Firm

Rapid Ravelling or flowing Firm or slow Raveling

Sandy Gravel and medium to coarse sand

Running ground. Uniform (cu<3) and loose (N<10) materials with round grains run much more freely than well graded (cu>6) and Dense (N>30) ones with angular grains.

Flowing conditions combined with extremely heavy discharge of water.

The use of compressed air requires design and operation of the system required to provide and control the requisite air.

The requirements are given blow:

• Compressors (with spares)

• Material and muck locks(s)

• Man lock(s)

• Medical lock.

• Medical facility and staff

• Standby (trained) hospital staff and facility.

The quantity of air required can only be found by experience on a site-by-site basis, but for initial planning purpose it may be estimated according to

Q = KD2 Eq-1.2

Where Q is the quantity (CFM) of compressed air at the design pressure, K is a constant (approximately 12 in fine sands and 24 in gravel), and D is the tunnel diameter in feet.

(3) GROUTING

Several types of grouting are used to modify and/or stabilize soils in situ in preparation for soft ground tunneling. Recent improvements in grouting have made it a valuable tool in both ground water control and soil stabilization for tunneling projects. It is a very effective method for improving tunneling under a number of situations such as the following:-

(1) to strengthen loose or weak soil and prevent cave-ins due to disturbance of loose, sensitive or weak soils by the tunneling operation,

(2) To decrease permeability and hence ground water flow,

(3) To reduce the subsidence effects of dewatering or to prevent the loss of fines from the soil,

(4) To stabilize sandy soils that has a tendency to run in a dry state or to flow when below the water table.

The general applications of grouting are of three types:

(a) Permeation grouting that fills the voids in the soil with either chemical or cement binders.

(b) Jet grouting that uses high pressure jet to breakup the soils and replace them with a mixture of excavated soil and cement, and

(c) Compaction grouting that densities the soil during tunneling by injection of a stiff grout.

These applications are illustrated by figure-3, and the types of soils in which each grouting method may be effective are indicated approximately by fig- 4.

Groutability is primarily determined by the permeability of the soil. For initial planning purposes, this may be expressed in broad terms such as shown in fig-5 where grouting materials are shown and matched to the general soil discriptions. In more detailed terms, groutability may be expressed directly in term of soil permeability or of the percentage of fines (percent passing a No. 200 sive) in sand, as shown in table 4. Finally, in greater detail, one can compare the grain size curve for a given soil with a plot of groutability, as shown on fig-6.

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Fig-6 Groutable soils.

Fig-7 Grout pipe layout Plans.

In recent years environmental and worker safety regulations have increasingly restricted the use of toxic chemicals, and they have effectively retired some kinds of chemicals grouts formerly in common use. New grouts are also being developed.

It should be noted that the final grouted soil mass is produced by the logical geometrical arrangement of small, contiguous grouted masses and that secondary and tertiary grouting pattern are often required to fill ungrouted zones left by the original patterns. Thus, pipe spacing may vary from 0.5 to 1.5 mtr.

Preferably, the pipe should be placed in an array in which all pipes are parallel, with the engineer determining the grout zone pattern required for the problem at hand. However the geometry of the problem, soil permeability, and the type of grout very often dictate other patterns around a tunnel, as illustrated in fig-7.

Permeation grouting may be by either cement or chemical based grout, with the latter being necessary for satisfactory penetration of finer soils. As shown by fig-5, cement grout is feasible only in gravels and some sands, where as chemical grouts are feasible in soils containing more fines. Historically, the rule of thumb has been that soil having less than 10% of fines passing the No 200 sieve could be successfully grouted and those with more than 20% of fines could not. Recent experience indicates that current methods and materials have raised these limits approximately 5% each.

Fig-3 Applications of grouting for Tunnelling.

Fig- 4 Grouting method and Soil type. Fig-5 Grain-size ranges groutable soils.

Table-4 Groutability Related to general soil Permeability and to percentage of fines in a sand.

Groutability General Soil permeability, cm/sec

Percentage of fines in sandy soils

Easy

Moderate

Marginal

Ungroutable

10-1 to 10-3

10-3 to 10-4

10-4 to 10-5

< 10-5

<12

12-20

20-25

>25

47

On the Los Angeles sub way project, it was necessary to perform the grouting from pits alongside a major (eight lane) freeway (see fig-9 and 10). From the pits, the grout holes were drilled horizontally under the free way, in that way avoiding the traffic disruption that vertical drilling would cause. The contractor elected to drill all the way under the free way from one side. This made the holes approximately 85 mtr long, a length that challenged the contractor ability to control the long horizontal holes and keep them aligned as planned. Although there was some horizontal and vertical deviation of the holes, the contractor was able to bring them back to acceptable limits (and established a record for horizontal grout holes ). Measurements of the grout hole locations and of the grout injected indicated that the grout program was successful. This was proven later when the tunnel was driven successfully.

Fig-9 Horizontantal and chemical grouting program for the Hollywood freeway, Los Angeles metro.

Fig-10 Design and actual grout hole locations.

In the past, four grouting methods were used: stage, series, circuit, and packers. Current practice, however, consistently uses packer grouting because it has been shown to provide (economically) the best control of the grouting operation by

. Controlling the location of the injection along the grout pipe.

. Controlling the formation of unexpected flow channels along the grout pipe.

. Providing access for second or third stage grouting.

The goal of the grout injection is to fill the defined volume of soil with overlapping grout bulbs so that, under ideal conditions, the total volume is grouted. In reality the bulbs do not take the assumed shape, and the total volume is not grouted. However, when properly executed, a grouting program involving primary and secondary grouting should impregnate 90% or more of the required volume, and that is generally enough to provide the stability required for the tunneling operation. Schematically, these operations have been illustrated in fig-8.

Tertiary grouting may be desirable in some cases to try to fill most or all of the un grouted zones left by the primary and secondary grouting. The most obvious need for tertiary grouting is where the prime goal is to shut off ground water. Especially where moving groundwater may carry fines with it, any ungrouted channels left from the primary and secondary grouting might concentrate the flow and potentially compound the transport problem. In these circumstances, tertiary grouting may be critical. The equipment required for grouting typically consists of storage tank, mixing tank, pumps, meters, gases, packers and hoses. The pumping plant is of primary importance: its basic function is to proportion, mix and pump the grout. The grout pumping plants versatility is increased if the flow rate can be varied at any time, allowing the flow rate to be maximized for a given soil and the design limit pressure. The dimensional capability can be again increased if the relative proportions of the grout components can be varied easily and quickly at any time, allowing changes in gel times while pumping. This is important when temperature changes during pumping affect the gel time or when trying to develop resistance to flow in given situations. An accurate and appropriate means of monitoring flow rates and pressures involved is essential. Positive displacement meters should be placed on the inlet or outlet of the pumps and pressure gauges should be placed at the pumps and top of the grout pipe. Fig- 8 Crown grouting.

48

10

Grout pipe Installation: The function of the grout pipe is to allow a designated grout

zone to be fully permeated. This may require the introduction of the grout at one or more depths and in multiple injection stages (see fig-11). A number of types of grout pipes are used to meet the goal of fully permeating a designated grout zone. A driven or jetted pipe is best used for grout injection at a single depth as long as soil condition will permit installation. A slotted grout pipe can be used for grouting a relatively pervious, captive soil layer.

However, experience has shown that the sleeve port pipe (Fig-12) provide the most versatile grout pipe installation. By locating the internal grout packer at a particular sleeve port, grout can be injected at any specified depth, and regrouting can be performed at that depth in any number of stages. Four distinct advantages occur with the use of the sleeve port: (1) grout can be injected at specific depths in each bore hole, increasing the likelihood of penetrating the desired area.(2) The elastic sleeve at each port prevents the grout from returning in to the grout pipe and gelling up after grouting, allowing the port to be reused. (3) The sleeve ports allow the pipe to be completely sealed to the bore hole, reducing grout leakage away from the desired zone, along either the pipe or bore-hole interface. (4) Chemical and cement grouting can be performed in the same grout pipe at any particular depth to grout more permeable soils.

The grout pipe must be installed such that the sealing grout surrounds the entire pipe and fills the annulus.The grout used to fill the annulus is usually made up of cement, bentonite, and fly ash. The grout should be thick enough to prevent infiltration into the soil; ideally it should be low strength and brittle.

Fig- 11 Multiple injection for Crown grouting.

Fig -12 Tube a Manchette.

(4). Freezing:

Freezing is more often used in shaft sinking than in tunneling, but the method is useful where nothing else will serve, provided that surface access over the tunnel alignment is available. It should be noted at the outset that, for the method to be successful, sufficient water must be present: freezing will not change the stability characteristics of dry soils. For freezing to be successful, in the situ pore water must be converted to ice by extraction of the latent heat. The ice then acts like a cement to bind the soil grain together, thereby raising the strength and lowering the permeability of the soil mass. It should be also noted that the presence of organic material (common in silts and clay) or salt water will result in greater difficulty in freezing, since the ground water freezing point will be depressed. Another major deterrent to successful freezing is moving ground water. To convert the pore water to ice, the freezing system must remove heat so that the water temperature is lowered below freezing. However, moving ground water can easily bring heat in to the area faster than the freezing system removes it. Even with modern freezing techniques, it may not to be possible to obtain a freeze if the ground water is moving more than approximately 8 cm per hour. At lower velocities, the following water may create an elongated, rather than circular, bulb of frozen ground. Such an unpredictable shape may make difficult the closing of a freeze wall even though the volume of ground frozen is theoretically correct. Finally, note that in many soils, the expansion of water by freezing will first cause heaving of the ground surface, but subsequently, upon thawing, will cause subsidence. The net effect is generally a compaction and permanent settlement of the ground.

Tunnelling machine for water bearing strata- Selection of a tunnelling machine requires consideration of soil conditions, water conditions, tunnel size, support system, excavation conditions and the excavation environment. The numbers of variables that must be considered in selecting a machine is quite large. In today’s world of production- driven tunneling, most soft ground (water bearing) tunnels are excavated by circular tunnel boring machines (TBM). However, special circumstances and configurations sometimes dictate that other tunnel shapes or types of tunnel construction be considered.

49

Table: Special machine for Tunnelling in soft ground/Water bearing strata.

Type Description Remarks

Slurry face machine

This machine uses pressurized slurry to balance the groundwater and soil pressure at the face. It has a bulkhead (closed face) to maintain the slurry pressure on the face; that slurry must be piped down and recycled from the surface. It may also be equipped with a stone crusher for occasional cobbles. This machine is good for water bearing silts and sands with fine gravels.

Best for sandy soil, tends to gum up in clay soils, with coarse soils, face may collapse into the slurry. Coarse soil are defined as

• Gravel content>60% • Clay and silt

content<10% • Water content<18% • Coefficient

permeability>10-

2cm/sec • Cobbles greater than

20cm

Earth pressure balance (EPB) machine

This machine has a closed chamber (bulkhead) face that uses trapped water and soil material to balance the groundwater and/or collapsing soil pressure at the face. It uses a screw discharger with a cone valve or other means to form a sand plug to control muck removal from the face and there by maintain face pressure to balance the earth pressure. It is good for clay and clayey and silty sand soils, generally below the water table.

Also best for sandy soils, with acceptable conditions defined as

• Clay and silt content>7%

• Gravel content<70% • Cohesive soils (not less

than 40% clay and silt) have N-value <15.

• Water content >18% in sandy soil and >25% in cohesive soils.

WATER BEARING/SOFT GROUND TUNNEL SUPPORT AND LINING Just as most soft ground tunnels are now excavated by one or another type of TBM, it is also true that most initial support systems consist of one of three schemes:

1. The first scheme consists of ribs and lagging (also called ribs

and boards) in which steel wide flange sections (ribs) are rolled to the radius of the tunnel and erected in the tail of the machine on 3-5 feet centers. Spanning between the steel ribs, and completely around the perimeter of the tunnel, are timber lagging members. As the steel ribs sequentially clear the tail shield, they are expanded in to place to contact the ground, with props put in the expansion gap.

2. The second scheme consists of unbolted precast

concrete segments in which the completed ring usually consists of approximately four precast concrete pieces or segments. These segments are erected within the tail shield and expanded into place as they clear that tail shield. To “complete the ring” the expansion gap (or gaps) is stabilized by means of steel props and then filled with fast-setting concrete.

3. The third scheme consists of bolted (or pinned) precast concrete segments made up into rings usually consisting of approximately six pieces. In contrast to the above segments, however, these members are bolted (or sometimes pinned) together at all circumferential and longitudinal joints. The variations for bolted segments are almost endless: the rings all may be tapered, requiring a 1800 rotation in alternating rings for a straight drive; the segments may be identical except for special tapered ones for curves ; a key segment may or may not be used; various dowels or pins may be used in place of or in combination with bolts; bolt pockets, curved bolts, and special locking devices have all been used to make up the connections. Obviously these segments are more complicated than those in the second scheme.

Schemes 1 and 2 typically have a secondary or final lining of cast-in-place concrete placed as a later operation. Thus, these are called two-pass lining schemes. The concrete lining is used to provide the design life support for the “ temporary” scheme 1, to sandwich drainage fabric or waterproof membrane in both scheme 1 and 2, and/or to provide the requisite inner surface of the tunnel for user requirements such as fluid flow. Scheme 3 is called a one-pass lining and usually does not have a final lining unless a nominal one is dictated by user requirements.

SURFACE EFFECT OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION

1. Subsidence Due to Water-table Depression- Water-table depression will occur because of external dewatering, or because the tunnel itself functions as a groundwater drain.

2. Subsidence Due to Lost Ground- For most purposes it is usually possible to assume that the volume of surface settlement is equal to the volume of lost ground.

SEISMIC DESIGN OF WATER BEARING/SOFT GROUND TUNNELS

Although underground structures are much less vulnerable to earthquakes than surface structures, there still is a potential for damage to buried structures in strong-motion earthquakes. The actual risk must be assessed on the basis of both seismological and geotechnical evaluation of the site. For this assessment, the required seismological information includes.

50

• Historical data on earthquake recurrence intervals, magnitudes,

and associated parameters of ground shaking. • Proximity of faults. • Historical evidence of slippage on the faults and magnitude of

actual offsets with their recurrence intervals. Similarly, the required geotechnical information includes

• Depth to and nature of underlying bedrock. • Stratigraphic section and properties of the individual

components of soils/rock in the overburden. • The location of the water table, presence of perched water, and

degree of saturation of the soil. • Geophysical data, especially seismic shear wave velocity in

each major segment of the soil/rock horizon. Engineers generally referred to the maximum design earthquake (MDE) and the operating design earthquake (ODE). These typically are defined as follows:

• The MDE is the earthquake event that has a return period of several thousand years. It has a small probability of exceedance, approximately 5% or less, during the 100 years facility life. The MDE defines the level at which critical elements continue to function to maintain public safety, preventing catastrophic failure or collapse and loss of life. However, some elements will experience inelastic deformation, and the structures may require major repair before being returned to full service.

• The ODE is the earthquake event that has a return period of several 100 years. It can reasonably be expected to occur during a 100 years facility design life; the probability of exceedance of this event is approximately 40% during the facility life. In the ODE, critical elements of the facility maintain function and the overall system continue to operate normally. Any needed repairs are cosmetic in nature and can be done as part of maintenance operations.

51

Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete And Its Comparison With The Wire Mesh By

Sh. Sumeet Khajuria

1.0 Introduction

Shotcrete is the pneumatic injection of aggregates and cement mixture and is an all-inclusive term for both the wet-mix and dry-mix versions. Shotcrete is used in lieu of conventional concrete, in most instances, for reasons of cost or convenience. Unreinforced shotcrete, like unreinforced conventional concrete, is a brittle material that experiences cracking and displacement when subjected to tensile stresses or strains. The addition of fibers to the shotcrete mixture adds ductility, durability, energy absorption capacity and impact resistance. The composite material is capable of sustaining postcrack loadings and often displays increased ultimate strength, particularly tensile strength. Fibers used in shotcrete are available in three general forms a) Steel fibers. b) Glass fibers. c) Other synthetic fibers.

2.0 Steel fibers

Steel fibers are manufactured in several ways. Wire fibers are produced from drawn wire that has been subsequently cut or chopped. Flat steel fibers are cut or slit from sheet of steel or by flattening wire. The melt-extraction process is used to "cast" fibers by extracting fibers from a pool of molten steel. Consequently, fibers are round, flat, or irregular in shape. Additional anchorage is provided by deformations along the fiber length or at the ends .These are commercially available in lengths ranging from 1/2 to 3 inches. Typical fiber lengths for shotcrete range from 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches and are used in the amount of 1 to 2 percent by volume of the shotcrete. American ASTM A820M-06 and European EN 14889-1 are the quality control performance based manufacturing standards for steel fibres in India various types of steel fibres are shown in Exhibit 1.

Manufacturers must declare values for each individual fiber characteristics that influences performance such as length, diameter & aspect ratio, fibre tensile strength etc. These values must not deviate by more than the tolerances outlined in the codes. An abstract of tolerances on fibre geometry and tensile strength is reproduced below;

PROPERTY SYMBOL DEVIATION OF INDIVIDUAL VALUE FROM DECLARED VALUE (EN 14889-1-2006)

DEVIATION OF INDIVIDUAL VALUE FROM DECLARED VALUE (ASTM A820M-06)

LENGTH

L, ld 10% 10%

DIAMETER

D 10% 10%

ASPECT RATIO (LENGTH/DIAMETER)

δ 10% 15%

TENSILE STRENGTH

Rm 15% 15%

3.0 Constituent Materials of Steel fibre

reinforced shotcrete 3.1 Cement: Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS

8112:2001. 3.2 Aggregates: restricted to 10mm conforming to IS

383. 3.3 Mixing water: 3.4 Steel reinforcement comprising of steel fibres

/synthetic fibres in recommended dosages. 3.5 Admixtures comprising accelerators and water

reducers conforming to IS 9103. 3.6 Additives such as Silica fume( micro silica ),Fly ash

( Pulverized fuel ash ) ,Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) etc. to be added in dosages varying from 8% to 15% of the Portland cement or as per the maximum dosages prescribed by the prescribed standards.

4.0 Design Mix of Steel Fibre reinforced shotcrete (SFRS)

These mixes can be used as a starting point when embarking on a shotcrete programme , but it may be necessary to seek expert assistance to 'fine tune' the mix designs to suit site specific requirements.

52

Sh. SUMEET KHAJURIA XEN Udhampur Northern

Railway USBRL Project

5.0 Advantages of SFRS over wire mesh reinforced shotcrete

The following advantages are attributed to Steel fibre reinforced shotcrete in comparison to the steel wire mesh installation

5.1 Faster means of support: Immediately after excavation of tunnels in hard or softer strata, SFRS provides the quickest means of reinforced ductile rock support in comparison to the wire mesh which is time consuming.

5.2 Cheaper: SFRS is cheaper in comparison to the wire mesh installation and shotcreting.

5.3 Homogeneous: SFRS applied over surface is more homogeneous ,ductile and presents a uniform structure than shotcrete applied over wiremesh owing to which there is a tendency of voids left behind the wire mesh.

5.4 Safer : SFRS application immediately after excavation supports the unsupported rock starta and thus provides a more safer and viable means of rock support in comparison to the wire mesh application and then shotcreting which is time consuming.

5.5 Green solution: SFRS application as immediate support reduces the cycle time for all operations and thus optimizes the progress with appropriate utilization of resources.

5.6 Overbreak: Experience with the use of mesh (weld mesh, etc.) has been unsatisfactory when there were over breaks in the tunnel after blasting. In these cases, soon after the weldmesh was spread between bolts and shotcrete, the mesh started rebounding the shotcrete and it could not penetrate inside the mesh and fill the gap between the mesh and the overbreak. Unlike wire mesh. SFRS however can be evenly applied to fill such gaps.

Exhibit 1: Steel fibres

Table 1: Typical steel fibre reinforced silica fume shotcrete mix designs (After Wood, 1992)

Components Dry Mix Kg/m3 %dry materials

Wet Mix Kg/m3 %dry materials

Cement 420 19.0 420 18.1 Silica fume additive 50 2.2 40 1.7

Blended aggregate 1670 75.5 1600 68.9 Steel fibres 60 2.7 60 2.6 Accelerator 13 0.6 13 0.6 Superplaticiser ___ ___ 6 0.3 Air entraining admixture

____ ___ ___ ___

water Controlled at Nozzle. 180 7.7 Total 2213

100 2321 100

53

Solar/Wind Hybrid Power Plan By

Sh. Nitin Verma

Power generation is a leading cause of air pollution. Coal is the worst offender, among various energy sources. The energy choice we make during this pivotal moment will have huge consequence for our health, our climate, and our economy for decades to come. Right now the world is moving towards a natural gas dominated electricity system, but over reliance on natural gas has significant risks and is not a long term solution to our energy needs. Like coal, the natural gas is also a fossil fuel that generates substantial global warming emissions, and has other health, environmental & economic risks. There is a better and cleaner way to meet our energy needs. Renewable energy resources like wind & solar power generate electricity with little or no pollution & global warming and could reliably & affordably provide our energy needs. 1. Introduction: The alignment of USBRL project cuts across a predominantly hilly region, rugged mountain terrain and the adverse geology. The project involves construction of number of tunnels and Bridges. One such bridge is being constructed over the Chenab River. Chenab Bridge is located between Bakkal and Kauri in Reasi district of state Jammu & Kashmir (J&K), India. The 1315 m long bridge is being built at a height of 359 mtr. from river bed. Once completed, it will be a tallest rail bridge in the world. Chenab Bridge forms a massive steel arch, the first of its kind in India. The bridge will include 17 spans, as well as 469 mtr. main arch span across the Chenab river and via ducts on either side

Railway is also constructing a VIP rest house at the Chenab bridge site. The location of VIP rest house is on small hill top near to Chenab bridge site. The connected electrical load for the rest hose will be approximately 50 KW. In order to promote the green energy and to tap naturally available wind and solar energy, one 20 kW Hybrid (Solar + Wind) power system as a stand-by power supply arrangement, is being provided at this location. 2. Wind and Solar Data at Chenab Bridge site: The performance of hybrid system is highly dependent on the environmental conditions. The wind data at Chenab bridge site, as collected from NASA’s website, indicates that the average wind speed at 10 mtr. height at this site is 4.5 m/s for last one year. The data of Anemometers, provided at this site to study and analyze the wind speed for the purpose of Design and construction of Chenab Bridge, indicates that the average annual wind speed of 4 years is 7.91 m/s. Also, the percentage of annual average wind velocity > 4 m/s, during last 4 years, is 79%.

Hence, to get the best use of natural resource (wind) available at Chenab bridge site, 2 Aero generators of 5 KW capacity each, are being provided in the VIP Rest House. As per the power curve of this aero generator, the minimum cut in speed required for generation is 3.5 m/s. The percentage of working hours for Aero generator are expected from 67% to 88% (average of 4 years is 79%). Similarly, Hourly solar radiation data for one year was collected from NASA’s website. The average annual solar radiation is 5.13 kWh/m2/day at Chenab Bridge site. Hence, solar PV modules of 10 KWp capacity are being included in the hybrid system

54

Sh. NITIN VERMA

Dy.CEE Northern Railway Jammu

3. Benefits of Wind + Solar Hybrid system: a) Renewable energy is clean, affordable, domestic and effectively infinite. It produces no emissions and results in cleaner air and water for all. Renewable power generates revenue for local communities. Revenue from solar and wind farms helps stimulate local economies. b) Ministry for New and Renewable Energy is extending Central Financial Assistance to encourage using renewable energy. For demonstration projects in North-East, Jammu & Kashmir states the Central financial assistance is being extended by MNRE. c) 24 Hrs. power back-up can be ensured. d) In monsoon, when generation of solar PV is very less, wind power is at its peak and covers the generation for solar PV and in summer vice a versa. 4. Salient features of Hybrid system: a) Proven and reliable Wind turbine technology. b) Direct drive, permanent magnet aero generators. c) Automatic furling safety system with passive aligned tail vane. d) No gear box in wind turbines, hence no maintenance. e) Due to reduced maintenance, less life cycle cost. f) Low cut in wind speed hence generation starts even when wind speed is low. In no wind condition, system works on solar energy. g) No skilled manpower required to maintain the system. Annual maintenance solutions can be provided, if required, h) Easy to install, robust, reliable and user friendly. i) Auto change over between renewable system and grid supply possible. 5. System Design Details: The system shall be of Wind + Solar Hybrid power system consisting of aero generators and solar photovoltaic cells. Average power generation from 20 KW hybrid systems, at available wind speed and solar radiation, is expected to be approximately 70 KWH per day.

The details of Hybrid power system:

Capacity of Hybrid system

2 Nos. x 5 KW wind generator + 10 KW Solar Photo Voltaic cell system. Total 20 kW Hybrid system.

Estimated energy generation from Solar PV modules.

35 KWH per day

Estimated energy generation from Aero generators.

35 KWH per day

Total estimated energy generation

70 KWH per day

System voltage 96 V Batteryl capacity 96V/840 Ah Life of hybrid power plant

20 years

Approximate Total cost of the Hybrid system (excluding, transportation, excise/taxes/duties)

Rs.46,30,000/-

NOTE: Being a hybrid system, battery size is optimized so that ON line usage of generated power will avoid discharge of battery.

Conclusion: Provision of Hybrid system is an initiative towards harnessing the naturally available green and clean energy. This is an initiative in line with the policy of Govt. of India. Jammu & Kashmir is considered as heaven on earth. The state is rich in diversity of flora & fauna and plant life. It should be the endeavor of every citizen to protect the natural beauty and rich bio-diversity of the state. For day to day energy needs, generation of electricity through fossil fuel will pollute the state and may damage rich bio-diversity. The initiative of provision of Hybrid system will be a baby step towards harnessing green & clean energy and will help to reduce the pollution in the state.

55

Indian Railways Vision 2030: Vision for Solar Energy the Way Forward By

Sh. R.K. Chaudhary 1.0 Inception of the Project: Idea of installing Solar Power Plant on roof top of Katra Railway Station Building was conceived by Sh. Surinder Kaul, CAO/USBRL in the month of Jan 2013 and accordingly a tender for 80 KW Solar Power Plant was invited based on the preliminary studies by M/s Plaza Enerpack Pvt Ltd., New Delhi for technical feasibility on roof top of station building. Due to some technical problem, the tender opened on 18/06/2013 was discharged and further studies by M/s Gansun Global Solutions India Pvt. Ltd. Bangalore, M/s Solar Energy Corporation of India, New Delhi, M/s Tata Power Solar Systems Limited were undertaken for potential for generation of Solar Power on platform shelters and roof top of station building and it was assessed as 2 MW capacity.

Since it was planned to install a grid connected solar power plant which do not have battery back-up for utilisation of power during the nights, capacity of solar power plant of 1 MW was assessed taking into account the diversity factor of 1/3rd of total connected load of 3.3 MW. While these studies were in progress, during

Accordingly, a decision was taken on 18/07/14 in a meeting held in chamber of Chairman, Rly. Board, to install 1 MW Solar Power Plant at Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Katra Railway Station within a very tight target of March 2015 as committed by Chairman, Railway Board to Prime Minister.

The foundation stone for 1 MW Solar Power Plant at Katra was laid by Sh. Arunendra Kumar, the then Chairman Railway Board on Oct 28’2014, in presence of Sh. A.K Jain Managing Director, REIL.

2.0 Funding of the Project: The construction of solar power plant was not a sanctioned work and it was a big question how the project would be funded. To handle this issue following actions were taken

A) Soon after the inception of the project, the possibility of funding of the project was explored. There were three options (I) funding through Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Model (II) funding from USBRL Project (National Project) and (III) Submit the proposal to Railway board to include in the Works Programme Items. The inclusion in the Works Programme Items was going to take a very long time and completion of the project would have taken at least 2-3 years. The study of Public-Private Partnership Model revealed that execution of work under this model was not economically viable and favorable for railways as capital investors could have drawn the benefit for 25 years i.e., the entire life of solar power plant as against the direct investment model in which pay-back period is 8.5 years and after payback period, energy generated is free for balance period. Thus with finance concurrence, the Direct Investment Model for funding from USBRL Project was approved by CAO/USBRL.

56

Sh. R.K.Chaudhary Chief Electrical Engineer,

USBRL Project. Northern Railway,

Though, the process of studying various models was time consuming, it was done on war-footing and decision was taken within 14 days and tender was invited on 01/08/2014 after initiating the process on 18/07/14.

B) Special conditions of tender with warranty and performance clauses in association with FA&CAO was designed properly as to protect the interest of Railways for 25years (life of plant).

C) The tender was opened on 16/09/14 and Tender CommitteeRecommendations accepted on 5/10/14 (order placed within 22 days after opening of the tender) as against the validity of 3 month of tender offer and letter of intent/letter of acceptance issued on 07-10-14.

The completion period was purposely kept very tight i.e., 4 months from date of issuance of LOI/LOA as against the realistic assessment of 8 months for execution as per discussions held with M/s BHEL, M/S CEL and M/s SECI so that the target given to PMO by Railway board is adhered to even after slippage of completion period by 2-3 month. Finally strategy worked and the plant was commissioned on 27/3/15 and target given to PMO was achieved.

The cost of the project shall be included in the final revised/completion estimate of Udhampur-Katra section. Thus the project was funded by USBRL Project funds.

3.0 Target of the Project: As per the commitment of Railway Board to PMO, the project was to be commissioned by 31st March 2015 and there was a very tight schedule for framing the proposal, getting finance vetting, preparation of technical specifications & tender document, inviting and finalisation of tender and then executing the work which was a process of more than a year but curtailed to six months. In fact CRB himself was involved in decision making process and monitoring the progress.

4.0 Steps taken to curtail the time lengthAfter awarding of work, following steps were taken to curtail the normal process of time in Railway Working for various activities at every stage of execution.

i) Work awarded in 22 days from the date of opening of tender as Tender Committee was asked to work dedicatedly and credentials got verified by sending officials all over India

ii) Agreement was prepared and send to firm for their perusal instead of waiting for the firm’s representative to come and see the draft agreement in Dy CEE’s office at Jammu.

iii) Submission of Performance Bank Guarantee was delayed by the firm, though it was a pre-requisite for signing of the agreement but the agreement was signed without waiting for the Performance Bank Guarantee.

iv) Drawings submitted by the firm were personally taken to concerned officers & to site so as to examine, modifications done, sitting together with contractor’s designer and drawings were personally taken at officer levels for signature of officers of construction and divisional level at various stations like Jammu, Katra, Udhampur and Ferozpur

v) The signing of drawings were expedited in shortest possible time between officers stationed at various stations i.e., Jammu, Udhampur, Katra and Ferozpur with close coordination at every level and monitoring at Senior Level.

vi) In lieu of proto-type inspection by RDSO, independent test reports of type test of solar module from independent laboratory of national repute were accepted. This reduced a long time for proto-type approval which could have been taken by RDSO.

vii) For key items, RITES inspection was involved. It was changed for some items by accepting the factory type test reports and carrying out the inspections by consignee and MNRE’s approved agency jointly to curtail the delay on account of RITES Inspection as envisaged and actually experienced in case of cables.

viii) For expediting the supply of various materials, the team of officers/supervisors were deputed to the manufacturing units of sub-vendors of main contractor. These officers/supervisors camped at manufacturer’s work-shop and got the material manufactured/inspected and dispatched before leaving the manufacturer’s work shop. This could ensure timely delivery.

ix) Close monitoring by CAO/USBRL was done on day to day basis and even whenever required necessary approvals and assistance was provided to project team

x) Close coordination was maintained between electrical, engineering, finance, operating and commercial departments of Railway at Katra Railway Station for leading the material to site, on roof of station building and platform shelters under the strict supervision of Railway officials.

xi) Excavation work for earthing pits on granite stone ofplatforms and foundation work on roof of station building without digging was done in strict supervision of engineering department in addition to electrical supervision. Big boulders of rock were found on platforms while digging the pits for earth pipes, against the expectations of normal earth. This aggravated the problem of earthing at platforms.

xii) The erection activities were spread over two shifts starting from morning to mid-night. Even during the rains, foundation work was casted by putting-up tarpals/tents so that the work does not get halted.

57

iii) Various activities of erection i.e, erection of modules

on platform shelters, cable laying, earthing etc started simultaneously in parallel. The team of officers of Dy CEE/C/Banihal was inducted to strengthen the coordination & supervision of the work so as to maintain round the clock supervision. Officers/supervisors were put for supervision of each activity independently and overlapping of instructions was avoided.

iv) Close liaison with Power Development Department of J&K Govt was maintained for arranging the shut down for the erection of Current Transformer and & Potential Transformer and bi-directional energy meter and also for obtaining approval of Electrical Inspector to Government timely.

5.0 Hurdles/Irritants experienced: 1). Initially, it was decided that platform shelter and station

building will be taken-over back by construction organisation from Ferozpur Division so as to minimise the interference of division in drawing approval and obstruction during the execution stage. However, division did not hand-over these assets to construction organisation as a result approval of drawings involved branch officers of Ferozpur Division which prolonged the time of drawing approvals due to complying with the requirement repeated observations of Ferozpur Division.

2). The work was awarded to M/s REIL, Jaipur (Govt PSU). The PSU firm did not rise to the occasion as procurement / tendering process for selecting the suppliers and sub-contractors was to be followed by them which were time consuming and resulting in delays.

3). Clearance at Lakhanpur Border is a big hurdle in Jammu & Kashmir State. Despite, liasoning tied-up with Sales Tax Authorities in advance, consignments were not cleared timely from Lakhanpur border. This was over-come by liasoning at higher-level and submission of forms in advance of reaching consignment at border. All papers/forms required by Sales Tax Authorities were given in advance.

4). Galvanized structure on roof of station building was designed to make it rust free and light weight. It was experienced that the fabrication of components done for galvanized structure were not matching for bolting. Lot of holes were made by gas drilling to match the component which was a time consuming process besides compromising the quality of holes. These gas cutter holes were painted with cold galvanizing paint to protect against rusting.

5). One truck carrying 2500 PV Modules and 14 Nos inverters got over-turned after clearing the Lakhanpur border as the driver was drunk. Keeping in view the urgency of the material at site, without waiting for firm’s representatives, Railway Officers and Supervisors were deputed to site of accident to manage the transportation of the material from over-turned truck to other truck and send the material to Katra without losing a long time in the process of registering FIR and insurance formalities.

6). During the commissioning of the inverters, it was found that 2

inverters were found defective due to damage in the accident and SCADA cable was not timely supplied due to which the commissioning was got delayed. 3 Nos of inverters were got air-lifted from Bangalore to curtail the time for commissioning of the systems, CAT 6 cable was procured from Jammu and plant was commissioned timely.

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7.0 Recommendations for the future projects:

i. The deviation taken to RDSO’s specifications should be incorporated in the RDSO Specification for Solar Power Plant based on the experience of the project and RDSO Specifications

ii. Specifications should be revised for higher capacity as existing specification is only up to 500 kW capacity grid connected plant and it is not meant for platform shelters (including maintenance/walk ways). For the project identified for the Solar Power Plant on Indian Railways, the availability of subsidy from MNRE (Ministry of New Renewable Energy) in various states may be explored and used. For funding, various options may be explored and Model adopted by DMRC in Delhi may be tried out in Railways.

iii. Process of Power Purchase Agreement between State Electricity Boards and Railways should be initiated in advance before setting-up of the power plant to get the benefits of the power generated by the Solar Power Plant and surplus energy fed to State Grid

iv. The tariff policy for Power Purchase Agreement with State Electricity Boards for grid connected systems should be decided by Zonal Railways/ Railway Board, Railways being a deemed licensee.

v. The consultancy contract should be awarded for preparation of design, drawing, specifications and tender document before going for execution of contract for larger capacity plants.

vi. People are fragile like a glass and they need to be handled softly with care. Motivational approach need to be applied for sincere & dedicated team for achieving the better results.

Disclaimer: The views of author in this article are personal and intent not to hurt feeling of any reader in any way.

7). At one point of time, While working day and night with full dedication for achieving target , which was approaching fast, doubts developed in the minds of top management, whether target would be achieved or not. With untiring support of CAO/USBRL, we consolidated our team efforts and target was achieved.

6.0 Learning from the execution of the project:

i. Solar Power Plant on station platform shelters and roof top of station building of such higher capacity i.e., 1 Mega Watt was executed for the first time on Indian Railways which may become a model for future projects of this nature by Indian Railways under Railway Solar Mission/National Solar Mission Programme.

ii. Strategy adopted for curtailing the time in various activities mentioned above may be used in future projects and can be properly built in the execution strategy itself.

iii. The project should be closely monitored and supported at higher levels by way of timely decision and other logistic supports which will help for timely execution of the works.

iv. Way & means of funding of project may be explored by deviating from the conventional thinking of Works Programme Proposals.

v. For execution of the work, it was learnt that energy generated by the Solar Power Plant is surplus to the Railway’s present requirement during the day time and that surplus energy is fed to the Grid of Power Development Department/J&K Govt at 33 KV system but presently no credit for this energy is received by Railway. The matter has been taken up with State Govt for signing of the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) between PDD and Railway for the surplus solar energy generated by Solar Power Plant at Katra and fed to the PDD Grid.

vi. Since the technical specification was framed based on 2 MW Solar Power Plant at RCF Raibareilly which is ground mounted, walk ways required for maintenance of solar modules on platform shelter were left out. This is being done separately now.

vii. The feasibility studies were done free of cost from various agency which perhaps were not very detailed and no input for technical specification was available. Many issues crop-up during execution; therefore consultancy contract should have been done.

viii. Moral support, guidance and quick decision making provided by CAO was appreciable and finally it was rolled-out into results.

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Implication of Himalayan Geology in TBM working By

Sh. B.B.S Tomar & Sh. Amit Kumar

1. Introduction :-

India has an immense hydropower potential to the tune of 84,000 MW, a major chunk of which is in Himalayas. The slower rate of development of hydropower for last many decades has resulted in the total share of hydro power of the total generating capacity to only 25%. The surge in power demand in the country has necessitated putting an increased thrust in development of hydroelectric projects in India. Government of India has launched a hydro electric 50,000 MW initiative to enhance a hydro generation and bring it to the desired ideal share of 40% of the generating capacity. The pace of tunneling work, which forms a major component of hydroelectric development, has a notable bearing on the pace of the implementation of the project. Barring few, most of India's underground hydropower projects had faced and are still facing time and cost overruns.

2. Tunnelling Technology :-

Following are the methods of tunnelling.

(i) Conventional Method • Drilling and Blasting Method • New Austrian Tunneling Methodology

(NATM) • Drainage, Reinforcement, Excavation,

Support Solution (DRESS)

(ii) Mechanized Method

• Road Headers

• Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM)

A review of tunneling methods shows that the conventional drill-&-blast method remains practically the dominant practice for excavation of tunnels in India. The tunneling rates achieved using the conventional method of excavation vary from 7.5 m to 81.0 m on monthly average basis depending upon the size of tunnel , geology encountered etc which is comparably much lower than the rates achieved otherwise using mechanized tunnelling elsewhere. Attempts have been made in the past on some projects to use Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) with success in some and failure in others. 3. Why Himalayan Geology is Special

Challenge for TBM Working :-

From the tunnelling perspective, the Himalayas arguably pose the most challenging ground conditions almost anywhere in the world. One of the prime reasons for this is that they are the youngest of the mountain chains. They are demonstrably rising faster than anywhere else. Their composition is also younger generally, and in consequence less well consolidated than all of the other older fold belts. This is consistent with the fact that they constitute one of the most active of the plate margin zones, rising at a rate that is almost double that of the Andes, which, in turn is almost three times that of the Alps. Almost nowhere else, on a world scale, except around the Pacific Ring of Fire, is even on the same active “stress” scale. As insitu stress levels are to a large extent geologic age dependent the younger the mountain belts the more imbalanced is the stress state. Even though impressively rugged, the Canadian Rockies and West Coast Ranges of North America, the Urals of Central Russia, or the coastal ranges of Norway are largely benign from a stress imbalance perspective. As a result, stress conditions (magnitude and variation) can potentially be more extreme and adverse on a Himalayan tunnelling project than even has been encountered in some of the worst sub-mountain tunnel drives (including the Olmos and Yacambu Tunnels of Peru and Colombia respectively, which are landmark projects from the bursting and squeezing perspective). On a ranking scale, these Andean tunnels traversed much worse ground conditions and arguably met greater geotechnical challenges than were encountered anywhere along the 50+ km length of the Lötchberg and Alp Base deep tunnel drives, echoing the fact that the level of active out-of-balance deviatoric stress state experienced by these tunnels is likely mountain range dependent.

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Sh. B.B.S Tomar Chief Engineer Northern Railway

USBRL Project.

Sh. AMIT KUMAR Dy.CE Chenab Northern Railway

USBRL Project.

One can thus postulate a tunnelling difficulty ranking scale for the mountain chains of the world, viz., – #1 the Himalayas, arguably the most difficult and challenging, through #2 the Andes and #3 the Alps, through to #4 the least difficult of the main chains, the Rockies and the Western Cordillera, with #5, 6, 7 corresponding to older and older mountain cores – with the Archean Canadian and Scandinavian, Algonquin and Adinondak age mountain belts being almost totally benign stress-wise. This is not to say that there aren’t adverse faults and challenging zones of poor ground in even these old mountain range areas. The dominant difference relates to stress state. Based on “active” stress state alone, therefore, similar length deep tunnel excavations under the Himalayas likely will pose significantly more challenges than an equal length, equal cover drive almost anywhere else in the world. These difficulties of tunnelling at depth through high mountainous terrain pose major challenges not just for tunnel boring machine (TBM) drivages but also for application of traditional drill and blast (D&B) and NATM methods. Dealing with adverse geology at any depth can be problematic and can lead to significant tunnelling delays if not adequately foreseen; but geological problem conditions, which might be tractable at shallow depth, with either TBM’s or D&B approaches, when encountered at significant depth (>1000m) can prove disastrous depending on stress state, rock competence and prevailing groundwater inflows. Mitigating delay problems associated with exceptionally bad ground at depth requires considerable foresight and advanced planning. The more challenging the ground, the greater the pre-planning that is required prior to tunnelling. This challenge is not just one of tackling the adverse ground condition, by modifying the excavation and support processes in order to deal with the specific problem zone, stress state and groundwater conditions, it is also often about logistics, as all too often for deep tunnels in mountainous regions the problem geologic zones are at significant distance from the nearest portal, and at such significant depth that surface pre-treatment is generally impractical.Traversing faulted and disturbed ground at significant depth requires that tunnelling procedures be able to cope with a huge range of difficult geological conditions. Investigating, evaluating and assessing anticipated geology ahead of tunnelling, and dealing with encountered difficult ground conditions requires that better understanding be gained of the interaction between complex geology and stress conditions when excavating at significant depths. Extremes of ground conditions present major contrasts to tunnelling, so much so that they often demand use of flexible rock engineering solutions in order for the tunnel to progress. The fact that within the Himalayas, conditions can be expected to be as bad as has ever been encountered elsewhere means that there has to be the ability while tunnelling to allow changes to be made of driving method and support approaches. This need to adopt flexible solutions is often seen as being at variance with the constraints imposed by the rigidity of design elements incorporated into the fabrication of a typical TBM. As a result, traditionally there has been a reluctance to use machines in these conditions, mainly due to the perceived extremely adverse consequences of entrapping or damaging the TBM. In some part this is due to the perception that there is more difficulty dealing with adverse ground conditions in the confined working area of a TBM, in comparison to dealing with the same problem in the larger working space of a D&B/NATM heading.

Hard rock machine designs are however moving forward to encompass full umbrella forepoling and soft rock machine pre-grouting and ground treatment philosophies in an attempt to combat some of these problems by making the machines sufficiently robust and at the same time flexible enough to be capable of safely and successfully excavating through extremely bad ground. In the nut shell we can understand that the Himalayan geology is quite varying with folds and large number of small and big faults, thrusts, shear-zones. Moreover, the rocks of Shiwaliks and Lesser Himalayas are, jointed, sheared, fragile and weak. These together make Himalayan rocks a difficult tunneling media. The weak and jointed masses of Himalayas which constitute one third of land mass in India pose a major challenge to project planners. Problems of roof wedges, rock fall from crown, squeezing rock, water ingress are predominant in Himalayas which make it difficult proposition and has resulted in slow progress of work. In view of these factors, the TBM could not gain a wider acceptance in the country due to complexities involved in geological conditions prevalent in the country, especially in Himalayas. The TBM which has now evolved and provide an effective solution towards faster tunneling in various media world over. Although the initial experience was not encouraging, all efforts are on to make it a successful venture in India. With the advent of advanced technology, the TBMs can now be used for wide variety of rocks and geological conditions. More and more projects in India are switching to TBM technique over conventional technique. The subsequent paras discuss the experience of TBM in India in some important water resources projects and its prospects and challenges. 4. Experience of working with TBM in

Dulhasti Hydroelectric Power Project (J&K) :-

Dulhasti hydroelectric project, the first major hydroelectric venture using TBM, had been contemplated as a run-of-the-river scheme over the Chandra river, a tributary of the Chenab. The project in Kishtwar district has been constructed by the National Hydroelectric Projects Corp (NHPC), a Government of India undertaking and is located at about 200 km northeast of the state's winter capital Jammu. The main features of the project include a 65 m high, 186 m long concrete gravity dam near Dul village, a 10.6 km-long and 7.46 / 7.7 m diameter headrace tunnel, a “Dufor-type” desilting basin with 240 metre of length, a 90-metre-high surge shaft, a 311.6 metre long pressure shaft, an underground powerhouse near Hasti village accommodating three Francis turbines of 130 MW each utilizing 235 m of gross head. The project is designed to generate 1928 MW annually in a dependable year. The project lies within lesser Himalayan zone and is characterized by a unique plateau like feature with schist/ gneiss on western side and quartzite/phyllite on eastern side.

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Kishtwar Regional fault divides the plateau into two lithological units. The power house and part of downstream HRT lie within schist / gneiss formation whereas the dam complex and upstream HRT rest in quartzite/phyllite sequence. The main interesting geomorphic feature of the project is fossil valley area. The detailed investigation carried out by NHPC has revealed that the fossil valley is filled up with Lacustrine deposits comprising of sand, silt, clay and pebbles. Originally, the HRT was conceived as 9.6 km long straight HRT. In absence of suitable intermediate adit location, the excavation of HRT had to be planned from two faces. During the review in the construction phase, the 300-500 m length of this HRT was seen to be passing through fossil valley area. It was apprehended that the geological surprises coupled with lack of advanced techniques could lead to many avoidable problems. Hence, an alternative layout of length 10.6 km with a loop to avoid fossil valley area with siphon type depression to provide proper rock cover and adoption of varying invert slopes was chosen. Due to non availability of a feasible site for an intermediate adit, it was decided to bore 6.75 km upstream portion of tunnel using TBM with the finished size as 7.7 m circular and remaining portion using DBM with the finished size as 7.46 m horse shoe shaped.

The TBM used was hard rock TBM manufactured by M/S Robbins of 270- series which had the ability to bore into hard rock and fractured zones too. The 8.33 m diameter machine had 59 disc cutters with max cutterhead thrust of 13100 kN. The precast segments were laid in the invert along with the progress of excavation. The segments were designed to form a trench for dewatering at center of the invert. The machine comprised of rockbolting system, wire mesh installer, shotcreting system and steel rib erector. The rockbolting done mainly comprised of 3 m long, 20 mm diameter with mechanical expansion shells. The TBM had the facility of probe hole drill system 50 mm diameter holes about 50 m ahead of the face. Extensive geo investigations including surface mapping of rock exposures, aerial photo, satellite imageries, exploratory drift had been carried out to ensure smooth functioning of TBM. But the unpredictable Himalayan geology resulted in severe geological conditions to be encountered in many reaches. As a result, the TBM excavation ran into many problems resulting in time and cost overrun.

The major problems encountered were:

1. Ingress of water and cavity formation due to aquifer effect. This was predicted earlier as the tunnel alignment was expected to pass through alternating sequence of jointed quartzite and phyllite. The alternating sequence of jointed quartzite being good receptor of sub surface water and phyllite forming the impervious barrier was found to be conducive of artisan condition.

Interception of these zone with tunnel caused sudden ingress of water with sediments/pebbles/gravels and boulders ranging from 0.5 mm to 1000 mm leading to cavity formation and deposition of muck near mouth of cavity.This was tackled by filling the cavity with concrete by concrete pumps pressure grouting and umbrella forepoling. Steel ribs at the spacing of 1000 mm c/c had also been provided. This has resulted in severe time overrun.

2. The TBM had the facility of drilling advance probe holes of 40

m length over crown portion of the tunnel. However, blow out at three closely spaced locations at invert sprang a surprise. The blowouts carried slushy discharge of 700 litre per second in the beginning and further increasing to 1100 litre per second. This was later stabilized to 50-70 litre per second. The water also carried and deposited about 2500 cum – 3000 cum of muck comprising of sand, silt and pebbles. The blowout caused extensive damages with four motors and loco buried in the muck. The presence of full faced TBM left little scope for further investigations. No attempt had been made to choke the crater as this would have lead to building up pressure. The crater had been filled with boulder and graded material with wire mesh to prevent movement of material while the water had been allowed to free flow. Extensive pumping arrangement had been made. This had led to loss of around 4 months.

3. Against the ideal consumption of 1 cutter/m, the consumption

of cutters during excavation was about 6 cutters/m which was brought down to 2 cutters/m when done by NHPC or JSA JV.

4. The progress envisaged was 15 m/day or 400 m/ month whereas the actual progress achieved by French had been an average of 86 m/month and a maximum of 156 m/month. The maximum progress achieved by NHPC was 66 m/month. In comparison the progress by DBM had been 133 m/month with average of 73 m/month.

Overall, this experience in Himalayan geology was not encouraging. The TBM could bore only 2.86 km and finally abandoned giving preference to conventional methods. The project is now commissioned and the commercial production started in April 2008.

5. Experience of working with TBM in Parbati Hydroelectric Power Project Stage-II (HP) :-

The Parbati hydroelectric project is located in Himachal Pradesh (India). It is a cascade scheme, planned to be developed in three stages with an aggregate generating capacity of 2070 MW. Stage-I of the Parbati hydropower project that envisaged capacity of 750 MW was abandoned in 2001 due to environment-related concerns.

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thrust is 18550 kN and considered suitable for hard rock machine. Maximum total gripping force is 55600 kN carried over 4 gripper pads. The machine is equipped with ring-mounted probe drilling equipment, which can cover 360 degrees of tunnel. The probe drills with the maximum probing length of 120 m are also intended for use in the installation of drain holes and for cover grouting.TBM had arrangement of rock bolting, wet & dry shotcreting and ring beam erector for erection of heavy steel arches. The machine was also equipped with high performance injection grouting plant. In the event of unexpected geological conditions, drilling into rock ahead of face through cutterhead would be possible in upper arc. After Launching the refurbished Jarva TBM in the end of May 2004, the contractor Himachal Joint Venture (HJV) faced problems which commonly occur for an initial phase of a TBM drive such as repairs and replacements of electrical components as well as mechanical modifications, adjustments and repairs. Quite unusually, the frontseals of the bearing was leaking from the very beginning and had to be replaced finally. A lot of electrical troubleshooting delayed significantly the progress in July 2004. The initial reach of the tunnel boring comprised of gneiss with schist bands and minor quartz lenses which could be supported by rock bolts and wire mesh. The rock formation then changed to schistose gneiss with bands of chlorite schist, sometimes weak and highly jointed. A wedge failure occurred at ch 748 m due to presence of four primary joint set and fine random joints and a large block of 6.0 m x 2.5 m separated from the crown. The rock bolter could not access the cavity and tight joint sets rendered pre grouting impossible. The probe holes drilling equipment were also incapacitated due to installation of ring beam. To tackle this problem, the ring beam had to be removed and the rock was supported with channels and girders. The cavity was backfilled with concrete. The treatment caused a loss of nearly three weeks. With this experience, modifications had been made in TBM to provide extension drilling system to access the cavities and arrangement of manual shotcreting just behind the cutterhead. The next 250 m reach was marked with rock/wedge failure forming cavities up to 5m above the crown and required a lot of concrete backfilling. The excavation rate dropped significantly. This condition soon improved and best weekly rate with 90 m could be achieved. The failure on several gripper cylinders in end of 2004 caused approximately 8 weeks of downtime and necessitated NHPC to call the Robbins Company for support. The Robbins Company took over the operation of the remaining TBM drive of headrace tunnel. The increased excavation rate of best of 250 m/month and 24 m/day could be achieved. The unfavorable rock conditions in gneiss and quartz like rock bursts and large over break were encountered soon after requiring rock support using steel ribs, fore poling, steel channel lagging and back filling with shotcrete. As the work progressed the rock conditions got even worse, as several mica schist bands were crossed.

Stage II of this scheme is a run-of-river scheme comprising an 85 m-high 113 m-long concrete gravity dam near Village Pulga in Parbati valley. The reservoir will have a live storage capacity of 3.09 million m3, sufficient for four hours full load peaking every day even during lean flow period. A discharge of 116 cumec from Parbati River and Tosh stream is diverted through a 6 m diameter 31.5 km-long headrace tunnel on the left bank of Parbati to an underground ‘restricted orifice’ surge shaft 17 m in diameter that will feed two steel lined pressure shafts each of 3.5m diameter having length of 1542 m and inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A gross head of 862 m so formed is utilized to generate 800 MW of power through 4 generating units of 200 MW each in the surface powerhouse is located on the right bank of the Sainj river near Suind village, 200 m downstream of the confluence of the Jiwa Nala and Sainj rivers. Short tailrace channels will discharge the water from the powerhouse to Sainj river. The project area lies in a high mountainous region in the remote part of Himachal Pradesh and is prone to landslides and cloud bursts.

Excavation in head race tunnel

The 31.5 km long HRT of this project is the longest tunnel in any hydropower project in the country and one of the longest in the world. The excavation of this tunnel was very critical for the timely execution of this project. The HRT had been planned to be excavated through six adits. In absence of the possibility of an intermediate adit in the reach between adit 1 and adit 2, it has been decided to excavate the HRT by the conventional DBM for a length of 22.476 km with finished diameter of 6.0 m and balance 9.05 km of circular shape by the open type hard Rock TBM. The inaccessible terrain had restricted the amount of investigations in comparison to size of the project. Investigations revealed that the headrace tunnel will broadly pass through seven lithological units of two geological formations, separated by a regional thrust known as Jutogh (Kullu) Thrust. The rock encountered was expected to be granite/gneissose granite, quartzite, biotitic schist with subordinate schistose quartzite. The incumbent cover had been ascertained to be 400 m to 1200 m. Another important feature of the area is the high angle reverse fault towards the end of HRT near surge shaft, the zone of which extending to 50-100m thickness.

The TBM designed for HRT had been refurbished Robbins TBM MK 27 of 6.8 m diameter. The cutter head is a closed, backloading type, with recessed cutters and equipped with low profile muck buckets and replaceable scrapers. The installed cutterhead capacity is 3150 kW and stroke length is 2.050 m. The machine is equipped with 49 x 432 mm diameter cutters with recommended maximum operating load per cutter as 267 kN. Nominal cutter spacing is 65 mm and maximum cutterhead rotation speed is 5.77 rpm. Maximum machine

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10

These adverse geological conditions resulted in numerous severe over breaks requiring for closely spaced (0.4 m c/c) steel ribbing, lagging, fore poling and shotcrete application immediate behind the cutter head. Significant convergence of tunnel walls was observed as well, requiring additional rock support behind the grippers. These measures resulted in substantial decrease of progress rates. The use of TBM’s made the work very difficult, cumbersome & expensive.

6. Conclusion:-

Tunnels are important elements of Infrastructural projects such as Hydro Power, Transportation, water supply & sewerage system etc. Its construction involves many complexities in terms of different shapes, soil/rock conditions, alignments etc. Himalaya is young mountain with complex geology and the tunnelling activity in various projects in Himalayas are suffered by diverse geological problems such as difficult terrain conditions, thrust zones, shear zones, folded rock sequence, in-situ stresses, rock cover, ingress of water, geothermal gradient, ingress of gases, high level of seismicity etc. All these challenges may result in increased cost and extended completion period. Compared with the great advances made in methodology for tunnelling all around the globe, it is obvious that we in India have still a long way to go to catch up with modern tunnel construction technologies. So construction of Tunnels in Himalayan region using TBM is a long way to go for success.

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Design and Proof Checking of Steel Mega Bridges – Part 1 By

R.K. Singh 1.0 Introduction

Northern Railway is constucting Udhampur – Srinagar –Baramula Rail link project in the stae of Jammu & Kashmir. The construction work of Udhampur to Katra section and Baramulla to Banihal section has been completed and trains are also moving in both sections. The construction work at various sections between Katra to Banihal are under progress. Under this section, four mega special steel bridges are under design, proof checking and construction. The bridges are namely as Anji Bridge, Bridge No. 39, Bridge No. 43 & Chenab Bridge. All four bridges are having continuous span. Chenab & Anji Bridge have continuous steel deck span over arch and in viaduct portion whereas Bridge No. 39 & 43 are having continous steel plate Gider with composite concrete deck. The detail length & width of continuous deck span of all four bridges are as follows:

Chenab Bridge: Total Length of Bridge – 1315m, Continuous deck length of Viaduct – 785m Continuous span length over arch (S10 to S70) – 530m Deck Width – 13.50 & 17.00m

Anji Bridge: Total Length of Bridge – 657m, Continuous deck length of Viaduct – 240m Continuous span length over arch – 417m Steel Deck Width – 13.50m

Bridge No.39: Total Length of Bridge – 490.30m,

Continuous deck length of Viaduct – 53.15 + 6 x 64.0 + 53.15m Composite Deck Width – 10.6m wide composite deck with 5.485m wide platform on either side, supported on independent girder system

- Bridge No.43: Total Length of Bridge – 777.0m, Continuous deck length of Viaduct – 35.0 + 53.0 + 10 x 64.0 + 49.0m

Steel Deck Width – 11.70m wide composite deck with 0.9m wide

walkway on either side, supported on main girder system

The reason for adopting continuous steel deck superstructure for above 4 bridges are due to site requirements & adopting the latest technology and the popularity of steel bridges in the modern era because of its various advantages. Structural steels have high strength, ductility and strength to weight ratio. Thus it has become the first choice for long span bridges as steel due to more efficient and economical. Various optimization methods in design has been attempted to achieve better economic sections and therefore the evolution of design & proof checking procedure of mega steel bridges is become essential. Designers have used various national & international codes like BS, Euro & American code/specification provisions in addition to own country codes to achieve better economy / optimum and better design.

The detail contents of this paper shall be made / published in 3 part of up coming USBRL Technical News Magzine. The first part of paper contains the design & proof checking of viaduct portion (S70-S180) of Chenab Bridge:

2.0 Finalisation of General Arrangement & Cross Section of Viaduct Portion of Chenab Bridge (S70 –S180)

A number of proposal based on preliminary design was attempted for fixing the spans in viaduct portion (S70-S180). In first proposal 100m simply supported span was proposed but it was finally made as continuous to reduce the total weight of superstructure & horizontal forces in pier and its foundations since the bridge was supposed to designed for seismic zone V. The number of bearings and expansion joints have been made minimum, which help in the mantinanace, inspection efforts and improve the riding quality. The span of continuous viaduct is finalised after considering the bearing capacity of foundation and economical cross section of superstructure which is having Plate Girders in form of Main Girders (T Beams), Secondary beams, cross beams, lattice structures and deck plate resting on spherical bearings at top of pier cap pedestal. Hollow rectangular concrete pier resting on open and pile foundations have been adopted. The GAD of Chenab bridge is shown below.

Sh. R.K. SINGH Dy. Chief Engineer/Planning

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After finalisation of GAD based on geotechnical investigation report & preliminary design, Design Basis Note (DBN) has been prepared for the preparation of detailed design & drawing of the bridge.

3.0 Superstructure

The superstructure is mainly continuous plate girder type and the width of the superstructure was fixed based on the minimum clearance required for the passage of railway broad guage trains and site specific requirement. Sizes of the element of superstructure were fixed from fabrication and mantinance considerations, besides structural requirements also. The arrangement of continuous viaduct span from S70-S180 makes it most critical and challanging, as the alignment being a combination of straight, transition curve and circular curve along its longitudinal gradient in addition to this, the orthotropic fully welded deck structure, comprising of two monolithic deck structure. The span arrangemt for viaduct (S70-S180) is proposed as continuous span of 40m + 9x50m + 40m with deck widh of 13.5m Typical elevation, layout and cross section of viauct portion are shown at Fig. 2,3 & 4.

Fig-3

Fig-5

Fig. 1 General Arrangement of Bridge

Fig- 2

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3.1 Analysis and Design Approach

After finalisation of General Arrangement Drawing, Design Basis Notes (DBN) has been finalised with various codal provision of IRS, IRC, BS & International Codes / Specifications. Analysis and design of bridge element were carried out on basis as mentioned in DBN.

a) Global Modelling

3.1.1 Modelling

The global model was formulated to examine global load and deformation effects in the viaduct deck and its bearings was indepndently by Design Consultant and Proof Consultnt. A 3-D line model was created using SuperSTRESS, LUSAS, RM TDV by Design Consultant & NODLE, LUSAS by Proof Consultant. A single span beam with full 3-D element stiffness properties was used to represent the deck, and similarly for the piers. Bearing were modelled by using element with structural releases and modified section properties to represent the real life free and constrained directions. Additional lateral nodels were added to the deck span to ensure an accurate disribution of weight laterally, so that the mass moment of inertia was correctly modelled in the dynamic analysis. The global model was prepared by softwares as shown in Fig. 5, 6 & 7. A full set of load cases was formulated and analysed as per the DBN. Multimodel analysis was performed to yield the seismic affects and all load cases enveloped to give maximised and coincident load effects.

Fig. 5, 6 & 7 View of Global Analysis Model

3.1.2 Geometry

Model geometry was extracted from the information given on General Arrangement drawings. The full plan and vertical alignment is also considered in the gloal modelling.

3.1.3 Section Properties

Section properties were calculated from the dimensions shown on the drawings. Gross section properties were used for the modelling in accordance with the recommendations in BS:5400.

3.1.4 Material Properties

Steel grade of steel structures is Fe410W C (Normalized) according to IS:2062. Normal yield strength of Fe 410WC are i) Fy = 250 MPa, t < 20mm, ii) Fy = 240 MPa, t =20 - 40mm, iii) Fy = 230 MPa, t >40mm, iv) Modulus of Elasticity (E) = 205000 MPa, v) Poisson’s ratio = 0.3, vi) Density of structural steel = 78.5 KN/m3, vii) Coefficient of thermal expansion = 1.17 x 10-5 per 0 c

3.1.5 Model Behaviour

The behaviour of the local and global models were compered and the comparision used to ensure that the load effects extracted from the global model were distributed to the individual longitudinal girders in a suitable way and in accordance with that predicted by the local model. In particular, the way the torsional loads derived from trains loads applied to one of the two final tracks, plus lateral effects, worked its way through the deck structure was studied using local finite element. Thus the relative effectiveness of the bottom plan bracing in creating a torsion box was studied compared with the load path of carrying the eccentic load through almost purely vertical effects in the two longitudinal beams.

67

b) Local Modelling

A 3-dimensional finite element (FE) model was created to examine localised effects in the viaduct deck in greater detail than was possible in the global model. Primary areas of concern were cross-girder, rail bearers, bearing diaphragms, plan bracing and the magnitude of stresses in fatigue senstive locations.

The model was created using the LUSAS Bridge package, and covered three complete 50m spans of the approach viaduct deck. All major elements were modelled including longtudinal girders, deck plates complete with stiffeners and rail bearers, transverse and longitudinal web stiffeners, plan bracing and diaphragms.

Symmetric or asymmetric restraints were used at the ends of the model, as applicable, to represent the continuity of the deck. Supports were modelled using stiffnesses extracted from the global model.

Due to the size of the model, FE meshing was controlled to give a fine mesh in the locations of interest with an increasingly coarse mesh away from these locations and towards the end of the model. Plates were modelled with thin box shell elements which take account of both membrane and flexural deformations. Bracng members were modelled with 3-D straight beam elements.

The length of the model was sufficient to ensure that when looking at stresses at a particular location both global and local effects were adequetly representd. The model is shown in Fig. 8

Fig. 8 Views of Local Finite Element Model

Sufficient load cases were formulated and analyzed to ensure that maximum stresses were obtained in the elements under consideration. This included Modified Broad Guage loading (considering both train types), on a central single track and also on the final twin track configuration. Significant lateral and longitudinal load effects were also included.

c) Loading

The loading was formulated according to the Design Bsis referencing BS: 5400, Part 2, the IRS “Rules specifying the loads for design of superstructure and substructure of bridges (Bridge Rules)”, and other relevant codes as appropriate. The following loads were considered:

• Dead Load • Superimposed Dead Load • Dfferential Settlement • Live Load • Breaking and Acceleration Effects • Centrifugal, Racking and Nosing Loads • Wind Load • Wind coincident with Live Load • Seismic Load • Blast Loading • Temperature Restraint • Differentail Temperature • Effects of Longitudinal Welded Rail • Derailment Loads • Erection Cases

d) Strength Checks

The strength checks of the steel deck superstructure were carried out in accordance with BS:5400 Part 3: 2000 – Code of Practice for the Design of Steel Structures and as specified in the Design Basis Notes. The following compnenet were checked:

• Main Girders • Plan Bracing • Diaphragms • Load Bearing Stiffners • Splices and Connections • Rail to Deck Connection • Bearings and seismic restrainers • Railings • Access Platforms

All componenets were found to meet the specified criteria including the additional IRS clauses specified in Design Basis Notes.

e) Fatigue Checks

A section of the global Finite Element Analysis model was extracted and provided with a finer mesh as shown in Fig.9. Deck plate has not been shown due to clarity. A unit load was applied to represent a single axle. This was moved to the most critical point with respect to principal tensile stress in the secondary beam web connection, so as establish the peak ordinate in the influence line for principal tensile stress.

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This was scaled so as to define the influence line shape for the passage of each of the 10 train types. Each train was run over the influence line in a load effect simulation spreadsheet and the stress sequence was established. A Miner’s Summation procedure was used to establish fatigue stress cycles counts and this was used to calculate the total elapsed damage in the lifetime of bridge. The fatigue lives of the deck componenets and connections were found to be acceptable.

Additional checks were made on fatigue stresses in the area of the cut-outs that permit the bottom flanges of the railway track beams to pass through the cross beams. The design passed through several stages of revisions and local finite element analysis that culminated in a detail that we agree to have satisfactory theoretical fatigue life.

f) Deformation Check

i) Precamber

Precamber checks were made in accordance with the load combination stated in the DBN. A similar precamber pattern to that stated on the drawings was obtained but found the magnitude is very less. The difference is due to a modelling difference between Proof Consultant and the Designer since Design Consultant have used effective section properties and Proof Consultant used the gross sectional properties in global models. The overall magnitude of the precamber is small and the differences represents the rage of precamber possible depening upon the assumptions made. The effective section properties producing the upper bound and the gross section properties the lower bound of what should be applied.

ii) Check of Deflections and Rotations

Defelections and rotations were designed & checked against the UIC criteria stated in the DBN and found satisfactory.

4.0 Substructure The piers are hollow rectangular concrete piers having various height from 10.457m to 53.484m integrated at top by piercap ( size 12.85 x 4.03 x 4.2/2.1) and at bottom with RCC Pile cap & open foundations. To prevent dislodgement of superstructure, seismic arresters / restrainers have been provided. For the purpose of the seismic analysis plastic hinges has been implemented at the bottom of the piers. For the purpose of implementation the yield moment My, yield rotation Øy, ultimate moment Mu and ultimate rotation the yield moment My, yield rotation Øy, ultimate moment Mu and ultimate rotation Øu has been calculated. The plastic hinges hav been modelled as trilinear springs. Specialised seiemic devices such as preloaded spring dampers, shock transmission unit, base isolation etc have also been prposed based on specific requirements. Normally for concrete piers inalastic damage will be located near the base of the pier and as mentioned more plasic hinges developed simultaneously in many piers results in greater energy dissipation. As such locations of energy dissipation proper access for inspection and repair have been provided. Holes for ventilation has been provided in the hollow piers to reduce the differential temperature inside and outside and provisions for inspection on inside of hollow piers also been provided Typical cross section of pier & piercap are shown at Fig. 10, 11 & 12. The pier caps are modelled as point masses and the self weight is taken into account using point masses. The loads acting on the piers have been derived ax per DBN. Second order (P-Δ effects) are also included for slender piers for all ULS combinations. Piers is being designed for handeling adequate ductility at plastic hinge locations based on the results from the non – linear time history analysis performed in LUSAS, MATHCAD, BABe Software . In addition, the pier are also verified for blast loading corresponding to 100 kg TNT exploding at a distance of 20m from the foundations to ground level.

Fig. 9 Finite Element Model used in Fatigue Analysis

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The superstructure is proposed to rest on sliding type bearings at all pier locations except at one end S70/S180 where fixed bearings are proposed. At support location S70/S180, the main deck carrying the tracks is longitudinally fixed by connecting the deck with support through preloaded spring dampers mounted on pedestals which can transmit the longitudinal braking / seismic forces. By using preloaded spring dampers, which can absob 20% of the total longitudinal force under seismic events, the forces acting on the support S70/S180 is reduced and the bridge position are restored after a seismic event by the preloaded spring force which has a value defined to overcome the friction force of the sliding bearings. The superstructure is restrainrd against movement in the transverse direction at all pier locations by transverse seismic restrainers.Seismic restrainers and vertical bearings will be separated.

Fig. 10

Fig. 10 & 11

5.0 Foundation

5.1 Geotechnical Parameter Selection:

Characteristic parameters for design based on GT Report carried out at site have been selected. These have been converted into Mohr Coulomb shear strength parametrs using the Hoek –Brown Criterion etc. The orientation of regular fracturing within the rock is also considered as part of the design assessment.

5.2.1 Foundation Stability:

Bearing pressure at serviceability Limit State using a slope stability model to verify the stability of the foundations has been established. The pressure imposed at the base of the foundations allows for the distribution of net lateral forces that are ipmosed by the downhill slope of the ground relative to the buried section of the bridge piers.

Foundation Stability for a minimum lumped factor of safety (resistance forces / distributing forces) of at least 1.75 for non-seismic design cases has been fixed. A lower factor of safety for seismic cases dependent upon the design magnitude has been assumed. This lumped factor provides a greater degree of safety than is provided by the partial factor combinations defiened in DBN. A higher overall factor of safety has been selected to ensure that fundation movements are in line with serviceability expections. In order to confirm the analysis basis, a design approach 1 combination 2 set of partial factor have been used..

Two ground models are used in the slope analysis, a mass Mohr Coulomb strength model, and an intrinsic discontinuity model which allow for the orientation of regular rock fractured planes relative to the foundation. Stability of sloping ground parallel and perpendicular to the long axix of the bridge has been verified through analysis.

Fig. 10

70

5.3 Foundation Movement:

The foundation settlement in the first instance, using a simple linear elastic compression model with Bousinesq distribution of stress imposed at the base of the foundation and allowing for additional fill placed around the foundations as part of the works has been assesed. As no direct strength or stiffness measurements of the ground have been collected a range of moduli will be estimated for the ground based on the qualitative observations supplied. Then this range to generate worst case and moderately conservative movements has been used. This approach allow an estimate of extreme differential settlement between adjacent piers and estimate of individual founation tilt.

Movement of the foundations and the interaction of the pier base with slope retention measures used to build the foundations using a simple numerical analysis model has been assessed,

Numerical analysis has been performed to provide verification of the more extensive slope stability and settlement analyses. The stability by successful convergence of the numerical model when subject to ULS loads has been reviewed the foundation movements for service load conditions. Lower bound stiffness values has been used for the ULS verification and moderately conservative stiffness values are used for the SLS verification. Pseudo-static load to model has been used for the effect of earthquake loading in line with the requirements of DBN. Foundation sizes have been determined based on the ULS stability criteria and settlemets verified in SLS. The founding levels were based on the verification of slope stability such that foundations will not be destabilised by the loss of slope stability. In design, the soil strength parameters and the maximum ULS bearing capacities as mentioed in GT Report are used.

Resultant of forces at the base of the foundation shall not fall outside the middle half. This requirement governs the foundation design and determines the size of the foundation slab. All the foundation has been cast in one go/part. Combinations for the foundation Design were done as per IRS Bridge Sub-structure and Foundation code. The maximum Bearing Pressure was reached in combination with earthquake during Live Load (EQ with LL, Cl. 3.2). Bearing Pressure was clearly less than the allowable bearing pressure. Maximum eccentricites were reached in combination with earthquake during live load (cl.3.2).Combinations for the Structural Design were done as per DBN (based on IRS Concrete Bridge Code) governing Load Combination Cl. 2.5 (EQ with LL). This combination leaded to the maximum bearing pressure. All the foindations were designed by using LUSAS, MATHCAD, BABe Software

Based on the characteristics of the strata at the bridge location, it was proposed pile foundation for S180 to S150 and for S70 to S160 open foundation of various sizes were designed. The detail size of substructures & foundations are tabulated as below:

6.0 Bearing Schedules

The Spherical Bearing is a structural bearing which consists of a set of concave & convex mating steel backing plate with a low friction sliding interface in between thereby permitting rotation by in-curve sliding. This is a compact bearing and shall be able to accommodate large rotations and vertical loads as it does not depend on the limitations of an elastomeric element and necessary sealing.

S.N. Identity Height of Pier

Size of Hollow Pier

Size of Foundation

1. S180 10.457 13.103 x 3.10

16.60 x 11.60 x 2.20, pile 1.0m dia -33.60m – 37 Nos.

2. S170 34.359 8.00 x 3.50

14.10 x 10.10 x 2.75, pile 1.0m dia -22.20m -24 Nos.

3. S160 44.234 8.03 x 3.53

15.1 x 11.6 x 3.25 1.0m dia -22.20m -24 Nos -21.5m

4. S150 46.759 8.03 x 3.53

17.6 x 11.6 x 4.10, 1.0m dia -22.20m -24 Nos.-21.3m

5. S140 53.484 8.03 x 3.53

15.5 x 11.3 x 3.25m

6. S130 35.709 8.03 x 4.03

16.5 x 14.3 x 3.90

7. S120 32.334 8.03 x 4.03

18.0 x 15.0 x 4.15

8. S110 39.759 8.03 x 4.03

16.5 x 13.0 x 3.60

9. S100 35.584 8.03 x 3.53

14.7 x 10.2 x 2.65

10. S90 24.609 8.0 x 3.50

14.0 x 10.0 x 2.50

11. S80 17.546 8.0 x 3.50

14.7 x 10.0 x 2.50

12. S70 16.500 8.0 x 3.50

14.2 x 10.0 x 2.50

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6.1 Loads

For the spherical bearings, very good agreement was reached with the Designer’s permanent and maximum SLS and ULS loads. For the elastomeric bearings satisfactory agreement with the loads was also obtained for all bearings apart from that at 70SK1: where our loads are about 45% larger . All other loads specified on the bearing schedules are considered acceptable.

6.2 Movements

For all bearings, satisfactory agreement with the stated movement was obtained and the movements specified on the bearing schedule are considered acceptable. The movements values on the scheduled have all been ‘rounded up’ to values that satisfactorily exceed our theoretically exact numerical values.

7.0 Bridge Expansion Joints

Bridge Expansion joints are capable of accommodating translations and rotations between the superstructure and approaches without any damage. And they are capable of easy removal and replacement during the life time of the structure. Structure expansion joints shall be provided across the full width of the deck and shall be water tight to prevent ingress of water.

The rail movement joints over the length of the bridge in excess of 1.50m (+/- 750mm) of track and expansion joints along the structure needs to be considered in conjunction with the direct fixing of the track to prevent overstressing of continuous welded rail. If resilient track fixing are used then additional bridge loads from traction and braking forces would need to be considered.

8.0 TEKLA 3D Modelling Technology for Bridge Construction

TEKLA 3D modelling technology is used for the preparation of fabrication drawings by modelling, detailing and creating accurate drawings for the entire structure includes an extensive range of connections. Its automated clash checking efficiently to correct are some of the biggest challenges faced before the finalisation of actual construction drawings.

The design, drawing and construction of substructure and foundation of viaduct portion except foundation S70 has been completed. Launching of Superstructure viaduct portion is under progress based on final design & construction drawing at site.

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Introduction The surface of the earth may be sloping at an inclination varying from near ‘zero’ degree to ninety degree with the horizontal. Natural slopes are therefore omnipresent. Man made slopes are created when excavation is carried out for construction activities of buildings, dams, roadways, railways, waterways and opencast mines. Some of the man made deep excavations for opencast mining are as deep as 1.2 km, Bingham canyon mine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA ( started in 1906); Chuquicamata mine north of Santiago, Chile is 850 m deep (started a century back), Escondida mine at Atacama Desert, Chile is 645m deep; Udachny mine, Eastern Siberia, Russia is 630 m deep; Muruntau mine, Uzbekistan is 600 m deep and Fimiston open pit, S.E. of kalgoorlie, west Australia is 600 m deep. All these mines have berms at regular interval along the slopes The failure of natural slopes is a common geological phenomenon occurring whenever an imbalance takes place between the shear strength and shear stress. These failures may be triggered by slow-time dependent process or brought about by extraneous factors in an abrupt manner. The instability is either due to the increase in the seepage pressure due to built up of hydrostatic pressure in the tension cracks, due to the excavation of the slope-toe material, due to the increase of the shear stresses from surface loadings as a result of construction or traffic, or due to the slow time dependent deterioration of the material leading to acceleration of the creep rate. As far as the rocks are concerned, the failures may be broadly categorized into (i) rock falls and (ii) rockslides, both rotational and translational. Rock falls occur on very steep slopes when rock blocks get detached from the joints without sliding. Heavily fractured and weathered rock slopes may fail along a curved surface with a rotational slide. Translational slides tend to be planar, occurring along weak bedding, shear planes or along fault zones. In general, the depth of the failing mass increases with the increase of the slope angle. The basic difference in these slides is that the moments initiate rotational slides whereas imbalance in the forces results translational movement. In the latter case, the rocks may fail along a single or a combination of planes in two or three dimensions depending upon the orientation of the planes of weakness or joints in the mass.

Stability Considerations In Rock Slopes By

T Ramamurthy

Failure Modes The stability of rock slopes is essentially governed by the joint sets, joint material, seepage pressure, depth and steepness of the excavated slope face and its orientation with respect to the joint sets. Various modes of failure, which could be predicted from the pi diagram (stereo plot), are mainly circular, planar, wedge and toppling cases. Most common modes of failure of rock slopes are identified as follows:

i) When a pi diagram does not indicate any well defined plane of orientation, the mode of failure is likely to be along a curved surface and the mass movement will be into the excavation. Sliding along a curved surface is expected in a heavily jointed and weathered rock mass. The failure surface may correspond to a circular arc, a polynomial or a log spiral. Often to simplify the analysis, the sliding surface is approximated to a circular arc and referred to as circular failure.

ii) Sliding on a joint/weak plane dipping into the

excavation, often termed as a planar failure. When a joint set is represented by a well defined single pole concentration, the mode of failure is planar. If the direction of excavation is perpendicular to the strike of the joint set, planar failure will not result.

iii) When two or more pole concentrations are revealed

representing intersecting planes, wedge failure is likely to take place, along the line of intersection of the two planes day lighting into the excavation. This wedge shape is either tetrahedral or its truncated form.

iv) When the pole concentration of the joints is on the

opposite side of the pole of the face of the excavation, toppling is the possibility. Rotation of rock blocks or layers takes place into the excavation when the critical joint set dips steeply into the rock mass; it is called toppling failure caused by the moments, often without the sliding mechanism.

v) When the excavation is carried out with its face

parallel to the thin, weakly bonded, steeply dipping layers, depending upon the depth of the excavation, these layers may buckle and fracture near the toe, and sliding of the portions of the layers may result. It is the buckling failure of layers.

Proven methods of analysis are available to prevent failure

of slopes for the above-mentioned modes of failure adopting relevant parameters operating along the joints.

In an open excavation for mining, for dam foundation or

along a meandering hill road, more than one mode of failure of rock mass may take place. A combination of more than one mode of failure may also be involved.

T RAMAMURTHY

Formerly professor, IIT Delhi

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Enhancing stability When an analysis is carried out for the possible mode of failure of the rock slope and if the factor of safety is found to be lower than the specified value, it could be improved in the following ways:

4. By flattering the rock slope, if possible; this could be

achieved even by incorporating berms at suitable elevations. These berms will also dissipate the energy of the flowing water on the slope and prevent erosion of the toe and increase the stability.

5. By reducing the height of the slope or depth of

excavation; may not be possible in some situations. 6. By providing rock bolts or rock anchors distributed over

the slope and orienting them as advantageously as possible with respect to the location and attitude (strike and dip) of the joints. To improve surface stability of the slope, shotcrete with or without wire mesh is often adopted with rock bolts. If loose or disjointed rock blocks are present on the slope face, they are stitched with rock bolts and / or supported by padding work. When the sloping face is irregular fibre reinforced shotcrete is desirable. The shotcrete should be tucked properly at the top of the slope to prevent seepage of surface water entering behind it.

The length of rock belts usually vary from 4m to 6m for

surfacial stability and protection. But when the entire slope stability is to be enhanced with rock bolts or rock anchors, their lengths go beyond the anticipated zone of failure consider in the analysis. The anchors may be passive (not tensioned) or active, which are tensioned after full setting of the grout in the anchored length. Suitable arrangement of anchor head at the sloping face are erected to sustain the anchor force. The rock bolts / anchors are usually at spacing varying from 1.0m to 3.0m depending upon the joint / fracture intensity and arranged in a staggered manner on the face. For mega or sensitive projects higher factors of safety may be required from all possible considerations including earthquakes.

7. By decreasing the seepage pressure with the

introduction of drainage holes in to the rock, cutting across as many joints as possible. These drain holes are generally inclined upwards with the horizontal, so that the ground water flows under gravity. If perforated pipes are provided, they may be filled with gravel-to prevent their collapse under pressure, in heavily fractured rock mass.

To drain the water-bearing slope effectively, drainage holes may be extended beyond the failure zone anticipated. These may be introduced preferably after anchoring and grouting operations are complete, to prevent chocking of drains if introduced earlier.

5. By providing retaining wall or buttress, with weep holes, at the toe of the slope. Sometimes a flexible support system of gabions may serve the purpose. These are constructed at the site to suit the specific ground condition and built up by enclosing rock fragments (of cobbles size) in galvanized wire mesh or in geo-grid. Gravel layer as backing to gabions may be required to prevent erosion or migration of surface material of the slope. These gabions could also serve to dissipate the energy of surface water by introducing them at different elevations in a staggered pattern.

1. By suitably providing catch water drains to prevent rain water in to tension cracks and behind the shotcrete. The tension cracks should be filled with impervious material (like clay) and the surface, developed to prevent entry of water into the cracks.

2. By nailing wire mesh or geo-grid onto the steep slope,

rock falls and rolling of blocks down the slope can be prevented.

3. By providing, in special circumstances like steep

saturated slopes, drainage gallery behind the toe at some depth and connecting to horizontal and vertical or inclined drainage holes; the slope may be made effectively free of seepage water. In the case of excessive seepage, more than one gallery at different elevations may be required.

Foundation on slope When some structure is to be established on the

excavated berm, special care has to be taken not only to stabilize the slope but also the foundation of the structure from the point of its failure by rupture and settlement. Since excavation is carried out to the foundation level by blasting or by other means and due to unloading of rock mass, some depth of the rock mass will be fractured and some joint may open up. To increase the strength of the foundation rock mass, carefully controlled grouting is adopted as far as possible to fill the fractured and parent mass. This operation is to be done only after rock bolts / anchors are fully established and set. The pressure of the grout should be as low as possible, preferably under gravity and continues monitoring of the slope against movements / buckling is carried out. Rock anchors / bolts are supposed to not only stabilize the slope but also strengthen the foundation of the structure. Grouting is the last or additional option to be adopted in slope stabilization, since the grout pressure acts like seepage pressure resulting lowering of the factor of safety. The efficacy of the foundation grouting on slope is checked by conducting static or dynamic tests to determine the modules of rock mass before and after grouting. While grouting the slopes, permeability tests should be avoided, i.e. Lugeon tests.

The berms should be properly sloped outwards to prevent accumulation of water from rain or seepage at the inside toe of the slope. When toe drain is provided, it should be maintained against blockage.

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ABSTRACT: In this study, the existing methods proposed to estimate relaxed rock load due to a tunnel excavation are compared. Also a new approach, by which the stress relaxed zone around an excavated tunnel periphery can be systematically estimated, was suggested for the design of tunnel lining. The new approach proposed in this study has the advantage of estimating the height of rock load regardless of the shape of a tunnel and the ground conditions. Since the height of the relaxed rock load is estimated from the local factor of safety, which is a relatively clear criterion, the designer’s subjectivity involved in the design of concrete tunnel lining might be reduced.

2. INTRODUCTION The estimation of rock load is very methods important for the design of tunnel lining. Terzaghi’s rock load method, Bierbäumer’s equation, empirical based on RMR and Q system, and numerical approaches have been mainly used for the estimation of rock load.

To estimate rock load of a tunnel excavated in rock mass, Terzaghi’s rock load classification table, RMR index, or Q value can be used but these methods are merely empirical. The Terzaghi’s and Bierbäumer’s proposed equations are also applied. However, these equations were derived based on the limit equilibrium theory with the assumption that the rock mass was continuous. In numerical approaches, on the other hand, rock load is inferred from the stresses behind shotcrete or plastic zones occurred due to tunnel excavation during the stability analysis of tunnels. Nevertheless, these approaches are so ad hoc that the estimated rock load may be different designer by designer. In this study, therefore, the existing methods are compared, and a new systematic way is demonstrated to estimate the stress relaxed zone of a tunnel due to excavation. Also, the proposed method is applied for the design of tunnel lining.

1. THE ESTIMATION OF TUNNEL ROCK LOAD

2.1 Terzaghi’s equation

Terzaghi(1946) applied the failure mechanism shown in Figure 1 to calculate rock load which a tunnel lining should support when the tunnel was excavated in cohesionless dry coarse soil. Vertical rock load (Proof ) was suggested by Equation (1) for shallow tunnels.

)1(tan2.1

2tanBHK

roof eK

BPϕ

ϕγ

−−=

Eq-1

Where,

)2

45tan(.2 ϕ−+= mbB

is the unit weight of rock mass, K is coefficient of lateral earth pressure, φ is friction angle, B, m, and H are the width, height, and depth of a tunnel respectively.

For deep tunnels, the vertical rock load was also suggested as follows;

.)(tan2. const

KBProof ϕ

γ=

Eq-2

2.2 Bierbäumer’s equation:

Bierbäumer (1913) assumed that the shape of stress relaxed zone occurred due to tunnel excavation might be a parabola as shown in Figure 2 (Part, 2003). In Figure 2 is the internal friction angle of rock mass, m is the tunnel height, and B is the width of the relaxed zone.

As can be seen in Figure 2, the upper relaxed zone acts on the tunnel along 45+φ/2 inclined plane as a vertical load. The height of the relaxed zone (h) is assumed to be proportional to the depth of the tunnel (H); h=αH (α is reduction factor). At tunnel crown, the vertical relaxed load (Proof) can be given as follows;

Estimation Of Rock Load For The Design Of Tunnel Lining By

Rashmi Ranjan Mallick

RASHMI RANJAN MALLICK

Dy.CE/Design, KRCL

75

Proof=H Eq-3

Where, is the unit weight of rock mass. And the reduction factor can be obtained as follows;

• when H is very small; =1

• when H ≤5B /2)-·tan(452)2/45(·tantan1

2

Φ°+Φ−°Φ

−=mb

Hα

• when H ≥5B )2/45(tan4 Φ−°=α

( a) (b)

Figure :1 Terzaghi Rock load approaches Figure:2 Bierbäumer’s Rock load approaches

2.3 Kommerell’s concept vertical loading:

It is an extension method of calculation of external load graphically as defined.

Vertical pressure diagram=γ**

2)( 21

hlyyV +

=Eq-4

76

Horizontal pressure diagram= γ**

2)( 21

vlxxH +

= Eq-5

Where y1,y2 height of parabolic stress block separated by segmental width lh . Similarly x1 and x2 are graphically defined stress values.

2.3 Empirical approaches

2.3.1 Terzaghi’s rock load classification

Terzaghi (1946) proposed rock load classification for steel rib support and then Rose modified it as shown in Table: 1 in 1982. In the system, rock load conditions are divided into 9 categories. However it is very subjective and can be applicable only for the horseshoe shaped tunnels.

Table-1:

Rock Condition RQD Rock Load Height Hp in m

Remarks

1. Hard and intact 95-100 0 Light limiting required only if spalling or popping occurs.

2. Hard stratified or schistose 90-99 0∼0.5b Light support, mainly or schistose for protection against Spalling. Load may change erratically from point to point.

3. Massive, moderately jointed 85-95 0∼0.25b - 4. Moderately blocky and seamy 75-85 0.25b∼0.20 (b+m) Reduced by about 50% from Terzaghi values

because water table has little effect on rock load. (Terzaghi 1946; Brekke, 1968)

5. Very blocky and seamy 30-75 (0.20∼0.60) (b+m) 6. Completely crushed but

chemically intact 3-30 0.60∼1.10 (b+m)

6a. Sand and gravel 0-3 1.10∼1.40 (b+m) Heavy side pressure, invert struts required. Circular ribs are recommended

7. Squeezing rock, moderate depth

NA 1.1~2.1 (b+m) -

8. Squeezing rock, great depth NA 2.10∼4.50 (b+m) - 9. Swelling rock NA Up to 250ft

irrespective of value of (b+m)

Circular ribs required in extreme case, use yielding support

2.3.2 Approach based on the RMR classification system

Bieniawski RMR system Depends with following six Parameters as defined as : 1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material (A1), 2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD) (A2), 3. Spacing of discontinuities (A3), 4. Condition of discontinuities (A4) 5. Groundwater conditions (A5), 6. Orientation of discontinuities (A6).

RMR=A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6 Eq-6

Higher the RMR greater is the rock quality. RMR System may be used to estimate the stand-up time and the maximum stable rock span for a given RMR. Lauffer (1988) presented a revised stand-up time diagram specifically for tunnel boring machine (TBM) excavation.

Unal (1983) proposed the following empirical equation for the estimation of vertical rock load (Proof) based upon RMR values which a tunnel should be supported:

77

SBRMRh

hSBRMRP

t

t

.).100

100(

..).100

100(

−=

=−

= γγ

Eq-7 Eq-8

Where, P : is the support pressure in kN/m2, ht : is the rock-load height in meters, B : is the tunnel width in meters, S : strength factor (Figure 4), : is the density of the rock in kN/m3

Figure: 4 (Effect of horizontal to vertical stress ratio to Failure height to rock load height ratio (strength factor S)

Figure: 5 Variation of rock oad as a function of roof span in different rock classes in Geomechanics classification after Unal in 1983

2.3.3 Approach based on the Q system Barton et al. (1974) proposed an empirical equation for the estimation of vertical rock load (Proof) based on Q values as follows;

Eq-9

RQD : Rock Quality Designation Jn : Joint set number

Jr : Joint roughness number Ja : Joint alteration number

Jw : Joint water reduction factor SRF : Stress reduction factor

RQD/Jn : (Block size) Structure of the rock mass

Jr/Ja : (Inter-block shear strength) Roughness and frictional characteristics of the joint walls or filling materials

Jw/SRF :( Active stress) consists of two stress parameters.

The parameters Jn, Jr and Ja appear to play a more important role than orientation, because the number of joint sets determinist

2.3.3.1 Non-squeezing Ground H<350 Q 1/3) Ultimate roof support pressure in kg/cm2 a) Vertical Roof Pressure=Pru

fQJ

Pr

ru 3/12

= Eq-10

Where f: correction factor = 1+(H-320)/800 >1 where H: Overburden above crown

78

b) Ultimate wall support pressure(Pwu ) => Q increased to Qwu

Qwu =5Q for Q>10

Qwu =2.5Q for 0.1<Q<10

Qwu =Q for for Q<0.1

c) For short term Pressure the QshortTerm= 5 x Q shall be considered in design. The pressure will be calculated accordingly as above (a) and (b) where Q is Q value, Jn is the number of joint sets, and Jr is the joint roughness coefficient.

2.3.3.2 Squeezing Ground( H>350 Q 1/3) Ultimate roof support pressure in kg/cm2

a) Vertical Roof Pressure=Pru

'.23/1 ff

QJP

rru = Eq-11

Table: 2

Sl No.

Rock Condition

Support System

Tunnel Closure

u/a ( percent )

f’

1 Non-squeezing ( H < 350

Q1/3

)

1.1

2 Squeezing ( H < 350 Q

1/3)

Very stiff <2 >1.8

3 Squeezing ( H < 350 Q

1/3)

Stiff 2-4 0.85

4 Squeezing ( H < 350

Q1/3

)

Flexible 4-6 0.7

b) Ultimate wall support pressure (Pwu ) => Q increased to Qwu as that of non-squeezing Ground clause 2.3.3.1(b).

c) For short term Pressure the QshortTerm= 5 x Q Eq-12

The pressure will be calculated accordingly as above (a) and (b) where Jn is the number of joint sets, and Jr is the joint roughness coefficient.

2.4 Numerical approach

Numerical Analysis is possible in special and complex structure i.e., intersections, bifurcations, stacked tunnels. Four basic Approaches to Numerical modeling with recognized geological structures 1. Continuum, 2. Continuum with few predominant joints, 3. Rock with well-defined joint set, 4. Frequently and randomly fractured rock mass (Pseudo continuum approach).

Modelling is required to be done with two-dimensional plane strain assumption for tunnel section. In this finite element simulation, based on the elasto-plastic analysis. Boundary property, Geometry of the section and Physical/mechanical property of masses are required to be modeled. Model can be made with dimensioning 5x tunnel dimension or field actual for loading. The stability of tunnel in the rock masses was assessed by comparing displacements obtained from the

numerical method with critical displacements Ecc /σε = . Critical displacements resulted is checked with the hazard warning levels.

Concrete lining must support the whole load when the shotcrete lost its support capability after long period time. There are two ways of calculating rock load which the lining supports. One way is that rock load can be proportional to the size of the plastic zone occurred around tunnel excavation periphery. The other way is that rock load can be a function of radial stresses occurred behind shotcrete.

The radial stresses behind shotcrete might not be properly used as rock load because it became much greater around lower corner than around crown and its magnitude will be very small in comparison. Also when the rock load is estimated to be proportional to the size of plastic zone, it can be very sensitive to the ground properties such as cohesion and the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, joint orientation etc. Therefore, it is recommend for great care must be given in estimating ground parameters for the design of tunnel lining.

1. LOCAL SAFETY FACTOR

In numerical analysis, state of stresses can presented at each elements in terms of principal stresses (σ1 andσ3) as shown in Figure 6. This stress state is, in general, depicted by a Mohr’s circle (a) with a radius r in the σ- plane. Failure is assumed to occur when the circle touches the failure envelope. If failure occurs at a certain stress state, σ1 should increase keeping σ3 unchanged until the circle touches the failure envelope like circle (b). Also, failure can be reached by increasing the radius of the circle keeping the center of a circle fixed like circle (c). The ratio of two circles’ radii (R1/r, or R2/r) is a kind of strength/stress ratio in a given state of stresses and is often called as ‘local factor of safety (FS).

79

Figure: 6 Local Factor of safety

In this study, local factor of safety is obtained with the assumption that failure occurs by increasing σ1 and keeping σ3

unchanged. The maximum principal stress at the moment of failure (σ1f ) can be written as follows;

This approach can be very effective in explaining how close the failure is at each element. In addition, it is very useful in searching potential weak zones from tunnel excavation and the zone where supports are required.

Therefore, it is expected that the size of relaxed zone occurred by tunnel excavation could be found by finding the contour of local safety factor of 2.0 or 3.0.

80

Quality Control of Steel (Mechanical, Micro and Chemical Tests) By

Kishan Rawat

Indian Railways has undertaken the construction of Chenab

Bridge, which is the highest and longest arch span bridge in the

world. The consumption of steel in the fabrication of bridge is

huge as the arch, many piers and the girders (deck segments)

are to be made of steel. The procurement of the steel for the

bridge is as per IS 2062 and mainly has three kinds of steel

grades i.e. E250C (yield strength – 250 N/mm2), E410C (yield

strength – 410 N/mm2) and E410C Z-steel (through thickness

properties and yield strength – 410 N/mm2). The process of

steel fabrication and procurement commences with the

preparation of Quality Assurance Plan (QAP), Inspection &

Test Plan (ITP) and ends with testing of the material.

Quality Assurance Plan (QAP): A quality assurance plan is a document, meant to ensure that the quality is managed effectively throughout a project i.e. the final products are of the utmost quality. A QAP must indicate stage wise manufacturing process covering various steps, tests, checks & their frequency, sampling plan, specifications, authority for grant of clearance etc.for all activities from inspection and testing of raw material to trial assembly and erection. It should also mention roles and responsibilities of various agencies involved in fabrication, erection & inspection. For welded girders, RDSO is the competent authority to scrutinize and approve QAP. Field Engineer should ensure that work is carried out strictly as per the approved QAP and no deviation takes place from QAP.

Inspection & Test Plan (ITP): An inspection & Test

Plan is a document, that records all inspection and testing

requirements relevant to a specific process. An ITP identifies

the items of materials and work to be inspected or tested, by

whom and at what stage or frequency, kind of inspection

(visual inspection, Lab testing etc),

references to relevant standards, objective criteria / tolerance

parameters, acceptance criteria, responsibilities of every

party involved (Contractor, QC Engineer, Third Party,

Client’s Representative etc) and the records to be maintained.

Inspection and Test Plans, when properly implemented, help

to verify whether, work has been undertaken to the required

standard and requirements, and that records are kept.

Tests to ensure quality of steel : Before reaching site, steel

procured from various vendors undergo various tests such as

mechanical tests, micro analysis and chemical tests. All these

tests ensure that the material procured is of the desired quality

and meeting all the requirements of corresponding codes,

specifications and documents. The following tests are

conducted:

1. Tensile test

2. Bend test

3. Charpy V-notch impact test

4. Hardness test

5. Micro Analysis

6. Chemical analysis

1) Tensile test: The test is performed to determine a) Yield

strength b) Ultimate tensile strength and c) Percentage

Elongation of the steel. During testing, a tensile load is

applied to the specimen till fracture and values of yield

strength, ultimate strength and elongation are noted. As per IS

2062, the sample is to be taken in the transverse direction of

plate i.e. direction perpendicular to the direction of rolling. As

per IS 1608, the test is to be carried out at ambient

temperature between 10°C & 35°C and the rate of stressing

should be between 6 MPa/sec & 30 MPa/sec . Sample Preparation Transverse Direction

Reference Codes IS 2062 & IS 1608

Number of samples 2 Nos / Cast / Heat

Gauge length (for measuring %

elongation)

5.65√A; where A is the cross-

sectional area of the test piece

Steel

Grade

Tensile

Strength

(MPa)

Yield Stress (MPa) %

Elongatio

n (min) < 20

mm

20 -

40

> 40

mm

E250 C 410 250 240 230 23

E410 C 540 410 390 380 20

KISHAN RAWAT, XEN/Chenab

81

2) Bend Test: The bend test consists of submitting a test

piece of round, square, rectangular, or polygonal cross section

to plastic deformation by bending, without changing the

direction of loading, until a specified angle of bend is reached.

The axes of the two legs of the test piece remain in a plane

perpendicular to the axis of bending. In the case of 180° bend,

the two lateral surfaces may, depending on the requirements of

the material, standard, lie flat against each other or may be

parallel at a specified distance, an insert being used to control

this distance.

Sample Preparation Transverse Direction



Acceptance Criteria No crack to be observed

3) Charpy V-notch Impact Test: The Charpy impact

test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is

a standardized high strain-rate test which determines the

amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. It

involves striking a standard notched specimen with a

controlled weight pendulum swung from a set height. The

standard Charpy-V notch specimen is 55 mm long, 10 mm

square and has a 2 mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25

mm machined on one face. The specimen is supported at its

two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite face to the

notch by the pendulum. The amount of energy absorbed in

fracturing the test-piece is measured and this gives an

indication of the notch toughness of the test material. Charpy

tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either

brittle or ductile. This is particularly useful for ferritic steels

that show a ductile to brittle transition with decreasing

temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of

energy when impact tested, a tough ductile metal absorbs a

large amount of energy. As per IS 2062, the impact test shall

normally be carried out for plates having thickness greater

than or equal to 12 mm. Energy absorbed in joules is noted

by testing three specimens at any one temperature and the

results are averaged.

Sample Preparation Longitudinal Direction i.e.

Notch axis is in the

transverse direction

Notch 2 mm depth & 45° angle


Number of samples 1 Nos (thickest plate) / Cast

/ Heat

E250 C (at – 20° C) Avg. Charpy impact value ≥

27 J

E 410 C (at – 20° C) Avg. Charpy impact value ≥

25 J

82

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4) Hardness Test: Hardness may be defined as resistance of

metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However,

the term may also refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to

scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal,

which gives it the ability to resist being permanently, deformed

(bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when a load is

applied. The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater

resistance it has to deformation.

In mineralogy, hardness is the property of matter commonly

described as the resistance of a substance to being scratched by

another substance. In metallurgy hardness is defined as the

ability of a material to resist plastic deformation. The dictionary

of Metallurgy defines the indentation hardness as the resistance

of a material to indentation. This is the usual type of hardness

test, in which a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed into a

surface under a substantially static load and the hardness is

determined by measuring the permanent depth of indentation.

Generally, two hardness tests used in the laboratory are Vicker’s

Hardness test and Brinell’s Hardness test.

Vickers (HV) Pyramidal indentation

Brinell (HB) Round indentation

Hardness Smaller the indentation, harder the

material

320 HV 10 Vickers hardness; Load applied is 10

kgf and the value obtained is 320

Micro Analysis (Grain Size Determination): The

analysis specifies a micrographic method to determine the

grain size of the steel. It describes the methods of revealing

grain boundaries and of estimating the mean grain size of

specimens with unimodal size distribution. Although grains are

three-dimensional in shape, the metallographic sectioning plane

can cut through a grain at any point from a grain corner, to the

maximum diameter of the grain, thus producing a range of

apparent grain sizes on the two-dimensional plane, even in a

sample with a perfectly consistent grain size. As per ASTM E

112, grain size number is calculated on the basis of number of

grains encountered in a specified area under a given

magnification. In other words, grain size is determined on the

basis of No. of grains/mm2 of area at 1X (magnification factor)

OR No. of grains/inch2 of area at 100 X (magnification factor).

Clearly, smaller the grain size, larger is the number of grains in

a specified area and thus larger is the grain size number. In

other words, grain size number 9 has smaller grains as

compared to the grain size number 8. Futher in terms of

mechanical properties, the smaller is the grain size, higher is

the yield value and better is the toughness properties.

Reference Codes ASTM E 112


Acceptance Criteria for

Chenab Bridge Steel

Grain size number

≥ 8

83

6) Chemical Analysis: The analysis is performed to

accurately determine the concentration of elements in the

material comprising a given sample. A variety of analysis

techniques are used for metals and alloys to determine the alloy

composition of raw materials, to verify conformance to a

specification or to identify the alloy used to make a specific

component. Carbon equivalent (CE) of the material should be as

per IS 2062, as its value is very important in determining the

weldability of the material. Higher the value of CE, lower is the

weldability and vice-versa.

CE = C + Mn6

+ (Cr+Mo+V)5

+ (Ni+Cu)15

Optical emission spectroscopy using arc and spark excitation

(Arc Spark OES) is the preferred method for trace metal

analysis to determine the chemical composition of metallic

samples. This process is widely used in the metal making

industries, including primary producers, foundries, die casters

and manufacturing. Due to its rapid analysis time and inherent

accuracy, arc spark optical emission spectroscopy systems are

most effective in controlling the processing of alloys.

Reference Codes IS 2062


Steel Grade Laddle Analysis, Percent, Max Carbon Equivalent

(CE), Max C Mn S P Si Micro-alloys

(Nb,V,Ti)

N

E250 C 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.040 0.40 0.25 0.012 0.39

E410 C 0.20 1.60 0.040 0.040 0.45 0.25 0.012 0.50

84

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ARC WELDING AND SIMILAR PROCESSESArc welding is a method of permanently joining two or more metal parts. It consists of combination of different welding processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc, (mostly without the application of pressure) and with or without the use of filler metals depending upon the base plate thickness. A homogeneous joint is achieved by melting and fusing the adjacent portions of the separate parts. The final welded joint has unit strength approximately equal to that of the base material. The arc temperature is maintained approximately 4400°C. A flux material is used to prevent oxidation, which decomposes under the heat of welding and releases a gas that shields the arc and the hot metal. The second basic method employs an inert or nearly inert gas to form a protective envelope around the arc and the weld. Helium, argon, and carbon dioxide are the most commonly used gases.

Welding is a method of creating a permanent metallurgical bond between two materials (usually metals) by localized coalescence produced through the application of temperature, pressure or their appropriate combination. The materials to be joined by welding can be similar or dissimilar chemical composition

The selection of the welding process for a particular job depends upon many factors. There is no one specific rulegoverning the type of welding process to be selected for acertain job. A few of the factors that must be consideredwhen choosing a welding process are Availability ofequipment, Repetitiveness of the operation, Qualityrequirements (base metal penetration, consistency, etc.), Location of work, Materials to be joined, Appearance of the finished product, Size of the parts to be joined, Time available for work, Skill experience of workers, Cost of materials, Codeor specification requirements

Welding processes are mainly classified into two major groups:

1. Fusion welding: In this process, base metal is melted by means of heat. Often, in fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the joint. It is widely used in fabrication process, further classified based on Energy source, thermal source, shielding as GTAW,SMAW,SAW,FCAW etc. which are shown in fig below.

2. Solid-state welding: In this process, joining of parts takes place by application of pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure. No filler metal is used. Commonly used solid-state welding processes are: diffusion welding, friction welding, ultrasonic welding etc.

In this paper further elaboration will be confined to different type of arc welding, their advantage disadvantage and suitability.

Introduction To Arc Welding ProcessBy

Vinay Mani Tiwari

VINAY MANI TIWARI,AXEN/Chenab

85

Shielded-Metal Arc (SMAW) or Stick Welding (Also known as Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding)

This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the workpiece with an electric arc setup between a flux-coated electrode and the workpiece. The electrode is in a rod form coated with flux. Figure below illustrates the process.

As molten metal droplets from the electrode are transferred across the arc and into the molten weld puddle, they are shielded from atmosphere by gases produced from decomposition of flux coating. The molten slag floats to the top of weld puddle, where it protects the weld metal from the atmosphere during solidification. The slag must be removed after deposition each weld run.

This method may utilize either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), but in either case, the power source must be of the constant current type. This type of source will deliver relatively constant amperage or welding current regardless of arc length variation by operator. The amperage determines the amount of heat at the arc and since it will remain relatively constant, the weld beads produced will be uniform in size and shape. However AC,DC or both power source depends on many factor like type of electrode, metal thickness, distance from work to power source, welding position, arc blow(magmatic field set up throughout the weldment.

Figure: Shielded-Metal Arc (SMAW)

The main advantage of SMAW is simplicity and portability of its equipment, its Consumables easily available, can be used for various metal and thickness. However its limitation is low productivity and low deposition rate, slag removal and stub loss contributes to slow productivity.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

This is another type of arc welding process, in which coalescence is produced by heating the workpiece with an electric arc setup between the bare electrode and the work piece. Molten pool remains completely hidden under a blanket of granular material called flux. The electrode is in a wire form and is continuously fed from a reel. Movement of the weld gun, dispensing of the flux and picking up of surplus flux granules behind the gun are usually automatic.

Power source can be a constant voltage or constant current type( AC or DC) .SAW process can easily automated with help of additional features like seam tracking and controls.

Figure: Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

86

Advantages of this process includes high deposition rate, deep weld penetration, consistent ,sound ,uniform, ductile weld and give good impact value, high speed, minimum welding fume or arc light, excess flux can be recycled via hopper, high utilization of electrode wire, minimal operational skill required. As arc is completely covered by flux layer, heat loss to atmosphere is extremely low.

Disadvantages: This process suitable for ferrous and some nickel based alloys, normally limited to particular welding positions ( 1F/PA,1G/PA, and 2 F/PB),limited to long straight seams, requires flux feeding, inter-pass post weld slag removal.

This welding is generally used in segment component welding(Main Girder web to Main Girder Flange, Secondary Girder Web to Secondary Girder Flange etc ) in Chenab Bridge fabrication site. Detailed information is attached in Annexure -I

Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

This process is similar to the shielded-arc stick welding process with the main difference being the flux is inside the welding rod. Tubular, coiled and continuously fed electrode containing flux inside the electrode is used, thereby, saving the cost of changing the welding. Sometimes, externally supplied gas is used to assist in shielding the arc.

Figure: Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

DC Power source with constant voltage characteristics used in this process, which enables to provide self regulated arc. Self regulated arc means maintaining the arc length at same level throughout the welding operation. Welding current, arc voltage, electrical stick out ( length of electrode wire extending beyond contact tip upto the arc) are the primaryvariables affecting quality in FCAW.

This welding is generally used in addition with SMAW in segment to segment welding (Main Girder web to Main Girder Web, Secondary Girder Web to Secondary Girder Web, Main Girder Flange to Main Girder Flange etc ) in Chenab Bridge fabrication site. Detailed information is attached in Annexure -I

Advantage of FCAW process lies in its ability to operate at higher current density than solid wires. Suitable flux formulation allows a wide tolerance in welding parameter such as current, voltage and welding speed without much risk of defects.

Limitation in this process flux cored wire produces more fumes, expensive, wire requires careful manufacturing and storage as residual moisture cannot be removed.

Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

In the GMAW process, an arc is established between a continuous wire electrode (which is always being consumed) and the base metal. Under the correct conditions, the wire is fed at a constant rate to the arc, matching the rate at which the arc melts it. DC Power source with constant voltage characteristics used in this process

The filler metal is the thin wire that’s fed automatically into the pool where it melts. Since molten metal is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-free gases is required, then an inert gas such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide or a mixture of them are used to prevent atmospheric contamination of the weld. This shielding gas provides a stable, inert environment to protect the weld pool as it solidifies.

Consequently, GMAW is commonly known as MIG (metal inert gas) welding. Since fluxes are not used (like SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of contaminants, and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal. The filler material is usually the same composition (or alloy) as the base metal.

This welding is generally used in segment assembly welding (Main Girder Web to Deck Plate, Secondary Girder Web to Deck Plate etc.) as well as deck plate welding in Chenab Bridge fabrication site. Detailed information is attached in Annexure -I

87

Advantage of GMAW, It provides higher duty cycle due to continuous wire, all position welding possible, high welding speed and deposition rate, deeper penetration due to higher current density, open arc enables it monitoring and control during welding, less distortion due to higher welding speed.

Major limitation of GMAW is that the process cannot be employed in open area where proper protection from wing not available.

Figure: Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Comparison of different arc welding and their rate of deposition are as under

Comparison in deposition rate among various arc welding process

WELDING TERMINOLOGY There is some special technical vocabulary (or language) that is used in welding. The basic terms of the welding language include:

Filler Material: When welding two pieces of metal together, we often have to leave a space between the joint. The material that is added to fill this space during the welding process is known as the filler material (or filler metal). Two types of filler metals are commonly used in welding are welding rods and welding electrodes.

• Welding Rod: The term welding rod refers to a form of filler metal that does not conduct an electric current during the welding process. The only purpose of a welding rod is to supply filler metal to the joint. This type of filler metal is often used for gas welding.

• Electrode: In electric-arc welding, the term electrode refers to the component that conducts the current from the electrode holder to the metal being welded. Electrodes are classified into two groups: consumable and non-consumable.

♦ Consumable electrodes not only provide a path for the current but they also supply filler metal to the joint. An example is the electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding.

♦ Non-consumable electrodes are only used as a conductor for the electrical current, such as in gas tungsten arc welding. The filler metal for gas tungsten arc welding is a hand fed consumable welding rod.

88

Flux: Before performing any welding process, the base metal must be cleaned form impurities such as oxides (rust). Unless these oxides are removed by using a proper flux, a faulty weld may result. The term flux refers to a material used to dissolve oxides and release trapped gases and slag (impurities) from the base metal such that the filler metal and the base metal can be fused together. Fluxes come in the form of a paste, powder, or liquid. Different types of fluxes are available and the selection of appropriate flux is usually based on the type of welding and the type of the base metal.

Types of Welded Joints The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined by welding. The five basic types of weld joints are the butt, corner, tee, lap, and edge. Butt Joint: it is used to join two members aligned in the same plane. This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work.

Corner and Tee Joints: these joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other. In cross section, the corner joint forms an L-shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the letter T.

Lap Joint: this joint is made by lapping one piece of metal over another. This is one of the strongest types of joints available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, the overlap should be at least three times the thickness of the thinnest member of the joint.

Edge Joint: it is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most cases, one of the members is flanged, as seen in the figure. This type is frequently used in sheet metal work for joining metals 1/4 inch or less in thickness that are not subjected to heavy loads. Types of Welds There are many types of welds. The most common types are the bead, surfacing, plug, slot, fillet, and groove.

A weld Bead is a weld deposit produced by a single pass with one of the welding processes. A weld bead may be either narrow or wide, depending on the amount of transverse oscillation (side-to-side movement) used by the welder. A weld bead made without much weaving motion is often referred to as a stringer bead. On the other hand, a weld bead made with side-to-side oscillation is called a weave bead.

Several weld beads applied side-by-side are usually used in Surfacing which is a welding process used to apply a hard, wear-resistant layer of metal to surfaces or edges of worn-out parts.

A Fillet weld is triangular in shape and this weld is used to join two surfaces that are at approximately right angles to each other in a lap, tee, or comer joint.

Plug and Slot welds are welds made through holes or slots in one member of a lap joint. These welds are used to join that member to the surface of another member that has been exposed through the hole.

Groove welds (also may be referred to as Butt welds) are simply welds made in the groove between two members to be joined. The weld is adaptable to a variety of butt joints, as seen in the figure.

89

Groove welds may be joined with one or more weld beads, depending on the thickness of the metal. If two or more beads are deposited in the groove, the weld is made with multiple-pass layers, as shown in the figure. As a rule, a multiple-pass layer is made with stringer beads in manual operations.

The buildup sequence refers to the order in which the beads of a multiple-pass weld are deposited in the joint. Usually, before adding the next pass, the previous pass needs to cool down to a certain temperature which is called the inter-pass temperature.Also, before adding the next pass, the surface of the previous pass needs to be cleaned from slag, especially with SMAW, using a wire brush or other appropriate method.

Parts of Welded Joints While there are many variations of joints, the parts of the joint are described by standard terms.The root of a joint is that portion of the joint where the metals are closest to each other. As shown in the figure, the root may be a point, a line, or an area, when viewed in cross section

A groove is an opening or space provided between the edges of the metal parts to be welded.

The groove face is that surface of a metal part included in the groove, as shown in view A.

A given joint may have a root face or a root edge. The root face, also shown in view A, is the

portion of the prepared edge of a part to be joined by a groove weld that has not been grooved. As you can see, the root face has relatively small dimensions.

The root edge is basically a root face of zero width, as shown in view B. As you can see in views C and D of the illustration, the groove face and the root face are the same metal surfaces in some joints.

• The specified requirements for a particular joint are expressed in terms such as bevel angle, groove angle,groove radius, and root opening which are illustrated inthe figure.

The bevel angle is the angle formed between the prepared edge of a member and a plane perpendicular to the surface of the member.

The groove angle is the total angle of the groove between the parts to be joined. For example, if the edge of each of two plates were bevelled to an angle of 30 degrees, the groove angle would be 60 degrees.

The groove radius is the radius used to form the shape of a J- or U-groove weld joint. It is used only for special groove joint designs.

The root opening refers to the separation between the parts to be joined at the root of the joint. It is sometimes called the “root gap”.

90

• Root penetration refers to the depth that a weld extends into the root of the joint. Root penetration is measured on the center line of the root cross section.

• Joint penetration refers to the minimum depth that a groove weld extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of weld reinforcement.

In many cases, root penetration and joint penetration, often refer to the same dimension.

• Weld reinforcement is a term used to describe weld metal in excess of the metal necessary to fill a joint. The reinforcement needs to be grinded in some cases depending on the intended use of the joint.

Parts of Welds It is important to be familiar with the terms used to describe a weld. The figure shows the parts of groove weld and fillet welds.

• The face is the exposed surface of a weld on the side from which the weld was made.

• The toe is the junction between the face of the weld and the base metal.

• The root of a weld includes the points at which the back of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.

• In a fillet weld, the leg is the portion of the weld from the toe to the root.

• In a fillet weld, the throat is the distance from the root to a point on the face of the weld along a line perpendicular to the face of the weld. Theoretically, the face forms a straight line between the toes.

• The size of a fillet weld refers to the length of the legs of the weld. The two legs are assumed to be equal in size unless otherwise specified.

91

ANNEXTURE -I

WELDING PROCESS USED FOR ASSEMBLY SEGMENTS AT CHENAB BRIDGE FABRICATION.

Welding of T-section and Lattice structure

SR No. Description Description of Assembly Weld type Welding Process

1 Main Girder Web with Flange Fillet SAW

Web with web Butt GMAW+SAW 2 Secondary beam Web with Flange Fillet SAW

3 Cross girder Web with Flange Fillet SAW

4 T-beam Web with Flange Fillet SAW

5 Lattice structure ISMC Box Square Butt GMAW+SAW/FCAW

Welding of components with Deck plate


1 Deck plate Deck to Deck (Transverse) Butt GMAW+SAW Deck to Deck (longitudinal) Butt GMAW+SAW

2 Main girder Main Girder Web To Deck Plate Butt GMAW+FCAW

3 Secondary beam Secondary girder web to Deck plate Butt GMAW+FCAW

Secondary girder web with cross beam web Fillet FCAW

4 Cross girder

Cross girder web with deck plate Butt GMAW+FCAW Cross girder web with main girder web Butt GMAW+FCAW

Cross girder flange with vertical stiffener

Butt FCAW

Cross girder web with vertical stiffener Fillet FCAW

5 Stiffeners stiffeners to Deck plate Fillet FCAW

stiffeners with cross girder web Fillet FCAW 6 Longitudinal stiffeners Stiffeners with Main girder web Fillet FCAW

7 Vertical stiffener

Vertical stiffener with main girder web Fillet FCAW

Vertical stiffener with longitudinal stiffener Fillet FCAW

Vertical stiffener with Main girder flange Fillet FCAW

Vertical stiffener with Cross girder web Fillet FCAW

8 End plate End plate to Deck plate Fillet FCAW

9 End Bracket End bracket with Deck plate Butt GMAW+FCAW

End bracket with main girder web Fillet FCAW End bracket with end plate Fillet FCAW

10 Lattice member Assembly welding of Lattice member with gusset Fillet FCAW

11 T-beam

T-beam web with main girder web Fillet FCAW T-beam web with main girder flange Fillet FCAW

T-beam flange with cross girder flange Butt GMAW+FCAW T-beam Web with gusset Fillet FCAW

T-beam web with cross girder flange Fillet FCAW T-beam flange with pipe bracket Fillet FCAW

T-beam web with longitudinal stiff Butt GMAW+FCAW Welding Of Deck Segment To Segment


1 Deck plate deck to deck Butt GMAW+SAW

2 Main Girder Main Girder Web To WEB Butt FCAW Main Girder Flange To Flange Butt GMAW+FCAW

3 Secondary beam Secondary beam Flange to Flange Butt GMAW+FCAW

Secondary beam Web to Web Butt FCAW

4 Longitudinal stiffeners Stiffeners with stiffeners Butt FCAW 5 End Plate End plate to end plate Butt FCAW 6 Lattice member Lattice member with gusset Fillet FCAW

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SPECIFICATION OF WELDING PROCEDURES FOR METALLIC MATERIALS - WELDING PROCEDURE TEST

Introduction

Welding procedures are required to when it is necessary to demonstrate that the company has the ability to produce welds possessing the correct mechanical and metallurgical properties. Once the procedure is approved, it is necessary to demonstrate that all the welders working to it have the required knowledge and skill to make it clean sound weld. A list of general parameters observed for such qualifications are listed below:

• Scope of work and code by which the work is covered.

• Welding processes employed • Base metals and applicable specifications. • Type, classification and composition of filler rods

and weldments. • Type of current and current range. • Welder qualification requirements. • Joints preparation and cleaning of surface for

welding. • Tack welding. • Joint welding details. • Position of welding involved at workshop and at

sites. • Preheat, inter pass and post heat treatment. • Heat input –electrode run length • Post weld heat treatment • Repairs of welds. • Impaction volume and stages acceptable levels. • Records WPS, WPQR welder’s performance

qualification.

Procedure & Performance Qualification

The utility, which requires the fabrication, are generally boilers, heat exchangers, pressure vessels, bridges, construction structure and equipments and industrial machinery etc. production engineers along with quality control engineers ensure quality assurance at the design end. From the designer’s point of view, the properties of weld joints are designated as

• Weld metal chemistry. • Ultimate tensile strength. • Yield point. • Percentage elongation. • Hardness • Impact strength and so on.

Welding procedure specifications are written exactly to translate these properties requirements onto relevant welding variables. Properties of weld comprises of mainly two factors viz.

• Physical soundness (freedom from discontinuities).

• Metallurgical compatibility. Physical soundness is related to the mode of deposition, in other words, the process techniques as influenced by the skill of welder or welding machine operator. Metallurgical compatibility is by itself depending upon (i) Chemical composition the base metal/ filler / flux or gas and

(ii) Heat cycle the weldment is undergoing while welding and post weld heat treatments. The above two could be made analogous crudely to an athlete's wholesome strength, which includes both his physical fitness and stamina. A person's height, weight or chest x-ray can give an account of his physical fitness where as stamina is tested by a 'run'.

Similarly radiography can give a conclusive account of the physical soundness of a weld but the metallurgical compatibility is revealed only by running mechanical- tests; the result of this test being then named as mechanical property of the weldment. Conversely, a welding procedure, which is written to specify the- welding parameters in order to attain the metallurgical compatibility, is qualified necessarily through a destructive mechanical test. The skill of the welder, which directly influences the soundness of the deposit, can be easily qualified through an x-ray evaluation.

WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS)

The Welding Procedure should provide all the information needed to make a sound weld with the mechanical properties required by the code. Welding procedures must be tested or qualified and they must be communicated to those who need to know. This includes the designer, the welding inspector, the welding supervisor, and last but not least, the welder. When welding codes or high-quality work is involved, this can become a welding procedure specification (WPS), which lists in detail the various factors or variables - involved. Different codes and specifications have somewhat different requirements for a welding procedure, but in general a welding procedure consists of three parts as follows.

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• A detailed written explanation of how the weld is to be made.

• A drawing or sketch showing the weld joint design and the conditions for making each pass or bead

• A record of the test results of the resulting weld The weld meets the requirements of the code or specification and if the written procedure is properly executed and signed, it becomes a qualified welding procedure.

Purpose of WPS

The purpose of Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) and procedure qualification Record (PQR) is to determine that the weldment proposed for construction is capable of having the required properties for its intended application. It is pre supposed that the welder or the welding machine operator performing the welding procedure qualification is a skilled artisan. The welding procedure qualification 'is therefore, strictly to establish the metallurgical compatibility of the weldment through mechanical tests and not the skill of the welder or the welding operator. In addition to the basic property without consideration of the metallurgical properties, requirements, as expressed by engineering tensile test results and bend test results, a weldment is sometimes has to be below zero degree. Procedural tests in those cases to assess the notch toughness property of the weld include impact tests as well. Variables Depending on their influence on obtaining a desired mechanical strength in the weldment, the welding variables are then classified and listed. Some of them are listed as "Essential variables", some of them as "supplementary essential variables" and the others as Non Essential Variables.

Essential Variables

Changes in welding condition which will affect the mechanical properties of the weldment are known as essential variables. Hence production welds with such altered variables should not be continued without re- qualification and certification. The typical examples are: base metal, filler metal etc.

Supplementary essential variables

Changes in welding condition which will affect the notch toughness (Impact) properties of the weldment are called supplementary essential variables. Change in heat input, uphill or down vertical welding, diameter of electrode, position, etc. are typical examples.

Non essential variables

Those welding variables which when changed during welding (within logical limits) do not alter the desired weld properties. They are just altered in the WPS. Typical examples are joint design, techniques, etc. Production welds with such altered parameters could be continued without any re-qualification of the welding procedure. Audit shall be carried out by appropriate agency.

WELDING PROCEDURE

The code says that all the details of the welding procedure should be listed in a document known as 'Welding procedure specification’ (WPS). Each of these welding procedure specifications shall be qualified by welding of the test coupons and mechanical testing of specimens cut from these coupons, as required in the code. The welding data for these coupons and the results of these tests shall be recorded in a document known as "Procedure Qualification Record" (PQR).

Scope and WPS and PQR

A welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is written qualified Welding Procedure prepared to provide direction for making production welds to code requirements. A Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) is essentially a record of welding data used to weld a test coupon. It also contains the test results of the tested specimens. Recorded variables normally fall within a small range of the actual variables that will be used in production welding. Changes to POR are generally not permitted except in the cases of editorial correction to the entries or the case of an addenda being added. All changes in POR would call for a re-qualification. When more than one welding process or filler metal is used to weld a test coupon, the deposited weld metal thickness of each process and filler metal would be recorded. Several WPS may be prepared from the data on a single PQR. A single WPS may cover several essential variable changes as long as a supporting PQR exists for each essential and supplementary essential (when required) variable. A WPS may require the support of more than one PQR; while alternatively, one PQR may support a number of WPS. WPS will be applicable equally for a plate, pipe and tube joints. Now, it is shown how a welding procedure specification is written. The WPS should contain the following points in detail:

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Technique

The details of the welding techniques, string or weave bead, method of initial and inter pass cleaning, back gouging, single or multiple passes, root grinding etc., shall be written here. The test welding can be done either in a plate or pipe material or in any position. The maximum thickness for which the procedure is applicable is generally twice the thickness of the test plate. The welder who welds the test joint is also qualified for the procedure, but only in that position in which he welds whereas the procedure is qualified for all positions. The result of the test shall be recorded in PQR.

EXAMINATION AND TESTING OF THE TEST PIECECS FOR WPS

Test Pieces

Type of test

Extent of

Testing

Butt Joint with Full

Penetration

Visual 100 % Radiographic or

ultrasonic 100 % Surface crack

detection 100 %

Transverse tensile test 2 specimens

Transverse bend test 4 specimens

Impact test 2 sets Hardness test 1 specimen Macroscopic examination required

T- joint with full

penetration

Visual 100 % Surface crack

detection 100 %

Hardness test 100 % Ultrasonic or radiographic required Macroscopic examination

2 specimens

Fillet welds

Visual 100 % Surface crack

detection 100 %

Hardness test required Macroscopic examination

2 specimens

Joint details

The groove design, the type of backing used etc. may be specified in the joint details. If change in the type of edge preparation (single V, single 'U' or double V etc.,) is made or if the joint backing is removed, the WPS can be revised but need not be qualified by a test. Alternatively, the standard drawing or production drawing also can be mentioned.

Base metal

The base metal (P) number and the thickness ranges, for which the procedure is applicable etc, have to be mentioned here. If the range of thickness has to be increased or a change of base metal from one 'P' number to another 'P' number is required, a new WPS should be prepared and supported by the due tests.

Filler metal

The details of the electrodes, consumable inserts and filler wires have to be specified here. The 'F' number, 'A', number and the type of the filler metals have to be specified here. A change in 'F' number or 'A' number shall require a new PQR. A change in the diameter of the electrode requires REVISION IN WPS but need not be qualified by a test.

Position

The positions in which the welding should be done shall be mentioned here. The qualification test can be done in any position, but still the procedure is applicable to all positions.

Preheat

The preheat temperature, inter pass temperature etc. shall be clearly specified. If the preheat is to be decreased by more than 55°C, then a new PQR is required.

Post weld heat treatment.

The temperature and time of the post weld heat-treatment shall be shown here. Any change of addition or deletion in this shall require a new procedure qualification.

Electrical characteristics

The type of current (AC or DC) polarity, amps and voltage etc. has to be indicated here.

GAS

The shielding gases flow rate, details of gas backing etc. will be shown here.

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WRITING OF A WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS)

A typical working procedure specification is written with all the factors of production in mind. Both experience and latest technological awareness help to write an acceptable WPS. The WPS is a list of the following welding variables with the proper values of these entered accordingly.

• Welding process • Base metal • Joint Design • Filler metal • Position • Preheat/inter pass/post heat • Electrical characteristic • Post weld heat treatment • Gas(s) • Technique (straight/wave bead, metal transfer

mode, orifice diameter etc.)

WELDER PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATIONS Requirement of Welder’s Qualification

In Performance Qualification, the basic attempt is to establish the ability of the welder to deposit sound metal. In case of welding operator qualification it is his mechanical ability to operate the welding machine that is tested and acknowledged. The object of the welder's qualification test is to determine the ability of the welders to make sound welds. The welders may be qualified, based on the results of the mechanical tests or by non-destructive examination. During welder's qualification, only the essential variables (as applicable to welder's skill) are considered and production welds with such altered variables should not be continued without additionally qualifying the welders A welding machine operator usually gets qualified-along with procedure test. Additional qualifications are to be suitably enforced as and when certain essential variables are not meeting.

PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR WELDER QUALIFICATION

Examination and testing The welding of test pieces shall be witnessed by the examiner or examining body. The testing shall be verified by the examiner or examining body. The test pieces shall be marked with the identification of the examiner and the welder before welding starts. Additionally welding positions for all test pieces are to be marked on the test piece and for fixed pipe welds, the 12 o’clock welding position shall also be marked.

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The examiner or examining body may stop the test if the welding conditions are not correct or if it appears that the welder does not have the skill to fulfill the requirements, e.g. where there are excessive and/or systematic repairs. Welding conditions The following welding conditions shall apply:

• the welding time for the test piece shall correspond to the working time under usual production conditions;

• the test pieces shall have at least one stop and one re-start in the root run and in the capping run and be identified in the examination length to be examined;

• any post-welded heat treatment required in the pWPS or WPS can be omitted unless bend tests are required;

• identification of the test piece; • the welder shall be allowed to remove minor

imperfections by grinding, except on the surfaces after finishing the weld. The permission of the examiner or examining body shall be obtained.

Test Required For Welder’s Qualification:-

• Visual Testing; • Radiographic Testing/Ultrasonic Testing; • Bend Test • Fracture Test.

Re-tests

If any test fails to comply with the requirements of this standard, the welder shall be given the opportunity to repeat the qualification test.

If it is established that failure is due to metallurgical or other extraneous causes that cannot be directly attributed to the welder’s lack of skill, an additional test is required in order to assess the quality and integrity of the new test material and/or new test conditions.

PERIOD OF VALIDITY

Initial qualification

The validity of the welder’s qualification begins from the date of welding of the test piece(s).

This is providing that the required testing has been carried out and the test results obtained were acceptable.

Confirmation of the validity

The welder's qualification test certificate issued is valid for a period of two years. This is providing that the welding coordinator or the responsible personnel of the employer can confirm that the welder has been working within the initial range of qualification. This shall be confirmed every six months.

Prolongation of qualification

Welder's qualification test certificates according to this standard can be prolonged every two years by an examiner/examining body.

Before prolongation of the certification takes place, it needs to be satisfied and also the following conditions need to be confirmed:

a) All records and evidence used to support prolongation are traceable to the welder and identifies the WPS(s) that have been used in production.

b) Evidence used to support prolongation shall be of a volumetric nature (radiographic testing or ultrasonic testing) or for destructive testing (fracture or bends) made on two welds during the previous six months. Evidence relating to prolongation needs to be retained for a minimum of two years.

c) The welds shall satisfy the acceptance levels for imperfections.

The test results mentioned in b) shall demonstrate that the welder has reproduced the original test conditions, except for thickness and outside pipe diameter.

CERTIFICATE

It shall be verified that the welder has successfully passed the qualification test. All essential variables shall be recorded on the certificate. If the test piece(s) fail(s) any of the required tests, no certificate shall be issued.

The certificate shall be issued under the sole responsibility of the examiner or examining body and shall contain all information detailed in annex A. The format of this annex A is recommended to be used as the welder’s qualification test certificate. If any other form of welder’s qualification test certificate is used, it shall contain the information required in annex A.

In general for each test piece a separate welder's qualification test certificate shall be issued.

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We have some good reasons to completely switch

over to solar power as it is cheaper in many cases and definitely more sustainable than our dependence on our traditional power plants run with fuels like coal which will eventually run out.

The earth intercepts a lot of solar power 173,000 Tera watts or 173,000,000,000,000, 000W that is 10,000 times more power than what the world’s population uses. Then the question that would come to anyone’s mind - is it possible that the world becomes completely relient on solar energy and why do we not replace the traditional power plants with solar energy power plants?

Solar Energy: Theoretical Perspectives By

Mohit Sinha There is one factor that makes our solar power very

unpredictable. That is cloud cover. As the sun’s rays move towards the earth some get absorbed by other atmosphere, some are reflected back into outer space but the rest make it to earth’s surface. Ones that do not get deviated are called direct irradiance. Ones that are deflected by clouds are called diffused irradiance. And those rays that get reflected by a surface, like a nearby building, before reaching a solar energy system are called reflected irradiance.

Before we examine how clouds affect the sun rays and electricity production, let’s see how commonly used solar electric systems work. First ones have solar towers. These are made up of a central tower surrounded by a huge field filled by mirrors that track the sun’s path and focus only the direct rays on to a single point on the tower. The heat generated by these rays is so intense that it can boil water and produce steam that drives the traditional turbines which are used to generate electricity. But when we talk of solar energy system, we are generally talking about photo voltaic or solar power which are the system most commonly used to generate solar power.

Solar panels are made up of small cells called solar cells which are made up of silicon, which is a semi conduction which is second most abundant element on earth. In a solar cell, crystalline silicon is sandwiched between conduction layers. Each silicon atom is connected to its neighboring atom with four strong bonds, which keep the electrons in place, hence no current can flow.

A solar cell uses two types of silicon: N-type silicon and P-types silicon. N-type silicon has extra electrons and P-type silicon has spaces for extra electrons called holes. Where two types of silicon meet (P/N junction), electrons can wander across the P(N junction), creating a positive charge on this side and a negative charge on the other. Light is a flow of tiny particles called photons, shooting out from the sun.When any photon strikes a silicon cell with enough energy it knocks a electron from its bond leaving a hole. The negatively charged electron and the positively charged hole are now force to move around.

MOHIT SINHA

FA&CAO USBRL

98

. Because of electric field at P/N Junction they only go one way. The electron is drawn to N-side while the hole is drawn to the P-side. Mobile electrons is picked up by thin metallic fingers on the top of the cell which are in turn are connected to the conductor. From there they flow through on external circuit and do some work (like lighting a bulb) before returning to the collective aluminium sheet at the back of the cell. Each solar cell gives about half a volt of electricity but several cells are connected together to form a module. While one module may give enough electricity to charge a mobile phone, several panels can connect to power say a household. Electrons are the only moving parts in a solar cell. They return to the place where they came from. So, there is nothing that gets worn out or used up, and as such solar cells can last for decades.

In solar panels, the photons from the sun’s rays hit the surface of the panel and electrons are released to make the electric current going. So far as solar panels are concerned, they can use all types of irradiance, which solar towers can only use direct irradiance. And this is where clouds become important. Because of their type and location relation to the sun they can either increase or decrease the amount of electricity produced. For instance even a few clouds in front of the sun can reduce the electricity production from a solar tower almost to zero because of its dependence on direct rays. In solar panels those clouds would not decrease energy output as well though not as much because solar panels are all types of irradiance. However all this depends on clouds exact positioning. Due to reflection on particular phenomena called Mie Scattering the sun’s rays can actually be focused forward by the clouds to create almost a 50% increase the solar irradiance reaching the solar panel. If this potential is not accounted for, this can damage the solar panel.

In solar tower, any increase in energy can use huge tank of molten sulphur or salt to store excess heat and use it when needed. And that is how they manage the problem of fluctuation of solar irradiance in order to smooth out electricity production. But in the case of solar panels currently there is no way when we can affordably store extra energy. That’s where the traditional power plants come in, because to correct for any fluctuation in the solar power plants extra electricity from traditional sources in always needed to be available.

But why are the traditional power plants always used in the back up instead of we human depend upon them as our main sources of energy, because it is humanly impossible for any mechanism to just turn on a knob to turn on or off electricity repairing upon how many clouds are there in the sky. Response time will simply be too slow. That is why some extra energy from traditional plants will always be produced. On sunny days extra energy will be wasted but on cloudy days it fills the gap. For this reason lot of research and study is going on to forecast motion and formation of clouds.

What is stopping us from becoming fully dependent on solar power? Other than political reasons, there are technical factors. We need more efficient methods to more electricity from sunnier parts to cloudy ones. Moreover, the most efficient solar cell converts only 46% of total energy it receives, and most commercial systems currently available are converting 15 to 20 %. In spite of the limitations it is possible to feed the entire world with solar energy by the current technology. We need the funding and a good deal of space, which according to some estimates are equal to 1000’s of square miles which seems like a lot, but Sahara desert along is 3 million square miles or 4.8 million sq.km. in area. Meanwhile, the solar cells are becoming cheaper and better and are competing with more traditional methods of generating electricity, and innovations like solar farms floating on high seas may change the energy landscape entirely. About 2 billion people live in less developed countries where they do not have reliable source of energy and they have plenty of sunshine. In these countries, solar energy is still a very viable option.

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Town Along USBRL Project- GOOL By

Deepak Singh Geographical aspects:

Gool is a Tehsil in Ramban district of state of Jammu & Kashmir. It is about 52 kms from Ramban by state highway road. It is situated about 17 km away southern side of Sangaldan (one of the proposed railway station under USBRL project). The altitude of Gool block is about 1800 metres above the mean sea level. The population of the block is approximately sixty thousand. The literacy rate of the block is around 50%. The agricultural activity is the priority of the people and maize, paddy, pulses, potato, rajma and rice are most prominently grown here. Various road projects undertaken by state government such as PMGSY and PWD road projects are in progress in the block to interconnect all the villages situated in the block. The Gool block is also densely forested under which total forest area is 17100 Ha which mostly have conifers (kail, deodar, fur, spruce, chir), broad leaved trees (willow, popular, champ, kainth, kiker, mulberry, daman), shishum, walnut, apple, pear type of trees. There is also Range office of forest situated here. Various species of flower such as rose grown here adds to beauty of place. Also the second largest potato farm of the state is situated in Narsingha situated in Gool block.

Transportation and Communication:

The transport facility for Gool block from Sangaldan is mostly from jeep and mini buses. Also phone communication is available in the block with various service providers’ phone connection such as BSNL, Airtel, Aircel etc working here.

Public care system:

Gool is having health care system in the form of sub-divisional hospital, public safety system in the form of sub-divisional police station, government and private schools at primary, middle, secondary and senior secondary level. There is also government degree and ITI college affiliated to Jammu university and technical university respectively situated in the block. There is also one of the armys unit (58 RR) stationed at the block. The block is also having sound banking system in the form of a leading bank of state (Jammu & Kashmir bank ltd.) with the ATM of the bank and Co-operative bank. There is also a food store under Consumer and public affairs department which supplements to better public distribution system of food for poor people of the block.

Climate:

As Gool is situated at such high altitude the climate here is mostly cold. From November ownwards till the month of March the hills and mountain situated around the place are found to be snow covered which makes the place so much picturesque that that the phrase that ”Heaven is situated on the earth” can be substituted for the explanation of the beauty of the place.

Picnic & Pilgrimage spots:

Gool also boasts of a lot of picnic spots which are easily accessible by road or by foot with distance of around 25 km or less from the place. Picnic spots namely Deccan top, Asthan marg, Darsah top, Ramakunda, Narsingha top, Hajammarg, Margoti, Chamnar top, Iskunda, Sirkaintha top, Udra are the most prominent among all the picnic spots situated here. All the picnic spots are at altitude of around 1800m to 1900m approximately. There is also a pilgrimage spot in the Gool block known as Tatapani which is situated at a distance of approximately nine kilometers south east of Sangaldan by road. Tatapani is known for natural hot spring which is believed to have medicinal importance in care of skin disease, bone problems of human body can be gradually cured by taking dip in the hot spring. Presence of sulphur in the water is believed to be imparting alleged healing properties to the water at the place. Especially during monsoon season (from July to September) there is heavy rush of people of the state at Tatapani to take the holy dip in the hot spring.

DEEPAK SINGH

XEN/C-I/Sangaldan USBRL Project

100

With aid of Corporate social responsibility SOLAR LIGHTAT MASJID, UPPER SEERA, DHARAM (under.Gool block)

In near future when rail service will become operational through Sangaldan connecting Baramulla towards north and Jammu toward south it is most probable that Gool & Tatapani will become one of the most favourite tourist spots due to sacred and sound features of Gool & Tatapani. Also state government should develop recreational parks at various tourist spots in Gool so that maximum number of tourists are attracted to the place. Moreover by utilizing funds out of Corporate social responsibility (CSR) , railway PSUs are helping in the betterment of the lives of local people by serving various social responsibilities such as distributing clothes, food, bags etc. to poor people and by making school & colleges for betterment of education which is contributing in the development of Gool town socially.

J&K bank at Gool School at Gool

Ancient sculpture at Gool Hospital and community health centre at Gool

Portion of forest area under Gool One of road projects of PMGSY under Gool Block

Judicial Magistrate office at Gool Way to Police station at Gool

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Probiotics And Prebiotics As Functional FoodsBy

Mohini Prabha Singh

IntroductionDid you know that certain foods or food components may

provide health and wellness benefits? The growing

awareness of the relationship between diet and health has

led to an increasing demand for food products that support

health above and beyond providing basic nutrition.

These foods, also known as “functional foods,” are

thought to provide benefits beyond basic nutrition and may

play a role in reducing or minimizing the risk of certain

diseases and other health conditions. Examples of these

foods include fruits and vegetables, whole grains, fortified

foods and beverages and some dietary supplements.

Functional characteristics of many traditional foods are

being discovered and studied, while new food products are

being developed to include beneficial components. By

knowing which foods can provide specific health benefits,

you can make food and beverage choices that allow you to

take greater control of your health.

Definition of Functional FoodsIt is defined as a “Natural or processed food that contains

known biologically-active compounds which when in

defined quantitative and qualitative amounts provides a

clinically proven and documented health benefit, and thus,

an important source in the prevention, management and

treatment of chronic diseases of the modern age.” The term

was first used in Japan in the 1980s. Functional food enters

the concept of considering food not only necessary for

living but also as a source of mental and physical well-

being, contributing to the prevention and reducing of risk

factors for several diseases or enhancing certain

physiological functions.

Dairy products from the major part of functional

products. To understand their success, it is important to

realize that milk is a natural and highly nutritive part of

a balanced daily diet. Milk and some other dairy

products were recognized as important foods as early

as 4000 B.C. Nowadays dairy products are excellent

media to generate an array of products that fit to

current consumer demand for functional food.

Fermented dairy products enriched with probiotic

bacteria have developed into one of the most

successful parts of functional foods. The food industry

is especially active in studying probiotics because the

gastrointestinal tract is one of the richest zones of

biodiversity within the body with at least 450 known

species of microorganisms commonly found there.

Alternative products for incorporating probiotics (e.g.,

ice cream, cheeses, cereals, fruit juices, vegetables, and

soy beans) are also being utilized.

These probiotics and prebiotics are nothing but the

components present in foods, or that can be

incorporated into foods, which yield health benefits

related to their interactions with the gastrointestinal

tract (GI). While the benefits of prebiotics have come

to light in more recent years, recognition of probiotic

effects dates back to the 19th century when the French

scientist Louis Pasteur (1822 –1895) postulated the

importance of microorganisms in human life; this was

further reinforced by work done by 1908 Nobel Prize-

winner Elie Metchnikoff. Microorganisms that are

probiotics in humans include yeast, bacilli, Escherichia

coli, enterococci and the more commonly used

bifidobacteria and lactic acid bacteria, such as

lactobacilli, lactococci and streptococci.

What are Probiotics?A probiotic has been defined as “a live microbial food ingredient that, when ingested in sufficient quantities, exerts health benefits. Probiotic microorganisms can be found in both supplement form and as components of foods and beverages.

MOHINI PRABHA SINGHD/O M. B. Azad AXEN/C/JAT

102

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioactivity�

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_disease�

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan�

These bacteria and yeasts have been used for thousands of

years to ferment foods. Certain yogurts and other cultured

dairy products contain such helpful bacteria, particularly

specific strains of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli. Not all

bacteria present in fermented milk products or yogurt have a

probiotic effect. For this reason, in order to consider a

Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium a probiotic, the specific

strains selected must exert a clinically established health

benefit. In near future, probiotics may also be found in

fermented vegetables and meats. After passage through the

stomach and the small intestine, some probiotics survive and

become established transiently in the large bowel. Indeed,

the colon’s fermentation capacity may be modified after

probiotic intake, and oral intake of certain lactic acid bacteria

will increase the number of lactobacilli or bifidobacteria in

human feces.

What are Prebiotics? Prebiotics are defined as “nondigestible food ingredients that

beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the

growth of one or a limited number of bacterial species in the

colon, such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, which have

the potential to improve host health.” Prebiotics are, simply

speaking, the “food” for beneficial bacteria. Prebiotics are

found naturally in many foods, and can also be isolated from

plants (e.g., chicory root) or synthesized (e.g., enzymatically,

from sucrose)—see below in Table 1. In order for a food

ingredient to be classified as a prebiotic, it has to be

demonstrated, that it: (a) is not broken down in the stomach

or absorbed in the GI tract, (b) is fermented by the

gastrointestinal microflora; and (c) most importantly,

selectively stimulates the growth and/or activity of intestinal

bacteria associated with health and wellbeing. The only

prebiotics for which sufficient data have been generated to

allow an evaluation of their possible classification as

functional food ingredients are the inulin-type fructans

(carbohydrates).

The most common sources are wheat, onion, banana, garlic, and leeks. Chicory insulin and oligofructose are officially recognized as natural food ingredients in most European countries, and they have a self-affirmed generally recognized as safe status in the United States.

PROBIOTICS AND PREBIOTICS AS

FUNCTIONAL FOOD INGREDIENTS Actions of the GI Tract

To understand the role that probiotics and prebiotics play in overall health, familiarity with the Gastro Intestinal tract and the body is important. Human beings play host to many types of microorganisms on the skin, in the mouth, and in the GI tract. The human gastrointestinal environment, including the microflora, has a significant role in the health of its host. The normal gut microflora activity is complex including both potentially beneficial and potentially harmful bacteria, thus, it is important to maintain a healthy intestinal tract and helps the intestine acts as an effective barrier; allowing nutrients to be absorbed and keeping out toxins and pathogens (foreign bacteria or viruses).

Table 1: Examples of Probiotics and Prebiotics

Class/Component Source* Potential Benefit

Probiotics

Certain species and strains of Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, Yeast

Certain yogurts, other cultured dairy products, and non-dairy applications

May improve gastrointestinal health and systemic immunity

Prebiotics

Inulin, Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), Polydextrose, Arabinogalactan, Polyols —lactulose, lactitol

Whole grains, onions, bananas, garlic, honey, leeks, artichokes, fortified foods and beverages, dietary supplements and other food applications

May improve gastrointestinal health; may improve calcium absorption

Chart adapted from International Food Information Council Foundation: Media Guide on Food Safety and Nutrition: 2004-2006. *Examples are not an all-inclusive list

Probiotic bacteria taken together with prebiotics that

support their growth are called “synbiotics.” Both work

together in a synergistic way more efficiently promoting the

probiotics’ benefits.

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The gut microflora breaks down vitamins and also ferments

fibers and carbohydrates that are not digested in the upper GI

tract. This breakdown produces fatty acids that are important

for supporting a healthy intestinal barrier (particularly in the

lower GI tract) and also inhibits the growth of harmful

bacteria. Healthy intestinal flora is also associated with

intestinal (stool) regularity.

Actions of Probiotics in the GI Tract

Consumption of probiotics, particularly certain species of

Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, can help “balance” the flora,

increasing the number of helpful, and reducing (inhibiting

the growth of) harmful bacteria, in the intestine.

Consumption of probiotics can also modify the gut immune

response and improve its barrier function. For example,

specific probiotic species can reduce the risk of certain

infections, particularly those of the GI tract, such as

intestinal viruses. More recently, probiotics have also been

shown to modulate/adjust the activity of the immune system,

helping to control or reduce the development of certain

allergies. While research is ongoing, current evidence with

several probiotic strains in animal and human studies

suggests a moderate cholesterol-lowering effect from

cultured dairy products such as yogurt and milk products.

Actions of Prebiotics in the GI Tract

The principal characteristic and effect of prebiotics in the

diet is to promote the growth and proliferation of beneficial

bacteria in the intestinal tract, and thus, potentially yield or

enhance the effect of probiotic bacteria. Prebiotics have also

been shown to increase the absorption of certain minerals

(such as calcium and magnesium). Prebiotics may also help

inhibit the growth of lesions, such as adenomas and

carcinomas in the gut, and thus reduce the risk factors

involved in colorectal diseases. For prebiotic substances,

little data pertaining to lipid-lowering effects are available

and come mostly from studies with inulin and oligofructose.

In hyperlipidemic subjects, when a prebiotic effect is seen, it

is a reduction in cholesterol; whereas in normal-lipidemic

subjects, any noted effects are on serum triglycerides.

Improvement of functions and reduction in disease risk

The strength of experimental evidence supporting claims of a

functional effect from probiotics and prebiotics is

summarized in Table 2 and Table 3 as strong, promising, or

preliminary or as no effect or unknown.

The Bottom Line

While some of the pro- and prebiotic beneficial effects on

the function of the human gut have been established and

their favorable impact on health widely supported, further

scientific research is ongoing to substantiate their direct

relationship to disease risk reduction. These have

potential impact on the balance of the body’s microflora,

and directly or indirectly in their enhancement of the

function of the gut and systemic immune system.

Although benefits vary, depending on the type and

amount of a pre- or probiotic consumed, experts agree

that daily consumption of foods containing these

functional components is beneficial. In addition, effects

of probiotics are strain-specific and must be demonstrated

through appropriate clinical trials.

Table 2: Strength of the evidence for improvement

of body functions by probiotics and prebiotics

Table 3: Strength of the evidence for disease

risk reduction by probiotics and prebiotics

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57

Children’s Work

By: - Poorva Gupta of Class 2nd D/o Sh. Niraj Kumar,Dy.CE/Reasi

By: - Asima Jahangir of class 7th Niece of Jameel Ahmed,

OS/USBRL/JAT

105

Children’s Work

By: - Asima Jahangir of class 7th Niece of Jameel Ahmed OS/USBRL/JAT

By: - Adil Jahangir of class 6th Nephew of Jameel Ahmed OS/USBRL/JAT

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The Jammu Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Rail Link Project was envisioned with a view to provide a reliable and alternate transportation system in the state of Jammu and Kashmir and to connect the state and the Kashmir valley with rest of the Indian Railway Network. With the above vision, Government of India planned a 326 km. long Railway Line. The Project was declared as a “National Project “in year 2008.

Some of the special features of the project are as under:-

The Jammu-Udhampur-Katra-Quazigund-Baramulla Railway line is the biggest project in the construction of a mountain railway since independence. From Jammu to Baramulla, length of the new rail line is 326 km. and it passes through the young Himalayas, one of the most geologically complicated and challenging terrains in the world. The Geology, tectonic thrusts and faults, drainage and ground water of the region have great bearing on the construction of this project.

Sites are remotely located, inaccessible and therefore difficult from logistic and topographic consideration. Providing access to the work sites involves construction of large network of Access Roads, the most challenging job for completion of

this project. In particulars the stretch between river Chenab and Banihal is passing through a virgin territory and require construct of about 200 km of access road.

The alignment crosses deep gorges of Chenab River near Salal Hydro Power Dam, which necessitates construction of long span bridges. The Chenab Bridge, 359 m above river bed, will be the highest bridge in the world, and longest span for BG Rail line with arch span of 467 m.

The project also involved construction of Pir-Panjal tunnel, the longest transportation tunnel of Indian Railways across PirPanjal range connecting Jammu & Kashmir provinces of J&K State. The tunnel is located between the Banihal railway stations in South and Qazigund in North Total length of the tunnel is 11.2 km with overburden of 1100 m. This tunnel had been completed and Section from Banihal to Quazigund opened to public by Hon’ble Prime Minister on 26.6.2013.

The stretch between Katra to Qazigund representing 128 km length is the most difficult part of this project. Almost 80% of length of this stretch is in tunnel and 10% on bridges and rest on embankment.

Some of the special features of this stretch are:-♦ Alignment in this stretch passes through the world’s one of the most difficult terrain, both in terms of logistics and geological strata. ♦ Terrain characterizes sedimentary/metamorphic rocks which are yet to be stabilized. ♦ Various type of geological formation are met with in this stretch having altogether different characteristic / properties. ♦ Alignment running across major tectonic features such as Reasi Thrust, MurreeThrust,Panjal Thrust & Local faults♦ The structural discontinuities occurring in the form of faults, thrusts, shears and joints are likely to pose problems in the

construction activities along the rail alignment♦ Adverse climatic condition due to heavy snowfall in winter resulting in sub-zero temperature and reduced working period.♦ Many of station on this project are located on tunnel/ bridges. ♦ World most advance and modern technology is being used for construction. ♦ When completed this will be a marvel of engineering with unparalleled benchmark.

Item Udhampur-Katra Katra- Banihal Banihal- Quazigund Quazigund –Baramulla

Total

Route Length (Km) 25 111 18 118 272Ruling Gradient 1 in 100 (C ) 1 in 80 (C ) 1 in 100 (C ) 1 in 100 (C )Max Curvature 5o 3.9o 3.1o 2.75o

Bridges 38 40 41 811 930359 15.75 22

Max. height of bridge (m)

85 7035 275 4210 13008

Longest span 154 m steel girder over river Jhajjar

467 m steel arch over river Chenab

45 m 45 m

Tunnel Length (Km) 11 95.7 11.215 0 118Tunnels (No.) 10 28 1 0 39% Length in Tunnel 44 86.2 62 0Longest Tunnel (Km) 3.15 12.3 11.215Jammu- Udhampur – 20 % length in tunnelsUdhampur- Katra – 44% length in tunnels

Salient Features of the Project

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Disclaimer

Him Prabhat, USBRL technical news magazine is published in good faith and can-not be held responsible in any way for inaccuracies in report / content that appear in this publication and the views of the contributors may not be those of the editors. The opinions expressed by this magazine are not necessarily the views of the editors/publisher, but of the individual writers. Unless specifically mention the articles and statements published in this magazine do not necessarily reflects the views or policies of Northern Railway, Ministry of Railways or Govt. of India.

Geology Along The Project Alignment

Documents

5 ﺕﺎﻬﺑﺮﭘ ﻢﮨusbrl.org/him-vi.pdfChief Electrical Engineer/USBRL B.B.S.Tomar Chief Engineer/North Sandeep Gupta Chief Engineer/South Associate Editors Mudit Bhatnagar