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American Journal of Community Psychology VoL 15 No. 2 1987

T e r m s o f E m p o w e r m e n t E x e m p l a r s o f P r e v en t io n :T o w a r d a T h e o ry f or C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y 1J u l i a n R a p p a p o r tUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

I n o r d e r t o d e v e lo p t h e o r y a n y c o m m u n i t y o f s c ie n t is t s m u s t a g re e a s t o w h a tc o n s t i t u te s i t s p h e n o m e n a o f in t er e st . A d i s ti n c t io n i s m a d e b e t w e e np h e n o m e n a o f i n te r es t a n d e x e m p la r s. T h e c o n c e p t p r e v e n ti o n i s v i e w e das an exemplar , whereas the concep t em po w erm en t i s sugges ted as a l eadingc a n d i d a te f o r t h e t it le p h e n o m e n a o f i n te r e st t o C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y .T h e e c ol og i ca l n a t u r e o f e m p o w e r m e n t t h e o r y i s d e sc ri be d , a n d s o m e o f t h et e r m s o f e m p o w e r m e n t ( d e fi n it io n s , c o n d it io n s , a n d p e r i o d s o f t i m e ) a re ex -p l ic a t e d . E l e v e n a s s u m p t i o n s , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , a n d h y p o t h e s e s ar e o f f e r e da s g u i d e l in e s f o r t h e o r y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e m p i r ic a l s t u d y .

E m p o w e r m e n t i s a p e r v a s i v e p o s i t i v e v a l u e i n A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . T h e c o n -c e p t s u g g e s ts b o t h i n d i v i d u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o v e r o n e s o w n l if e a n dd e m o c r a t ic p a r t i c ip a t i o n i n t h e l if e o f o n e s c o m m u n i t y , o f t e n t h r o u g hm e d i a t i n g s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s s c h o o l s , n e i g h b o r h o o d s , c h u r c h e s , a n d o t h e rv o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a ti o n s . E m p o w e r m e n t c o n v e y s b o t h a p s y c h o lo g i c a l s en s eo f p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l o r i n f l u e n c e a n d a c o n c e r n w i t h a c t u a l s o c ia l i n f l u e n c e ,p o l i t i c a l p o w e r , a n d l e g a l r ig h t s . I t is a m u l t i l e v e l c o n s t r u c t a p p l i c a b l e t o i n -d i v i d u a l c it iz e n s a s w e ll as t o o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d n e i g h b o r h o o d s ; i t s u g g e st st h e s t u d y o f p e o p l e i n c o n t e x t .

1 Th is p a p e r i s b a s e d o n a p r e s e n t a t io n ti tl e d T e r m s o f E m p o w e r m e n t : P e o p l e , P r o g r a m s ,P o l i c y a n d P r o f e s s i o n a l s , g i v e n a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a -t i o n , A u g u s t 1 98 6. T h a n k s i s e x t e n d e d t o R o b e r t F e l n e r , A r l e n e R a p p a p o r t , T h o m a s R e i sc h l,E d w a r d S e i d m a n , a n d M a r c Z i m m e r m a n f o r th e i r h e lp f u l s u g g e st io n s o n e a r li er d r a ft s o ft h i s m a n u s c r i p t . P r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r w a s f a c i l it a t e d b y g r a n t # 3 7 3 90 f r o m t h e N a t i o n a lI n s t it u t e o f M e n t a l H e a l t h .2 All c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s h o u l d b e s e n t t o J u l i a n R a p p a p o r t , D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t yo f I l l i n o i s , 6 0 3 E . D a n i e l S t r e e t , C h a m p a i g n , I l l i n o i s 6 1 8 2 0 .

1210091-0562/87/040o-0121505.0o/0 1987 Plen um Publish ingCorporation

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22 RappaportI n t h r e e p r e v i o u s p a p e r s ( R a p p a p o r t , 1 98 1, 1 9 8 5a ; R a p p a p o r t , S w i ft ,

& H e s s , 1 98 4) I h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t e m p o w e r m e n t is a p r o c e s s , a m e c h a n i s mb y w h i ch p e o p l e , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d c o m m u n i t i e s g a i n m a s t e r y o v e r t h e ira f f a i rs . C o n s e q u e n t l y , e m p o w e r m e n t w i ll l o o k d i f f e re n t i n i t s m a n i f e s t c o n -t e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d s e tt in g s . I n th o s e p a p e r s I a l s od r e w o u t s o m e o f th e i m p l ic a t i o n s o f a d o p t i n g e m p o w e r m e n t a s t h e a im o fo u r w o r k , i n c lu d i n g o u r r o l e r e l at i o n s h ip s t o p e o p l e , p o l ic y , p r o g r a m s , a n dp r o f e s s io n a l s . I n p a r t ic u l a r , I s u g g e s te d t h a t a c o n c e r n w i th e m p o w e r m e n tl e a d s u s t o l o o k f o r s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b l e m s i n l i v i n g i n a d i v e r s i t y o f l o c a ls e tt in g s , r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e c e n t r a li z e d s in g le s o lu t i o n s o f a m o n o l i t h i c h e l p -i n g s t r u c t u r e , w h e r e h e l p is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a s c a r c e c o m m o d i t y ( se e a l s oK a t z , 1 98 4). I a l so s u g g e s te d th a t t h e l a n g u a g e o f e m p o w e r m e n t c o m -m u n i c a t e s , a n d m e t a c o m m u n i c a t e s , a n u m b e r o f p re s u p p o s i ti o n s d i f f er e n tf r o m t h o s e c o m m u n i c a t e d b y th e m o r e f a m i l ia r la n g u a g e o f t he h e lp i n g p r o -f e ss io n s . T h e i n t e n t i o n o f t hi s p a p e r i s t o m a k e a ca s e f o r e m p o w e r m e n t a st h e s u b je c t o f a n e c o lo g i c al t h e o r y f o r th e f i el d o f C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y .A l t h o u g h t h e o r y is e s se n ti a l t o t h e m a t u r a t i o n o f a n y f ie ld o f s e r io u ss c ie n t if ic s t u d y , C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g i s t s , w i t h a f e w i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n s ,h a v e p a i d l i tt le a t t e n t i o n t o i t. W h i l e a g o o d d e a l o f t h e e m p i r i c a l i n f o r m a -t io n a n d m u c h o f t he m e t h o d o l o g y o f c o n t e m p o r a r y P s y c h o l o g y is p o t e n -t i a ll y u s e f u l t o o u r f i e ld ( i n s o f a r a s i t is n o t h e l d t o b e a n e x c l u s i v e o r l i m i t i n gs et o f c o n d i t io n s f o r o b t a i n i n g d a t a ) , m u c h o f a v a i l a b le t h e o r y is i n a d e q u a t ee i th e r b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t c o n c e r n i ts e lf w i t h th e p h e n o m e n a w e w i s h tou n d e r s t a n d , o r b e c a u s e i t is d e r i v e d f r o m a d i f fe r e n t w o r l d v i e w . I n t h is p a p e rI s ug g e st th a t t h e s t u d y o f e m p o w e r m e n t i s a l ea d i ng c a n d i d a t e f o r s t i m u l a ti n gt h e o r e ti c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s in C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y b e c a u s e it c a p t u r e s t h ee s s e n c e o f b o t h t h e f i e l d ' s world view a n d i t s pheno me na o f in terest.

C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y a s a f ie ld o f s t u d y h a s r e a c h e d a t i m e i n itsd e v e l o p m e n t w h e n t h e o r y m u s t b e p r o p o s e d , t e st ed , a n d m o d i f i e d . W i t h o u tt h e o r y a f ie l d c a n n o t l o n g s u r v i v e as a s c ie n t if i c e n t e r p r i s e . W i t h o u t t h e o r yt h e a p p l i c a t io n s o f a f ie ld m u s t b e c o m e in c r e a si n g ly c u t o f f f r o m t h e s h a r pe d g e o f s c i en t if ic c ri ti q u e . T h e o r y s e rv e s a n u m b e r o f e ss e n t ia l p u r p o s e s , s o m eo f w h i c h I i d e n t i f y in th i s p a p e r . I t h e n p r o p o s e t h a t w e e n g a g e i n se r i o u se f f o r t s t o d e v e l o p a t h e o r y o f e m p o w e r m e n t w h i ch c a n s e r ve t h e p u r p o s e si d e n ti fi e d . I n d o i n g s o I d is c us s s o m e o f T h o m a s K u h n ' s m o r e r e c e n t o b s e r v a -t i o n s o n t h e a c t iv i ti e s o f a n y c o m m u n i t y o f s c ie n ti st s, 3 p a r t i c u l a r l y h is d e s c r ip -t i o n o f exemplars. I s u g g es t t h a t t h e c o n c e p t p r e v e n t i o n is a n e x e m p l a rf o r o u r fi el d, w h e r e a s t h e c o n c e p t e m p o w e r m e n t d e sc r ib e s t h e p h e n o m e n a

Hn this pape r use of the word com mu nity has two m eanings. One pertains to the subject ma tterof Com mun ity Psychology; the second m eaning refers to any g roup of scientists who shareserious scientific interests in par ticu lar ph en om ena , and who engage in p rofessionalactivities related to tho se interests.

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Terms of Empowerment 23of interest, and therefore is a proper subject for theory. While there maybe other candidates for theory in Community Psychology, some of whichI mention here, I argue that a theory of empowerment is the most suitable.The kind of research and some of the terms and assumptions of such a theory,including its essential ecological nature (Kelly & Hess, 1986; Trickett, 1984)are then described.

The Purpose o f Theory and Why Communi ty Psycho logy Needs OneA scientific theory gives a field coherence, direction, and a focus of

attention. It presents hypotheses, suggests goals, ideas, applications, and do-mains of interest. A scientific theory must be broad enough to encompassimportant phenomena of interest, yet narrow enough to provide testablehypotheses. Theory will contain certain presuppositions and make certainnontestable assumptions. While its hypotheses will be falsifiable, and itsgeneralizations modifiable, there is a mutual influence process from data totheory and vice versa. That is, good theory can be characterized as involv-ing two way linkages with the d a t a . . . (it is) interactively g e ne r a t e d . . .and receive (s ). .. (its) epistemic justification via the mutual meshing of ra-tionalism and empiricism (Royce, 1984, p. 418).

The purpose of scientific theory is usually said to be to explain or ac-count for the observables of a specific domain of investigation (Royce, 1984).The point of a theory is, among other things, to explain, predict, create,stimulate, and encourage understanding of certain phenomena of interest.If a theory is not about the phenomena of interest it is useless in guidingthe scientist's work. Borrowing theories (as opposed to data) from domainsthat have a different scope and intention, no matter how successful they arefor other purposes, will not serve the purposes of a theory for Communi tyPsychology. Lack of theory appropriate to the phenomena of interest reducesthe value of data for applied scientists and professionals who wish to iden-tify and encourage or stimulate the phenomena. Although this would seemto be a truism, failure to appreciate the point has heretofore limited develop-ment in the field of Community Psychology, where our theories are largelyborrowed. If we do not develop our own theories we will adopt other (lessappropriate) theories by default.

Theory is useful for more than telling us which data are relevant,although it does do that; properly used, theory is consciously directed byan awareness of our presuppositions, values, and goals (Rappaport, 1984).Theory is modified by data, but it also tells us what the data mean and whatother data might be useful. It is a part of our world view. To be concrete,if somewhat obvious, let me suggest tha t low IQ scores mean very differentthings to Arthur Jensen, J. McV. Hunt, and Herbert Ginsburg (see Rap-

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Terms of Empowerment 25If one puts on prism glasses that appear to turn the world upside down, atfirst he or she is disoriented. After a short while the person wearing theseglasses adjusts to them, and although the world is turned upside down bythe glasses, the one who wearsthem no longer knows it. When we adoptthe prisms o f a theory we allow what we see to be observed throug h the worldview of those prisms. Ad opt ing the theories o f those with other agendas forpsychology means adopting their agendas.

Kuhn's analysis suggested that in developing theory consistent with aCom mu ni ty Psyc holo gy world view, we may legitimately propose theoriesmore suited to our purposes than those that are available, without needingeither to disconf irm existing psychological theories or to acco unt for all thephenomena to which they have been applied. Faith and conversion are im-portant components in the process. The radical scientist is seen to look forways in which a new theory, selected at the outset on the basis of faith, andin part bec use of its differences from existing theories, can be developed,supported, and modified. The new theor y is selected on the basis of a beliefthat it can help us to understand the phenomena of interest. We accept thetheory first, and act as if it were true. Only after this leap of faith are weable to think of ways in which to systematically test what happens when weact as if. Altho ugh we remain committed to the rules of confirmation, therules for discovery are different.

Following Kuhn's original work on scientific theorizing he has pro-posed, in response to critiques of his use of the concept parad igm, a numberof new ideas that I find quite useful. Among them are what he calleddisciplinary matrices and exemplars, terms that are helpful in describing theactivities o f any scientific community ; that is, describing how a comm uni tyof scientists behaves. 4 1 believe that Kuhn' s (1977) modified a ppr oach is par-ticularly helpful for understan ding the different functions that concepts suchas prevention and empowerment play for the community of communitypsychologists, a subject to which I turn shortly; bu t first I need to summarizehis description of the activities of any community of scientists.

4Kuhn does continue to maintain that the scientist's world view s central to his or her adoption ofa particular theory, and that the adoption of new theories appears to be more similar tothe process of faith and conversion than to a formal logical process, as had been assumedby the philosophy of science (Suppe, 1977). It is important to note that the adequacy of worldview philosophical positions for formal technical analysis of the structure of scientific theories,a matter of controversywithin Philosophy, does not necessarily damage their usefulness forother purposes, such as describing how a community of scientists behaves.

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26 RappaportKuhn s Modified Approach: The Role of Exemplars and Theories in theDisciplinary Matrix

K u h n , c o r r e c t l y I t h i n k , s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f p a r a d i g m s c a nbe de fended a s an em p i r i ca l gene ra l i za tion w i th r ega rd to ho w sc ien ti fi c com-m u n i t i e s b e h a v e . I n h i s w o r d s :

A paradigm is wha t the m embers of a scientific community and they alone share.Conversely, it is their possession of a common paradigm that constitutes a scientificcommunity of otherwise disparate men (and w o m e n ). .. Bound together by com-mon elements in the ir education and apprenticeship, they see themselves and are seenby others as the men (and women) responsiblefor the pursuit of a set of shared goals,including the training of their successors . . . . To a remarkableexten t these individualswill have absorbed the same literature, and drawn similar lessons from i t . . . (Theywill) have access to the sam e conferences, to preprint distribution lists, and aboveall to formal and informal communication ne tw ork s .. . Individual scientists, par-ticularly the ablest, will belong to several such groups, either simultaneously or insuccession. (Kuhn, 1977, pp. 460-462)

W h a t , a s k e d K u h n , a c c o u n t s f o r th e re l a ti v e ly u n p r o b l e m a t i c n a t u r eo f p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d j u d g m e n t w i t h i n a sc i en t if ic c o m m u n i -ty? He re he r ep laced the pa r ad i gm wi th the d i sc ip l ina ry ma t r ix . Th i s i s sa idto be com pos ed o f a va r i e ty o f e l emen t s , i nc lud ing symb o l ic gene ra l i za t ions ,mode l s (wh ich p rov ide ana log ies and heu r i s t i c s ) , and exempla r s ( conc re tep rob lem so lu t ions , accep ted by the g roup a s , i n a qu i t e u sua l sense ,pa r ad i gm at ic , p . 463) .

The exemplar i s described mo st eas i ly as the com mun i ty ' s shared exampleso f p r o b l e m s o l u t i o n . E x e m p l a r s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e w a y s i n w h i c h a c o m m u n i -t y o f sc ie n ti st s a p p r o a c h w h a t I h a v e c a ll e d th e p h e n o m e n a o f i n te r es t . O n elea rns the comm uni ty ' s exempla r s , a t f i rs t by so lving t ex tb ook a nd c la ss roo mp r o b l e m s , a n d t h e n b y a p p l y i n g s i m i l a r t h i n k i n g t o n e w p r o b l e m s t h a t f a l lw i t h i n t h e p h e n o m e n a o f i n t e r e s t , t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s w h i c h K u h n d e s c r i b e das the l ea rned pe rcep t i on o f s imi la r i ty . Th i s i s l ea rned , he a rgued , no t byf i rs t adop t ing sha red ru le s bu t r a the r b y an ana ly s is o f sha red exam ples . Suchana lys i s l eads the young sc ien t i s t t o deve lop a wor ld v iew sha red wi th thoseo the r sc i en t i s t s who a r e to become a pa r t o f he r o r h i s d i sc ip l ina ry ma t r ix .

T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t d i s c i p l i n a r y m a t r i c e s i n p a r t s u p p l y ac o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k o r w o r l d v i e w , l e a r n e d b y t h e s t u d y o f e x e m p l a r s .W h i l e t h is w o r l d v i e w a p p r o a c h p o s e s c e rt a i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o b l e m s , i t r e -t a in s the sound in s ight tha t one l ea rns to u se symbo l ic fo rmu la t ions th roug hthe s tudy o f exe mp la r s (Suppe , 1977, p . 498) . Tha t in s ight is u se fu l fo r thepu rpo ses o f th i s pape r . I t c l a ri f ie s the d i s t inc tion be tw een exem pla r s ,p h e n o m e n a o f i nt e re s t , a n d t h e o ri e s . W e a r e le d t o t h e c o n c l u s io n t h a t t h ea n s w e r to t he q u e s t i o n w h a t a c c o u n t s f o r t h e r el a ti v e e a s e o f c o m m u n i c a -

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Terms of mpowerm ent 27t i o n w it h in a sc i en t if ic c o m m u n i t y ? is t h a t t h e me m b e r s o f t h e c o mm u n i t ya re in ag reemen t a s t o :

1. W h a t t h e o ry t o e mp l o y .2 . Wha t t he re l evan t ques t ions (phenomena o f i n t e res t ) a re .3 . Wha t so r t s o f work to t ake a s exempla ry .4 . How to app ly theo r i e s t o na tu re .5 . Wha t coun t s a s good and bad sc i ence .Th i s is an ou t l i ne o f an agenda fo r t he dev e lopm en t o f a sc ien ti fi c com-

m u n i t y . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t w e w a n t t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C o m m u n i t yPsycho log i s t s t o be a sc ien t if i c com mu ni ty , i t mus t be ou r agenda . A l thou ghI do no t have the space to d i scuss he re ques t ions o f wha t cons t i t u t e s goodand bad sc i ence , o r how to app ly theo r i e s t o na tu re (e ssen t i a l ly ques t ionso f me thod ra the r t han subs t ance ) , I do wi sh a t l eas t t o beg in d i scuss ion o fthe o the r t h ree i ssues , i. e . , wha t t heo r y to employ , wha t t he ph eno m enaof in te res t a re , and w ha t w ork to t ake a s exem pla ry fo r t he f i eld o f Co m-mu ni ty Psycho logy . Aga in , t he p reced ing suggest s t ha t t heo r ie s , phen om enaof in t e res t , and exempla rs a re d i f fe ren t t h ings .

I t i s t h i s d i s t i nc t ion tha t may he lp to c l a r i fy some o f t he con t rove rsyI seem to have c rea t ed in an ea r li e r a t t empt to i n t roduce the idea o f emp ower-me n t t o C o mm u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y (R a p p a p o r t , 1 98 1; se e fo r e x a mp l e C o w e n ,1985, Felner , J aso n , M ori t su gu, & Far ber , 1983; Pr ice , 1983; Swif t , 1984).I seem to have sugges ted tha t adop t ing the con cep t o f empo we rm en t requ i resr e j ec t in g th e c o n c e p t o f p r e v e n t i o n , a n i d e a t h a t h a s b e c o me s o i mp o r t a n ti n t h e t h in k i n g o f C o mm u n i t y P s y c h o lo g i s ts a s to p e rh a p s b e p a ra d i g ma t i c .I , mis takenly I th ink , suggested tha t these two ideas are necessarily i n c o m-pat ib le .

I now be l i eve tha t , wh i l e t he d i s t i nc t ion be tween the t e rms empower-me n t a n d p r e v e n t i o n i s v e ry i mp o r t a n t , t h e y a r e n o t n e c es s a ri ly i n c o mp a t i -b l e. Ra the r , t hese t e rms an d the i r a ssoc ia t ed mean ings se rve ve ry d i f fe ren tfu n c t i o n s . T h e t e rm e m p o w e rm e n t r e f e r s t o th e phenomena o f interest a n da s s u c h e mp o w e rm e n t s h o u l d b e th e fo c u s o f o u r t h e o ry d e v e l o p me n t . E m-pow erm en t i s wha t we t ry to de f ine , unders t an d , exp lain , p red ic t , and c rea t eo r fac i l i t a t e by ou r i n t e rven t ions and po l i c i e s . The t e rm p reven t ion , on theo t h e r h a n d , r e f e r s t o a n exemplar or embod ies a se t o f exampla rs , and assuch p rev en t ion i s no t t he focus o f o u r t heo r i e s , bu t ra the r is (o r shou ld be )an im por t an t focus o f ou r co ncre t e p rob lem so lu t ions , t ha t i s, ou r s t rat eg ieso f i n t e rv e n t i o n . G ra s p i n g t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l l y c o mp l e me n -t a ry r e la t i o ns h i p b e t w e e n e mp o w e rm e n t a n d p r e v e n t i o n , is v e ry i mp o r t a n tt o t h e fu t u r e d e v e l o p me n t o f o u r f i e l d .

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28 Rappapo~P r e v e n t i o n a s a n E x e m p l a r

I n t h e f ie l d o f p u b l i c h e a l t h , a p p l i c a t i o n o f s tr a te g i e s f o r p r e v e n t i o no f i l l n e s s i s a c o n c r e t e p r o b l e m s o l u t i o n w h i c h s e r v e s , i n K u h n ' s t e r m s , a sa n e x e m p l a r . N o o n e w o u l d d e n y t h a t f o r t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h s p ec i al is t e x -e m p l a r s o f p r e v e n t i o n se rv e a s p a r a d i g m a t i c i n t h e u s u a l s en s e o f th e t e r m( K u h n , 1 97 7 ), b u t t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f i n te r e st is n o t p r e v e n t i o n p e r s e, r a t h e ri t is t h e p r o m o t i o n o f h e a l t h f u l l iv i ng e n v i r o n m e n t s . S i m i l ar ly , f o r C o m m u n i -t y P s y c h o l o g y p r e v e n t i o n s er ve s as a n i m p o r t a n t e x e m p l a r , a w a y o f t h i n k -i n g t h a t is p a r a d i g m a t i c . W e t h i n k i t is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t s t r a t e g y a p p l ic a b l et o a v a r i e t y o f s p e c i f ic c o n t e n t a r e a s , n o t l i m i t e d t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f m e n t a li ll n es s , a l t h o u g h c o m m o n l y a s s o c i a te d w i t h i t ( c f. C o w e n , 1 9 85 ; F e l n e r e ta l ., 1 98 3; S e i d m a n , 1 9 83 ). B u t i n a n d o f i t s e lf t h e s t r a t e g y o f p r e v e n t i o n ,n o m a t t e r w h a t i t is o n e i s t r y i n g t o p r e v e n t , is n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o s e rv e a s ad e s c r i p t o r o f t h e p h e n o m e n a o f i n te r e s t f o r o u r f ie ld . R a t h e r , w e a r e r e q u i re dt o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o n s i d e r o t h e r e x e m p l a r s .

I n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a s e t o f l e a r n e d s i m i l a r it y r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( K u h n ,1 97 7) w h i c h s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e o f c o n t r i b u t i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r l dv i ew o f o u r d i s c ip l i n ar y m a t r i x w e m u s t a p p l y a v a r i e t y o f e x e m p l a rs i n a d -d i t i o n t o p r e v e n t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , a s e c o n d e x e m p l a r , o n e w h i c h m u s t b eu n d e r s t o o d b y a n y o n e i n o u r c o m m u n i t y o f s ci en ti st s, i s c a p t u r e d i n t h e t e r m

b l a m i n g t h e v ic t i m ( R y a n , 1 97 1 ). W e a re , as a c o m m u n i t y , c o n c e r n e d w i t hd e s i g n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , p o l i c i e s , a n d p r o -g r a m s , t h a t a r e n o t v i c t im b l a m i n g . I t is q u i t e p o s s i b l e, a n d t h i s is w h a t Iw a s t ry i n g t o s a y i n a n e a rl i e r p a p e r ( R a p p a p o r t , 1 9 81 ) w h e n I s p o k e o f em -p o w e r m e n t a s a t e r m t h a t m a y b e in c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p r e v e n t io n , t o d e s ig ns o - c a ll e d p r e v e n t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n s w h i c h v i o l a t e t h e e x e m p l a r n o n - v i c t i m -b l a m i n g . I h a v e n o d o u b t t h a t m a n y c o m m u n i t y m e n t a l h e a l t h p ro g r a m s ,a s w e ll a s a v a r i e t y o f p r e v e n t i o n r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s d o v i o l a t e t h i s e x e m p l a r ,a n d w h i le I d o n o t r e p e a t m y c r it iq u e o f th e c o m m u n i t y m e n t a l h e a lt h m o v e -m e n t a n d o f a t l e a st s o m e o f w h a t is o f t e n c a ll e d h i g h ri s k r e s e a r c h h e r e( R a p p a p o r t , 1 9 77 , 1 98 1 , 1 98 5 b ), I r e m a i n c o n v i n c e d t h a t m u c h o f w h a t i st e r m e d p r e v e n t i o n s u f f e r s f r o m t h e m a l a d i e s I s u g g e s t e d s e v e r a l y e a r s a g o .

F e l n e r a n d h i s c o ll e a g u e s (1 9 8 3 , p p . 5 -6 ) h a v e d e s c r i b e d s o m e o f t h ec o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h a p r e v e n t iv e in t e r v e n t i o n in t h e m e n t a l h e a l th d o -m a i n would e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e m p o w e r m e n t : T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n s a r e c o l -l a b o r a t i v e , c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o v i d i n g o r f a c i l i t a t i n g r e s o u r c e s t o f r e es e l f - c o r re c t i v e c a p a c i ti e s , d e l i v e r e d i n a c o n t e x t t h a t a v o i d s t h e o n e d o w np o s i t i o n o f m a n y h e l p e r - h e l p e e r e la t io n s h i p s , a n d s e ns it iv e t o t h e c u l t u r e a n dt r a d i t i o n s o f t h e s e t ti n g s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s . T h u s , w h i l e p r e v e n t i o n is a n i m -p o r t a n t t e r m f o r a c la ss o f c o n c r e t e p r o b l e m s o l u ti o n s , o n e w h i c h h e l p s u st o d i s co v e r d i ff e r e n t p r o b l e m s o l u ti o n s t h a n w o u l d b e l i k el y w i t h o u t t h e c o n -

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cep t , i t does no t pe r se deno te , even in the domain o f men ta l hea l th , t hephen om ena o f i n te res t fo r Co mm uni ty Psych o logy . Fo r t he c lo th ing des igne ra s t i t ch in t ime m ay inde ed save n ine , bu t t he sub jec t o f i n t e res t is c rea tinggarm en t s o f a pa r t i cu l a r t yp e , an d on ly as a p rac t i ca l ma t t e r is it he lp fu l t oknow when to do the sewing . To con t inue wi th the ana logy , i f one sews upthe pocke t s o f a d ress t he fac t t ha t t he s t it ch ing took p l ace a t an ea r ly timedoes no t save i t f ro m being use less fo r carry ing th ings. In short , no t a ll p reven-t i o n p ro g ra ms a r e g o o d e x e mp l a r s f o r C o mmu n i t y P s y c h o l o g y . I t i s o n l ythose tha t a re cons i s t en t w i th o the r c r i t e r i a t ha t a re good exempla rs .

I submi t t ha t wha t ho lds the d ive rse con ten t s o f ou r f i e ld toge the r i stha t sub jec t ma t t e r a bou t wh ich we wish to ma ke em pi r i ca l gene ra l i za tions ,i . e . , the phen om ena o f i n te res t t ha t I have ca ll ed em pow erm en t . A s de -scr ibed below, e mp owerm ent is a te rm tha t captures , be t ter than any of the cur-ren t ly ava i l ab le compe t ing a l t e rna t ives , t he ove ra rch ing goa l s o f ou rc o mmu n i t y o f s c i e n t i s t s . T h e re fo re , i t i s t h e p h e n o me n a o f e mp o w e rme n tabou t wh ich we mus t deve lop theo r i e s i f ou r f i e ld o f s tudy , t ha t i s t o sayo u r c o m m u n i t y o f s ci en ti st s, i s t o d e v e l o p a ma t u re s c ie n ce o f C o m m u n i t yP s y c h o l o g y .

m p o w e r m e n t a s t h e P h e n o m e n a o f I n t e r e s tA p r o p e r f o c u s o f t h e o r y f o r C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y c a n b e su m m a r -

i zed , in a word , a s empo we rm en t . Pu t i n i ts s imp les t t e rms , e mp ow erm en t i sthe nam e I g ive to the en t i re c la ss o f ph eno m ena tha t we wan t ou r re sea rchto unders t and , p red ic t , exp la in , o r desc r ibe ; t ha t we wan t ou r app l i ca t ionsand in t e rven t ions to s t imu la t e , fac i l i t a t e , o r c rea t e , and ou r soc i a l po l i c i e st o e n c o u ra g e . T h i s is t h e b o t t o m l in e fo r C o mm u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y . W h e nwe s tudy chi ldren , adul t s , the e lder ly , organiza t ions , ne ighbo rhoo ds, o r socia lpo l i c i e s , wha t ho lds these d ive rse e f fo r t s t oge the r i s a conce rn wi th em-p o w e r m e n t .

T h e w o r d e m p o w e r , a c c o rd i n g t o t h e Random House Dictionary ofthe merican Language (1966, p . 468) has two re la ted m eanings: 1 . to g ivepow er o r au tho r i t y to ; au tho r i ze ; and 2 . t o enab le o r pe rmi t . The OxfordEnglish Dictionary (1971) inc ludes the sense of inve stm ent wi th legal pow er,and the sense tha t pe rsons o r se t t i ngs may be empowered fo r some spec i f i cgoa l o r pu rpose . No t i ce tha t t hese de f in i t i ons do no t i nc lude spec i f i ca t ionof wha t t he pe rson o r t he se t t i ng i s empowered to do , no r do they sugges tthat the wo rd refers to a single perso n in isolat ion. R ather, em pow erm ent refersto a process of be coming able or a l lowed to do some unspeci f ied th ing becausethere is a condi t ion o f dom inion or a u thori ty wi th regard to tha t speci fic th ing ,as oppo sed to a l l th ings . T ha t i s , there are l imi ta t ions as wel l as powers . W ha t

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13 appapo~a r e th e l im i ts o f e m p o w e r m e n t i n o n e s p h e r e o f l if e a s o p p o s e d t o o t h e r s ?W h a t s p h e re s o f e m p o w e r m e n t le a d t o g e n e r al i za t i o n s u c h t h a t e m p o w e r m e n tb e c o m e s a w a y o f b e in g i n th e w o r l d ? A t h e o r y n e e d s t o a s k s u c h q u e s t io n s .

T o u n d e r s ta n d t h e m e a n i ng o f e m p o w e r m e n t o n e m u s t k n o w s o m e th i nga b o u t m o r e t h a n i n d i v id u a l s; o n e m u s t a l s o k n o w w h a t , o r w h o , o n e h a sa u t h o r i t y o v e r . T h e r e i s b u i l t i n t o t h e t e r m a q u a l i t y o f t h e relationship be-t w e e n a p e r s o n a n d h i s o r h e r c o m m u n i t y , e n v i r o n m e n t , o r s o m e t h i n g o u t -s id e o n e ' s se lf . P a r t o f o u r t a s k t h e n m u s t b e t o s p e c i f y w h a t t h e s er e l a t io n s h i p s a r e li k e f o r p e o p l e , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d c o m m u n i t i e s . W h a t i st h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e tt in g s i n w h i c h e m p o w e r m e n t i s d e v e lo p e d o r i n h i b i t ed ?T h e r e a re a t l ea s t t w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y w a y s in w h i c h t o l e a r n a b o u t s u c ht h in g s . O n e t o s t u d y t h e m i n s et ti n gs w h e r e w e w o u l d e x p e c t e m p o w e r m e n tt o b e a n o p e r a t i v e p r i n c i p l e , i . e . , i n t h o s e s e t t i n g s c a l l e d m e d i a t i n g s t r u c -t u r e s ( B e r g e r N e u h a u s , 1 97 7) w h e r e p e o p l e a r e e x p e r i e n c in g t h e c o n d i t i o n st h a t a r e h y p o t h e s i z e d t o l e a d t o t h e s o r t s o f o u t c o m e s w e w i s h t o u n d e r -s t a n d . T h i s a p p r o a c h m a k e s t h e r e s e a r ch e r a n o b s e r v e r a n d d e s c r ib e r o f t h ec o n d i t i o n s t h a t l e a d to t h e p h e n o m e n a o f i n te r es t .

A s e c o n d w a y t o le a r n a b o u t e m p o w e r m e n t is t o s t u d y e n v i r o n m e n t sw h e r e o n e w o u l d n o t e x p e c t e m p o w e r m e n t t o o c c u r , b e c a u s e o f b u i lt - in e n -v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r ai n t s. H e r e t h e r e s ea r c h e r m a y a l s o b e a n o b s e r v e r a n dd e s c ri b e r o f e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t d o n o t l e a d t o t h e p h e n o m e n a o f i n te r e st .H o w e v e r , a n a d d i t i o n a l r o l e is a ls o a p p r o p r i a t e , i . e ., t h e r o l e o f t h e i n t e r v e n e r ,f a c i l i t a t o r , o r c h a n g e a g e n t w h o , i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h o s e w h o r e s i d e i nt h e s e tt in g , s e e k s t o c r e a t e a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p e r m i t c h a n g ei n r e la t i o n s h ip s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s th a t l e a d t o d e v e l o p m e n t o f e m p o w e r m e n t .

E m p o w e r m e n t is n o t o n l y a n i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o lo g i c a l c o n s t r u c t , i t isa l so o r g a n i z a t i o n a l , p o l i t ic a l , s o c i o lo g i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d s p i r it u a l . O u r i n -t e r e s t s i n r a c i a l a n d e c o no m ic ju s t i c e , i n le ga l r i gh t s a s we l l a s i n hu m a n ne e ds ,i n h e a l t h c a r e a n d e d u c a t i o n a l j u s t i c e , i n c o m p e t e n c e a s w e ll as i n a s en s eo f c o m m u n i t y , a r e a ll ca p t u r e d b y th e i d e a o f e m p o w e r m e n t . T h e r e a so nw e c a r e a b o u t f o s t e r i n g a s o c i e t y w h o s e s o c i a l p o l ic i es a p p r e c i a t e c u l t u r a ld ive r s i t y Th e C omm unity Psychologist, 1986) i s tha t we reco gn ize tha t i tis o n l y is o n l y i n su c h a s o c i e t y t h a t e m p o w e r m e n t c a n b e w i d e s p r e a d . W ea r e a s m u c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h e m p o w e r e d o r g a n i z a ti o n s , n e i g h b o r h o o d s , a n dc o m m u n i t i e s a s w e a r e w i t h e m p o w e r e d i n d i v i d u a l s ( K e l ly H e s s , 1 9 86 ).T h e i n t e r e s t i n e m p o w e r m e n t i s o n e t h a t r e d u c e s t h e t e n d e n c y f o rp s y c h o lo g i s ts t o b e o n e - s i d e d ( R a p p a p o r t , 1 98 1) a n d p e r s o n b l a m i n g ( C a p l a n

N e l s o n , 1 9 7 3 ) .W h e n I s a y t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n a o f i n t e r e s t f o r a t h e o r y o f C o m m u n i t yP s y c h o l o g y is e m p o w e r m e n t , I d o n o t m e a n t o i m p l y t h a t e m p o w e r m e n t isn a m e d e x p li ci tl y i n e v e ry s t u d y , o r t h a t C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g i s t s d o n o ts t u d y a d i v e r se se t o f t o p i c s , o r t h a t w e s h o u l d l i m i t o u r u s e o f d a t a f r o m

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Psychology and other disciplines. Quite the contrary. We have a variety ofspecific interests expressed by the outcomes and variables we study in ourspecific research projects; e.g., mental health, educational attainment, socialcompetence, citizen participation, social support, social networks, life tran-sitions, educational success, employment, social justice, self- and mutual help,and so on. But the hallmark of a Community Psychology world view,developed in the context of the community of Community Psychologists,toward which we direct our symbolic generalizations, our models, and ourexemplars, or concrete problem solutions, at every level of analysis, fromthe individual to the community, and into which all our data (as well as thedata we adopt from others) can ultimately fit, is empowerment. We wantto know what it is, how it develops, and under what conditions it occurs.In short, the aim of our community of scientists is to develop a theory ofempowerment. A theory of empowerment is the best candidate for puttingtogether our various facts, the data of our observations, into a coherentpicture.The most prominent other candidates for the title phenomena of in-terest to Community Psychology are terms such as positive mental healthor competence building; but each of these candidates tend to be person-centered (Cowen, 1985) and developed in the traditions of the psychologyof individual differences.5 These concepts tend to exclude much of what thecommunity of Community Psychologists care about and research. That isto say, as candidates for the phenomena of interest they are too narrow andtoo biased in the direction of a person blame ideology. They do not lendthemselves easily to the study of people in context, o f settings, and of com-munities. Although the development of research programs and interventionsdesigned to enhance individual naental health, or competence, such as in-terpersonal problem solving, 'are legitimately within the domain of Communi-ty Psychology, they are best understood as limited aspects of the phenomenaof interest to the field. It is also the case, and this point is very importantfor understanding what I mean, that one can be concerned with individualpositive mental health and competence, and interpersonal problem solvingskills, but violate a variety of other exemplars of the phenomena of interestto Community Psychology. Such violations are more difficult to conceal from

sS ince th i s paper w as f i r st p r esen ted a num be r o f peop le have sugges ted tha t the psycho log ica ls ense o f com mu ni t y ma y a lso be a v i ab le cand ida te fo r th e ti t le . Th i s is a phrase which Ihave fel t , ever s ince Sarason (1974) int roduce d i t to C om mu nit y Psycholo gy, has had a g ood dealo f heur i s t i c va lue . Al though I am unab le to deve lop the idea in th i s paper , t he r e l a t ionsh ipb e t w e e n t h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l s e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y a n d e m p o w e r m e n t i s a n a r e a o f r e s e a rc hwhich I suspec t cou ld l ead to f ru i t fu l deve lop men t s (c f . Ma ton & Ra ppa por t , 1984).

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32 Rappaportone 's se l f i f , a t the outse t , the phe nom ena of in teres t is unders too d to bee m p o w e r m e n t .

R e c e n t c o m me n t a ry o n m y e a r l ie r a rg u me n t s v is -a -v is t h e i mp o r t a n c eo f em pow erm en t (Cowen , 1985) has been ve ry he lp fu l in fo rc ing me to c l a r i fya po in t t ha t I t h ink has been misunders tood . Dec la ring empow erm en t , ra the rt h a n m e n t a l h e a lt h o r c o mp e t e n c e , a s t h e p h e n o m e n a o f i n te r e st s h o u l d n o tbe const rued to suggest an exclusive a t ten t ion to what Cowen has charac ter-ized as ma croso cial changes at the broa d societal level . While I do intendt h e t e rm t o i n c lu d e s u c h ma t te r s , a t t e n t io n t o e mp o w e r me n t d o e s n o t s u g -gest tha t one i s on y i n t e res t ed in ve ry b ro ad soc ia l change . Q u i t e t o t he con -t ra ry . A key po in t I had in t end ed to mak e by advoca t ing the p ra ise o fp a ra d o x , a n d a t t e n t i o n t o d iv e rg e nt r a t h e r t h a n c o n v e rg e n t p ro b l e m s o lv in g(Ra ppap or t , 1981) , was tha t we mus t l ook f o r so lu t ions in a va r i e ty o f l oca lse t t i ngs ra the r t han in any s ing le mono l i th i c p rog ram type , i nc lud ing thoseopera t ed a t t he macrosoc ia l l eve l by we l l mean ing p ro fess iona l s . Empower-me n t i s expec ted to be f oun d in a d ive rs i ty o f ap pare n t ly co n t ra d ic to ry set -t ings and p rog ra ms , e spec ia l ly those in wh ich the peop le o f con ce rn havea l a rge and con t ro l l i ng vo ice in de t e rmin ing wha t t akes p l ace and how i t i sdone . Such se tt i ngs and p rog ram s can be expec ted to be found , an d can bedeve loped mos t eas i ly , on a l oca l ra the r t han a g rand sca l e .

The s i ze o f t he p rog ra m, o r even i ts a t t en t ion to peop le a s oppose d tosystems, i s less of an i ssue than i s i t s a t ten t ion to the rad ia t ing impact , theu n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d t he m e t a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f t hei n t e rv e n t i o n - i n c l u d i n g t h o s e t h a t a r e i n t e n d e d t o b e p r e v e n t i v e , w h e t h e rpe rson -cen te red o r s i t ua t ion -cen te red , whe the r mic ro - o r macrosoc ia l . Th i sa t t e n t i o n t o t h e r a d i a t i n g i mp a c t o f o u r w o rk mu s t b e i n fo rme d b y a na w a re ne s s t h a t t h e g o al o f e mp o w e rm e n t , r a t h e r t h a n i n d iv i d ua l a d j u s t me n tp e r s e, is o f p a r a m o u n t i n te r e st . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t e m p o w e rm e n t g o a ls a r eforg ot ten , we are mor e tha n ab le to fool ourse lves in to be l iev ing tha t we haved o n e a n a d e q u a t e j o b w h e n w e h a v e f a l l en p r e y t o t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e h e lp -ing professions to blame vict ims for their own vict imizat ion, and toapply eri ter ia for evaluat ion that are cul tural ly, racially, and ethnical lybiased . To the ex tent tha t empowerment goals are a t tended to , weare m ore l ikely to contrib ute construct ively to reducing the pro blem s o f racism,sexism, ageism, and o ther such mat ters . Ho wev er , tha t a t ten t ion need not s topus f r om being involved wi th indiv idual people and small groups in local com-munit ies.

Because o f ou r h i s to ry , m any com mu ni ty psycho log is t s a re a l so cl in i ca lpsycho log i s t s , wh ich exp la ins why men ta l hea l th in t e res t s a re w idesp read .We know tha t t hose who exper i ence se r ious men ta l i l l ness t end to have ad i f f i cu l t t ime in the wor ld , b o th because o f t he i r ow n behav io rs , t h ough t s ,and pe rcep t ions , an d because o f t he ways in wh ich they a re rega rd ed andt rea t ed by o the rs . We expec t t ha t s tudy ing men ta l hea l th and me n ta l hea l thp o l ic y w ill c o n t r ib u t e t o o u r k n o w l e d g e o f e m p o w e rme n t . B u t a l l c o mm u n i -

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34 Rappapo~I t is o f c o u r s e th e c a s e t h a t a n y o n e o f u s c a n a l s o b e a m e m b e r o f

s o m e o t h e r c o m m u n i t y o f s c ie n ti st s, i n c l u d in g t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C l in i ca l,S o c ia l, P e r s o n a l i t y , O r g a n i z a t i o n a l , o r D e v e l o p m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g is t s , G e r o n -to log i s t s , B e ha v io r i s t s , C r imino log i s t s , a nd so on . As Kuhn ( 1977) ha s ob -s e rv e d , a n y i n d iv i d u al s ci en ti st m a y b e l o n g t o m o r e t h a n o n e c o m m u n i t y o fs c i e n t i s t s , a n d o f t e n t h e a b l e s t b e l o n g t o s e v e r a l a t o n c e o r i n s u c c e s s i o n .B u t t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o lo g i st s is m o r e t h a n a n y i n d iv i d ua l.T h e c o m m u n i t y o f w h i c h w e a r e a p a r t is i n t er e s te d in m o r e t h a n i n d iv i d u al sa n d i n m o r e t h a n m e n t a l h e a l t h , a n d w e a re in t e r e s t e d in t h o s e t o p i c s in t h es a m e w a y a n d f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n s w e a re i n t e re s t e d in r a c is m , o r g a n i z a -t i o n a l p ro c e s s e s , n e i g h b o r h o o d n e t w o r k s , a n d c i t iz e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n v o l u n -t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; t h a t i s, a ll o f t h e s e t h in g s m a y h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o s a ya b o u t t h e u n d e r ly i n g p h e n o m e n a o f i nt er es t t h a t m a k e s u s a c o m m u n i t y a n da b o u t w h i c h w e w i s h to m a k e g e n e r a li z a ti o n s t h a t g o b e y o n d t h o s e l i m i t edt o t h e s p e c i fi c t o p i c o f a s p e c if i c r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t , o r e v e n a b o u t t h e p r e c is es u b j e c t o f a n y o f o u r o w n i n d i v id u a l r e se a r ch . W e a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m -m u n i t y p r e c is e ly b e c a u s e w e w a n t o u r w o r k t o c o n t r i b u t e t o u n d e r s t a n d i n gi ts j o i n t l y h e ld p h e n o m e n a o f i n t e re s t.

T h e E c o l o g ic a l N a t u r e o f a T h e o r y o f E m p o w e r m e n tA l t h o u g h t h e su b j ec t o f t h e o r y f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C o m m u n i t y

P s y c h o l o g i st s is c a p t u r e d i n th e i m a g e r y a n d i m p l i c at io n s o f e m p o w e r m e n t ,I a m c o n v i n c e d b y t h e a rg u m e n t s o f J a m e s G . K e l l y a n d E d i s o n J . T r i c k e t ta n d t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s ( e .g . , K e l l y & H e s s , 1 9 86 ; T r i c k e t t , K e l l y , & V i n c e n t ,1 98 5) t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t h e o r y m u s t b e e c o l o g ic a l . A n e c o l o g i c a l t h e o r ys u g g e s t s h o w t o t a k e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n t o a c c o u n t , b u t a s T r i c k e t t ( 1 9 8 4 )n o t e d , i t a l so n e e d s a g u i d i n g se t o f p r em i s e s to p r o m o t e a c t i o n c o n g r u e n tw i t h it s u n d e r l y i n g w o r l d v i e w ( p . 26 6 ).

T r i c k e t t (1 9 8 4) h as p o i n t e d o u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l o o k i n g a tp h e n o m e n a f r o m a n e n t i re l y p e r s o n - c e n t e r e d as o p p o s e d t o a n e c o l o g ic a lp e r sp e c ti v e . T h e e c o l og i c al a p p r o a c h p r o v i d e s a m u c h b r o a d e r r a n g e o f c o n -t e x t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n is t y p ic a l l y t h e c a s e i n t h e p e r s o n - c e n t e r e d a p -p r o a c h . T h e e c o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h s u g g e s t s a n i n t e r e s t i n w h a t h e c a l l s

e n v i r o n m e n t a l re c o n n a i s s a n c e a n d t h e id e n t i f ic a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s . I t a ls os u g g e st s a n i n t e r e s t i n t h e r o l e re l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n p e o p l e , p o l i c y , p r o g r a m sa n d p r o f e s s io n a l s , i n ch a n g e o v e r t im e , a n d i n t h e c o n t e x t u a l m e a n i n g o ft h e v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e r e s t . T h i s i s t h e t y p e o f t h e o r y t h a t b e s t s e r v e s t h ep h e n o m e n a o f in t er es t t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o gi s ts . A n dt h e p h e n o m e n a o f e m p o w e r m e n t i s a s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t l e n d s it s e lf t o t h isk i n d o f th e o r y . I n s h o r t , t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o lo g i s ts is b es ts e rv e d b y a t h e o r y o f t h e e c o l o g y o f e m p o w e r m e n t .

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T e r m s o f m p o w e r m e n t 35

T h e c o n c e p t o f ec o l o g y w i t h its e m p h a s is o n c o m m u n i t y e m b e d d e d n e s so f p e r s o n s a n d t h e n a t u r e o f c o m m u n i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s ( T r i c k e t t , 1 9 84 , p .2 6 5 ), a n d o n c o n t e x t , d i v e r s it y , a n d r e s o u r c e s , a s w e ll a s a t t e n t i o n t o t h eosts a n d th e b e n e f i ts o f s o l u t i o n s , h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d a s a n a n t id o t e tow h a t I h a v e c a ll ed t h e o n e si d e d n es s o f p e r s o n - c e n t e r e d p r o g r a m s ( R a p -p a p o r t , 1 9 81 ). T h i s s o r t o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g is a n e s s e n ti a l e l e m e n t i n a t h e o r yo f e m p o w e r m e n t . R e s e a r c h o n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e ss e s , c it iz e n p a r t ic i p a -t i o n , c h a n g e i n g e n e r a l a n d s o c i al c h a n g e i n p a r t i c u l a r , n e t w o r k s , s o c ia l sk il ls ,a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e ns e o f c o m m u n i t y , c a n p r o v i d e b e t t e r g ri st f o r t h em i ll o f C o m m u n i t y P s y c h o l o g y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t w e o r g a n iz e o u r d e sc ri p -t io n s , m a k e p r e d i c ti o n s , a n d t e s t o u t c o m e s , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a t h e o r y o ft h e e c o l o g y o f e m p o w e r m e n t . W h a t t h e f i el d r e q u ir e s is t h a t e a c h o f t h es ea r ea s o f w o r k b e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n a u n i fy i n g f r a m e w o r k t h a t p e r m i t s u st o i n t e rp r e t th e d a t a s u c h t h a t o n e d o m a i n s p e ak s t o t h e o t h e r. M u c h o f th i sc o u l d b e i n c o r p o r a t e d c o n v e n i e n t l y i n to a t h e o r y o f th e e c o l o g y o f e m p o w e r -m e n t , b u t i t r e m a i n s t o b e a c c o m p l i s h e d .

T e r m s o f E m p o w e r m e n t : D e f i n it io n s C o n d i ti o n s a n d T i m eI n th e a b o v e d is c u s si o n I h a v e u s e d t h e p l u ra l , p h e n o m e n a , r a t h e r t h a n

t h e si n g u la r , p h e n o m e n o n . E m p o w e r m e n t is a t e r m t h a t h a s m u l t ip l er e f e r e n t s , a n d t h e f i r s t t a s k o f a t h e o r y i s t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c l a s s o ft h i n g s t o w h i c h t h e t e r m r e f e r s . T o s o m e e x t e n t t h i s i s a l r e a d y d o n e b y t h ec o m m o n s e n s e a n d d i c t io n a r y m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d a s d e s cr ib e d a b o v e , a n db y t h e e x p l i c a t i o n o f it s i m p l i c a t i o n s , t o w h i c h I h a v e a l r e a d y a l l u d e d ( R a p -p a p o r t , 1 9 77 , 1 9 81 , 1 9 8 5a ; R a p p a p o r t e t a l ., 1 9 84 ). I n a m o r e f o r m a l s e n set h e r e a r e a t le a st t h r e e w a y s in w h i ch t h e t e r m s o f e m p o w e r m e n t c a n b e e x -p l i ca t e d . T h e w o r d t e r m s m a y r e f e r t o ( a) d e f i n it i o n s , w o r d s , a n d m e a n -i n g s ( m e t a a n d s y m b o l i c a s w e l l a s l i t e r a l ) ; ( b ) c o n d i t i o n s ( t h o s e q u a l i t i e s o fe n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t y i e l d p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s e s a n d p r o d u c t s ) ; a n d ( c ) p e r i o d so f t im e . B e l o w I m e n t i o n a f e w e x a m p l e s o f s t u d ie s t h a t h a v e b e g u n t o e x -p l i c a t e t h e s e t e r m s o f e m p o w e r m e n t .

T h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e def in i t ions o f e m p o w e r m e n t s u g g es ts t h a t w e n e edt o r e s e a r c h t h e p h e n o m e n a b y s t u d y i n g h o w e m p o w e r m e n t i s a c t u a l l y e x -p e r i e n c e d b y t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l p e o p l e w h o e x p r e s s t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y a r e ,a n d a r e n o t , i n c o n t r o l o f t h e i r o w n l iv e s , a n d b y s t u d y i n g t h e m e d i a t i n gs t r u c t u r e s i n w h i c h t h e y re s i d e . T h a t i s, in a d d i t i o n t o a f o c u s o n p r o f e s -s i o n a ls c r e a t i n g p r o g r a m s , w e n e e d t o s t u d y p e o p l e i n s e t ti n g s t h a t a r e a p a r to f t h e i r o n g o i n g l i f e .

S o m e o f t h i s w o r k i s a l r e a d y b e g u n a s e m p o w e r m e n t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e df o r a v a r i e t y o f p o p u l a t i o n s . K i e f f e r (1 9 84 ) a p p li e d a l if e s p a n d e v e l o p m e n -

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36 appapo~tal approach to understanding the changes in individuals who becamepolitically involved. He conducted a series o f intensive interviews with a smallnumber of participants in grass-roots community organizations. Those in-terviewed were by definition empowered; that is, they were selected becauseof their self-acknowledgment of transformation from a sense o f powerlessnessto a proactive engagement of issues and evidence of their continuing com-mitment to leadership. Kieffer s research suggests that a t the individual levelof analysis the process of empowerment passes through several phases, andhis work can be recommended as a fru itful source of hypotheses about theprocess of empowerment and how it is experienced over time. Such hypothesescan be studied in a more nomothetic fashion as well.

Maton and Rappaport (1984), studying a large number of individualsin a single setting to which they devoted a large portion of their lives (areligious community), found the development of a psychological sense ofcommuni ty and commitment to be related, contemporaneously, to empower-ment and 3 years later to life satisfaction. They have hypothesized that aswe study other kinds of settings we might expect to find that settings thatdevelop a sense of community and commitment enable members to becomeempowered but by criteria that are unique to the goals and purposes of thedifferent types of settings. That is to say, it is hypothesized that commonprocesses may lead to empowerment as measured by criteria appropriate tothe particular setting goals.

More recently, Zimmerman (1986) studied relatively large samples ofboth college students and communi ty residents participating in a wide varie-ty of different kinds of community organizations, ranging along a spectrumfrom self-help for former mental patients, to community betterment organiza-tions, to political action of both a liberal and a conservative bent. He found,for both the student population and the community residents, consistentlysignificant differences in their sense of empowerment assessed by a wide varie-ty of cognitive, motivational, and personality measures, as a function of bothlevel and extent of involvement and participation. While such differencesare impor tant in validating the expected relationship between participationin voluntary organizations and empowerment, perhaps of even moretheoretical significance, Zimmerman found in bo th samples a single consis-tent dimension of empowerment. This dimension was described by a senseof civic duty, political efficacy, and perceived personal competence, and wasnegatively related to alienation and positively related to willingness to be aleader. Such findings across populations and settings suggest that empower-ment may be both describable and developed in a wide variety of local ex-periences.

Thinking about the ond i t i on s of empowerment means we must studysettings as well as people. There are a variety of general frameworks for the

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T e r m s o f m p o w e r m e n t 37

s t u d y o f s e tt in g s ( s e e b e l o w ) ; b u t I w o u l d l i k e t o n o t e b r i e f l y a f e w s p e c i f i cs t u d i es d e s i g n e d t o d i r e c t l y c o n f r o n t t h e q u e s t i o n o f s e t ti n g i ss u es i n th ed e v e l o p m e n t o f e m p o w e r m e n t . T h e s e s tu d i es e m p h a s i z e p o s ti v e s et ti n gc h a r a c t e r is t i c s a s w el l a s t h o s e w h i c h a r e p r o b l e m a t i c . I t is u n u s u a l f o r a p -p l i e d p s y c h o l o g i s t s t o a d m i t t h a t w e l e a r n f r o m t h e f a i l u r e s a s w e l l a s t h es u c ce s s es , y e t s u c h w o r k l e a d s u s to a v a r i e t y o f h y p o t h e s e s f o r f u t u r e s t u d ya s w e l l a s t o a n u m b e r o f n e w v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e r e s t .

G r u b e r a n d T r i c k e t t (1 9 8 7) h a v e f o l l o w e d , o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v er a l y e a r s ,t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n a l te r n a ti v e s c h o o l w h i c h i n m a n y w a y s w a s v e r y su c-c e s s f u l ( T r i c k e t t e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ). H o w e v e r , d e s p i t e t h e e x p l i c i t i n t e n t i o n o f i tso r i g i n a t o r s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r s th i n k t h a t t h e s c h o o l fa i l e d t o e m p o w e r t h es t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r p a r e n t s ( i n t h e s e n s e o f g i v in g t h e m a c t u a l c o n t r o l o v e rd e c i s i o n m a k i n g ) . I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e s c h o o l s c h a r a c t e ri s t ic s t h e y p o i n t t o av a r i e t y o f is s ue s a n d v a r i a b l e s t h a t w o u l d l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o s y s t e m a t i c f u t u r es t u d y , a n d h e r e I c i te o n l y o n e e x a m p l e . T h e s e a u t h o r s m a k e a u s e fu l d i st in c -t i o n b e t w e e n a c t u a l c o n t r o l a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e ns e o f c o n t r o l . W h i let h e s e t t i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s i n t o i t s p o l i c y - m a k i n g a p -p a r a t u s , i t w a s t h e t e a ch e r s w h o r e t a i n e d a c t u a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e s c h o o l , o f t e nw i t h t h e c o m p l i c it y o f t h e s t u d e n ts a n d t h e i r p a r e n t s , a r e s u lt t h a t t h e a u t h o r sa t t r i b u t e t o t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e al i t y o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s i n t h ec o m m u n i t y i n w h i c h t h e s c h o o l i s e m b e d d e d .

S i m i l a r i ss u e s h a v e b e e n r a i s e d b y S e r r a n o - G a r c i a ( 1 9 8 4 ) i n h e r a n a l y s iso f e m p o w e r m e n t e f f o r t s in P u e r t o R i c o , u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n w h i ch r e alp o l i t ic a l c o n t r o l is n o t p o s s i b le . B o t h o f t h e s e p a p e r s c a l l o u r a t t e n t i o n t ot h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t in w h i c h a p r o g r a m o p e r a t e s a n d t h e n e e d t o d i s ti n g u i s hp s y c h o l o g ic a l e m p o w e r m e n t a n d p o l it ic a l e m p o w e r m e n t . A n i m p o r t a n t a r eaf o r f u t u r e w o r k i s t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n a c tu a l p o w e r a n d p e r c e i v e d p o w e r .S u c h w o r k w ill b ri n g o u r f ie l d t o t h e i n t e rs e c t io n b e t w e e n P s y c h o l o g y a n dP o l i ti c a l S c i e n c e - t w o d i sc ip l in e s t h a t e a c h h a v e a n in t e re s t i n e m p o w e r m e n t .

I c a n n o t d o j u s t ic e h e r e t o t h e r i ch d e s c r i p ti o n o f m a n y o f t h e p r o b l e m sc o n f r o n t e d b y t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s , b u t t h e y e a c h r a i s e a v a r i e t y o f v a r i a b l e st h a t r e q u i r e s t u d y in f u t u r e w o r k . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e n a t u r e o f th e r o le sa v a il a b le t o m e m b e r s , t h e a v a i la b i li ty o f i n f o r m a t i o n a s a r e s o u rc e , a n d t h et e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e g o a l s o f e m p o w e r m e n t f o r m e m b e r s a n d t h e d e s i r e t op r e s e r v e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s l a t t e r is s u e is o n e t h a t R i g e r ( 1 9 8 4 ) h a s a l s ow r i t te n a b o u t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f w o m e n s s o ci al m o v e m e n t o r g a n i z a ti o n s , a n di n m a n y w a y s is c ru c i a l f o r t h e s t u d y o f t h e c r e a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t iv e s e t ti n g s ,i f w e a re c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h i n k i n g a b o u t h o w s u c h s e tt in g s c a n b e m a i n -t a i n e d w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e i r o r i g i n a l i n t e n t i o n s .

O n a m o r e p o s i t iv e n o t e , i n o u r r e c e n t w o r k a t I ll in o i s m y c o l le a g u e sa n d I h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y o f a l a r g e m u t u a l h e l po r g a n i z a t i o n f o r f o r m e r m e n t a l p a ti e n t s , m o s t o f w h o m h a v e a h i s t o r y o f

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38 appaporth o s p i t a l i z a t i o n (R a p p a p o r t et a l . 1985) . We have been t racking how th iso rg a n i z a t i o n , e n ti r e ly ru n b y i ts me m b e r s h i p a s a n a u t o n o m o u s a l te rn a ti v es e tt in g (R a p p a p o r t , 1 97 7) , e x p a n d e d f ro m a h a n d fu l o f g ro u p s t o al mo s t100 th r ou gho u t t he S ta t e w i th in a pe r iod o f le ss t han 4 yea rs . Us ing a va r i e tyo f o rg a n i z a t io n a l s t ra te g ie s th a t w e ca ll t h e J o h n n y A p p l e s e e d A p p ro a c h( Z i m m e r m a n et a l . 1985) and mechan i sms such as t he in t en t iona l c rea t ionof under m ann ed se tt ings , i .e . , those tha t p rov ide genu ine and mea n ing fu lro l e s and re spons ib i l i t i e s fo r many who ou t s ide rs and p ro fess iona l s expec tto be incom pe ten t (Re ischl , Z imm erm an , & Ra ppa por t , 1986) , t h is o rgan iza -t ion has no w estab l i shed i t se lf as a m ajo r m enta l hea l th reso urce for the S ta teo f I l l ino i s. W e have recen t ly desc r ibed fou r w ays in wh ich the mem bers o fthe o rgan iza t ion demons t ra t e t he e f fec t s o f be long ing to i t .

A co l l abo ra t ive re sea rch p rog ram has enab led us to co l l ec t l ong i tud ina ld a t a o n t h e p ro g re s s o f ma n y i n di v id u a ls f ro m t h e t ime o f in i ti al me m b e r -sh ip , o f t en fo l lowing hosp i t a l d i scha rge , eve ry 6 mo n ths fo r up to severa lyea rs . In t e rv i ew and psycho log ica l a ssessmen t da t a , behav io ra l o bse rva t ionof ac tual group m eet ings , reports of s ignif icant o thers , an d par t ic ip ant obser-va t ion o f o rgan iza t iona l behav io r , bo th w i thin and ou t s ide the o rgan iza t ion ,p rov ide a r i ch da t a base to desc r ibe the changes among members a t va r iouss t a g e s o f e mp o w e rme n t .

Fo r a subse t o f t hose who jo in th i s o rgan iza t ion the re is a t rans f o rm a-t ion f ro m he lp seeke r t o he lp g ive r and an inc reas ing sense o f re spons ib i l it yto bo th o the r pe rsons and to an o rgan iza t ion wh ich seeks to have soc ia l i n -f l u e n c e . T h e d e v e l o p me n t o f e mp o w e rme n t c a n b e o b s e rv e d a mo n g t h eme m b e r s h i p a l o n g a c o n t i n u u m. A t o n e e n d a r e t h os e w h o s i mp l y a t t e n dmee t ings and soc ia l func t ions a s a sou rce o f ma in ta in ing themse lves in t hecom mun i ty . O the rs a re ab le t o beg in to p rov ide soc ia l and in t e rpe rsona l com-fo r t and suppor t t o pee rs , t h rough l ea rn ing how to be a he lpe r a s we l l a sa he lpee . S t i l l o the rs t ake on fo rma l ro l e s i n t he o rgan iza t ion and deve lopa sense o f e f f i cacy wh ich ex tends to a sma l l g roup . Som e mem bers m ovetoward even l a rge r re spons ib i l i t i e s o f i n t e rna l o rgan iza t iona l deve lopmen t ,whereas o the rs acqu i re t he ab i l i t y t o ac t i n t he l a rge r con tex t o f soc i a l i n -f luence a s t he o rgan iza t ion expands and seeks new resources . The c rea t ionof f o rm a l ro l e s and re spons ib i li ti e s fo r eve ry me mb er , rega rd less o f t ha t pe r -son ' s l eve l o f func t ion ing , t he cu l tu re o f t he g roups , t he way o f cons t ru ingprob lems in l i v ing , and the s t ruc tu re o f t he o rgan iza t ion , a re i den t i f i ed a se mp o w e r i n g me c h a n i s ms w h i c h c o mb i n e i n t r a p s y c h i c , i n t e rp e r s o n a l , a n do rg a n i z a t io n a l p ro ce s s es t o fo s t e r e m p o w e rm e n t o f t h e me m b e r s h i p a n d o fthe o rgan iza t ion .

T h i n k in g a b o u t e m p o w e r m e n t i n t er m s o f t i m e suggests tha t we needto unders t and i t s l ong i tud ina l deve lopmen t i n bo th peop le and se t t i ngs . Aneco log ica l t heo r y , a s no ted above , is wel l su i ted to such work . As a l ready

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Terms of mpowerment 39indicated, a methodology for the study of settings, as opposed to individuals,over time, is suggested by the approach of Kelly and his colleagues (cf. Kelly

Hess, 1986) in their application of ecological analysis; and the possibilitiesfor studying the interactions among people and their environments are sug-gested by Bronfenbrenner (1979), Moos (1984), and by Barker's (Barker, 1978;Wicker, 1979) work on the description of behavior settings, as well as byvarious environmental approaches (cf. Wandersman Hess, 1985). But eachof these approaches, if they are to be used seriously and systematically inCommunity Psychology, requires an overarching focus which directs themtoward the phenomena of interest, that is, to ask questions about the defini-tions, development over time, and conditions under which the processes andproducts of empowerment, in all of its many forms, are created.

An Incomplete Outline of Assumptions for An Ecological Theory of Empowerment

Rather than repeating the already extensive thought on the nature ofecological theory per se I want to emphasize that the study of empowermentis a subject matter well suited to such a theory. With that intention I con-clude with an outline of 11 assumptions, presuppositions, and hypothesesbuilt into a theory of empowerment. These are offered as guidelines and start-ing points for theory development and empirical study.

1. Em po we r m en t i s a mu l t i leve l const r uc t. It is concerned with the studyof and relationships within and between levels of analysis-individuals,groups, organizations, and other settings, communities, and social policies.It is assumed that there is a mutual influence process across levels of analysis,and that this process takes place over time.

2. The radia ting im pact o f one leve l o f analys is on the o thers i s assu me dto be impor tan t . This is a point best explicated by Kelly (1971) over 15years ago, but one that has been largely ignored in practice. Empowermenttheory assumes that understanding persons, settings, or policies requires multi-ple measures from differing points of view and different levels of analysis.As a practical matter not all research can be at every level of analysis, butthe subject matter, and therefore the theory, and the research communityas a collectivity, must address all levels. For psychologists the largest dangeris that we will limit ourselves to the study of individuals.

3 . The h i sto r ical con te x t in wh ich a per s on a p r ogr a m or a po l i cyoper a tes has an impor ta n t in f luence on the ou tcom es o f the p r ogr am. Follow-ing Sarason's (1972a) dictum, those who hold this viewpoint are concerned

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14 appaporta b o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a il e d b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g , a n df o r s o m e p u r p o s e s , a f t e r t h e e n d o f a p r o j e c t a s w e ll ( R a p p a p o r t , S e i d m a n ,& D a v i d s o n , 1 9 79 ). F o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s , th e l a r g e s t d a n g e r i s t h a t w e t e n d t os t u d y o n l y t h e p r o g r a m p e r s e a n d f a il to u n d e r s t a n d i ts p la c e in t h e c o m -m u n i t y b e f o r e a n d a f t e r it s e x is te n c e. W e t h e r e f o r e t e n d t o l o se m u c h i n f o r -m a t i o n a b o u t b o t h g e n e r a l iz a b i li t y a n d c u l t u r e.

4 . T h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t m a t te r s . W e a re c o n c e r n e d w i th w h a t S a r a s o n( 1 9 72 b ) c a ll e d t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e s e t t i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e e x p e c t t h a t i n -d i v i d u a l s a s w e l l a s s e tt i n g s w il l b r i n g w i t h t h e m a v a r i e t y o f c u l t u r a l a s s u m p -t i o n s , a n d t h a t t h e m a t c h o r m i s m a t c h b e t w e e n p e r s o n a n d s e t t i n g i s o fc o n s e q u e n c e . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t a d i v e r s i t y o f s e tt in g s a n d p r o g r a m sw i t h a v a r i e t y o f s t y le s , a tt i t u d e s , a n d g o a l s is n e e d e d , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a tw e s t u d y , a n d h a v e a c o n c e r n f o r , a d i v e r s it y o f p e o p l e .

5 . L o n g i t u d i n a l r es e ar ch o r t h e s t u d y o f p e o p l e o r g a n i z a ti o n s a n dp o l i c i e s o v e r t i m e i s s e e n t o b e a t l e a s t d e s ir a b l e a n d p e r h a p s n e c e s s a r y . I tm a y t h e r e f o r e b e u s e f u l, a s a p r a c t i ca l m a t t e r, t o c o n d u c t d e s c r ip t iv e a n di n t e n s iv e c as e s tu d i e s o v e r t i m e , a s a s u p p l e m e n t t o e x t e n s iv e n o m o t h e t i cc r o s s - s e c ti o n a l re s e a r c h . A l t h o u g h t h i s is l a r g e l y a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p o i n t i np r a c ti c e , it is o n e t h a t is t h e o r y d r i v e n . I f e m p o w e r m e n t o p e r a t e s a s e x p e c t ed ,l o n g i t u d i n a l r e s e a r c h i s n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d i t. I t m a y b e t h a tw e c a n le a r n a s m u c h f r o m t h e s t u d y o f o n e s e tt in g , o r a f e w p e o p l e o v e rt i m e , a s f r o m t h e s t u d y o f l a rg e n u m b e r s o f in d i v i d u a l s .

6 . E m p o w e r m e n t t h e o r y i s s e l f -c o n s c i o u s l y a w o r l d v i e w th e o r y . T h a tis t o s a y , t h o s e w h o h o l d t h i s v ie w d o s o b e c a u s e t h e y a d m i t t o c e r t a i n p r e s u p -p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e a d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e i r v a l u e s , g o a l s , a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , a n di n t e n t i o n s . T h i s i s u n d e r s t o o d t o b e m a k i n g w h a t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e b e i m -p l ic i t, e x p l ic i t, a n d w h i l e I d o n o t a r g u e t h e c a s e h e r e , s u c h p r e s u p p o s i t i o n sa r e s e e n a s n e c e s s a r i l y o p e r a t i v e i n al l r e s e a r c h ( c f . R a p p a p o r t , 1 9 8 4; S e i d -m a n & R a p p a p o r t , 1 98 6). A s a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r t h is r e al i ty , w h i c h is s o m e t i m e ss e e n b y s c ie n t is t s as a n e g a t i v e , is t u r n e d i n t o a p o s i t i v e . T o w h a t e v e r e x t e n tp o s s i b l e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a r e t o b e s h a r e d o p e n l y b e t w e e n r e s e a r c h e r , in -t e r v e n e r, t a rg e t o f t h e i n t er v e n t i o n , a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y o f c o n s u m e r s o f t h er e s e a r c h . T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t w o i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s a s s u m p t i o n :

(a ) T h e p e o p l e o f c o n c e r n a r e t o b e t r e a t e d a s c o l la b o r a t o r s ; a n d a tt h e s a m e t i m e t h e r e se a r ch e r m a y b e t h o u g h t o f a s a p a r t i c i p a n t l e g it im a t e -l y in v o l v e d w i t h t h e p e o p l e s h e i s s t u d y i n g . T h e r e s e a rc h e r in t h is w a y m a yb e m o r e l i k e a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t a n d a c t i o n r es e a r ch e r ( R a p o p o r t , 1 98 5) t h a nl i k e a l a b o r a t o r y s c i e n t i s t . B e c a u s e o u r r e s e a r c h a n d o u r i n t e r v e n t i o n s r e -q u i r e us t o i n t e ra c t w i t h o t h e r h u m a n b e i ng s , a n d b e c a u s e w e a re a ls o h u m a nb e i n g s, t h e r e i s a n a c k n o w l e d g e d m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e p r o c e s s ( c f. T y l e r , P a r g a -m e n t , & G a t z , 1 9 8 3; C h a v i s , W a n d e r s m a n , & S t u k e y , 1 98 3; M a t o n & R a p -p a p o r t , 1 9 8 4 ) .

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T e r m s o f m p o w e r m e n t 4

(b) The choice of our language is seen to be very important as to whatit communicates and metacommunicates not only to other researchers andpolicy makers but also to the people who we are studying. T h i s i s a p o i n tt h a t i s cr u c ia l to a t h e o r y o f e m p o w e r m e n t . I t is s u g ge s te d t h a t t h e t e r m i n o l o g yu s e d c o m m u n i c a t e s i m p o r t a n t c o n n o t a t i v e as w e ll a s d e n o t a t i v e m e a n i n g t ot h o s e w i th w h o m w e w o r k . T h e i m p l i ca t io n s o f t h is a s s u m p t i o n f o r t h e re la -t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h e l p e r a n d h e l p e e a r e r i c h a n d v a r i o u s , l e n d i n g t h e m s e l v e st o a v a r i e t y o f r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s e s a n d a n u m b e r o f i m p l i c at i o n s f o r p r a c -t ic e . T h e l a n g u a g e o f h e l p i n g o f t e n l e a d s t o t h e t r i v ia l iz i n g o f o b s e r v e d p o s i t i v ec h a n g e o u t s i d e th e c o n t r o l o f p r o f e s s i o n a ls b y c al li n g i t s p o n t a n e o u s r e m i s -s i o n o r a p l a c e b o e f f e c t , w o r d s th a t s u g g e st i t is a n a r t i fa c t t o b e c o n t r o l l e d .S u c h l a n g u a g e d e p r i v e s p e o p l e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e i ro w n a b i l i t y f o r s e l f - a n d m u t u a l h e l p . I t s u g g e s t s t h a t h e l p i s s c a r c e r a t h e rt h a n a b u n d a n t , t h a t p e o p l e a re w e a k r a t h e r t h a n s t r o n g , a n d p o w e r le s s r a t h e rt h a n p o w e r f u l . I t d ir e ct s us a w a y f r o m l o o k i n g f o r n a t u r a l r e so u r c e s p o t e n -t i a l l y u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f a n d a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p e o p l e o f c o n c e r n . I n t h el a n g u a g e o f e m p o w e r m e n t s u c h s e lf - d ir e c te d ch a n g e s a n d r e s o u rc e s a r e s ee na s g e n u i n e l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t , a s e x a m p l e s o f s e l f -h e a l i n g t o b eu n d e r s t o o d r a t h e r t h a n e x p l a i n e d a w a y ( R a p p a p o r t , 1 9 85 a). T h e te r m s w eu s e t o d e s c r ib e o u r w o r k w i t h p e o p l e c h a n g e th e w a y t h e y th i n k a b o u tt h e m s e l v es . G a l l a n t , C o h e n , a n d W o l f f (1 9 85 ), f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e d e s c r i b e dh o w t h e i r w o r k w i t h e ld e r l y p e r s o n s i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s d r a s t i c al l y c h a n g e dw h e n t h e y r e p o s i t i o n e d t h e a g e n c y f r o m o n e th a t w a s p e r c e iv e d a s a s er -v ic e p r o v i d e r to o n e t h a t t o o k o n t h e l an g u a g e o f e m p o w e r m e n t a n d b e c a m ea m e m b e r s h i p o r g a n i z a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a s er v ic e p r o v i d e r - c l i e n t o r i e n t e da g e n c y .

7. It is assumed that the conditions o f participation in a setting willhave an impact on the empowerment of the members. T h i s i m p a c t w i l l b ed i s c e rn i b l e a s b o t h a m a i n e f f e c t a n d a s a n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a ls 'b a c k g r o u n d c h a r a c te r is t i cs . T h o s e w h o p a r t i c i p a t e in d e c is i o n s a n d a c t iv i ti est h a t a r e m e a n i n g f u l t o t h e m a r e m o r e l i k el y t o b e e m p o w e r e d . S e tt in g s w i thm o r e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p a r t i c i p a t io n a r e e x p e c te d to b e m o r e l i k el y t o b e e m -p o w e r i n g s e t ti n g s , a n d t h e h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e o f th e p e r s o n w i ll m e d i a t e t h ei m p a c t o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n , a s w il l t h e h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e o f t h e s e tt in g .

8. Other things being equal an organization that holds an empower-ment ideology will be better at find ing and developing resources than onewith a helper-helpee ideology w he r e r e s ou r c e s w ill be s e e n a s r e l a t ive ly sc a r c e ,a n d d e p e n d e n t o n p r o f e s s i o n a l s .

9. Locally developed solutions are more empowering than single solu-tions applied in a general way a n d a p p l i e d in t h e f o r m o f p r e p a c k a g e d i n-t e r v e n t i o n s .

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42 RappapoN10. The size of the setting matters. S e t t i n g s t h a t a r e s m a l l e n o u g h t o

p r o v i d e m e a n i n g f u l r o le s f o r al l m e m b e r s , y e t l a rg e e n o u g h t o o b t a i nr e s o u r c e s , a r e h y p o t h e s i z e d a s m o r e l i k e l y t o c r e a t e th e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t l e a dt o e m p o w e r m e n t . T h e s p e c i f i c a ti o n o f su c h p a r a m e t e r s a s s iz e a n d n u m b e ro f a v a i l a b l e r o l e s a r e t o p i c s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .11. Em po we rm en t is not a scarce resource which gets used-up butrather once adopt ed as an ideology em pow er me nt tends to exp and resources.T h i s o u t l i n e i s a s ta r t i n g p o i n t , a b e g i n n i n g f o r t h e o r y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e m -p i r i c a i t e s t i n g .

T o c o n c l u d e a lo n g p a p e r v e r y b r i e fl y , t h e te r m s o f e m p o w e r m e n t a r ea p r o p e r s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r a t h e o r y o f u se t o o u r f i e ld . A n i n t e r e s t i n e m -p o w e r m e n t is w h a t c a n h o l d u s t o g e t h e r a s a c o m m u n i t y o f s c ie n ti st s a n dp r o f e s s i o n a l s . E m p o w e r m e n t i s a t e r m t h a t c u t s a c r o s s le v e ls o f a n a l y s i s , e x -p r e s se s o u r w o r l d v ie w , a n d o u r c o m m i t m e n t t o a d i v e r se s o c i et y . E m p o w e r -m e n t s u g g e s t s a b e l i e f i n t h e p o w e r o f p e o p l e to b e b o t h t h e m a s t e r s o f t h e i ro w n f a te a n d i n v o l v e d in t h e l i fe o f t h e ir s e v e r al c o m m u n i t i e s . E m p o w e r m e n t i s t h e p h e n o m e n a o f in t e re s t to w h i c h o u r t h e o r i e s m u s t s p e a k .

R E F E R E N C E SArgris, C., Putna m, R., Smith, D. M. (1985). Action science: Concepts methods andskillsfor research and intervention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Barker, R. (1978). Habitats environments and human behavior. San F ranc isco: Jossey-Bass.Berger, P. J., Neuhaus, R. J. (1977). To empower people: The Role o f mediating structuresin public policy. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public PolicyResearch.Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature anddesign. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Cap lan, N., Nelson, S. D. (1973). On being useful: The natu re and consequences ofpsychological thought on social problems. American Psychologist 28 199-211.Chavis, D. M., Wand ersman , A. , Stukey, P. E. (1983). Returning basic research to the com-munity: A relationship between scientist and citizen. American Psychologist 38 424-434.The Community Psychologist. (1986). Cult ural diversity [Special issue]. Vol. 19(Whole No. 2).Cowen, E . L. (1985). Person-centered approaches to prim ary prevention in mental health: Situa-tion focused and competence-enhancement.American Journal of Community Psychology13 31-48.Felner, R. D., Jason, L. A. , Moritsugu , J. N., Farb er, S. S. (Eds.). (1983). Preventivepsychology: Theory research and practice. New York: Pergamon.Gallant, R. V., Cohen, C., Wo lff, T. (1985, Septem ber/Octo ber). Change of older persons'image, impact on public policy result from Highland Valley Empowerment Plan . Perspec-tive on Aging 14 9-13.Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. New York: Norton.Grub er, J., Trickett, E. J. (1987). Can we empower others? The para dox of empowermentin an alternative public high school. American Journal of Community Psychology 15

353-372.Katz , R. F. (1984). Empowerment and synergy: Exp and ing the community's healing resources.Prevention in Human Services 3 201-226.

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J . N . M o r i t s u g u , S . S . F a r b e r ( E d s . ) , Preven tive psych ology : Theory research andpractice. N e w Y o r k : P e r g a m o n .R a n d o m Ho u s e D ic t io n a r y o f t h e A me r i c a n L a ng ua ge . ( 1 9 6 6 ) . N e w Y o r k : R a n d o m H o u s e .Rapopor t , R . N. (1985) . Children yo uth and fam ilies: Th e action-research relationship. C a m -b r i d g e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .R a p p a p o r t , J . ( 19 7 7) . C om m un ity psycho logy: Values research and action. N e w Y o r k : H o l t ,R i n e h a r t W i n s t o n .R a p p a p o r t , J . ( 19 8 1) . I n p r a i s e o f p a r a d o x : A s o c i a l p o l i c y o f e m p o w e r m e n t o v e r p r e v e n t i o n .A me r i c a n J o u r n a l o f Co m mu n i t y P s y c h o lo g y 9 1-25.R a p p a p o r t , J . ( 1 9 84 ). S e e k i n g j u s t i c e i n t h e r e a l w o r l d : A f u r t h e r e x p l i c a t i o n o f v a l u e c o n t e x t s .J o u r n a l o f Co m mu n i t y P s y c h o lo g y 1 2 208-216.R a p p a p o r t , J . ( 1 9 8 5 a ) . T h e p o w e r o f e m p o w e r m e n t l a n g u a g e . Social Policy 16 15-21.R a p p a p o r t , J . ( 1 9 8 5 b ) . The death and resurrection o f co m m un ity m ental health . I n v i t e d a d -d r es s p r e s e n te d a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c al A s s o c ia t io n , L o sA n g e l e s .R a p p a p o r t , J . , S e i d m a n , E . , D a v i d s o n , W . S . ( 19 7 9) . D e m o n s t r a t i o n r e s e a r c h a n d m a n i f e s tv e r s u s t r u e a d o p t i o n : T h e n a t u r a l h i s t o r y o f a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t t o d i v e r t a d o l e s c e n ts f r o mt h e l e g a l s y s t e m . I n R . F . M u n o z , L . R . S n o w d e n , J