Zoran PAVLOV, M.A.

Institute for Protection of the Cultural Monuments of the Republic of Macedonia

SINGLE-DOMED MOSQUES IN MACEDONIA

The Turkish architecture that emerged with the Ottoman arrival on Macedonian

territory at the end of 14th century preserved many of its fundamental characteristics, but also

gained new dimensions, influenced by the architectonic and artistic values of Byzantium-

oriental architectural styles and local building traditions. Within these frames, during the 15 th

and 16th century a large number of objects were built in order to satisfy the needs of the

Muslim population in Macedonia (e.g., Turkish baths, inns, market places, mosques, tekkes).

Islamic art, ever since its origin, in first place had a religious character. The

mosque, as a center of social and spiritual life, was the most frequently built object across the

territory of the Ottoman Empire.

However, attempts to synthesize the accomplishments of Ottoman construction in

Macedonia, especially in regard to mosques - the purest and most typical representative of the

Islamic monumental art and significant indicators of cultural values – has been hampered as a

result of the insufficient number of scientific papers that directly elaborate Ottoman

monuments in Macedonia.1

The tendency in mosque construction for setting a unique internal space covered

with spacious dome and lower portico at the entrance – which has been noticed in the Beylic

period during the construction of Davgandos mosque in Karaman, Anadolia (at the end of 13 th

century)2, applied later in the constructions of the Earlier Ottoman period (e.g., the Alaedin-

1 Very little, or nothing at all, has been written about the buildings of the Ottoman period in Macedonia, or more exactly, about the mosques as most characteristic example of building in this period. The first research into Ottoman architecture in Macedonia started at the end of the 19 th century, but they reflect the specific needs of these researchers. Glisha Elezovic (Elezovic Glisha, 1925; 1929; 1930), Herbert Duda (Duda Herbert, 1949), Ekrem Haki Ajverdi (Ayverdi E. Hakki, 1956; 1981), Krum Tomovski (Tomovski Krum, 1964), Ivan Zdravkovic (Ivan Zdravkovik, 1964), Andrey Andreyevic (Andreyevic Andrey, 1984), Husref Redzic (Husref Redzic, 1982), Lidiya Kumbaradzi Bogoevic (Bogoevic Kumbaradzi Lidija, 1998), Momidic Petkova Radmila (Momidic Petkova Radmila, 1979; 1988; 1995), Bayraktarevic Fehim (Bajraktarevic Fehim, 1955), Semavi Eyice (Eyice Semavi, 1965), Mehmed Ibrahimgil (Ibrahimgil Mehmed) and Kiel Machiel (Kiel Machiel, 1990) have given significant contributions to the study of the Turkish monuments in Macedonia.2 Ünsal Behcet, 1973, s. 20; Goodwin Godfrey, 1992, s. 76.

Bey Mosque in Bursa (M. 1326-27)3, the Hadzi Ozbek mosque in Iznik (H.734/M.1333-34),

as a first important center of the Turkish art4, the Green (Yeshil) Mosque in Iznik (H.780-

794/M.1378-1391)5, the Mosque of the Sultan Bajazit I in Mudurnu (M.1382-83) – Turkey6

and others – had, by the middle of the 15th century, also spread over the territory of

Macedonia. As the earliest example of this, we discover this type of construction in the Sungur

Chaush mosque in Bitola built in H.838/M.1435-36.7 This trend, which had been spread to

Macedonia from Edrene, and later from Istanbul, became so common that it was considered

the standard style for single-spaced dome mosques in Macedonia.

Of the large number of single-domed mosques in Macedonia that authors of the

16th and 17th century mentioned in the accounts of their travels in the region, today only

nineteen are preserved.8 By the end of 19th and the beginning of 20th century a great number of

buildings had been ruined after being abandoned by the Muslim population that was deserting

these territories.

Among the most representative mosques, which with their harmony in proportions

and decorative elements stand out among Turkish art in Macedonia, we would mention the

Mustafa Pasha Mosque, built in H.898/M.1492/939, and the Yahya Pasha Mosque in Skopje

(H.909/M.1503-04)10, the New (Yeni) Mosque (H.966/M.1558-59), the Isak Chelebi Mosque

(H.912/M.1506-07) and the Haydar Kadi Mosque (H.969/M.1561-62) in Bitola, as well as the

Tatar Sinan Bey Mosque in Kumanovo (between 1520-1532)11, the Hussamedin Pasha

Mosque in Shtip (16-17 century) and others.

3 Kuran Aptullah, 1964, s. 6; Ünsal Behcet, 1973, s. 20.4 Kuran Aptullah, 1964, s. 8; Goodwin Godfrey, 1992, s. 17.5 Kuran Aptullah, 1964, s. 15;6 Aslanapa Oktay, 1986, s. 19.7 Tomovski Krum, 1957, 46-47; The mosque was rebuild in H.838/M.1435 by Sungur Chaush Bey (Tevfik Mehmed, 1933, s. 213); Kaleshi Hasan, 1972, 66.8 Mustafa Pasha mosque in Skopje, Yahya Pasha mosque in Skopje, Isak Chelebi mosque in Bitola, Haydar Kadi mosque in Bitola, Yeni mosque in Bitola, Tatar Sinan Bey mosque in Kumanovo, Hussamedin Pasha mosque in Shtip, Hamza Bey mosque in Bitola, Huseyin Shah mosque in Saray near Skopje, Hadzi Balaban mosque in Skopje, Hadzi Mahmud mosque in Bitola, Dukkandzik mosque in Skopje, Hasan Baba mosque in Bitola, Durak Efendi (Orta) mosque in Strumica, Hunkar mosque in Strumica, Kodza Mehmed Bey mosque in Tabanovce village near Kumanovo, Broken mosque in Prilep, Ali Pasha mosque in Ohrid, Mustafa Chelebi mosque in Struga.9 Asim Salih, 1932, s. 44; Ayverdi Ekrem Hakki, 1957, 157; Uysal Osman, 1992, s. 44.10 Asim Salih, 1932, s. 44; Uysal Osman, 1992, s. 44.11 Zdravkovic Ivan, 1961, s. 78.

22

Most mosques in Macedonia had been built by order and on expense of the local

administrators and dignitaries, but some particular mosques were built under Sultans’ order.

What can be claimed with certainty is that the Ottomans were using the services of the local

and domestic craftsmen for their building. For example, craftsmen from Smilevo village built

the Haydar Kadi mosque.12 This supposition is confirmed by analyses of the construction

techniques used in the local building traditions.

a) Architectural elements

Single-domed mosques, according their architectonic conception, are a simplified

type of mosque of the Turkish school, with a square base of the prayer space and a portico at

the north side. The buildings are typically made of stone and brick in alternating horizontal

layers. This polychrome effect was taken from the Byzantium way of building and it enhances

the vividness of the building to a great extent. The roof is formed by a lead - covered dome

supported on pendentives and tromps. The three-dimensional space in these constructions is

insufficiently differentiated. However, the “dance” of the clear forms of domes achieves

certain dynamic that is strengthened by the slender minaret. The shallow-relief plastic

decoration, in the form of geometric and floral ornaments and stalactites is present in the

carving of the portals, the mihrab (the imam’s niche), the minber, the capitals of the columns,

the tromps, as well as under the sherefe of the minaret. The single-domed mosque with an

octagonal tambour which rises directly out of the cubic body, as well as the feature of sloping

triangular shoulders covering a tromp or pendentive, was very popular in the western part of

Ottoman Europe, and in Macedonia and Albania in particular.13

Following these architectonic features, we could differentiate the single-domed

mosques in Macedonia according the size and the shape of their portico and prayer hall, that

is, the transitional architectural styles of the dome.

The most common style in the classical period of the Ottoman Empire, and that

means in Macedonia as well, is a style of portico covered with three small domes supported by

columns. Representatives of this type of mosque are the Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Skopje

(M.1942), the Husamedin Pasha Mosque in Shtip (16-17 century), the Tatar Sinan Bey

12 Stojanovski Aleksandar, 1969, s. 32.13 An early example in Eastern Albania is the Mirahor mosque in Korcha - M.1495, (Kiel Machiel, 1990a, 67, 165).

33

Mosque in Kumanovo (M.1520-1532), and the Haydar Kadi Mosque in Bitola (M.1561).

However, there are variants in which the middle (central) dome is substituted with a

longitudinally placed arch, as in the case of the Sungur Chaush Mosque in Bitola

(H.838/M.1435-36) and the Kazandziler Mosque in Skopje (15 century) which, however, no

longer exist.

Another interesting group of single-unit domed mosques are those built with a

portico roofed by only two small domes. This interesting type of mosque with a double-craved

portico, whose direct analogies are to be found in the older mosques in Anadolia, in the

Balkans it is found in the Altun Alem Mosque in Novi Pazar (M.1428-43), the Muslihudin bin

Abdulgani Mosque in Trepcha (M.1550-51) and the Sinan Pasha Mosque in Kachanik

(M.1594-95)14. As unique examples of this in Macedonia we find this style in the Dukjandzik

Mosque in Skopje (M.1548) and the Hadzi Balaban Mosque in Skopje (16 century).

The appearance of mosques with several domes over the portico (e.g., the so-

called double portico) is a result of subsequent buildings onto the original structure during the

19th century, as in the case of the mosques in Bitola – the Isak Mosque and the Yeni Mosque.

Because of this we cannot consider them as an authentic styles.

As transitional structures to rest the circular dome into the square base below it

were used tromps or pendentives.

The most frequently used transitional style in the single-domed mosques in

Macedonia employs tromps. We find them in the mosques of Bitola – the Haydar Kadi

Mosque, the Yeni Mosque, the Hasan Baba Mosque (H.1037-1049/M.1628-1640), the Hamza

Bey Mosque (16 century) and the Isak Mosque, the Ali Pasha Mosque in Ohrid (16 century),

and the Dukjandzik Mosque (H.955/M.1548-49) and the Hussein Shah Mosque in Saray near

Skopje (H.961/M.1553-54).

Pendentives were used in the Inkjar Mosque and the Durak Efendi (Orta) Mosque

in Strumica (H.1015/M.1606-07), as well as the Yahya Pasha Mosque and the Mustafa Pasha

Mosque in Skopje.

14 Andreyevic Andrey, 1984, s. 59.

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However, in the case of the Tatar Sinan Bey Mosque in Kumanovo as the

transition from the square plan to the round dome is effected by the Turkish triangle frieze,

which is rather rare and unique in Macedonia.15

The mosques of the so-called developed type constitute separate class of mosques.

That is the case with the Hamza Bey Mosque in Bitola where the mihrabs’ niche is a

rectangular expansion at the southern side. We also encounter this style in the Sinan Pasha

Mosque in Prizren (beginning of the 17th century). We can also put the Husamedin Pasha

Mosque in Shtip in this group where the mihrabs’ niche actually presents a seven-angled space

that comes out from the table of the southern wall. The placing of the mihrab in a kind of apse

often regarded as a result of the intensive mutual contact between early-Ottoman and late

Byzantine architecture.16

Most of the mosques in Macedonia, although they were exposed to different

reparations, have kept their original features. The big contribution in the preservation of their

originality was the successful restorations carried out by the Institute for Protection of the

Cultural Monuments of Macedonia. Characteristic examples include the Mustafa Pasha

Mosque, the Yahya Pasha Mosque and the Hadzi Balaban Mosque in Skopje, which were

damaged during the earthquake in 1963, as well as the Haydar Kadi Mosque in Bitola and the

Orta Mosque in Strumica.

In the process of building the mosques, special attention was paid to the

construction of the minaret, which gives vertical accent to the mosque. In every mosque, the

minaret is placed by the northern-western part of the prayer space. An exception is the Sungur

Chaush Mosque in Bitola where the minaret is placed in the northern-eastern angle. Thus,

although there exist simply realized examples (e.g., the Kazandziler Mosque in Skopje, the

Asan Baba Mosque in Bitola and the Durak Efendi Mosque in Strumica), the tall and slender

minarets that are characteristic of the mosques on the Balkan dominate. In particularly the

minaret of the Yahya Pasha Mosque (55m) distinguished itself with its height.

15 This transitional element is also present in the Hadzi Özbek Mosque in Iznik (H.734/M.1333-34), (Kuran Aptullah 1964, 8) in the Bayazit Pasha Mosque in Amasia (M.1414-19) (Demiriz S., 1979, 78-81; Aslanapa Oktay, 1986, 35); in the central part of the portico and the prayer space in the Muradiye Mosque in Bursa (M.1425-26) (Demiriz S., 1979, 73-74; Aslanapa Oktay, 1986, 49), and the transition toward the dome in the Green Mosque in Bursa (M.1419-24) (Kuran Aptullah 1964, 80; Demiriz S., 1979, 47-48; Aslanapa Oktay, 1986, 38). In the Balkans, this element was used as a transition toward the dome in the Shehabedin Mosque in Filibe.16 The first mosque on which we find this element is that of Murat I in his capital Bursa (Kiel Machiel, 1990, 157.)

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The rapid construction by the Ottomans lasted until the end of the 17 th century

when they had the first of their more serious defeats. These events reflected on building

activities, especially on the number of the buildings constructed, but also in regard to Islamic

art in general. This can be confirmed by the example of the Faik Pasha Mosque in Skopje that

was built in H.1301/M.1883-84 and where the simplicity of the mosque’s shape and the almost

marginalized usage of decorative elements dominate. An exception, however, is the wooden

entrance gate of the mosque, which is rich in carved ornamentation.

b) Materials and methods

One of the fundamental findings in the history of world architecture is that the

resources most available in an area are most commonly used as the building materials there.

This is confirmed in the single-domed mosques of Macedonia where the building material

most often used were stone (often well processed), brick and wood, but rarely marble. Mosque

facades were made by applying the ancient Byzantine technique of picturesque alternation of

layers of brick and stone as well as by interesting bricks between cut stone in the manner of

cloisonné. This building technique was particularly used in the Byzantium period, and its

origin is found in the Roman constructions from which it gets its main characteristics.

In Macedonia the combined technique of processed stone and brick was used in

the construction of the Isak Mosque in Bitola, the Yeni Mosque in Bitola, the Broken Mosque

in Prilep, the Kodza Mehmed Bey Mosque in the village Tabanovce, the Haydar Kadi Mosque

in Bitola, the Hamza Bey Mosque in Bitola and the Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Skopje. The

Tatar Sinan Bey mosque is built of neatly cut and polished large blocks of yellow brown stone

of the Žegligovo district, the same material as used at the mosque of Husamedin Pasha

Mosque in Shtip.17 The technique is the same that was also used in the construction of some

churches in Macedonia (e.g., St. Gjorgji, village Mlado Nagorichino – 1406/07)18. The facades

of the rest of the mosques in Macedonia commonly consist of unprocessed stones, which are

plastered afterward. The masonry of the Durak Efendi mosque in Strumica is provincial

product, composed of builders and little worked blocks of granite intersected with courses of

17 Kiel Machiel, 1990, 164.18 Kiel Machiel, 1990, 166.

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brick. This masonry is related to that which is used on the small churches of the Struma area,

built in the 16th and 17th century.19

In the construction of the portico very often the materials and techniques used

differed from those used in the construction of the mosque itself. Thus, the portico of the

mosques Isak, Yeni and Hamza Bey are plastered, while the portico of the Mustafa Pasha

Mosque in Skopje and the Yahya Pasha Mosque in Skopje use marble.

c) Decoration:

The preserved original parts of decoration with Macedonian single-domed

mosques show that different kinds of materials were used – stone, brick, marble, stucco, glass

and wood.

Decorative carving in stone is mainly encountered in the minarets, more exactly in

the transitional part of the minaret, from the pedestal toward its body. The most characteristic

example of this is the Yahya Pasha Mosque in Skopje where this transition is carried out with

prismatic placed triangles20 over, which are laid motifs of palm branches and rumi ornaments

of white stone. We also encounter geometrical ornaments formed by hemstitching technique

on the parapets’ plates of the sherefe in the Yahya Pasha Mosque in Skopje, the Mustafa Pasha

Mosque in Skopje, the Dukjandzik Mosque in Skopje, and the Hamza Bey Mosque in Bitola.

Polychrome decoration is also present in the minaret of the Hadzi Mahmud

Mosque in Bitola (H.928/M.1521-22)21 with the help of brick hexagons and rhombs.22

Decorative elements in shape of hexagons, which resemble a honeycomb, are also notable on

the tambour of the dome.23

We encounter marble decoration in the Yahya Pasha Mosque and the Mustafa

Pasha Mosque in Skopje, which are used entirely for the carving of the portals, the pillars of

19 Kiel Machiel, 1990, 176.20 Pointed folds, so-called Turkish triangles, at the columns of the portico we find at Mustafa Pasha mosque in Skopje (Bogoevic Kumbaradzi Lidija 1975a, 24), and Ulu mosque in Tire (13 century), Umur Bey mosque in Bursa (Uysal Osman, 1992, s. 521), Karadza Bey mosque in Ankara – 1427/28 (Aslanapa Oktay, 1986, s. 63; Uysal Osman, 1992, s. 522).21 Tevfik Mehmed, 1933, s. 213; Tomovski Krum, 1956/57, s. 56; Momidic Radmila, 1992-95, s. 90.22 Probably, this is the last polichrome decoration on the minaret. A very early example we find it from the 10 century in Turkestan and North Persija, at the Green Mosque in Iznik (Turkey) from H.780-794/M.1378-1391 (Kuran Aptullah, 1964, 15; Aslanapa Oktay, 1986, 5;), Fetiye mosque in Kustendil (about M.1430), Hudavendigar mosque in Plovdiv, Bulgaria (M.1364) (Aslanapa Oktay, 1986, 18), and the mosque of Chelebi Sinan Bey in Veriya (Greece) (Tomovski Krum, 1957, 56; The Problem of Protection… 1992, 25).23 Ibrahimi Mehmed, 1995, s. 288.

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the portico, the mihrabs and the minbers. In regard to the decorative scheme rosettes,

sandglass, stalactites, geometrical and floral shapes are also present. Rich plastic decoration in

white marble is also found on the mihrab, the minber and the polygonal kjurs in the Isak

Mosque in Bitola. A polychromatic effect is also achieved with usage of different kinds of

marble, as in the case with the columns of the portico in the Haydar Kadi Mosque in Bitola

where the two central columns of the portico are of green marble, so-called “somak” marble,

instead of the white marble that was used for those standing at the side.

Wall decoration: Researches into the decoration of the Ottoman period in

Macedonia has also shown that the earliest examples of wall paintings on the pendentives are

found in the eastern wall of the Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Skopje. Such wall decoration is also

preserved in the Yahya Pasha Mosque in Skopje, and the Yeni Mosque, the Isak Mosque and

the Haydar Kadi Mosque in Bitola, while in the rest of the mosques in Macedonia wall

decoration is not notably present. The paint decoration we encounter in the interior of the

mosques is in a form of stylized floral and geometrical ornament. It has an oriental origin, and

rustic elements from the baroque were often used. It was mainly used to decorate parts of the

walls, domes, and pendentives and tromps. Unfortunately very few original elements of such

wall decoration have been preserved. However, particularly rich decoration can be found on

the pendentives that support the central dome of the Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Skopje. In

addition, ultrasound research, carried out in 1968, discovered an original fresco decoration on

the east side of the mosque that contained a motif using rumi styles in green and red color. The

decoration was formed by the bending branches of the “malakari’ technique24 with an

extraordinary precision that gives the motif an illusory depth. From the choice of the motifs’

theme and the techniques used in creating it, we can accurately date this decoration from the

16th century. This wall painting in Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Skopje, in terms of its

composition and motifs, has great similarities to the decoration on the pendentives in the

Sultan Mehmet Fatih Mosque in Prishtina (M.15 century) and the Aladza Mosque in Focha

(M.1550-51).25

The wall decoration in the Yeni Mosque, the Isak Mosque and the Haydar Kadi

Mosque, all in Bitola, is characterized with same thematic program. In each of these mosques,

24 Önge, Yilmaz, 1970, s. 3-525 Andreyevic Andrey, 1984, s. 33.

88

in addition to the floral ornaments around the windows, there is a notable depiction of the

landscape mainly painted on a rectangular mural (board). This decorative style is characteristic

only for the mosques in Bitola and it is not encountered in the others mosques in Macedonia.

Wood: Decorative elements made of wood were commonly used in the

manufacture of the entrance door, the window shutters, as well as in some elements inside the

prayer space – e.g., the minber, the kjurs and the mahvil (gallery). When observing the portals,

one should pay particular attention to the curvature of the wooden wings of the entrance door.

They are usually made of wood and are decorated with geometrical ornaments formed from

different techniques. In regard to the compositions and their characteristics, geometrical and

floral motifs are present. As the most characteristic examples of this, we would single out the

wooden wings of the entrances in the Mustafa Pasha Mosque, the Yahya Pasha Mosque, the

Faik Pasha Mosque, all in Skopje, as well as the Yeni Mosque and the Haydar Kadi Mosque in

Bitola.

The entrance wings in the Yahya Pasha Mosque are made from walnut tree. The

motifs are geometrical, and putting together small-carved wooden pieces forms the decoration.

The decoration is a polygonal arabesque consisting the harmonious integration of triangles,

rectangles, hexagons and star. A ten-pointed star enhanced by ivory incrustation was used as

the main motif in the decoration of the central field.

Both wings of the entrance door in the Mustafa Pasha Mosque in Skopje are also

made of walnut. They were manufactured by the authentic kundekary technique. In the central

part of the biggest boards, a ten-pointed star transitions into a geometrical decoration with an

infinite order. Texts of the Koran written in relief are usually placed near the top of the boards.

Although the Faik Pasha Mosque in Skopje was torn down, the wooden wings of

the entrance are preserved.26 The wings are made of oak wood and they are separated into four

fields inside which are contained floral ornaments with baroque elements. The carved

decoration consists of stylized floral and geometrical motifs.

Special attention was also paid in the carving of the first row of wooden window

shutters in the Yeni Mosque and the Isak Mosque in Bitola.

26 The wooden door of portico from the Faik Pasha mosque in Skopje, is preserved in the Museum of the city of Skopje.

99

Wood was also used as a material for the carvings on the minbers of the Isak

Mosque and the Yeni Mosque in Bitola. Most common in these carvings are geometrical

shapes, squares and triangles.

In the Yeni Mosque at Bitola we also encounter the faience as a decorative

element, which is very rare in the mosques in Macedonia. The faience tiles are placed in a

shape of arabesques framing the portal that leads from the closed portico toward prayer hall

and covers the surface with the founder’s inscription. On each tiles there is a frieze of grape

leafs and flowers.27

As a conclusion: a single domed mosques in Macedonia, on the Balkans also, are

the provincial type of mosque, but we must remember that many an innovative idea

incorporated into the monumental sultan’s mosques was first tried out and perfected in the

smaller vizier’s and pasha’s mosques.

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1982 Redzic, H., İslamska Umetnost, Umetnost na tlu Jugoslavije , Beograd, 1982.

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1989 Stojanovski Aleksandar, Makedonija vo Turskoto srednovekovie, Kultura, Skopje 1989

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1933 Tevfik Mehmed, Kratka istorija bitoqskog vilajeta (translated by Glisha Elezovic), Brastvo 27, kn. 43, Beograd 1933, s. 190-244.

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1957 Tomovski K., “Camii vo Bitola”, Godişen Zbornik na Tehniçkiot Fakultet, Broj 2, Skopje, 1957, s.29-60.

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ÜNSAL Behcet,

1973 Ünsal Behcet, Turkish Islamic Architecture in Seljuk and Ottoman times 1071-1923, London 1973

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