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The Communication Process
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Consumer Behaviour
The basic model of communication
This has evolved over the years and is represented as below.
Senders field
of experience
Source Encoding
Receivers field
of experience
Decoding ReceiverChannel
Message
Noise
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Consumer Behaviour
Source encoding: Here the sender of the communication is the source with
information to share with the target group. The source could be an official spokes
person of the company, a representative or a celebrity
Message: The encoding process consists of the development of a message that
consists of the information or meaning that the source hopes to convey. This
could be verbal, non-verbal, symbolic and so onseveral recent ads focus on
semiotics the study of the nature of meanings. From a semiotic perspective
every marketing message has 3 basic components the object thats the focus of
the message, the sign thats the sensory image that represents the intended
meanings of the object, the interpretant in the meaning.
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Consumer Behaviour
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Consumer Behaviour
Channel: The channel is a method by which the communications travel. At a
broad level channels are of two types personal (face to face) and non personal
(mass media). Several companies have agents who speak good about the
products of a company and help in its sales. Those targeted are people who are
high on their networking quotient and the partying types.
Non-personal includes newspapers, television, magazines, Direct Mailers,
billboards, broadcast media and so on
Receiving/ decoding: The receiver is the person with whom the sender shares his
information. Receivers in the marketplace are the TG who receive the messages
and decode it. Decoding is a process of deciphering and analysing the message
and this process is heavily influenced by the receivers field of experience
experiences, exposure, attitudes and so on of the receiver.
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Consumer Behaviour
For effective communication, the message decoding process of the receiver must
match the encoding of the sender. Simply put, the receiver and the sender must
have a similar wavelength to ensure that the message is correctly interpreted.
Advertising folks who are usually from cities would have a problem in marketing
for the rural segments as they would not have a clear idea of the culture of the
rural people preferences, customs, norms and so on they would need the
exposure to develop effective communication.
Noise: Throughout the communication process the message is subject to external
influences and factors that can distort or interfere with its reception. This
unplanned distortion/ interference is known as noise. Lack of common ground,
language barriers, symbol barriers and interpretation variations cause noise
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Consumer Behaviour
Response/ feedback: The receivers set of reactions after seeing/ listening to the
communication is known as response. This could include writing a mail, response
in an interview, filling in a coupon, answering a telephone and so on
Feedback is the most critical part of it all and marketers spend enormous
amounts of money to obtain frequent feedback.
Analysing the receiver: To communicate effectively, marketers must understand
who the TG is and figure out ways to effectively communicate with them.
Planners must understand the TG and their profiles before arriving at the
messaging and the media to be used to deliver the messaging.
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Consumer Behaviour
Identifying the TG: The TG may consist of:
Individuals/ Group Audiences
Niche Markets
Market Segments
General Public/ Mass Audience
Targeting individuals requires one-to-one communication/ personalised selling.
Mass advertising may be used to attract the target to the firm but conversion
needs individualised/ personal selling LIC, financial services and so on.
Niche Markets are targeted through dedicated journals, magazines, group
newsletters, portals or lectures/events
Market Segments could also be targeted in a similar way
General Public/ Mass AudienceIs usually targeted through television,
newspapers here the marketer cannot clarify or convince the receiver and has
to deliver the message with certain assumptions.
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Consumer Behaviour
The Response process
The important aspect in developing effective communication programs is in
understanding the response process the receiver may go through in moving
towards a specific behaviour. In several cases the marketer may wish to deliver a
detailed communication with the objective of changing the consumers
behaviour.
Response Hierarchy Models
Several models have been developed to depict the stages a consumer may pass
through in moving from a state of not being aware of the company/ product/
brand to actual purchase behaviour. The most popular among them are these 4
Hierarchy Models, developed for various reasons.
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Consumer Behaviour
Models of Response
Stages AIDAModel
Hierarchy ofEffects Model
InnovationAdoption
Model
InformationProcessing
Model
CognitiveStage
Attention Awareness
Knowledge
Awareness PresentationAttention
Comprehension
Affective
Stage
Interest Liking
PreferenceConviction
Interest
Evaluation
Yielding
Retention
BehaviouralStage
Action Purchase Trial
Adoption
Behaviour
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Consumer Behaviour
The AIDA Model
The AIDA Model was developed to represent the stages a salesperson must take a
customer through in the personal selling process. The model depicts the buyer as
passing through the stages of Attention, Interest, Desire, Action . The Action stage
involves getting a purchase commitment from the customer and closing the sale.
This is the most important state to the marketer.
The Hierarchy of Effects Model
This is the best of the response models and is developed by Robert Lavidge and
Gary Steiner as a paradigm for setting and measuring advertising objectives. It
shows how advertising works - the consumer passes through a series of steps in
sequential order from initial awareness to actual purchase. The basic premise is
that advertising creates this effect over a period of time. The Hierarchy of Effects
Model is a reference in several agencies to measure advertising agencies.
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Consumer Behaviour
The Innovation Adaption Model -
This model represents the stages through which a consumer passes through in
adapting a product or service. It says potential adopters must pass through a
series of steps before taking some action. The steps prior to adaption are
Awareness, Evaluation, Interest and Trial.
The challenge facing companies launching new products is to create awareness
and interest among consumers and then get them to evaluate the product
favourably. This is done through a demo to evince interest and then a trial is
offered. After the trial the customer either adopts the product or rejects it.
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Consumer Behaviour
The Information Processing Model
The final hierarchy model is the Information Processing Model developed by
William McGuire. This model assumes the receiver in a persuasive
communication situation like advertising is an information processor or problem
solver. McGuire suggests that the series of steps a receiver goes through in being
persuaded constitutes a response hierarchy. McGuires model includes a stage
not found in other models which is Retention, the receivers capacity to retain a
portion of the information he/she accepts as valid and important.
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Consumer Behaviour
The Implications of Traditional Hierarchy Models
The models are useful from several perspectives. They define a series of steps
that prospects must be taken through before they could come close to
considering the product. The marketer also needs to know depending on theproduct/ service he is offering, which stage his prospective customer is in and
what steps he needs to take to close the sale.
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Consumer Behaviour
Alternative Response Hierarchies
Michael Ray has developed a model of information processing that identifies
three alternative orderings of the 3 stages based on product differentiation and
product involvement. These alternative response hierarchies are the standard
learning, dissonance/ attribution, and low-involvement models.
High
(Learning Model)Cognitive
HighAffectiveConative
Low
(Low involvementmodel)
Cognitive
(Dissonance/attribution model)
ConativeAffectiveCognitive
Conative
Affective
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Consumer Behaviour
The Standard Learning Hierarchy
In many purchase situations, the consumer will go through the response process
in the sequence depicted by the traditional communication models. Ray terms
this as the Standard Learning Model consisting of the Learn Feel Do sequence.
Ray suggests that the standard learning hierarchy is likely when the consumer is
highly involved in the purchase process and there is sufficient differentiation
among competing brands. Standard Learning Hierarchy is likely for high
involvement purchase decisions like cameras, appliances, cars, printers and soon
Ads in these categories are detailed and educate the customer helping them
evaluate.
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Consumer Behaviour
The Dissonance/Attribution Hierarchy
Rays second response hierarchy involves situations where the customers first
behave and then develop attitudes or feelings as a result of that behaviour and
then learn or process information that supports the behaviour. This is the Do-
Feel-Learn approach. Here customers have to choose between two alternativesthat are similar in quality but are complex and could have hidden attributes.
Here the customer purchases the product on the basis of some non-media advise
and then develops a positive attitude towards the brand and then collects
information that is pro his brand.
Ray suggests that the mass media messaging does not influence purchases in
such case but contributes to reducing post-purchase dissonance.
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Consumer Behaviour
The Low Involvement Hierarchy
This is the most interesting of the three models is the Low Involvement Hierarchy
where the receiver is viewed as passing from Cognition to Behaviour to Attitude
change. This is the Learn Do Feel sequence. This is more for products where the
involvement is low and the differences between the competing products isminimal or none and mass media advertising is important.
In this category the consumer indulges in passive learning and random
information catching rather than active information seeking. Advertisers deliver a
simple message in high frequencies using one image/ copy piece/ audio etc toreinforce/ register the message/ product into the TGs mind. For ex. Heinz has
dominated the ketchup market by saying it is the thickest and the richest.
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Consumer Behaviour
Implications of the Alternative Response Models
Advertisers agree that not all the response sequences and behaviours can be
explained by the alternative response models. The various models can help
marketing managers/ advertisers to formulate certain communication strategiesand more often than not try to analyse their consumers and their mindsets.
The FCB Planning Model
The FCB planning model was proposed by Richard Vaughn of Foote, Cone andBelding Advertising. This model builds on the traditional theories of advertising
such as the Hierarchy of effects and also considers high and low involvement.
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Consumer Behaviour
They gave a new twist to the analysis by bringing a Thinking vs. Feeling
component The left brain is capable of more cognitive thinking and the right
brain is more visual and emotional. The model called the FCB grid differentiates
between the 4 primary planning strategies - Informative, Affective, Habit
Formation and Satisfaction.
Vaughn suggests that the Informative Strategy is for high involvement products
and services where rational thinking and economic prudence is important. Here
the Standard Learning Hierarchy model is valid.
The Affective Strategyis for highly involving, feeling purchases. For such products
advertising should stress on emotional motives such as self esteem building or
enhancing ego.
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Consumer Behaviour
The Habit Formation Strategyis for low involvement/thinking products with such
routinised behaviour that develop after a trial purchase.
The Self Satisfaction Strategy is for low involvement / feeling products that
appeal to our sensory pleasures/ social motives. Here product experience is an
important part of the learning process.
The FCB grid provides a useful way for the advertising planning process and helps
in the analysis of the consumer-product relationship.
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Consumer Behaviour
Thinking Feeling
High
Involvement
Informative
Thinking required tobuy things like car,home, householdappliances, and soonMedia: Long copy formCreative: credibility,demos
Affective
Jewellery, cosmetics,fashionable
accessories
Media: Large, FocusedCreative driven
LowInvolvement
Habit Formation
Food, household items
Media: small ads/ highfrequencyCreative: directmessaging, reminder
Self satisfaction
Chocolates, candy, icecreams and so on
Creative: attractive,attention grabbingMedia: POS, ads
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Consumer Behaviour
Cognitive Processing of Communications - The Cognitive Response Approach
The hierarchical response models were the primary focus of approaches
for studying the responses of receivers. In response to these concerns,
researchers are also studying the cognitive reactions of persuasive messages. 3
basic categories of responses have been identified.
Product/message thoughts: This refers to the responses oriented towards
product/service. There are two responses support and counter arguments.
Counter arguments are the thoughts the recipient has, opposed to that delivered
by the message. For ex., if a detergent ad makes a claim of removing a stubborn
stain, the recipient may say that it is an exaggeration. Support arguments on the
other hand support the claims made by the message.
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Consumer Behaviour
Source oriented thoughts - This has got to do with the thoughts of the recipient
about the spokesperson. Termed source derogation they lead to a drop in the
acceptance of the message. Sometimes the message could also boost the feeling
in which case they are termed source boosters.
Ad execution thoughts This is to do with the execution of the ad the tone, the
look of the model, the effects, the treatment and so on Much attention is
focused on this aspect, especially TV commercials.
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Consumer Behaviour
Elaboration Likelihood Model
This model perceives the way consumers process and respond to persuasive
images. ELM was devised by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo to explain the
process by which persuasive communication influences attitudes.
According to this model, attitude formation occurs depending on the amount of
Elaboration or processing of the information that occurs as a response to a
persuasive image.
When the receiver does not engage in active information processing or thinking,
Low Elaboration occurs.
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Consumer Behaviour
Elaboration likelihood is a function of two elements Motivation and Ability to
process the image
Motivation to process the information depends on the recipients involvement,
personal preference, the individuals needs and arousal levels. For ex. If a personis concentrating on the humour in a commercial, his focus on information
processing may drop.
ELM suggests that there are two routes to persuasion or attitude change
The central route to persuasion views the receiver as very active and an involvedparticipant whose ability and motivation to receive, comprehend and evaluate is
high. Here the consumer pays close attention to the message and analyses the
message argument and his cognitive faculties are deployed to a high level.
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Consumer Behaviour
Under the peripheral route to persuasion the receiver lacks the motivation andability to process the information and is not likely to involve in cognitive
processing. Rather than evaluating the information presented in the ad, the
viewer relies on certain peripheral cues. His reaction depends on how he
perceives these peripheral cues.
Peripheral cues could also lead to the rejection of the message. For ex. Ads where
the endorsers have credibility problems or those selling abstract concepts may be
received negatively. Therefore repetitive advertising reinforces favorable cues in
the prospects mind.
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Consumer Behaviour
Implications of ELM ELM is a significantly important cue for marketingcommunication specifically with respect to involvement. If the involvement levels
of the TG is high the ad should contain strong arguments that are difficult to
refute. If the involvement levels are low then peripheral cues play an important
role in the registration of the message.