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TEKNOLOGI TEPAT GUNAWARINTEK - Menteri Negara Riset dan Teknologi
Alat Pengolahan | Budidaya Pertanian | Budidaya Perikanan | Budidaya Peternakan | Pengelolaan dan Sanitasi | Pengolahan Pangan
TTG - BUDIDAYA PERTANIAN
JAHE( Zingiber Officinale )
1. SEJARAH SINGKAT
Jahe merupakan tanaman obat berupa tumbuhan rumpun berbatang semu. Jahe berasal dari Asia Pasifik yang tersebar dari India sampai Cina. Oleh karena itu kedua bangsa ini disebut-sebut sebagai bangsa yang pertama kali memanfaatkan jahe terutama sebagai bahan minuman, bumbu masak dan obat-obatan tradisional. Jahe termasuk dalam suku temu-temuan (Zingiberaceae), se-famili dengan temu-temuan lainnya seperti temu lawak (Cucuma xanthorrizha), temu hitam (Curcuma aeruginosa), kunyit (Curcuma domestica), kencur (Kaempferia galanga), lengkuas (Languas galanga) dan lain-lain. Nama daerah jahe antara lain halia (Aceh), beeuing (Gayo), bahing (Batak Karo), sipodeh (Minangkabau), jahi (Lampung), jahe (Sunda), jae (Jawa dan Bali), jhai (Madura), melito (Gorontalo), geraka (Ternate), dsb.
2. URAIAN TANAMAN
2.1 Klasifikasi
• Divisi : Spermatophyta• Sub-divisi : Angiospermae• Kelas : Monocotyledoneae• Ordo : Zingiberales• Famili : Zingiberaceae• Genus : Zingiber• Species : Zingiber officinale
2.2 Deskripsi.
Terna berbatang semu, tinggi 30 cm sampai 1 m, rimpang bila dipotong berwarna kuning atau jingga. Daun sempit, panjang 15 – 23 mm, lebar 8 – 15 mm ; tangkai daun berbulu, panjang 2 – 4 mm ; bentuk lidah daun memanjang, panjang 7,5 – 10 mm, dan tidak berbulu; seludang agak berbulu. Perbungaan berupa malai tersembul dipermukaan tanah, berbentuk tongkat atau bundar telur yang sempit, 2,75 – 3 kali lebarnya, sangat tajam ; panjang malai 3,5 – 5 cm, lebar 1,5 – 1,75 cm ; gagang bunga hampir tidak berbulu, panjang 25 cm, rahis berbulu jarang ; sisik pada gagang terdapat 5 – 7 buah, berbentuk lanset, letaknya berdekatan atau rapat, hampir tidak berbulu, panjang sisik 3 – 5 cm; daun pelindung berbentuk bundar telur terbalik, bundar pada ujungnya, tidak berbulu, berwarna hijau cerah, panjang 2,5 cm, lebar 1 – 1,75 cm ; mahkota bunga berbentuk tabung 2 – 2,5 cm, helainya agak sempit, berbentuk tajam, berwarna kuning kehijauan, panjang 1,5 – 2,5 mm, lebar 3 – 3,5 mm, bibir berwarna ungu, gelap, berbintik-bintik berwarna putih kekuningan, panjang 12 – 15 mm ; kepala sari berwarna ungu, panjang 9 mm ; tangkai putik 2
2.3 Jenis Tanaman
Jahe dibedakan menjadi 3 jenis berdasarkan ukuran, bentuk dan warna rimpangnya. Umumnya dikenal 3 varietas jahe, yaitu :
1. Jahe putih/kuning besar atau disebut juga jahe gajah atau jahe badak : Rimpangnya lebih besar dan gemuk, ruas rimpangnya lebih menggembung dari kedua varietas lainnya. Jenis jahe ini bias dikonsumsi baik saat berumur muda maupun berumur tua, baik sebagai jahe segar maupun jahe olahan.
2. Jahe putih/kuning kecil atau disebut juga jahe sunti atau jahe emprit : Ruasnya kecil, agak rata sampai agak sedikit menggembung. Jahe ini selalu dipanen setelah berumur tua. Kandungan minyak atsirinya lebih besar dari pada jahe gajah, sehingga rasanya lebih pedas, disamping seratnya tinggi. Jahe ini cocok untuk ramuan obat-obatan, atau untuk diekstrak oleoresin dan minyak atsirinya.
3. Jahe merah : Rimpangnya berwarna merah dan lebih kecil dari pada jahe putih kecil. sama seperti jahe kecil, jahe merah selalu dipanen setelah tua, dan juga memiliki kandungan minyak atsiri yang sama dengan jahe kecil, sehingga cocok untuk ramuan obat-obatan.
3. MANFAAT TANAMAN
Rimpang jahe dapat digunakan sebagai bumbu masak, pemberi aroma dan rasa pada makanan seperti roti, kue, biskuit, kembang gula dan berbagai.minuman. Jahe juga dapat digunakan pada industri obat, minyak wangi, industri jamu tradisional, diolah menjadi asinan jahe, dibuat acar, lalap, bandrek, sekoteng dan sirup. Dewasa ini para petani cabe menggunakan jahe sebagai pestisida alami. Dalam perdagangan jahe dijual dalam bentuk segar, kering, jahe bubuk dan awetan jahe. Disamping itu terdapat hasil olahan jahe seperti: minyak astiri dan koresin yang diperoleh dengan cara penyulingan yang berguna sebagai bahan pencampur dalam minuman beralkohol, es krim, campuran sosis dan lain-lain.
Adapun manfaat secara pharmakologi antara lain adalah sebagai karminatif (peluruh kentut), anti muntah, pereda kejang, anti pengerasan pembuluh darah, peluruh keringat, anti inflamasi, anti mikroba dan parasit, anti piretik, anti rematik, serta merangsang pengeluaran getah lambung dan getah empedu.
4. SENTRA PENANAMAN
Terdapat di seluruh Indonesia, ditanam di kebun dan di pekarangan. Pada saat ini jahe telah banyak dibudidayakan di Australia, Srilangka, Cina, Mesir, Yunani, India, Indonesia, Jamaika, Jepang, Meksiko, Nigeria, Pakistan. Jahe dari Jamaika mempunyai kualitas tertinggi, sedangkan India merupakan negara produsen jahe terbesar, yaitu lebih dari 50 % dari total produksi jahe dunia.
5. SYARAT PERTUMBUHAN
1. Iklim 1. Tanaman jahe membutuhkan curah hujan relatif tinggi, yaitu antara 2.500-4.000
mm/tahun.2. Pada umur 2,5 sampai 7 bulan atau lebih tanaman jahe memerlukan sinar
matahari. Dengan kata lain penanaman jahe dilakukan di tempat yang terbuka sehingga mendapat sinar matahari sepanjang hari.
3. Suhu udara optimum untuk budidaya tanaman jahe antara 20-35°C. 2. Media Tanam
1. Tanaman jahe paling cocok ditanam pada tanah yang subur, gembur dan banyak mengandung humus.
2. Tekstur tanah yang baik adalah lempung berpasir, liat berpasir dan tanah laterik.3. Tanaman jahe dapat tumbuh pada keasaman tanah (pH) sekitar 4,3-7,4. Tetapi
keasaman tanah (pH) optimum untuk jahe gajah adalah 6,8-7,0.3. Ketinggian Tempat
1. Jahe tumbuh baik di daerah tropis dan subtropis dengan ketinggian 0-2.000 m dpl..
2. Di Indonesia pada umumnya ditanam pada ketinggian 200 - 600 m dpl.
6. PEDOMAN BUDIDAYA
6.1. Pembibitan
1. Persyaratan Bibit : Bibit berkualitas adalah bibit yang memenuhi syarat mutu genetik, mutu fisiologik (persentase tumbuh yang tinggi), dan mutu fisik. Yang dimaksud dengan mutu fisik adalah bibit yang bebas hama dan penyakit. Oleh karena itu kriteria yang harus dipenuhi antara lain:
1. Bahan bibit diambil langsung dari kebun (bukan dari pasar).2. Dipilih bahan bibit dari tanaman yang sudah tua (berumur 9-10 bulan). 3. Dipilih pula dari tanaman yang sehat dan kulit rimpang tidak terluka atau lecet.
2. Teknik Penyemaian Bibit : Untuk pertumbuhan tanaman yang serentak atau seragam, bibit jangan langsung ditanam sebaiknya terlebih dahulu dikecambahkan. Penyemaian bibit dapat dilakukan dengan peti kayu atau dengan bedengan.
1. Penyemaian pada peti kayu : Rimpang jahe yang baru dipanen dijemur sementara (tidak sampai kering), kemudian disimpan sekitar 1-1,5 bulan. Patahkan rimpang tersebut dengan tangan dimana setiap potongan memiliki 3-5 mata tunas dan dijemur ulang 1/2-1 hari. Selanjutnya potongan bakal bibit tersebut dikemas ke dalam karung beranyaman jarang, lalu dicelupkan dalam larutan fungisida dan zat pengatur tumbuh sekitar 1 menit kemudian keringkan. Setelah itu dimasukkan kedalam peti kayu. Lakukan cara penyemaian dengan peti kayu sebagai berikut: pada bagian dasar peti kayu diletakkan bakal bibit selapis, kemudian di atasnya diberi abu gosok atau sekam padi, demikian seterusnya sehingga yang paling atas adalah abu gosok atau sekam padi tersebut. Setelah 2-4 minggu lagi, bibit jahe tersebut sudah disemai.
2. Penyemaian pada bedengan : Buat rumah penyemaian sederhana ukuran 10 x 8 m untuk menanam bibit 1 ton (kebutuhan jahe gajah seluas 1 ha). Di dalam rumah penyemaian tersebut dibuat bedengan dari tumpukan jerami setebal 10 cm. Rimpang bakal bibit disusun pada bedengan jerami lalu ditutup jerami, dan di atasnya diberi rimpang lalu diberi jerami pula, demikian seterusnya, sehingga didapatkan 4 susunan lapis rimpang dengan bagian atas berupa jerami. Perawatan bibit pada bedengan dapat dilakukan dengan penyiraman setiap hari dan sesekali disemprot dengan fungisida. Setelah 2 minggu, biasanya rimpang sudah bertunas. Bila bibit bertunas dipilih agar tidak terbawa bibit berkualitas rendah..Bibit hasil seleksi itu dipatah-patahkan dengan tangan dan setiap potongan memiliki 3-5 mata tunas dan beratnya 40-60 gram.
3. Penyiapan Bibit : Sebelum ditanam, bibit harus dibebaskan dari ancaman penyakit dengan cara bibit tersebut dimasukkan ke dalam karung dan dicelupkan ke dalam larutan fungisida sekitar 8 jam. Kemudian bibit dijemur 2-4 jam, barulah ditanam.
6.2. Pengolahan Media Tanam
1. Persiapan Lahan : Untuk mendapatkan hasil panen yang optimal harus diperhatikan syarat-syarat tumbuh yang dibutuhkan tanaman jahe. Bila keasaman tanah yang ada tidak sesuai dengan keasaman tanah yang dibutuhkan tanaman jahe, maka harus ditambah atau dikurangi keasaman dengan kapur.
2. Pembukaan Lahan : Pengolahan tanah diawali dengan dibajak sedalam kurang lebih dari 30 cm dengan tujuan untuk mendapatkan kondisi tanah yang gembur atau remah dan membersihkan tanaman pengganggu. Setelah itu tanah dibiarkan 2-4 minggu agar gas-gas beracun menguap serta bibit penyakit dan hama akan mati terkena sinar matahari. Apabila pada pengolahan tanah pertama dirasakan belum juga gembur, maka dapat dilakukan pengolahan tanah yang kedua sekitar 2-3 minggu sebelum tanam dan sekaligus diberikan pupuk kandang dengan dosis 1.500-2.500 kg.
3. Pembentukan Bedengan : Pada daerah-daerah yang kondisi air tanahnya jelek dan sekaligus untuk encegah terjadinya genangan air, sebaiknya tanah diolah menjadi bedengan-bedengan engan ukuran tinggi 20-30 cm, lebar 80-100 cm, sedangkan anjangnya disesuaikan dengan kondisi lahan.
4. Pengapuran : Pada tanah dengan pH rendah, sebagian besar unsur-unsur hara didalamnya, Terutama fosfor (p) dan calcium (Ca) dalam keadaan tidak tersedia atau sulit diserap. Kondisi tanah yang masam ini dapat menjadi media perkembangan beberapa cendawan penyebab penyakit fusarium sp dan pythium sp. Pengapuran juga berfungsi menambah unsur kalium yang sangat diperlukan tanaman untuk mengeraskan bagian tanaman yang berkayu, merangsang pembentukan bulu-bulu akar, mempertebal dinding sel buah dan merangsang pembentukan biji.
1. Derajat keasaman < 4 (paling asam): kebutuhan dolomit > 10 ton/ha.2. Derajat keasaman 5 (asam): kebutuhan dolomit 5.5 ton/ha.3. Derajat keasaman 6 (agak asam): kebutuhan dolomit 0.8 ton/ha.
6.3. Teknik Penanaman.
1. Penentuan Pola Tanaman : Pembudidayaan jahe secara monokultur pada suatu daerah tertentu memang dinilai cukup rasional, karena mampu memberikan produksi dan produksi tinggi. Namun di daerah, pembudidayaan tanaman jahe secara monokultur kurang dapat diterima karena selalu menimbulkan kerugian. Penanaman jahe secara tumpangsari dengan tanaman lain mempunyai keuntungan-keuntungan sebagai berikut:
1. Mengurangi kerugian yang disebabkan naik turunnya harga.2. Menekan biaya kerja, seperti: tenaga kerja pemeliharaan tanaman.3. Meningkatkan produktivitas lahan.4. Memperbaiki sifat fisik dan mengawetkan tanah akibat rendahnya pertumbuhan
gulma (tanaman pengganggu). Praktek di lapangan, ada jahe yang ditumpangsarikan dengan sayur-sayuran, seperti ketimun, bawang merah, cabe rawit, buncis dan lain-lain. Ada juga yang ditumpangsarikan dengan palawija, seperti jagung, kacang tanah dan beberapa kacang-kacangan lainnya.
2. Pembutan Lubang Tanam : Untuk menghindari pertumbuhan jahe yang jelek, karena kondisi air tanah yang buruk, maka sebaiknya tanah diolah menjadi bedengan-bedengan. Selanjutnya buat lubang-lubang kecil atau alur sedalam 3-7,5 cm untuk menanam bibit.
3. Cara Penanaman : Cara penanaman dilakukan dengan cara melekatkan bibit rimpang secara rebah ke dalam lubang tanam atau alur yang sudah disiapkan.
4. Perioda Tanam : Penanaman jahe sebaiknya dilakukan pada awal musim hujan sekitar bulan September dan Oktober. Hal ini dimungkinkan karena tanaman muda akan membutuhkan air cukup banyak untuk pertumbuhannya.
6.4. Pemeliharaan Tanaman
1. Penyulaman : Sekitar 2-3 minggu setelah tanam, hendaknya diadakan untuk melihat rimpang yang mati. Bila demikian harus segera dilaksanakan penyulaman agar pertumbuhan bibit sulaman itu tidak jauh tertinggal dengan tanaman lain, maka sebaiknya dipilih bibit rimpang yang baik serta pemeliharaan yang benar.
2. Penyiangan : Penyiangan pertama dilakukan ketika tanaman jahe berumur 2-4 minggu kemudian dilanjutkan 3-6 minggu sekali. Tergantung pada kondisi tanaman pengganggu yang tumbuh. Namun setelah jahe berumur 6-7 bulan, sebaiknya tidak perlu dilakukan penyiangan lagi, sebab pada umur tersebut rimpangnya mulai besar..
3. Pembubunan : Tanaman jahe memerlukan tanah yang peredaran udara dan air dapat berjalan dengan baik, maka tanah harus digemburkan. Disamping itu tujuan pembubunan untuk menimbun rimpang jahe yang kadang-kadang muncul ke atas permukaan tanah. Apabila tanaman jahe masih muda, cukup tanah dicangkul tipis di sekeliling rumpun dengan jarak kurang lebih 30 cm. Pada bulan berikutnya dapat diperdalam dan diperlebar setiap kali pembubunan akan berbentuk gubidan dan sekaligus terbentuk sistem pengairan yang berfungsi untuk menyalurkan kelebihan air. Pertama kali dilakukan pembumbunan pada waktu tanaman jahe berbentuk rumpun yang terdiri atas 3-4 batang semu, umumnya pembubunan dilakukan 2-3 kali selama umur tanaman jahe. Namun tergantung kepada kondisi tanah dan banyaknya hujan.
4. Pemupukan : 1. Pemupukan Organik : Pada pertanian organik yang tidak menggunakan bahan
kimia termasuk pupuk buatan dan obat-obatan, maka pemupukan secara organik yaitu dengan menggunakan pupuk kompos organik atau pupuk kandang dilakukan lebih sering disbanding kalau kita menggunakan pupuk buatan. Adapun pemberian pupuk kompos organik ini dilakukan pada awal pertanaman pada saat pembuatan guludan sebagai pupuk dasar sebanyak 60 – 80 ton per hektar yang ditebar dan dicampur tanah olahan. Untuk menghemat pemakaian pupuk kompos dapat juga dilakukan dengan jalan mengisi tiap-tiap lobang tanam di awal pertanaman sebanyak 0.5 – 1kg per tanaman. Pupuk sisipan selanjutnya dilakukan pada umur 2 – 3 bulan, 4 – 6 bulan, dan 8 – 10 bulan. Adapun dosis pupuk sisipan sebanyak 2 – 3 kg per tanaman. Pemberian pupuk kompos ini biasanya dilakukan setelah kegiatan penyiangan dan bersamaan dengan kegiatan pembubunan.
2. Pemupukan Konvensional : Selain pupuk dasar (pada awal penanaman), tanaman jahe perlu diberi pupuk susulan kedua (pada saat tanaman berumur 2-4 bulan). Pupuk dasar yang digunakan adalah pupuk organik 15-20 ton/ha. Pemupukan tahap kedua digunakan pupuk kandang dan pupuk buatan (urea 20 gram/pohon; TSP 10 gram/pohon; dan ZK 10 gram/pohon), serta K2O (112 kg/ha) pada tanaman yang berumur 4 bulan. Pemupukan juga dilakukan dengan pupuk nitrogen (60 kg/ha), P2O5 (50 kg/ha), dan K2O (75 kg/ha). Pupuk P diberikan pada awal tanam, pupuk N dan K diberikan pada awal tanam (1/3 dosis) dan sisanya (2/3 dosis) diberikan pada saat tanaman berumur 2 bulan dan 4 bulan. Pupuk diberikan dengan ditebarkan secara merata di sekitar tanaman atau dalam bentuk alur dan ditanam di sela-sela tanaman.
5. Pengairan dan Penyiraman : Tanaman Jahe tidak memerlukan air yang terlalu banyak untuk pertumbuhannya, akan tetapi pada awal masa tanam diusahakan penanaman pada awal musim hujan sekitar bulan September;
6. Waktu Penyemprotan Pestisida : Penyemprotan pestisida sebaiknya dilakukan mulai dari saat penyimpanan bibit yang untuk disemai dan pada saat pemeliharaan. Penyemprotan pestisida pada fase pemeliharaan biasanya dicampur dengan pupuk organik cair atau vitamin-vitamin yang mendorong pertumbuhan jahe.
7. HAMA DAN PENYAKIT
7.1. Hama
Hama yang dijumpai pada tanaman jahe adalah:
1. Kepik, menyerang daun tanaman hingga berlubang-lubang.2. Ulat penggesek akar, menyerang akar tanaman jahe hingga menyebabkan tanaman jahe
menjadi kering dan mati.3. Kumbang.
7.2. Penyakit
1. Penyakit layu bakeri o Gejala: Mula-mula helaian daun bagian bawah melipat dan menggulung
kemudian terjadi perubahan warna dari hijau menjadi kuning dan mengering. Kemudian tunas batang menjadi busuk dan akhirnya tanaman mati rebah. Bila diperhatikan, rimpang yang sakit itu berwarna gelap dan sedikit membusuk, kalau rimpang dipotong akan keluar lendir berwarna putih susu sampai kecoklatan. Penyakit ini menyerang tanaman jahe pada umur 3-4 bulan dan yang paling berpengaruh adalah faktor suhu udara yang dingin, genangan air dan kondisi tanah yang terlalu lembab.
o Pengendalian: jaminan kesehatan bibit jahe; karantina tanaman jahe yang terkena penyakit; pengendalian dengan pengolahan tanah yang baik; pengendalian fungisida dithane M-45 (0,25%), Bavistin (0,25%)
2. Penyakit busuk rimpango Penyakit ini dapat masuk ke bibit rimpang jahe melalui lukanya. Ia akan tumbuh
dengan baik pada suhu udara 20-25 derajat C dan terus berkembang akhirnya menyebabkan rimpang menjadi busuk.
o Gejala: Daun bagian bawah yang berubah menjadi kuning lalu layu dan akhirnya tanaman mati.
o Pengendalian:. penggunaan bibit yang sehat; penerapan pola tanam yang baik; penggunaan fungisida.
3. Penyakit bercak dauno Penyakit ini dapat menular dengan bantuan angin, akan masuk melalui luka
maupun tanpa luka.o Gejala: Pada daun yang bercak-bercak berukuran 3-5 mm, selanjutnya bercak-
bercak itu berwarna abu-abu dan ditengahnya terdapat bintik-bintik berwarna hitam, sedangkan pinggirnya busuk basah. Tanaman yang terserang bisa mati.
o Pengendalian: baik tindakan pencegahan maupun penyemprotan penyakit bercak daun sama halnya dengan cara-cara yang dijelaskan di atas.
7.3. Gulma
Gulma potensial pada pertanaman temu lawak adalah gulma kebun antara lain adalah rumput teki, alang-alang, ageratum, dan gulma berdaun lebar lainnya.
7.4. Pengendalian hama/penyakit secara organik
Dalam pertanian organik yang tidak menggunakan bahan-bahan kimia berbahaya melainkan dengan bahan-bahan yang ramah lingkungan biasanya dilakukan secara terpadu sejak awal pertanaman untuk menghindari serangan hama dan penyakit tersebut yang dikenal dengan PHT (Pengendalian Hama Terpadu) yang komponennya adalah sbb:
1. Mengusahakan pertumbuhan tanaman yang sehat yaitu memilih bibit unggul yang sehat bebas dari hama dan penyakit serta tahan terhadap serangan hama dari sejak awal pertanaman
2. Memanfaatkan semaksimal mungkin musuh-musuh alami 3. Menggunakan varietas-varietas unggul yang tahan terhadap serangan hama dan penyakit.4. Menggunakan pengendalian fisik/mekanik yaitu dengan tenaga manusia.5. Menggunakan teknik-teknik budidaya yang baik misalnya budidaya tumpang sari dengan
pemilihan tanaman yang saling menunjang, serta rotasi tanaman pada setiap masa tanamnya untuk memutuskan siklus penyebaran hama dan penyakit potensial.
6. Penggunaan pestisida, insektisida, herbisida alami yang ramah lingkungan dan tidak menimbulkan residu toksik baik pada bahan tanaman yang dipanen ma maupun pada tanah. Disamping itu penggunaan bahan ini hanya dalam keadaan darurat berdasarkan aras kerusakan ekonomi yang diperoleh dari hasil pengamatan.
Beberapa tanaman yang dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai pestisida nabati dan digunakan dalam pengendalian hama antara lain adalah:.
1. Tembakau (Nicotiana tabacum) yang mengandung nikotin untuk insektisida kontak sebagai fumigan atau racun perut. Aplikasi untuk serangga kecil misalnya Aphids.
2. Piretrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) yang mengandung piretrin yang dapat digunakan sebagai insektisida sistemik yang menyerang urat syaraf pusat yang aplikasinya dengan semprotan. Aplikasi pada serangga seperti lalat rumah, nyamuk, kutu, hama gudang, dan lalat buah.
3. Tuba (Derris elliptica dan Derris malaccensis) yang mengandung rotenone untuk insektisida kontak yang diformulasikan dalam bentuk hembusan dansemprotan.
4. Neem tree atau mimba (Azadirachta indica) yang mengandung azadirachtin yang bekerjanya cukup selektif. Aplikasi racun ini terutama pada serangga penghisap seperti wereng dan serangga pengunyah seperti hama penggulung daun (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis). Bahan ini juga efektif untuk menanggulangi serangan virus RSV, GSV dan Tungro.
5. Bengkuang (Pachyrrhizus erosus) yang bijinya mengandung rotenoid yaitu pakhirizida yang dapat digunakan sebagai insektisida dan larvasida.
6. Jeringau (Acorus calamus) yang rimpangnya mengandung komponen utama asaron dan biasanya digunakan untuk racun serangga dan pembasmi cendawan, serta hama gudang Callosobrocus.
8. PANEN
1. Ciri dan Umur Panen : Pemanenan dilakukan tergantung dari penggunaan jahe itu sendiri. Bila kebutuhan untuk bumbu penyedap masakan, maka tanaman jahe sudah bisa ditanam pada umur kurang lebih 4 bulan dengan cara mematahkan sebagian rimpang dan sisanya dibiarkan sampai tua. Apabila jahe untuk dipasarkan maka jahe dipanen setelah cukup tua. Umur tanaman jahe yang sudah bisa dipanen antara 10-12 bulan, dengan ciri-ciri warna daun berubah dari hijau menjadi kuning dan batang semua mengering. Misal tanaman jahe gajah akan mengering pada umur 8 bulan dan akan berlangsung selama 15 hari atau lebih.
2. Cara Panen : Cara panen yang baik, tanah dibongkar dengan hati-hati menggunakan alat garpu atau cangkul, diusahakan jangan sampai rimpang jahe terluka. Selanjutnya tanah dan kotoran lainnya yang menempel pada rimpang dibersihkan dan bila perlu dicuci. Sesudah itu jahe dijemur di atas papan atau daun pisang kira-kira selama 1 minggu. Tempat penyimpanan harus terbuka, tidak lembab dan penumpukannya jangan terlalu tinggi melainkan agak disebar.
3. Periode Panen . : Waktu panen sebaiknya dilakukan sebelum musim hujan, yaitu diantara bulan Juni – Agustus. Saat panen biasanya ditandai dengan mengeringnya bagian atas tanah. Namun demikian apabila tidak sempat dipanen pada musim kemarau tahun pertama ini sebaiknya dilakukan pada musim kemarau tahun berikutnya. Pemanenan pada musim hujan menyebabkan rusaknya rimpang dan menurunkan kualitas rimpang sehubungan dengan rendahnya bahan aktif karena lebih banyak kadar airnya.
4. Perkiraan Hasil Panen : Produksi rimpang segar untuk klon jahe gajah berkisar antara 15-25 ton/hektar, sedangkan untuk klon jahe emprit atau jahe sunti berkisar antara 10-15 ton/hektar.
9. PASCAPANEN
1. Penyortiran Basah dan Pencucian : Sortasi pada bahan segar dilakukan untuk memisahkan rimpang dari kotoran berupa tanah, sisa tanaman, dan gulma. Setelah selesai, timbang jumlah bahan hasil penyortiran dan tempatkan dalam wadah plastik untuk pencucian. Pencucian dilakukan dengan air bersih, jika perlu disemprot dengan air bertekanan tinggi. Amati air bilasannya dan jika masih terlihat kotor lakukan pembilasan sekali atau dua kali lagi. Hindari pencucian yang terlalu lama agar kualitas dan senyawa aktif yang terkandung didalam tidak larut dalam air. Pemakaian air sungai harus dihindari karena dikhawatirkan telah tercemar kotoran dan banyak mengandung bakteri/penyakit. Setelah pencucian selesai, tiriskan dalam tray/wadah yang belubang-lubang agar sisa air cucian yang tertinggal dapat dipisahkan, setelah itu tempatkan dalam wadah plastik/ember.
2. Perajangan : Jika perlu proses perajangan, lakukan dengan pisau stainless steel dan alasi bahan yang akan dirajang dengan talenan. Perajangan rimpang dilakukan melintang dengan ketebalan kira-kira 5 mm – 7 mm. Setelah perajangan, timbang hasilnya dan taruh dalam wadah plastik/ember. Perajangan dapat dilakukan secara manual atau dengan mesin pemotong.
3. Pengeringan : Pengeringan dapat dilakukan dengan 2 cara, yaitu dengan sinar matahari atau alat pemanas/oven. pengeringan rimpang dilakukan selama 3 - 5 hari, atau setelah kadar airnya dibawah 8%. pengeringan dengan sinar matahari dilakukan diatas tikar atau rangka pengering, pastikan rimpang tidak saling menumpuk. Selama pengeringan harus
dibolak-balik kira-kira setiap 4 jam sekali agar pengeringan merata. Lindungi rimpang tersebut dari air, udara yang lembab dan dari bahan-bahan disekitarnya yang bisa mengkontaminasi..Pengeringan di dalam oven dilakukan pada suhu 50 ° C - 60 ° C. Rimpang yang akan dikeringkan ditaruh di atas tray oven dan pastikan bahwa rimpang tidak saling menumpuk. Setelah pengeringan, timbang jumlah rimpang yang dihasilkan
4. Penyortiran Kering. : Selanjutnya lakukan sortasi kering pada bahan yang telah dikeringkan dengan cara memisahkan bahan-bahan dari benda-benda asing seperti kerikil, tanah atau kotoran-kotoran lain. Timbang jumlah rimpang hasil penyortiran ini (untuk menghitung rendemennya).
5. Pengemasan : Setelah bersih, rimpang yang kering dikumpulkan dalam wadah kantong plastik atau karung yang bersih dan kedap udara (belum pernah dipakai sebelumnya). Berikan label yang jelas pada wadah tersebut, yang menjelaskan nama bahan, bagian dari tanaman bahan itu, nomor/kode produksi, nama/alamat penghasil, berat bersih dan metode penyimpanannya.
6. Penyimpanan : Kondisi gudang harus dijaga agar tidak lembab dan suhu tidak melebihi 30 ° C dan gudang harus memiliki ventilasi baik dan lancar, tidak bocor, terhindar dari kontaminasi bahan lain yang menurunkan kualitas bahan yang bersangkutan, memiliki penerangan yang cukup (hindari dari sinar matahari langsung), serta bersih dan terbebas dari hama gudang.
10.ANALISIS EKONOMI BUDIDAYA TANAMAN
10.1. Analisis Usaha Budidaya
Perkiraan analisis usaha budidaya jahe seluas 1 ha; yang dilakukan petani pada tahun 1999 di daerah Bogor.
1. Biaya produksi1. Bibit: 2.000 bh @ Rp. 1.700,- = Rp. 3.400.000,-2. Pupuk
Pupuk buatan: Urea 165 kg @ Rp. 1.100, = Rp. 181.500,- TSP 160 kg @ Rp. 1800,- = Rp. 288.000,- KCl 160 kg @ Rp. 1.600,- = Rp. 256.000,-
Pupuk kandang 3.000 kg @ Rp. 150,- = Rp. 750.000,-3. Obat 20 kg @ Rp. 15.000,- Rp. 300.000,-4. Alat Rp. 180.000,5. Bahan (mulsa) 20.000 m @ Rp. 150,- Rp. 3.000.000,-6. Tenaga kerja 200 OH Rp. 2.000.000,-7. Biaya Lain-lain Rp. 1.000.000,-
o Jumlah biaya produksi Rp. 11.355.500,-.2. Penerimaan: 10.000 bh @ 1.500,-= Rp. 15.000.000,-3. Keuntungan usaha tani Rp. 3.644.500,-4. Parameter kelayakan usaha : a. B/C rasio = 1,321
10.2. Gambaran Peluang Agribisnis
Saat ini permintaan akan jahe oleh negara importir terus mengalami peningkatan, akan tetapi permintaan tersebut belum semuanya dapat dipenuhi mengingat produksi jahe masih terserap oleh kebutuhan dalam negeri. Dilihat dari segi harga, dari tahun 1991 hingga saat ini fluktuasi harga jahe basah maupun kering boleh dikatakan stabil. Dilihat dari segi permintaan, stabilitas harga serta produksi jahe dalam negeri prosepek agrobisnis jahe sangat cerah.
11.STANDAR PRODUKSI
1. Ruang Lingkup : Standar meliputi jenis dan standar mutu, cara pengambilan contoh dan syarat pengemasan.
2. Deskripsi : Standar mutu jahe di Indonesia tercantum dalam Standar Nasional Indonesia SNI– 01–3179–1992.
3. Klasifikasi dan Standar Mutu : Jahe diklasifikasikan menjadi 3 jenis mutu, yaitu: mutu I, II, III.
1. Syarat umum1. Kesegaran jahe: segar2. Rimpang bertunas: tidak ada3. Kenampakan irisan melintang: cerah4. Bentuk rimpang: utuh5. Serangga hidup: bebas
2. Syarat Khusus1. Ukuran berat:
mutu I > 250 gram/rimpang; mutu II 150-249 gram/rimpang; mutu III dicantumkan sesuai hasil analisa <10%.
2. Rimpang yang terkelupas kulitnya (rimpang/jumlah rimpang):
mutu I=0 %; mutu II=0 %;.§ mutu III<10 %.
2. Benda asing: mutu I=0 %; mutu II=0 %; mutu III<3 %
3. Rimpang berkapang (rimpang/jumlah rimpang): mutu I=0%; mutu II=0%; mutu III <10%
Untuk mendapatkan jenis jahe yang sesuai dengan standar mutu dilakukan pengujian,yang meliputi:
1. Penentuan benda-benda asing1. Timbanglah sejumlah contoh yang beratnya diantara 100–200 gram.
2. Pisahkan benda-benda yang akan ditentukan persentase bobotnya dan dipindahkan pada kaca arloji yang telah ditera.
3. Kaca arloji beserta benda asing tersebut ditimbang pada neraca analitik. 4. Perbedaan kedua penimbang tersebut menunjukan jumlah benda asing dalam
cuplikan yang diuji.2. Penentuan kadar serat
1. Keringkan kira-kira 5 gram cuplikan untuk pengujian didalam sebuah oven udara listrik 105 + ˜1 derajat C, sampai berat tetap.
2. Timbanglah dengan teliti kira-kira 2,5 gram bahan yang telah dikeringkan itu ke dalam sebuah thimble
3. ekstraklah dengan petroleum eter (titik didih 40-60 derajat C) selama kira-kira 1 jam dengan menggunakan sebuah alat soxhlet.
4. Pindahkan bahan yang telah bebas lemak tersebut kedalam sebuah labu berkapasitas 1 liter.
5. Ambillah 200 ml asam sulfat encer, tempatkanlah dalam sebuah gelas piala, didihkanlaah seluruh asam yang mendidih itu kedalam labu yang telah berisi bahan bebas lemak tersebut di atas.
6. Lengkapilah segera labu itu dengan pendingin balik yang dialiri air, dan panaskanlah sedemikian rupa sehingga labu mendidih setelah satu menit.
7. Goyang-goyanglah labu agak sering sambil menghindari tertinggalnya bahan pada dinding labu yang tak bersentuhan dengan asam.
8. Lanjutkanlah pendidihan selama tepat 30 menit. 9. Tanggalkanlah labu dan saringlah melalui kain halus (kira-kira 18 serat untuk
setiap sentimeter) yang ditempatkan dalam sebuah corong penyaring dan cucilah dengan air mendidih sampai cucian tidak lagi bersifat asam terhadap lakmus.
10. Didihkanlah sejumlah larutan natrium hidroksida dengan menggunakan pendingin balik dan didihkanlah selama tepat 30 menit.
11. Tanggalkanlah labu itu dan saringlah dengan segera dengan kain penyaring. 12. Cucilah residum dengan baik dengan iar mendidih dan pindahkanlah kedalam
krus gooch yang telah berisi lapisan tipis dan kompak asbes yang telah dipijarkan.13. Cucilah residu dengan baik pertama-tama dengan air panas kemudian dengan
kira-kira 15 ml etil alkohol 95%. 14. Keringkanlah Krus Gooch dan.isinya pada 105 +˜ 1 derajat C dalam oven udara
sampai berat tetap. 15. Dinginkan dan timbanglah. 16. Pijarkan krus Gooch tersebut pada 600 + ˜20 derajat C dalam tanur suhu udara
tinggi sampai seluruh bahan mengandung karbon terbakar.17. Dinginkanlah krus Gooch yang berisi abu tersebut dalam sebuah eksikator dan
timbanglah.3. Penentuan kadar minyak
1. Timbanglah dengan teliti, mendekati 1 gram, kira-kira 35–40 gram cuplikan yang telah dipotong kecil-kecil sebelum dimasukan kedalam labu didih.
2. Tambahkanlah air sampai seluruh cuplikan tersebut terendam dan tambahkan pula ke dalamnya sejumlah batu didih.
3. Sambunglah labu didih dengan alat “Dean-Stark” sehingga dapat digunakan untuk pekerjaan destilasi dan panaskanlah labu didih tersebut beserta isinya.
Penyulingan dihentikan bila tidak ada lagi butir-butir minyak yang menetes bersama-sama air atau bila volume minyak dalam penampung tidak berubah dalam beberapa waktu. Biasanya penyulingan ini memerlukan waktu lebih kurang 6 jam. Rendamlah penampung beserta isinya kedalam air sehingga cairan didalamnya mencapai suhu udara kamar dan ukurlah volume minyak yang tertampung.
11.4. Pengambilan Contoh
1. Pengambilan contoh : Dari jumlah kemasan dalam satu partai jahe segar siap ekspor diambil sejumlah kemasan secara acak seperti dibawah ini, dengan maksimum berat tiap partai 20 ton.
1. Untuk jumlah kemasan dalam partai 1–100, contoh yang diambil 5. 2. Untuk jumlah kemasan dalam partai 101–300, contoh yang diambil adalah 73. Untuk jumlah kemasan dalam partai 301–500, contoh yang diambil adalah 94. Untuk jumlah kemasan dalam partai 501-1000, contoh yang diambil adalah 105. Untuk jumlah kemasan dalam partai di atas 1000, contoh yang diambil minimum
15.6. Kemasan yang telah diambil, dituangkan isinya, kemudian diambil secara acak
sebanyak 10 rimpang dari tiap kemasan sebagai contoh. Khusus untuk kemasan jahe segar berat 10 kg atau kurang, maka contoh yang diambil sebanyak 5 rimpang. Contoh yang telah diambil kemudian diuji untuk ditentukan mutunya.
2. Petugas pengambil contoh : Petugas pengambil contoh harus memenuhi syarat yaitu orang yang telah berpengalaman atau dilatih terlebih dahulu dan mempunyai ikatan dengan suatu badan hukum.
11.5. Pengemasan
Jahe segar disajikan dalam bentuk rimpang utuh, dikemas dengan jala plastik yang kuat, dengan berat maksimum 15 kg tiap kemasan, atau dikemas dengan keranjang bambu dengan berat sesuai kesepakatan anatara penjual dan pembeli. Dibagian luar dari tiap kemasan ditulis, dengan bahan yang tidak luntur, jelas terbaca antara lain:
• Produk asal Indonesia• Nama/kode perusahaan/eksportir• Nama barang• Negara tujuan• Berat kotor• Berat bersih• Nama pembeli
12.DAFTAR PUSTAKA
1. Anonimous. 1994. Hasil Penelitian Dalam Rangka Pemanfaatan Pestisida Nabati. Prosiding Seminar di Bogor 1 – 2 Desember 1993. Balai Penelitian Tanaman Rempah dan Obat. Bogor. 311 Hal.
2. Anonimous. 1989. Vademekum Bahan Obat Alam. Departemen Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. Jakarta. 411 Hal.
3. Anonim, Mengenal Budidaya Jahe dan Prospek Jahe, Koperasi Daar El-Kutub, Jakarta, 1999
4. ----------, Ekspor Jahe Terbentur Musim, Info Agribisnis Trubus, Nomor. 335 Hal. 32, Juni 1999
5. ----------, Investasi Agribisnis Komoditas Unggulan Tanaman Pangan dan Holtikultura, Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1999
6. Paimin, FB. Budidaya, Pengolahan, Perdagangan Jahe, Penebar Swadaya, Jakarta, 19997. Koswara, S. Jahe dan Hasil Olahannya, Pustaka Sinar Harapan, Jakarta,19958. Santoso, HB. Jahe Gajah, Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1994 9. Yoganingrum, A.Paket Informasi Teknologi Budidaya dan Pasca Panen, Pusat
Dokumentasi dan Informasi Ilmiah-LIPI, Jakarta, 199910. Paimin F.B., Murhananto, Budidaya Pengolahan Perdagangan Jahe, Penebar Swadaya,
Jakarta, 1998
http://www.iptek.net.id/ind/warintek/?mnu=6&ttg=2&doc=2d1
ZINGIBER OFFICINALE
DESKRIPSI TUMBUHAN
Divisi : SpermatophytaSub-Divisi : AngiospermaeKelas : LiliopsidaOrdo : ZingiberalesFamili : ZingiberaceaeGenus : Zingiber
Spesies : Zingiber Officinale
Sinonim:
Zingiber officinale Rosc.
Zingiber majus Rumph.
Zingiber minus Rumph.
Akar :
Zingiber officinale atau yang biasa kita kenal dengan nama jahe
memiliki akar serabut (radix adventicia), berwarna putih kotor.
Akarnya bercabang-cabang, tebal dan agak melebar (tidak
silindris), berwarna kuning pucat. Bagian dalam akarnya
berserat agak kasar, berwarna kuning muda dengan ujung
merahmuda. Akar jahe mempunyai bau khas, dan rasanya pedas
menyegarkan.
Batang :
Zingiber Officinale atau jahe termasuk tanaman herba, jahe
mempunyai batang yang tegak, tinggi batangnya sekitar 30-60
cm. Batang jahe termasuk batang semu, beralur, berwarna hijau.
Daun :
Daun Zingiber officinale merupakan daun yang tidak lengkap karena hanya terdiri dari tangkai
daun (petiolus) dan helaian daun (lamina) saja, dan tidak berpelepah,
sehingga disebut daun bertangkai. Daun Zingiber Officinale termasuk
jenis daun tunggal, berwarna hijau tua. Daun Zingiber officinale
memiliki bangun daun berbentuk lanset (lanceolatus). Daun Zingiber officinalle merupakan
daun yang bertepi rata (integer). Ujung daun zingiber officinale berbentuk runcing (acutus),
karena kedua tepi daun di kanan kiri ibu tulang sedikit demi sedikit menuju keatas dan
pertemuannya pada pucuk daun membentuk sudut lancip dan pangkalnya tumpul (obtusus).
Susnan tulang daun Zingiber officinale berbentuk melengkung (cervinervis). Daging daun
Zingiber officinale memiliki sifat seperti kertas (papyraceus atau chartaceus). Permukaan
daunnya licin (laevis). Panjang daun lebih kurang 20-40 cm dan lebarnya sekitar 2-4 cm.
Zingiber officinale memiliki daun pelindung berbentuk bundar telur terbalik, bundar pada
ujungnya, tidak berbulu, berwarna hijau cerah, panjang 2,5 cm,
lebar 1 – 1,75 cm. Tangkai daun berbulu, panjang 2 – 4 mm.
BUNGA:
Bunga adalah alat perkembangbiakan generatif. Bunga Zingiber
Officinale adalah bunga majemuk berbentuk bulir, dan termasuk bunga
majemuk tak berbatas (Inflorescentia racemosa). Tangkai bunga dari
Zingiber officinale panjangnya kurang lebih 25 cm, berwarna hijau
merah. Kelopak bunganya berbentuk tabung, bergigi tiga. Mahkota
bunga Zingiber Officinale berbentuk corong (infundiouliformis)
panjangnya. 2 - 2,5 cm, berwarna ungu. Bunga jahe tumbuh dari dalam tanah berbentuk bulat
telur. Gagang bunga bersisik sebanyak 5 hingga 7 buah. Bunga berwarna hijau kekuningan. Bibir
bunga dan kepala putik ungu. Tangkai putik berjumlah dua. Helai bunganya agak sempit,
berbentuk tajam, berwarna kuning kehijauan, panjang 1,5 – 2,5 mm, lebar 3 – 3,5 mm, bibir
berwarna ungu, gelap, berbintik-bintik berwarna putih kekuningan, panjang 12 – 15 mm ; kepala
sari berwarna ungu, panjang 9 mm.
BUAH:
Buah dari Zingiber officinale kotak berbentuk bulat sampai bulat
panjang, berwarna coklat. Buah jahe lebih tepat bila disebut rimpang,
karena merupakan modifikasi dari batang, yang mengalami
penimbunan zat-zat makanan. Bagian inilah yang sering
dimanfaatkan sebagai rempah dan bahan obat. Rimpangnya
berbentuk jemari yang menggembung di ruas-ruas tengah. Rasa dominan pedas disebabkan
senyawa keton bernama zingeron.
BIJI:
Biji merupakan alat perkembang biakan yang utama. Biji dari Zingiber officinale
berbentuk bulat berwarna hitam.
Jahe dapat dibedakan dalam 3 macam, berdasarkan ukuran, bentuk dan warna rimpangnya:
1. JAHE PUTIH/KUNING BESAR ATAU DISEBUT JUGA JAHE GAJAH ATAU
JAHE BADAK
Rimpangnya lebih besar dan gemuk, ruas rimpangnya lebih menggembung dari kedua
varietas lainnya. Jenis jahe ini bias dikonsumsi baik saat berumur muda maupun berumur
tua, baik sebagai jahe segar maupun jahe olahan.
2. JAHE PUTIH/KUNING KECIL ATAU DISEBUT JUGA JAHE SUNTI ATAU
JAHE EMPRIT
Ruasnya kecil, agak rata sampai agak sedikit menggembung. Jahe ini selalu dipanen
setelah berumur tua. Kandungan minyak atsirinya lebih besar dari pada jahe gajah,
sehingga rasanya lebih pedas, disamping seratnya tinggi. Jahe ini cocok untuk ramuan
obat-obatan, atau untuk diekstrak oleoresin dan minyak atsirinya.
3. JAHE MERAH
Rimpangnya berwarna merah dan lebih kecil dari pada jahe putih kecil. sama seperti jahe
kecil, jahe merah selalu dipanen setelah tua, dan juga memiliki kandungan minyak atsiri
yang sama dengan jahe kecil, sehingga cocok untuk ramuan obat-obatan.
Kandungan kimia
Rimpang jahe mengandung minyak atsiri yang terdiri dari senyawa-senyawa
seskuiterpen, zingiberen, zingeron, oleoresin, kamfena, limonen, borneol, sineol,
sitral, zingiberal, felandren. Disamping itu terdapat juga pati, damar, asam-asam
organik seperti asam malat dan asam oksalat, Vitamin A, B, dan C, serta senyawa-
senyawa flavonoid dan polifenol.
MANFAAT JAHE:
Rimpang jahe dapat digunakan sebagai bumbu masak, pemberi aroma dan rasa pada makanan
seperti roti, kue, biskuit, kembang gula dan berbagai minuman. Jahe juga dapat digunakan pada
industri obat, minyak wangi, industri jamu tradisional, diolah menjadi asinan jahe, dibuat acar,
lalap, bandrek, sekoteng dan sirup.
Dewasa ini para petani cabe menggunakan jahe sebagai pestisida alami. Dalam perdagangan jahe
dijual dalam bentuk segar, kering, jahe bubuk dan awetan jahe. Disamping itu terdapat hasil
olahan jahe seperti: minyak astiri dan koresin yang diperoleh dengan cara penyulingan yang
berguna sebagai bahan pencampur dalam minuman beralkohol, es krim, campuran sosis dan lain-
lain.
Adapun manfaat secara pharmakologi antara lain adalah sebagai karminatif (peluruh kentut), anti
muntah, pereda kejang, anti pengerasan pembuluh darah, peluruh keringat, anti inflamasi, anti
mikroba dan parasit, anti piretik, anti rematik, serta merangsang pengeluaran getah lambung dan
getah empedu.
Anatomi tumbuhan
Pemerian: rasa pahit, agak pedas, dan berbau khas.
Makroskopik. Keeping pipih, ringan, bentuk hampir bulat sampai jorong atau bulat panjang,
kadang bercabang atau berbentuk tidak beraturan; tebal keeping 1-4 mm; panjang 2-5 cm; lebar
5mm-4cm; bagian tepi berombak atau keriput, warna kecoklatan; bagian tepi berwarna kuning
keputih-putihan; kadang terdapat pangkal upih daun dan pangkal akar; batas korteks dan silinder
pusat kadang jelas; korteks sempit, lebar kurang lebih 3mm,;silinder pusat lebar; berkas patahan
agak rata, warna kuning keputih-putihan.
Mikroskopik. Pada penampang melintang rimpang tampak epidermis terdiri dari 1 lapis sel
berbentuk polygonal; rambut penutup berbentuk kerucut, membengkok, panjang 250µm-750µm,
dinding tebal. Hypodermis terdiri dari beberapa lapis sel yang agak terentang tangensial, dinding
sel menggabus. Periderm terdiri dari 4-6 lapis sel yang berbentuk empat persegi panjang, dinding
sel menggabus. Korteks dan silinder pusat parenkimatik, terdiri dari sel-sel yang besar,penuh
berisi butir pati, butir pati tunggal, berbentuk kerucut, lonjong atau segi tiga dengan satu sisis
melengkung, lamella kurang jelas, terdapat di ujung butir, panjang butir pati 20µm-60µm, lebar
10µm-20µm; sel sekresi banyak terdapat pada korteks dan silinder pusat, berbentuk bulat atau
lonjong, mengandung minyak atau dammar minyak berwarna kuning sampai coklat kekuningan,
pada penambahan besi(III)klorida LP warna menjadi lebih tua; berkas pembuluh tipe kolateral,
tersebar tidak beraturan pada korteks dan silinder pusat; pembuluh kayu berlignin, berkas
pembuluh dibawah endodermis tersusun berderet; endodermis terdiri dari 1 lapis sel yang
terentang tangensial dengan dinding radial menebal, tidak berisi butir pati. Serbuk berwarna
kuning. Fragmen pengenal adalah butir pati; fragmen parenkim dengan sel sekresi; fragmen
gabus; rambut penutup; fragmen pembuluh kayu dengan penebalan tangga dan spiral. Isi minyak
atsiri, tannin, koresin.
Anatomi batang diatas tanah berbeda dari anatomi
rhizoma terutama pada daerah perbatasan antara cortex dan stele dimana pada batang diatas
tanah ditemukan suatu silinder sel yang terlignifikasi dindingnya. Pelebaran rhizoma dimulai
pada dasar tunas dan disebabkan oleh aktifitas daerah meristematik yang membentuk ikatan-
ikatan pembuluh kearah dalam, disamping pelebaran sel-sel parenkim.
Gambar penampang melintang dan serbuk rimpang jahe:
FISIOLOGI
Zingiber officimale merupakan suku Zingiberaceae. Jahe atau Zingiber officinale termasuk
kelompok tumbuhan C4. Tumbuhan C4 adalah tumbuhan yang mempunyai 4-karbon asid
organik seperti oxaloacetat, malat, dan aspartat.
Spesies C4 lebih sensitif terhadap cahaya. C4 mempunyai enzim PEP carboxylase yang
mengambil CO2 lebih kuat dan menyebabkan tumbuhan C4 berfotosintesis lebih lambat
dibanding tumbuhan C3 yang memiliki RuBP sebagai akseptor CO2. Tumbuhan C4 juga
mempunyai RuBP tetapi konsentrasinya sangat rendah. Hal ini juga menyebabkan tumbuhan C4
menggunakan tenaga yang lebih besar untuk mengikat molekul CO2. Oleh karena itu tumbuhan
C4 dapat melangsungkan fotosintesa dengan kadar CO2 rendah yaitu sekitar 1-2 ppm.
Spesies C4 mempunyai kloroplas dalam sel-sel berkas upih, dan mempunyai satu membran luar
tanpa grana. Spesies C4 adaptasi pada kawasan panas, keadaan kering, dan lembab. Spesies C4
juga tidak melakukan photorespiration atau respirasi waktu siang hari.
Sumber: www.swsbm.com
www.nature.jardin.free.fr.com
www.tropenland.at
www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/g/gingger13.com
www.coolimarika.com
www.warintek.ristek.go.id
Anonim, 1997, Materia Medika Indonesia jilid I, 160-162 ; 169-170, Depkes,
Jakarta.
Jurnal Biogenesis Vol. 2(2):64-66, 2006© Program Studi Pendidikan Biologi FKIP Universitas RiauISSN : 1829-546064BIOAKTIFITAS EKSTRAK JAHE (Zingiber officinale Roxb.)DALAM MENGHAMBAT PERTUMBUHAN KOLONI BAKTERI Escherichia coliDAN Bacillus subtilis
Nursal*), Sri Wulandari dan Wilda Sukma JuwitaLaboratorium Pendidikan Biologi PMIPAFKIP Universitas RiauDiterima 17 November 2006, Disetujui 14 Januari 2006ABSTRACTTelah dilakukan penelitian untuk mengetahui bioaktifitas ekstrak Jahe (Zingiber officinale Roxb.) terhadappertumbuhan koloni bakteri Escherichia coli dan Bacillus subtilis. Ekstrak jahe diperoleh melalui ekstraksi denganpelarut etanol 96% menggunakan rotary evaporator. Pengujian terhadap pertumbuhan koloni bakteri dilakukanmenggunakan metode difusi agar pada media Nutrient Agar. Percobaan menggunakan Rancangan Acak Lengkapdengan 6 perlakuan dan 4 ulangan. Konsentrasi ekstrak yang diujikan adalah 0,0% (kontrol), 2,0%, 4,0%, 6,0%,8,0% dan 10,0% (b/v). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ekstrak jahe dapat menghambat pertumbuhan kolonibakteri E. coli mulai konsentrasi 6,0% dengan luas daerah hambat 9,5 mm2, dan terhadap koloni bakteri B. subtilisdapat dihambat mulai konsentrasi 2,0% dengan luas daerah hambat 3,87 mm2. Semakin tinggi konsentrasi ekstrakyang diujikan semakin luas daerah hambat yang terbentuk.Kata kunci : Ekstrak jahe (Zingiber officinale), Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilisPENDAHULUANBakteri Escherichia coli dan Bacillus subtilismerupakan kelompok bakteri enterobacteriaceaeyang hidup di dalam saluran pencernaan manusiasebagai penghuni usus (enteron) dan bersifatpatogen. Bakteri E. coli dapat menyebabkangastroenteritis pada manusia, sedangkan B. subtilisdapat menyebabkan kerusakan pada makanankaleng yang juga dapat mengakibatkangastroenteritis pada manusia yangmengkonsumsinya. Oleh sebab itu makanan yangdisimpan dalam waktu lama perlu dilakukanpengawetan agar tidak membahayakan konsumen.Untuk mencegah dan mengendalikan pertumbuhanbakteri pada bahan makanan umumnya digunakanbahan kimia pengawet berupa zat kimia sintetik.Alternatif lain yang memungkinkan untukdikembangkan adalah pemanfaatan senyawabioaktif yang dihasilkan oleh tumbuhan. Salah satudiantaranya adalah pemanfaatan senyawa metabolitsekunder yang terdapat pada tanaman Jahe(Zingiber officinale Roxb.).Tanaman jahe termasuk Suku Zingiberaceae,merupakan salah satu tanaman rempah-rempahanyang telah lama digunakan sebagai bahan bakuobat tradisional. Kandungan senyawa metabolitsekunder yang terdapat pada tanaman jaheterutama golongan flavonoid, fenol, terpenoid, dan
minyak atsiri (Benjelalai, 1984). Senyawametabolit sekunder yang dihasilkan tumbuhanSuku Zingiberaceae umumnya dapat menghambatpertumbuhan mikroorganisme patogen yangmerugikan kehidupan manusia. Ekstrak Lengkuas(Suku Zingiberaceae) dilaporkan dapatmenghambat pertumbuhan mikroba, diantaranyabakteri Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,Staphylococcus aureus, jamur Neurospora sp,Rhizopus sp dan Penicillium sp.Beberapa jenis tumbuhan Suku Zingiberaceaelainnya juga dilaporkan mengandung senyawasenyawabioaktif yang potensial. TumbuhanBoesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) Schlecht(Zingiberaceae) mengandung senyawa alpinetin,boesenbergin A, cardamonin, boesenbergin B,chavicinic acid, 1,8-cineol, 2,6-dihydroxy-4-methoxychalcone, inocenbrin, pinostrobin,essential oil yang mempunyai bioaktifitas sebagaianti jamur. Tumbuhan Costus speciosus Smith.(Zingiberaceae) mengandung diosgenin, dioscin,gracillin, asam lemak yang mempunyai bioaktifitassebagai anti-fertilitas, estrogenik, dan antiinflammatori(Ponglux et al,1987).Senyawa metabolit sekunder yang terdapatpada tanaman suku Zingiberaceae perlu ditelitipemanfaatannya terutama sebagai bahanbiobakterisida nabati dalam menghambatpertumbuhan bakteri patogen khususnya E. colidan B. subtilis.BAHAN DAN METODEBahan yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalahrimpang Jahe emprit (Zingiber officinale Roxb.)yang diperoleh dari pasar pagi Arengka KotaPekanbaru. Rimpang dibersihkan dan dipotongsetebal 1-2 mm kemudian dikeringkan. Rimpangjahe yang telah kering dihaluskan (ditumbuk)untuk mendapatkan serbuk (simplisia). Serbuk jahedimaserasi dengan pelarut etanol 96% selama 3x24jam pada temperatur kamar. Maserat yangdiperoleh dikisatkan menggunakan penguap putar(Rotary evaporator) pada temperatur 500C. Pelarutyang masih tersisa diuapkan di atas penangas air(water bath) untuk mendapatkan ekstrak kentaletanol.Pengujian bioaktifitas ekstrak terhadappertumbuhan bakteri dilakukan dengan metodedifusi agar (Miski et al, 1983). Sebagai mediatumbuh digunakan Nutrien Broth dan Nutrient
Agar. Rancangan percobaan menggunakanRancangan Acak Lengkap dengan 6 perlakuandan 4 ulangan. Sebagai kontrol digunakanakuades. Konsentrasi ekstrak yang diujikanadalah 0,0%, 2,0%, 4,0%, 6,0%, 8,0% dan10,0% (b/v akuades). Parameter yang diukuradalah luas daerah hambat yaitu daerah beningyang terbentuk di sekitar kertas cakram setelahdiinkubasi selama 2x24 jam pada temperatur450C. Data dianalisis dengan Analisis Varians(ANAVA) pada taraf kepercayaan 5% (Steeldan Torrie, 1993).HASIL DAN PEMBAHASANHasil pengujian ekstrak jahe terhadappertumbuhan bakteri E. coli dan B. subtilis setelah2x24 jam dapat dilihat pada Tabel 1 dan Gambar 1.Dari data pada Tabel 1 dan Gambar 1 diketahuibahwa ekstrak jahe mulai efektif menghambatpertumbuhan koloni bakteri E. coli padakonsentrasi 6,0%, sedangkan terhadap bakteri B.subtilis dapat dihambat mulai konsentrasi 2,0%.Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa ekstrak jahe lebihaktif menghambat pertumbuhan koloni bakteri B.subtilis dibandingkan dengan bakteri E. coli. Padaperlakuan ekstrak konsentrasi 0,0-4,0% bakteri E.coli masih dapat tumbuh dengan baik. Padakonsentrasi 6,0% pertumbuhan koloni bakterimulai dapat dihambat dengan luas daerah hambatyang berbeda nyata dengan kontrol.Terbentuknya daerah bening di sekitar kertascakram menunjukkan terjadinya penghambatanpertumbuhan koloni bakteri akibat pengaruhsenyawa bioaktif yang terdapat pada ekstrak jahe.Senyawa-senyawa metabolit sekunder golonganfenol, flavanoid, terpenoid dan minyak atsiri yangterdapat pada ekstrak jahe diduga merupakangolongan senyawa bioaktif yang dapatmenghambat pertumbuhan bakeri.Berdasarkan hasil-hasil penelitian sebelumnyadiketahui bahwa senyawa fenol, terpenoid danflavonoid merupakan senyawa produk metabolismesekunder tumbuhan yang aktif menghambarpertumbuhan bakteri. Ekstrak akar Acanthusilicifolius dilaporkan dapat menghambatpertumbuhan koloni bakteri Vibrioparahaemolyticus sp (Nursal, 1997) dan Vibrio sp(Nursal, 1998). Senyawa triterpenoid yang terdapatpada ekstrak daun Premna schimperi dilaporkan
dapat menghambat pertumbuhan koloni bakteriStaphylococcus aureus dan Bacillus subtilis padakonsentrasi 20-25 μg/ml (Habtemariam et al,1990).Terjadinya penghambatan terhadap pertumbuhankoloni bakteri diduga disebabkan karena kerusakanyang terjadi pada komponen struktural membransel bakteri. Senyawa golongan terpenoid dapatberikatan dengan protein dan lipid yang terdapatpada membran sel dan bahkan dapat menimbulkanlisis pada sel. Volk dan Wheeler (1988)mengemukakan bahwa membran sel yang tersusunatas protein dan lipid sangat rentan terhadap zatkimia yang dapat menurunkan teganganpermukaan. Kerusakan membran sel menyebabkanterganggunya transport nutrisi (senyawa dan ion)melalui membran sel sehingga sel bakterimengalami kekurangan nutrisi yang diperlukanbagi pertumbuhannya.Perbedaaan daya hambat ekstrak jahe terhadappertumbuhan koloni bakteri E. coli dan B. subtilisdiduga disebabkan karena perbedaan komponendinding selnya. Bakteri E. coli merupakan bakterigram negatif yang mempunyai struktur dinding selyang lebih kompleks dan mengandung komponenlipid yang lebih banyak (11-22%) dibandingkandengan struktur dinding sel pada bakteri B. subtilis(gram positif). Dengan demikian, dinding selbakteri B. subtilis lebih mudah dirusak olehsenyawa bioaktif yang terdapat pada ekstrak jahe.KESIMPULANEkstrak jahe (Zingiber officinale) dapatmenghambat pertumbuhan koloni bakteriEscherichia coli mulai konsentrasi 6,0% denganluas daerah hambat 9,5 mm2, sedangkan terhadapBacillus subtilis mulai dapat dihambat padakonsentrasi 2,0% dengan luas daerah hambat 3,87mm2. Semakin tinggi konsentrasi ekstrak jahe yangdiujikan, luas daerah hambat yang terbentuksemakin luas.DAFTAR PUSTAKABenjelalai. 1984. Pengantar ilmu pangan; Nutrisi danMikrobiologi. Gadjahmada University Press.YogyakartaHabtemariam, S., A.L. Gray, G.W. Halbert, and P.G.Waterman. 1990. A Novel AntibacterialDiterpene From Premna schimperi. Medica56:187-189Nursal. 1997. Pengaruh Ekstrak Akar Acanthus
ilicifolius Terhadap Pertumbuhan Bakteri Vibrioparahaemolyticus. Jurnal Biosains. Vol 2(1):32-37Nursal. 1998. Pengaruh Ekstrak Akar Acanthusilicifolius Terhadap Pertumbuhan Bakteri Vibriosp. Prosiding Seminar Nasional VI EkosistemMangrove. Pekanbaru 15-18 September 1998;273-277Ponglux, D., S. Wongseripipatana, T. Phadungcharoen,N. Ruangrungsri, dan K. Likhitwitayawuid. 1987.Medicinal Plants. Internatiomal Congress onNatural Products, Victory Power Point Corp.,Ltd. BangkokSteel, R.G.D and J.H Torrie. 1993. Prinsip dan ProsedurStatistika. Suatu Pendekatan Biometrik. Edisikedua. Diterjemahkan oleh Sumantri B. PTGramedia Pustaka Utama. JakartaVolk, W.A. and Wheeler. 1988. Mikrobiologi Dasar.Jilid I Edisi kelima. Diterjemahkan olehMarkham. Penerbit Erlangga. Jakarta
Zingiber officinale (Ginger)IntroductionGinger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, is one of the mostwidely used species of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) and is a commoncondiment for various foods and beverages. Ginger has a long historyof medicinal use dating back 2,500 years in China and India forconditions such as headaches, nausea, rheumatism, and colds.1 Characterizedin traditional Chinese medicine as spicy and hot, ginger is claimedto warm the body and treat cold extremities, improve a weak and tardypulse, address a pale complexion, and strengthen the body after bloodloss.2
Active ConstituentsGinger contains a number of pungentconstituents and active ingredients. Steam distillationof powdered ginger produces ginger oil,which contains a high proportion of sesquiterpenehydrocarbons, predominantly zingiberene.3
The major pungent compounds in ginger, fromstudies of the lipophilic rhizome extracts, haveyielded potentially active gingerols, which canbe converted to shogaols, zingerone, andparadol.4 The compound 6-gingerol appears to be responsible for its characteristic taste. Zingerone andshogaols are found in small amounts in fresh ginger and in larger amounts in dried or extracted products.
Mechanisms of ActionThe mechanism underlying ginger’s anti-emetic activity is not clearly understood, but the aromatic,
spasmolytic, carminative, and absorbent properties of ginger suggest it has direct effects on the gastrointestinaltract.5
Studies do not indicate ginger has influence within the vestibular or oculomotor system.6 A mechanisminvolving the central nervous system cannot be ruled out, considering several of ginger’s componentsantagonize serotonin type-3 receptors; however, this has not been clearly demonstrated.7-9
The compounds 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol have been shown to have a number of pharmacologicalactivities, including antipyretic, analgesic, antitussive, and hypotensive effects.10 Ginger extracts exhibitinhibition of platelet aggregation and thromboxane synthesis in vitro,11-15 which has led to concerns gingerextracts may prolong bleeding; however, several European studies using ginger orally did not find anysignificant anticoagulant effects in vivo.16 Daily consumption of 15 g raw ginger rhizome or 40 g cookedrhizome by 18 healthy volunteers for two weeks failed to decrease platelet cyclooxygenase activity.17
Similarly,differences were not found in bleeding time, platelet count, and platelet functioning when eight healthyvolunteers were given a single 2-gram dose of the dried rhizome or placebo.18 In vitro studies suggest gingermay produce anti-inflammatory effects by inhibitingarachidonic acid metabolism in both thecyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase pathways.19-21
Clinical IndicationsMotion SicknessGinger has long been used as a remedy todecrease nausea and vomiting associated with severalconditions. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was performed to assess theeffects of ginger extracts on motion sickness andgastric slow-wave dysrhythmias induced by circularvection.22 Volunteers with a history of motionsickness were pre-treated with ginger (1,000mg and 2,000 mg). Individuals then underwentcircular vection during which nausea, tachygastria,and vasopressin were assessed. Ginger improvedeach of the above parameters, significantly prolongingthe latency period before nausea onset andshortening the recovery time after vection cessation.Five other double-blind studies have beenperformed that demonstrate a positive effect ofginger on motion sickness.23-27 These studies showginger to be as effective as many traditional antiemeticpharmaceuticals such as dimenhydrinate,domperidone, scopolamine, cyclizine, andmeclizine. One double-blind study found no benefitwith ginger (0.5-1.0 g) when compared to scopolamine,d-amphetamine, or placebo.28
Nausea and Vomiting in PregnancyGinger is used to ameliorate symptoms ofnausea in pregnancy. Most recently, a double-blind,placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial wasconducted on 26 women in the first trimester of pregnancy.29 Subjects ingested one tablespoon of ginger
syrup (containing 1 g ginger) or placebo in 4-8 ouncesof water four times daily. Duration and severity ofnausea was evaluated over a two-week period. Dailyvomiting ceased in eight of 12 women in the gingergroup by the sixth day, while only two of 12 in theplacebo group reported a cessation of vomiting. Atthe end of the study, 20 women (77 percent) consumingthe ginger syrup reported a significant decreasein nausea, while 20 percent in the placebogroup reported improvement.Other double-blind, placebo-controlledstudies have been performed evaluating the effectivenessof ginger on morning sickness.30 In onestudy of 70 pregnant women, participants receivedeither 250 mg freshly prepared ginger powder ora placebo. Results indicated a significant reductionin nausea and number of vomiting episodes.31
Post-surgical NauseaTwo double-blind studies were performedon women following major gynecological surgery.32,33 In both studies there were three parallelgroups comparing efficacy of ginger to placeboor 10 g metoclopramide. Women were dosed onehour before anesthesia was administered. In thestudy by Bone et al, nausea in the placebo groupwas observed throughout the duration of the study,while only 28 percent in the ginger group and 30percent in the metoclopramide group experiencednausea. In the study by Phillips et al, ginger alsosignificantly reduced nausea and vomiting whencompared to placebo and metoclopramide.In a recent double-blind study, gingerfailed to demonstrate an anti-emetic effect followinglaparoscopic surgery.34 Pre-operative doses of100 or 200 mg were administered and followedby repetitive 100 or 200 mg doses. An earlierdouble-blind study on the effect of ginger on postoperativenausea also failed to demonstrate beneficialeffects compared to placebo.35 Doses ofginger in this study ranged from 0.5-1.0 g gingerextract.
Chemotherapy-induced NauseaCancer chemotherapy can cause severenausea, vomiting, and abdominal discomfort,which can limit therapy. Anticancer agents suchas cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, and methotrexateslow gastric emptying.36,37 In a double-blindstudy of chemotherapy-induced nausea, 41 patientswith leukemia received either ginger or aplacebo after administration of compazine.38 The
results showed a significantly greater symptomaticbenefit from ginger compared to placebo. Ina study on rats, following cisplatin administration,significant inhibition of gastric emptying occurred.The inhibitory effects of gastric emptying werepartially reversed by pretreatment with gingerextract and ginger juice.39 Similar efficacy of theseginger preparations was also observed in antiemeticstudies against cisplatin-induced emesis indogs.40
OsteoarthritisGinger extract has been studied as an alternativeto NSAID therapy for arthritic conditions.A randomized, placebo-controlled, crossoverstudy comparing ginger extracts and ibuprofen wasperformed on 75 individuals with osteoarthritis ofthe hip or knee.41 Patients received either 170 mgginger extract, 400 mg ibuprofen, or placebo threetimes per day and were followed for three weeks.The study revealed significant improvement insymptoms for both the ginger and ibuprofengroups before crossover; however, at the study’send there was no difference between ginger andplacebo. No side effects were noted in the gingergroup; however, side effects prompting removalfrom the study occurred in the ibuprofen group.More studies are recommended using differentdoses and duration of treatment to assess the efficacyof ginger extract for this condition.
Drug-Botanical InteractionsNo drug interactions are known; however,due to ginger’s apparent effect on platelets, itshould be used cautiously in individuals usinganticoagulants.
Side Effects and ToxicityGinger is on the U. S. Food and DrugAdministration’s GRAS (generally recognized assafe) list. The British Herbal Compendium documentsno adverse effects of ginger.42
DosageFor most purposes a typical dose of gingeris 1-4 g daily, taken in divided doses. To preventmotion sickness, it is best to begin treatment1-2 days before the scheduled trip and continuedosing throughout the duration of travel. For nauseaand vomiting during pregnancy, ginger teamade from fresh ginger root, boiled and diluted totaste, appears to work best.
Warnings and Contraindications
Despite widespread use of ginger by pregnantwomen, the safety of this herb has not beenformally established. The Complete German CommissionE Monographs recommends against theuse of ginger root for nausea and vomiting of pregnancy;however, American editors, citing thousandsof years of use and no pertinent scientificvalidity for this contraindication, refute this recommendation.The German Commission E also mentionsgallstones as a relative contraindication forginger, without citing a rational.43
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1992;40:387-391.13. Srivastava KC [Srivas KC on Medline].Effects of aqueous extracts of onions, garlicand ginger on platelet aggregation andmetabolism of arachidonic acid in the bloodvascular system: in vitro study. ProstaglandinsLeukot Med 1984;13:227-235.14. Srivastava KC. Isolation and effects of someginger components of platelet aggregation andeicosanoid biosynthesis. ProstaglandinsLeukot Med 1986;25:187-198.15. Srivastava KC. Effect of onion and gingerconsumption on platelet thromboxane productionin humans. Prostaglandins Leukot EssentFatty Acids 1989;35:183-185.16. Bordia A, Verma SK, Srivastava KC. Effect ofginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) andfenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) onblood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggregationin patients with coronary artery disease.Prostaglandins Leuukot Essent Fatty Acids1997;56:379-384.17. Janssen PL, Meyboom S, van Staveren WA, etal. Consumption of ginger (Zingiber officinaleroscoe) does not affect ex vivo platelet thromboxaneproduction in humans. Eur J Clin Nutr1996;50:772-774.18. Lumb AB. Effect of dried ginger on humanplatelet function. Thromb Haemost1994;71:110-111.19. Srivastava KC. Aqueous extracts of onion,garlic and ginger inhibit platelet aggregationand alter arachidonic acid metabolism. BiomedBiochim Acta 1984;43:S335-S346.20. Srivastava KC, Mustafa T. Ginger (Zingiberofficinale) in rheumatism and musculoskeletaldisorders. Med Hypotheses 1992;39:342-348.21. Backon J. Ginger: inhibition of thromboxanesynthetase and stimulation of prostacyclin:relevance for medicine and psychiatry. MedHypotheses 1986;20:271-278.22. Lien HC, Sun WM, Chen YH, et al. Effects ofginger on motion sickness and gastric slowwavedysrhythmias induced by circularvection. Am J Physiol Gastrointest LiverPhysiol 2003;284:G481-G489.23. Grontved A, Brask T, Kambskard J, Hentzer E.Ginger root against seasickness. A controlledtrial on the open sea. Acta Otolaryngol1988;105:45-49.24. Riebenfeld D, Borzone L. Randomizeddouble-blind study comparing ginger(Zintona‚) and dimenhydrinate in motionsickness. Healthnotes Rev 1999;6:98-101.25. Careddu P. Motion sickness in children: resultsof a double-blind study with ginger (Zintona‚)
and dimenhydrinate. Healthnotes Rev1999;6:102-107.26. Mowrey DB, Clayson DE. Motion sickness,ginger, and psychophysics. Lancet 1982;1:655-657.27. Schmid R, Schick T, Steffen R, et al. Comparisonof seven commonly used agents forprophylaxis of seasickness. J Travel Med1994;1:203-206.28. Wood CD, Manno JE, Wood MJ, et al.Comparison of efficacy of ginger with variousantimotion sickness drugs. Clin Res Pr DrugRegul Aff 1988;6:129-136.29. Blumenthal M. Ginger as an antiemetic duringpregnancy. Altern Ther Health Med 2003;9:19-21.30. Fischer-Rasmussen W, Kjaer SK, Dahl C,Asping U. Ginger treatment of hyperemesisgravidarum. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol1991;38:19-24.31. Vutyavanich T, Kraisarin T, Ruangsri R.Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy:randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlledtrial. Obstet Gynecol 2001;97:577-582.32. Bone ME, Wilkinson DJ, Young JR, et al.Ginger root – a new antiemetic. The effect ofginger root on postoperative nausea andvomiting after major gynaecological surgery.Anaesthesia 1990;45:669-671.33. Phillips S, Ruggier R, Hutchinson SE.Zingiber officinale (Ginger) – an antiemetic forday case surgery. Anaesthesia 1993;48:715-717.34. Eberhart LH, Mayer R, Betz O, et al. Gingerdoes not prevent postoperative nausea andvomiting after laparoscopic surgery. AnesthAnalg 2003;96:995-998.35. Arfeen Z, Owen H, Plummer JL, et al. Adouble-blind randomized controlled trial ofginger for the prevention of postoperativenausea and vomiting. Anaesth Intensive Care1995;23:449-452.36. Kishibayashi N, Ichikawa S, Yokoyama T, etal. Pharmacological properties KF18259, anovel 5-HT3-receptor antagonist, in rats:inhibition of the distal colonic function. Jpn JPharmacol 1993;63:495-502.37. Visnovsky P. The effect of cyclophosphamideand methotrexate on gastric emptying andsecretion in rats. Bratisl Lek Listy 1992;93:90-92. [Article in Slovak]38. Pace JC. Oral ingestion of encapsulated gingerand reported self-care actions for the relief ofchemotherapy associated nausea and vomiting.Diss Abstr Int 1987;47:3297-B.39. Sharma SS, Gupta YK. Reversal of cisplatininduced
delay in gastric emptying in rats byginger (Zingiber officinale). J Ethnopharmacol1998;62:49-55.40. Sharma SS, Kochupillai V, Gupta SK, et al.Antiemetic efficacy of ginger (Zingiberofficinale) against cisplatin-induced emesis indogs. J Ethnopharmacol 1997;57:93-96.41. Bliddal H, Rosetzsky A, Schlichting P, et al. Arandomized, placebo-controlled, cross-overstudy of ginger extracts and ibuprofen inosteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage2000;8:9-12.42. Bradley P, ed. British Herbal Compendium.Bournemouth: British Herbal Medical Association;1990.43. Blumenthal M, ed. The Complete GermanCommission E Monographs. Austin, TX:American Botanical Council; 1998:62:135-136.Diambil dari:Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 3 ◆ 2003 Page 335
Monograph Zingiber officinaleCopyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission diakses di: http://www.thorne.com/altmedrev/.fulltext/8/3/331.pdf
The Longwood Herbal Task Force(http://www.mcp.edu/herbal/default.htm) andThe Center for Holistic Pediatric Education and Research(http://www.childrenshospital.org/holistic/)
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)Kathi J. Kemper, MD, MPHPrincipal Proposed Use: Nausea due to motion sickness, morning sickness, general anesthesiaor chemotherapyOther Proposed Uses: Headaches and arthritis, chills associated with viral infections, highcholesterolOverviewGinger is primarily used to treat nausea, but it is also used as an anti-inflammatory, a painremedy, a warming remedy and a cholesterol-lowering herb. Randomized controlled trialssupport its use in preventing nausea. Case studies suggest usefulness in treating migraines andinflammatory arthritis, but no randomized trials have been reported. Animal studies suggestthermogenic effects, but this has not been evaluated in humans. Data are insufficient torecommend ginger as a cholesterol-lowering supplement. Given its long history of use as a food,ginger is presumed safe for supplemental use. Because of its effects on platelet aggregation andthromboxane synthesis in vitro, some herbalists suggest caution for patients takinganticoagulants or those scheduled for surgery; on the other hand, no clinically significantanticoagulant effects have been documented. It is on the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)list, but no studies have specifically evaluated ginger’s safety during pregnancy, lactation orduring childhood. A related species has uterotonic effects in animals, which has led some
herbalists and the German Commission E to recommend that ginger be avoided duringpregnancy.Historical and Popular UsesGinger is used worldwide as a cooking spice, condiment and herbal remedy. TheChinese have used ginger for at least 2500 years as a digestive aid and antinausea remedy and totreat bleeding disorders and rheumatism; it was also used to treat baldness, toothache, snakebite,and respiratory conditions1. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), ginger is considered apungent, dry, warming, yang herb to be used for ailments triggered by cold, damp weather.Ginger is used extensively in Ayurveda, the traditional medicine of India, to block excessiveclotting (i.e. heart disease), reduce cholesterol and fight arthritis. In Malaysia and Indonesia,ginger soup is given to new mothers for 30 days after their delivery to help warm them and tohelp them sweat out impurities. In Arabian medicine, ginger is considered an aphrodisiac2.Some Africans believe that eating ginger regularly will help repel mosquitos1.Ginger migrated westward to Europe by Greek and Roman times. The Greeks wrappedginger in bread and ate it after meals as a digestive aid. Subsequently, ginger was incorporateddirectly into bread and confections such as gingerbread. Ginger was so valued by the Spanishthat they established ginger plantations in Jamaica in the 1600’s. The Eclectic physicians of the19th century relied on ginger to induce sweating, improve the appetite and curb nausea, and as atopical counterirritant.Nowadays, ginger is extensively cultivated from Asia to Africa and the Caribbean and isused worldwide as a nausea remedy, as an anti-spasmodic and to promote warming in case ofchills3,4. Ginger is also extensively consumed as a flavoring agent; it is estimated that in India,the average daily consumption is 8 -10 grams of fresh ginger root5. The German Commission Eapproves the use of ginger root as a treatment for dyspepsia and prophylactic against motionsickness6.BotanyMedicinal species: Zingiber officinale RoscoeCommon names: Ginger, African ginger, Black ginger, Cochin ginger, Gan jiang, Gegibre,Ingwer, Jamaican ginger, Race ginger7,8Botanical Family: Zingiberaceae. Ginger is closely related to two other cooking spices, turmericand cardamom.Plant description: Ginger is a 2 - 4 foot tall perennial with grass like leaves up to a foot inlength. It is the underground root or rhizome that is used for culinary and medicinalpurposes.Where it’s grown: Indigenous to warm tropical climates, ginger is widely grown in Asia, Africa,India, Jamaica, Mexico, and Hawaii9.BiochemistryGinger: Potentially Active Chemical Constituents• Phenolic compounds: shogaols and gingerols• Sesquiterpenes: bisapolene, zingiberene, zingiberol, sesquiphellandrene, curcurmene• Other: 6-dehydrogingerdione, galanolactone, gingesulfonic acid, zingerone, geraniol, neral,monoacyldigalactosylglycerols, gingerglycolipidsThe active ingredients in ginger are thought to reside in its volatile oils, which compriseapproximately 1-3% of its weight10. The major active ingredients in ginger oil are thesesquiterpenes: bisapolene, zingiberene, and zingiberol11,12. The concentrations of activeingredients vary with growing conditions. Ginger’s active ingredients have a variety of
physiologic effects. For example, the gingerols have analgesic, sedative, antipyretic andantibacterial effects in vitro and in animals13,14.In rats, an intravenous (i.v.) bolus of gingerol had a half life of 7.23 minutes15; it is not clearhow this relates to pharmacokinetics after oral administration in humans.Experimental StudiesGinger: Potential Clinical Benefits1. Cardiovascular: Cardiotonic, antilipemic2. Pulmonary: none3. Renal and electrolyte balance: none4 Gastrointestinal/hepatic: Antinausea/antiemetic, carminative and antiulcer5. Neuropsychiatric: See Immune modulation: anti-inflammatory for headache6. Endocrine: Hypoglycemic7. Hematologic: Antiplatelet8. Rheumatologic: See Immune modulation: Anti-inflammatory for arthritis9. Reproductive: none10. Immune modulation: Anti-inflammatory for arthritis and headache11. Antimicrobial: Antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal12. Antineoplastic: Antineoplastic13. Antioxidant: Antioxidant14. Skin and mucus membranes: none15. Other/miscellaneous: Warming/diaphoretic1. Cardiovascular: Cardiotonic, antilipemic. See also Hematologic: antiplateleta. Cardiotonici. In vitro data: In isolated guinea pig atrial muscles, gingerol enhanced contractility16.ii. Animal data: In animals, gingerol had inotropic and chronotropic effects16,17.iii. Human data: There are no reports of ginger’s effects on cardiac function in humans.b. Antilipemici. In vitro data: In homogenated liver from mice and rats, ginger extracts interfered withcholesterol biosynthesis18.ii. Animal data: In rabbits fed high cholesterol diets, ginger extracts had antilipemiceffects, reducing atherogenesis and high lipid levels19. However, inhypercholesterolemic rats, the data on ginger’s effects has been conflicting; somestudies reported positive effects and others found no effects20,21. In experimentalmice, ginger significantly impaired cholesterol biosynthesis and lowered serumcholesterol concentrations18.iii. Human data: A single dose (10 grams) of ginger had no impact on serum lipids inone study22. There are no studies evaluating the effects of long-term gingersupplementation on serum lipids in humans or evaluating potential interactions withlipid lowering medications.2. Pulmonary: none3. Renal and electrolyte balance: none4. Gastrointestinal/hepatic: Antinausea/antiemetic, carminative and antiulcera. Antinausea/antiemetici. In vitro data: noneii. Animal data: In mice, ginger’s effect in enhancing intestinal motility was similar tometoclopramide’s23. In shrews, dogs and rats, ginger extracts effectively reduced
chemotherapy-associated vomiting24,25. Ginger also protected frogs againstexperimentally induced emesis26. An herbal combination including ginger andginkgo was as effective as metoclopramide in another animal study ofexperimentally-induced nausea27. Studies in rats and mice suggest that gingerproduces its antiemetic effects by stimulating peripheral anticholinergic andantihistaminic receptors and/or by antagonizing 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin)receptors in the gut28,29.iii. Human data: Both during fasting and after a standard test meal, ginger extractssignificantly enhanced gastroduodenal motility in 12 normal volunteers30.Several randomized, controlled trials support ginger’s use as an antiemetic fornausea secondary to several conditions: morning sickness, chemotherapy-associatednausea, post-operative nausea and motion sickness.In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over trial of 30women with hyperemesis gravidarum, ginger (250 mg four times daily) provedsignificantly more effective than placebo in preventing and reducing nausea31.Ginger also proved useful in treating chemotherapy-induced nausea in a smallpilot study of 11 adult patients; their nausea scores fell from an average of 2 (out ofmaximum of 4) to 0.7 after taking 1.5 grams of powdered ginger32. Another caseseries also supported ginger’s use as an antiemetic in patients undergoingchemotherapy33.Data on ginger’s effectiveness in preventing post-operative nausea have beenconflicting. In two randomized, double blind studies of women undergoinggynecologic surgery, those treated with ginger had significantly less post-operativenausea and vomiting than those treated with placebo; ginger was as effective asmetoclopramide in preventing post-operative gastrointestinal symptoms34,35. Twoother randomized, controlled trials failed to document any statistically significantbenefits of pre-operative ginger (500 –2000 mg) on post-operative nausea orvomiting36,37.Several studies have evaluated ginger’s effectiveness in preventing motionsickness or sea sickness and the potential mechanisms for this effect38. In an openstudy of 1741 tourists traveling by sea, ginger supplements (250 milligrams every twohours) were as effective as both non-prescription and prescription medications inpreventing sea sickness39. In a randomized cross-over trial of eight healthyvolunteers, ginger supplements were significantly more effective than placebo inalleviating vertigo associated with motion sickness40. In a randomized controlled trialof naval cadets, ginger was significantly more effective than placebo in preventingsea sickness, both vomiting and vertigo41. In an early trial involving 36 collegestudents prone to motion sickness, ginger was as effective as dimenhydrinate inpreventing nausea42. In a randomized, controlled trial in healthy volunteers, gingerwas an effective antiemetic, but its mechanism of action appeared not to rely onalterations in gastric emptying35.In a study evaluating potential mechanisms for ginger’s ability to reducemotion sickness, ginger had no impact on experimentally induced nystagmusassociated with motion sickness; the investigators concluded that ginger’s primaryeffect was on the stomach rather than the central nervous system43. In one NASAsponsored
study in healthy volunteers, ginger (500 – 1000 mg) had no apparent effect on gastric emptying44. However, other studies have reported enhanced intestinalmotility following oral administration of ginger23.b. Carminative and antiulcer: Ginger has been used historically as a carminative, to enhancedigestion and reduce intestinal gas and flatulence.i. In vitro data: noneii. Animal data: In mice, zingiberene and gingerol significantly reduced gastriculceration experimentally induced by ethanol and hydrochloric acid45. These resultswere confirmed in several subsequent studies in which several of ginger’sconstitutents, including beta-sesquiphellandrene, beta-bisabolene, gingesulfonic acid,curcumene and 6-shogaol, demonstrated antiulcer effects, protecting gastric mucosaagainst alcohol, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and hydrochloric acid46-47.Rats given ginger extracts (gingerols) had enhanced bile secretion48.iii. Human data: A Chinese case series reported that an herbal mixture containing gingerwas effective in halting upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage49.There are no randomized controlled trials in humans evaluating ginger’s effectas a carminative or ulcer remedy.5. Neuropsychiatric: See Immune modulation: anti-inflammatory for migraine headaches.6. Endocrine: Hypoglycemici. In vitro data: noneii. Animal data: An Indian homeopathic journal reported in the late 1970’s that freshlysqueezed ginger juice had hypoglycemic effects in both diabetic and non-diabetic rats50.iii. Human data: There are no reports of hypoglycemia or interference with glycemic controlin humans who ingest ginger as part of their normal diet or as a dietary supplement.7) Hematologic: Antiplatelet: Some cautious physicians have advised that ginger may alterbleeding time and should not be used concurrently with anticoagulant medications51.i. In vitro data: Ginger extracts inhibited platelet cyclooxygenase production, thromboxanegeneration and platelet aggregation in a dose-dependent fashion52,53,54; gingerol alsoinhibited thromboxane-mediated platelet aggregation55.ii. Animal data: noneiii. Human data: In 20 healthy young male volunteers, ginger supplementation (5 gms daily)significantly inhibited the platelet aggregation induced by ADP (adenosine diphosphate)and epinephrine56. In human volunteers who took a huge (10 gram) one-time dose ofdried ginger, there was a marked inhibition of platelet aggregability22. Another studyshowed no significant impact of fresh or cooked ginger (doses up to 15 grams of freshginger or 40 grams of cooked ginger) on thrombotic activity or platelet thromboxaneproduction57.There are no reports of bleeding problems in persons consuming up to 5 gramsdaily of dried ginger58, however, ginger’s effects on platelet activation may havetherapeutic implications that bear further investigation for persons with atheroscleroticdisease. There may be differences in ginger’s effects depending on whether fresh or driedpreparations are used.8. Rheumatologic: none9. Reproductive: none10. Immune modulation: Anti-inflammatory for arthritis and headache: In Ayurvedic medicine,ginger is used as an anti-inflammatory remedy for arthritis and headache pain59.
i. In vitro data: Ginger extracts block the formation of inflammatory compounds such asthromboxane, leukotrienes and prostaglandins60-61.ii. Animal data: In the rat model of chronic severe inflammatory arthritis, ginger oileffectively reduced swelling and inflammation62. Ginger compounds also had antipyreticeffects comparable to aspirin in rats13,63.iii. Human data: A 42-year-old woman with a 16-year history of migraines experiencedenormous relief after supplementing her diet with 1.5 –2 grams of dried ginger daily59.Adult volunteers who ate 5 grams of raw ginger daily had a 25% reduction inthromboxane concentrations64. A case series of seven patients with rheumatoid arthritisreported improved symptoms following supplemental ginger65. In another case series of56 patients (28 with rheumatoid arthritis, 18 with osteoarthritis and 10 with musculardiscomfort) who were given powdered ginger supplements, more than three-quarters ofthe arthritis patients reported varying degrees of relief in pain and swelling; all thepatients with muscular discomfort experienced relief. None of the patients reportedadverse effects during the period of ginger consumption which ranged from three monthsto 2.5 years66.There are no randomized controlled trials evaluating the effectiveness of gingeragainst migraines or arthritis.11. Antimicrobial: Antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal: In many tropical countries, spicycondiments, including ginger, are used to preserve foods that spoil easily such as fruits andmeats67,68.a. Antivirali. In vitro data: Several of ginger’s sesquiterpenes displayed antirhinoviral effects69.ii. Animals data: noneiii. Human data: noneb. Antibacteriali. In vitro data: Ginger extracts have antibacterial effects against both gram positive andgram negative bacteria such as Clostridium, Listeria, Enterococcus, andStaphylococcus species, but some of this effect is destroyed by heating (eg.,cooking)13,67,70.ii. Animal data: noneiii. Human data: nonec. Antifungali. In vitro data: Some of ginger’s chemical constituents, diarylheptenones,gingerenones A, B and C and isogingerenone B, have displayed antifungal activity invitro71.ii. Animal data: noneiii. Human data: none12. Antineoplastic: Antineoplastici. In vitro data: Ginger inhibited Epstein-Barr virus activation72,73. Ginger compounds (6-gingerol and 6-paradol) had inhibitory effects on the viability and DNA synthesis ofhuman promyelocytic leukemia cells74,75. Ginger’s essential oil significantly suppressedformation of DNA adducts by aflatoxin B1 in a microsomal enzyme-mediated reaction76.ii. Animal data: Pre-treatment with an alcoholic extract of ginger provided significantprotection against experimentally-induced skin tumors in mice77-78. Other ginger familyplants, Alpinia oxyphylla, Zingiber zerumbet and Curcuma longa, also displayed potent
anti-tumor effects in mice79,80.iii. Human data: none13. Antioxidant: Antioxidanti. In vitro data: In human aortic endothelial cells, zingerone demonstrated significantantioxidant effects on low density lipoproteins81,82. In human erythrocyte membranes,ginger extracts inhibited lipid peroxidation by 72%83. In human chondrocytes, ginger’svolatile oil effectively prevented the production of hydrogen peroxide usually induced byfulvic acid84.ii. Animal data: In rats fed a high fat diet, supplementation with ginger provided significantantioxidant effects, raising tissue concentrations of superoxide dismutase and catalaseand reducing gluatathione85.iii. Human data: none14. Skin and mucus membranes: none15. Other/miscellaneous: Warming/diaphoretic: Ginger has traditionally been used in Asia as awarming remedy to treat chills associated with colds and flu.i. In vitro data: Ginger and its extracts induce significant thermogenesis in the isolated rathind limb model86.ii. Animal data: In rats, ginger significantly inhibited serotonin (5-HT) inducedhypothermia; shogaol compounds appeared to be responsible for this effect87. Within 30minutes of oral administration, ginger raised the body temperature of rats by 0.5 degreesCentigrade88. Gingerol increased body temperature and oxygen consumption in rats,indicating an increased metabolic rate86.iii. Human data: noneToxicity and ContraindicationsAll herbal products carry the potential for contamination with other herbal products, pesticides,herbicides, heavy metals, and pharmaceuticals.This is particularly concerning for imports from developing countries.Allergic reactions can occur to any natural product in sensitive personsAllergic reactions to ginger have been reported, but only as contact dermatitis in those withoccupational exposure to spices89.Potentially toxic compounds in ginger: NoneAcute toxicity: Aside from mild stomach upset in persons unaccustomed to spicy foods, gingerhas no known acute toxicity at the usual doses consumed for dietary or medicinalpurposes90. Very large doses of 6 grams or more of ginger may lead to gastric irritationand loss of protective gastric mucosa90. At normal doses (up to 2 grams daily), gingerdoes not interfere with blood clotting or any individual coagulation parameter58,22,57.The acute LD50 of ginger in rats is greater than 5 grams of ginger oil per kilogram ofbody weight13.Chronic toxicity: None reported; no significant mutagenic or carcinogenic activity91-92Limitations during other illnesses or in patients with specific organ dysfunction: Unknown; nonereported. Some herbalists advise against ginger for patients with cardiac conditions,gallstones or other biliary disease or patient with diabetes or hypoglycemia10,93,94;however, there are no reports of adverse effects of ginger in patients eating it as part oftheir diet or as a dietary supplement.Interactions with other herbs or pharmaceuticals: Unknown; none reported. Some herbalistsrecommend avoiding use by patients taking anticoagulant medications; no adverse
interactions have been reported.Safety during pregnancy, lactation and/or childhood: Unknown. Presumed safe based on its longhistory of use as food. Because of the reported uterotonic activity of a related species,Zingiber cassumunar, some herbalists recommend avoiding ginger duringpregnancy10,93,95. No adverse effects in pregnancy have been reported.Typical dosagesProvision of dosage information does NOT constitute a recommendation or endorsement, butrather indicates the range of doses commonly used in herbal practice.Doses are given for single herb use and must be adjusted when using herbs in combinations.Doses may also vary according to the type and severity of the condition treated and individualpatient conditions.Adult doses: There is disagreement on the optimal form and dose of ginger. Reputablephysicians and herbalists recommend a range of doses:Dried ginger: 250 milligrams four times daily by mouth 10. Some German herbalistsrecommend up to four times this amount 6. Chinese herbalists may use up to 10times this amount.Tea: 1 tsp of fresh ginger root boiled in 1 –2 cups of water for 10 –20 minutes. Cool for 5minutes and sweeten as desired. May be mixed with peppermint or chamomile.Ginger tincture: 1.5 – 3.0 mL per dose 10Candied ginger: A 1 inch square piece is presumably equivalent to 500 – 1000 of driedginger 96,8Pediatric dosages: UnknownAvailability of standardized preparations: NoDosages used in herbal combinations: VariableProprietary names: Travel Sickness, Travellers, ZintonaMulti-ingredient preparations containing ginger: Adenas, Adrenas, Cura, Digestive Aide,Donalg, Ginger syrup, Ginkgo plus herbal formula, Herbal Booster, Herbal Cleansee,Herbal digestive aide, Strong ginger tincture, Unex amarum, Vitaglow Herbal Laxative,Weak Ginger TinctureREFERENCES1. Duke JA, Ayensu ES. Medicinal Plants of China. Medicinal Plants of the World. Vol. 1. Algonac, MI:Reference Publications, Inc, 1985:362.2. Qureshi S, Shah AH, Tariq M, Ageel AM. Studies on herbal aphrodisiacs used in Arab system of medicine.Am J Chin Med 1989; 17:57-63.3. Kapil U, Sood AK, Gaur DR. Maternal beliefs regarding diet during common childhood illnesses. IndianPediatr 1990; 27:595-9.4. Johri RK, Zutshi U. An Ayurvedic formulation 'Trikatu' and its constituents. J Ethnopharmacol 1992;37:85-91.5. Murray MT. The healing power of herbs : the enlightened person's guide to the wonders of medicinalplants. Rocklin, CA: Prima Pub., 1995:xiv, 410.6. Blumenthal M. The complete German Commission E monographs : therapeutic guide to herbal medicines.Austin: American Botanical Council, 1998.7. Tyler VE. The honest herbal : a sensible guide to the use of herbs and related remedies. New York:Pharmaceutical Products Press, 1992:xviii, 375.8. Peirce A. The American Pharmaceutical Association practical guide to natural medicines. New York:William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1999.9. Evans WC. Trease and Evans' pharmacognosy. London ; Philadelphia: Baillière Tindall, 1989.10. Newall CA, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal medicines : a guide for health-care professionals. London:Pharmaceutical Press, 1996:ix, 296.11. Connell D, Sutherland M. A re-examination of gingerol, shogaol and zingerone, the pungent principles of
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Aust J Chem 1969; 22:1033-43.12. Yoshikawa M, Hatakeyama S, Chatani N, Nishino Y, Yamahara J. Qualitative and quantitative analysis ofbioactive principles in Zingiberis Rhizoma by means of high performance liquid chromatography and gasliquid chromatography. On the evaluation of Zingiberis Rhizoma and chemical change of constituentsduring Zingiberis Rhizoma processing. Yakugaku Zasshi 1993; 113:307-15.13. Mascolo N, Jain R, Jain SC, Capasso F. Ethnopharmacologic investigation of ginger (Zingiber officinale). JEthnopharmacol 1989; 27:129-40.14. Connell D. The chemistry of the essential oil and oleoresin of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). FlavourIndustry 1970; 1:677-93.15. Ding GH, Naora K, Hayashibara M, Katagiri Y, Kano Y, Iwamoto K. Pharmacokinetics of [6]-gingerolafter intravenous administration in rats. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1991; 39:1612-4.16. Kobayashi M, Ishida Y, Shoji N, Ohizumi Y. Cardiotonic action of [8]-gingerol, an activator of the Ca++-pumping adenosine triphosphatase of sarcoplasmic reticulum, in guinea pig atrial muscle. J Pharmacol ExpTher 1988; 246:667-73.17. Shoji N, Iwasa A, Takemoto T, Ishida Y, Ohizumi Y. Cardiotonic principles of ginger (Zingiber officinaleRoscoe). J Pharm Sci 1982; 71:1174-5.18. Tanabe M, Chen YD, Saito K, Kano Y. Cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitory component from Zingiberofficinale Roscoe. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1993; 41:710-3.19. Bhandari U, Sharma JN, Zafar R. The protective action of ethanolic ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract incholesterol fed rabbits. J Ethnopharmacol 1998; 61:167-71.20. Sambaiah K, Srinivasan K. Effect of cumin, cinnamon, ginger, mustard and tamarind in inducedhypercholesterolemic rats. Nahrung 1991; 35:47-51.21. Srinivasan K, Sambaiah K. The effect of spices on cholesterol 7 alpha hydroxylase activity and on serumand hepatic cholesterol levels in the rat. Internat J Vit Nutr Res 1991; 61:364-69.22. Bordia A, Verma SK, Srivastava KC. Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and fenugreek(Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) on blood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggregation in patients withcoronary artery disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1997; 56:379-84.23. Yamahara J, Huang QR, Li YH, Xu L, Fujimura H. Gastrointestinal motility enhancing effect of ginger andits active constituents. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1990; 38:430-1.24. Yamahara J, Rong HQ, Naitoh Y, Kitani T, Fujimura H. Inhibition of cytotoxic drug-induced vomiting insuncus by a ginger constituent. J Ethnopharmacol 1989; 27:353-5.25. Sharma SS, Kochupillai V, Gupta SK, Seth SD, Gupta YK. Antiemetic efficacy of ginger (Zingiberofficinale) against cisplatin- induced emesis in dogs. J Ethnopharmacol 1997; 57:93-6.26. Kawai T, Kinoshita K, Koyama K, Takahashi K. Anti-emetic principles of Magnolia obovata bark andZingiber officinale rhizome. Planta Med 1994; 60:17-20.27. Frisch C, Hasenohrl RU, Mattern CM, Hacker R, Huston JP. Blockade of lithium chloride-inducedconditioned place aversion as a test for antiemetic agents: comparison of metoclopramide with combinedextracts of Zingiber officinale and Ginkgo biloba. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1995; 52:321-7.28. Qian DS, Liu ZS. Pharmacologic studies of antimotion sickness actions of ginger. Chung Kuo Chung Hsi IChieh Ho Tsa Chih 1992; 12:95-8, 70.29. Huang Q, Iwamoto M, Aoki S, Tanaka N, Tajima K, Yamahara J. Anti-5-hydroxytryptamine effect ofgalanolactone, diterpenoid isolated from ginger. Chem Pharm Bull 1991; 39:397-9.30. Micklefield GH, Redeker Y, Meister V, Jung O, Greving I, May B. Effects of ginger on gastroduodenalmotility. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999; 37:341-6.31. Fischer-Rasmussen W, Kjaer SK, Dahl C, Asping U. Ginger treatment of hyperemesis gravidarum. Eur JObstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1991; 38:19-24.32. Meyer K, Schwartz J, Crater D, Keyes B. Zingiber officinale (ginger) used to prevent 8-Mop associatednausea. Dermatol Nurs 1995; 7:242-4.33. Pecoraro A, Patel J, Guthrie T, Ndubisi B. Efficacy of ginger as an adjunctive anti-emetic in acutechemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. ASHP Midyear Clinical Meeting 1998; 33:P-429E.34. Bone ME, Wilkinson DJ, Young JR, McNeil J, Charlton S. Ginger root--a new antiemetic. The effect ofginger root on postoperative nausea and vomiting after major gynaecological surgery. Anaesthesia 1990;45:669-71.35. Phillips S, Hutchinson S, Ruggier R. Zingiber officinale does not affect gastric emptying rate. Arandomised, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Anaesthesia 1993; 48:393-5.36. Arfeen Z, Owen H, Plummer JL, Ilsley AH, Sorby-Adams RA, Doecke CJ. A double-blind randomized
controlled trial of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesth Intensive Care1995; 23:449-52.37. Visalyaputra S, Petchpaisit N, Somcharoen K, Choavaratana R. The efficacy of ginger root in theprevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after outpatient gynaecological laparoscopy. Anaesthesia1998; 53:506-10.38. Anonymous. Monographs on the medicinal uses of plants. Exeter: European Scientific Cooperative onPhytotherapy, 1997.39. Schmid R, Schick T, Steffen R, Tschopp A, Wilk T. Comparison of Seven Commonly Used Agents forProphylaxis of Seasickness. J Travel Med 1994; 1:203-206.40. Grontved A, Hentzer E. Vertigo-reducing effect of ginger root. A controlled clinical study. ORL JOtorhinolaryngol Relat Spec 1986; 48:282-6.41. Grontved A, Brask T, Kambskard J, Hentzer E. Ginger root against seasickness. A controlled trial on theopen sea. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) 1988; 105:45-9.42. Mowrey DB, Clayson DE. Motion sickness, ginger, and psychophysics. Lancet 1982; 1:655-7.43. Holtmann S, Clarke AH, Scherer H, Hohn M. The anti-motion sickness mechanism of ginger. Acomparative study with placebo and dimenhydrinate. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) 1989; 108:168-74.44. Stewart JJ, Wood MJ, Wood CD, Mims ME. Effects of ginger on motion sickness susceptibility and gastricfunction. Pharmacology 1991; 42:111-20.45. Yamahara J, Mochizuki M, Rong HQ, Matsuda H, Fujimura H. The anti-ulcer effect in rats of gingerconstituents. J Ethnopharmacol 1988; 23:299-304.46. Yamahara J, Hatakeyama S, Taniguchi K, Kawamura M, Yoshikawa M. Stomachic principles in ginger. II.Pungent and anti-ulcer effects of low polar constituents isolated from ginger, the dried rhizoma of Zingiberofficinale Roscoe cultivated in Taiwan. The absolute stereostructure of a new diarylheptanoid. YakugakuZasshi 1992; 112:645-55.47. al-Yahya MA, Rafatullah S, Mossa JS, Ageel AM, Parmar NS, Tariq M. Gastroprotective activity of gingerzingiber officinale rosc., in albino rats. Am J Chin Med 1989; 17:51-6.48. Yamahara J, Miki K, Chisaka T, et al. Cholagogic effect of ginger and its active constituents. JEthnopharmacol 1985; 13:217-25.49. Gong QM, Wang SL, Gan C. A clinical study on the treatment of acute upper digestive tract hemorrhagewith wen-she decoction. Chung Hsi I Chieh Ho Tsa Chih 1989; 9:272-3, 260.50. Sharma M, Shukla S. Hypoglycemic effect of ginger. J Res Ind Med Yoga Homeopath 1977; 12:127-30.51. Miller LG. Herbal medicinals: selected clinical considerations focusing on known or potential drug-herbinteractions. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158:2200-11.52. Srivastava KC. Aqueous extracts of onion, garlic and ginger inhibit platelet aggregation and alterarachidonic acid metabolism. Biomed Biochim Acta 1984; 43:S335-46.53. Backon J. Ginger: inhibition of thromboxane synthetase and stimulation of prostacyclin: relevance formedicine and psychiatry. Med Hypotheses 1986; 20:271-8.54. Srivastava KC. Isolation and effects of some ginger components of platelet aggregation and eicosanoidbiosynthesis. Prostaglandins Leukot Med 1986; 25:187-98.55. Guh J-H, Ko F-N, Jong T-T, Ting C-M. Antiplatelet effect of gingerol isolated from Zingiber officinale. JPharmacy Pharmacology 1995; 47:329-32.56. Verma SK, Singh J, Khamesra R, Bordia A. Effect of ginger on platelet aggregation in man. Indian J MedRes 1993; 98:240-2.57. Janssen PL, Meyboom S, van Staveren WA, de Vegt F, Katan MB. Consumption of ginger (Zingiberofficinale roscoe) does not affect ex vivo platelet thromboxane production in humans. Eur J Clin Nutr1996; 50:772-4.58. Lumb AB. Effect of dried ginger on human platelet function. Thromb Haemost 1994; 71:110-1.59. Mustafa T, Srivastava KC. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in migraine headache. J Ethnopharmacol 1990;29:267-73.60. Kiuchi F, Shibuya M, Sankawa U. Inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis from ginger. Chem Pharm Bull(Tokyo) 1982; 30:754-7.61. Flynn D, Rafferty M, Boctor A. Inhibition of human neutrophil 5-liopxygenase activity by gingerdione,shogaol, capsaicin and related pungent compounds. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Med 1986; 24:195-8.62. Sharma JN, Srivastava KC, Gan EK. Suppressive effects of eugenol and ginger oil on arthritic rats.Pharmacology 1994; 49:314-8.63. Suekawa M, Ishige A, Yuasa K, Sudo K, Aburada M, Hosoya E. Pharmacological studies on ginger. I.
Pharmacological actions of pungent constitutents, (6)-gingerol and (6)-shogaol. J Pharmacobiodyn 1984;7:836-48.64. Srivastava KC. Effect of onion and ginger consumption on platelet thromboxane production in humans.Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1989; 35:183-5.65. Srivastava KC, Mustafa T. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and rheumatic disorders. Med Hypotheses 1989;29:25-8.66. Srivastava KC, Mustafa T. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders. MedHypotheses 1992; 39:342-8.67. Chen HC, Chang MD, Chang TJ. Antibacterial properties of some spice plants before and after heattreatment. Chung Hua Min Kuo Wei Sheng Wu Chi Mien I Hsueh Tsa Chih 1985; 18:190-5.68. Ejechi BO, Souzey JA, Akpomedaye DE. Microbial stability of mango (Mangifera indica L.) juicepreserved by combined application of mild heat and extracts of two tropical spices. J Food Prot 1998;61:725-7.69. Denyer CV, Jackson P, Loakes DM, Ellis MR, Young DA. Isolation of antirhinoviral sesquiterpenes fromginger (Zingiber officinale). J Nat Prod 1994; 57:658-62.70. Janes ME, Nannapaneni R, Johnson MG. Identification and characterization of two bacteriocin-producingbacteria isolated from garlic and ginger root. J Food Prot 1999; 62:899-904.71. Endo K, Kanno E, Oshima Y. Structures of antifungal diarylheptenones, gingerenones A, B, C andisogingerenone B, isolated from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale. Phytochemistry 1990; 29:797-9.72. Vimala S, Norhanom AW, Yadav M. Anti-tumour promoter activity in Malaysian ginger rhizobia used intraditional medicine. Br J Cancer 1999; 80:110-6.73. Murakami A, Morita H, Safitri R, Ramlan A, Koshimizu K, Ohigashi H. Screening for in vitro anti-tumorpromotingactivities of edible plants from Indonesia. Cancer Detect Prev 1998; 22:516-25.74. Lee E, Surh Y. Induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells by pungent vanilloids, 6-gingerol and 6-paradol.Cancer Letters 1998; 134:163-8.75. Surh YJ, Lee E, Lee JM. Chemoprotective properties of some pungent ingredients present in red pepperand ginger. Mutat Res 1998; 402:259-67.76. Hashim S, Aboobaker V, Madhubala R, Bhattacharya R, Rao A. Modulatory effects of essential oils fromspices on the formation of DNA adduct by an aflatoxin B1 in vitro. Nutr Cancer 1994; 21:169-75.77. Katiyar SK, Agarwal R, Mukhtar H. Inhibition of tumor promotion in SENCAR mouse skin by ethanolextract of Zingiber officinale rhizome. Cancer Res 1996; 56:1023-30.78. Surh Y-J, park K-K, Chun K-S, Lee J-M, Lee E, Lee S. Anti-trumo promoting activities of selectedpungent phenolic substances present in ginger. J Environ Path Tox Onc 1999; 18:131-9.79. Lee E, Park KK, Lee JM, et al. Suppression of mouse skin tumor promotion and induction of apoptosis inHL-60 cells by Alpinia oxyphylla Miquel (Zingiberaceae). Carcinogenesis 1998; 19:1377-81.80. Matthes H, Luu B, Ourisson G. Cytotoxic components of Zingiber zerumbet, curcuma deoaria and C.domestica. Phytochemistry 1980; 19:2643-50.81. Pearson D, Frankel E, Aeschbach R, JB G. Inhibition of endothelial cell-mediated oxidation of low-densitylipoprotein by rosemary and plant phenolics. J Agric Food Chem 1997; 45:578-82.82. Zhou Y, Xu R. Antioxidative effect of Chinese drugs. Chung Kuo Chung Yao Tsa Chih 1992; 17:368-9,373 inside backcover.83. Sujatha R, Srinivas L. Modulation of lipid peroxidation by dietary componenets. Toxicology in vitro 1995;9:231-36.84. Guo P, Xu J, Xu S, Wang K. Inhibition of hydrogen peroxide production in chondrocytes induced by fulvicacid by ginger volatile oil. China J Chinese Materia Medica 1997; 22:559-61.85. Jeyakumar S, Nalini N, Venugopal M. Antioxidant activity of ginger in rats fed a high fat diet. Med Sci Res1999; 27:341-44.86. Eldershaw TP, Colquhoun EQ, Dora KA, Peng ZC, Clark MG. Pungent principles of ginger (Zingiberofficinale) are thermogenic in the perfused rat hindlimb. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1992; 16:755-63.87. Huang Q, Matsuda H, Sakai K, Yamahara J, Tamai Y. The effect of ginger on serotonin inducedhypothermia and diarrhea. Yakugaku Zasshi 1990; 110:936-42.88. Kano Y, Zong QN, Komatsu K. Pharmacological properties of galenical preparation. XIV. Bodytemperature retaining effect of the Chinese traditional medicine, "goshuyu-to" and component crude drugs.Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1991; 39:690-2.89. Kanerva L, Estlander T, Jolanki R. Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from spices. Contact Derm
1996; 35:157-62.90. Desai HG, Kalro RH, Choksi AP. Effect of ginger & garlic on DNA content of gastric aspirate. Indian JMed Res 1990; 92:139-41.91. Nakamura H, Yamamoto T. Mutagen and anti-mutagen in ginger, Zingiber officinale. Mutat Res 1982;103:119-26.92. Nagabhushan M, Amonkar AJ, Bhide SV. Mutagenicity of gingerol and shogaol and antimutagenicity ofzingerone in Salmonella/microsome assay. Cancer Lett 1987; 36:221-33.93. Brinker FJ. Herb contraindications and drug interactions : with appendices addressing specific conditionsand medicines. Sandy, Or.: Eclectic Institute, 1997:146.94. McGuffin M, Hobbs C, Upton R, Goldberg A. American Herbal Products Association's Botanical SafetyHandbook. Boca Raton. New York: CRC Press, 1997:231.95. Kanjanapothi D. A uterine relaxant compound from Zingiber cassumunar. Planta Med 1987; 53:329-32.96. Robbers JE, Tyler VE. Tyler's Herbs of choice : the therapeutic use of phytomedicinals. New York:Haworth Herbal Press, 1999:x, 287.
Diambil dari: Kathi J. Kemper, MD, MPH Ginger Page 18Longwood Herbal Task Force: http://www.mcp.edu/herbal/default.htm Revised November 3, 1999, diakses dari: http://www.longwoodherbal.org/ginger/ginger.pdf
Rhizoma ZingiberisDefinitionRhizoma Zingiberis is the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe(Zingiberaceae) (1–5)SynonymsAmomum zingiber L. (1, 6), Zingiber blancoi Massk. (6).Selected vernacular namesAda, adrak, adu, African ginger, ajenjibre, ale, alea, allam, allamu, ardak,ardraka, ardrakam, ardrakamu, asunglasemtong, ata-le jinja, baojiang, beuing,chiang, citaraho, cochin ginger, common ginger, djae, gember, gengibre,gingembre, ginger, ginger root, gnji, gung, halia bara, halia, halija, hli, inchi,Ingberwurgel, inguere, inguru, Ingwer, jahe, Jamaica ginger, janzabeil, kallamu,kan chiang, kanga, kerati, khenseing, khiang, khing, khing-daeng, khing klaeng,khing phueak, khuong, kintoki, jion, konga, lahja, lei, luya, mangawizi,ngesnges, niamaku, oshoga, palana, palu, rimpang jahe, sa-e, sakanjabir, sge ugser,shengiang, shenjing, shoga, shonkyoh, shokyo, shouhkyoh, tangawizi,wai, zanjabeel, zangabil ee-e-tar, zingabil urratab, zingibil, zingiberis rhizoma,zinjabil, zingiber, zinam (1, 4, 6–13).DescriptionA perennial herb with a subterranean, digitately branched rhizome producingstems up to 1.50 m in height with linear lanceolate sheathing leaves (5–30cmlong and 8–20 mm wide) that are alternate, smooth and pale green. Flowerstems shorter than leaf stems and bearing a few flowers, each surrounded by athin bract and situated in axils of large, greenish yellow obtuse bracts, which areclosely arranged at end of flower stem forming collectively an ovate-oblongspike. Each flower shows a superior tubular calyx, split part way down oneside; an orange yellow corolla composed of a tube divided above into 3 linearoblong,blunt lobes; 6 staminodes in 2 rows, the outer row of 3 inserted atmouth of corolla; the posterior 2, small, horn-like; the anterior petaloid, purpleand spotted and divided into 3 rounded lobes; an inferior, 3-celled ovary withtufted stigma. Fruit a capsule with small arillate seeds (1, 7, 8).Plant material of interest: dried rhizomeGeneral appearanceGinger occurs in horizontal, laterally flattened, irregularly branching pieces; 3–
16cm long, 3–4cm wide, up to 2 cm thick; sometimes split longitudinally; paleyellowish buff or light brown externally, longitudinally striated, somewhatfibrous; branches known as “fingers” arise obliquely from the rhizomes, areflattish, obovate, short, about 1–3cm long; fracture, short and starchy withprojecting fibres. Internally, yellowish brown, showing a yellow endodermisseparating the narrow cortex from the wide stele, and numerous scatteredfibrovascular bundles, abundant scattered oleoresin cells with yellow contentsand numerous larger greyish points, vascular bundles, scattered on the wholesurface (1–5).Organoleptic propertiesOdour, characteristic aromatic; taste, pungent and aromatic (1–5); colour, internallypale yellow to brown (1, 4).Microscopic characteristicsCortex of isodiametric, thin-walled parenchyma cells contains abundant starchgranules, each with a pointed hilum up to 50μm long and 25μm wide and 7μmthick, and showing scattered secretion cells with suberized walls and yellowishbrown oleoresinous content, and scattered bundles of the leaf-traces accompaniedby fibres; endodermis, of pale brown, thin-walled cells with suberizedradial walls; stele, with parenchymatous ground tissue, numerous yellow oleoresinsecretion cells and numerous scattered, closed collateral vascular bundleswith nonlignified, reticulate, scalariform, and spiral vessels, often accompaniedby narrow cells; containing a dark brown pigment, and supported by thinwalledfibres with wide lumen, small oblique slit-like pits, and lignified middlelamella; some of the fibres are septate (1, 3, 4).Powdered plant materialPowdered ginger is yellowish white to yellowish brown; characterized bynumerous fragments of thin-walled parenchyma cells containing starch granules;fragments of thin-walled septate fibres with oblique slit-like pits; fragmentsof nonlignified scalariform, reticulate, and spiral vessels, oftenaccompanied by dark pigment cells; oleoresin in fragments or droplets with oilcells and resin cells scattered in parenchyma; numerous starch granules, simple,flat, oval, oblong with terminal protuberance, in which the hilum is pointed, 5–60μm usually 15–30μm long, 5–40μm (usually 18–25μm) wide, 6–12μm (usually8–10μm) thick with somewhat marked fine transverse striations (1–4).Geographical distributionThe plant is probably native to south-east Asia and is cultivated in the tropicalregions in both the eastern and western hemispheres. It is commercially grownin Africa, China, India, and Jamaica; India is the world’s largest producer (1, 4,6, 7, 10, 14).General identity testsRhizoma Zingiberis is identified by its macroscopic and organoleptic characteristics,including its characteristic form, colour, pungent taste, and volatile oilcontent; and by microchemical tests (1–5).Purity testsMicrobiologyThe test for Salmonella spp. in Rhizoma Zingiberis products should be negative.The maximum acceptable limits of other microorganisms are as follows (15–17). For preparation of decoction: aerobic bacteria—not more than 107/g;fungi—not more than 105/g; Escherichia coli—not more than 102/g. Preparationsfor internal use: aerobic bacteria—not more than 105/g or ml; fungi—not morethan 104/g or ml; enterobacteria and certain Gram-negative bacteria—not morethan 103/g or ml; Escherichia coli—0/g or ml.Foreign organic matterNot more than 2.0% (1). Powdered ginger is frequently adulterated with exhausted
ginger (8).Total ashNot more than 6.0% (2, 3).Acid-insoluble ashNot more than 2.0% (5).Water-soluble extractiveNot less than 10% (3, 4).Alcohol-soluble extractiveNot less than 4.5% (3).Pesticide residuesTo be established in accordance with national requirements. Normally, themaximum residue limit of aldrin and dieldrin in Rhizoma Zingiberis is not morethan 0.05 mg/kg (17). For other pesticides, see WHO guidelines on qualitycontrol methods for medicinal plants (15) and guidelines for predicting dietaryintake of pesticide residue (18)Heavy metalsRecommended lead and cadmium levels are not more than 10 and 0.3mg/kg,respectively, in the final dosage form of the plant material (15).Radioactive residuesFor analysis of strontium-90, iodine-131, caesium-134, caesium-137, andplutonium-239, see WHO guidelines on quality control methods for medicinalplants (15).Other purity testsChemical and moisture tests to be established in accordance with nationalrequirements.Chemical assaysContains not less than 2% v/w of volatile oil (1), as determined by the methoddescribed in WHO guidelines (15). Qualitative analysis by thin-layer chromatography(1); qualitative and quantitative gas chromatography and highperformanceliquid chromatography analyses of ginger oils for gingerols,shogaols, α-zingiberene, _-bisabolene, _-sesquiphellandrene, and ar-curcumene(19).Major chemical constituentsThe rhizome contains 1–4% essential oil and an oleoresin. The composition ofthe essential oil varies as a function of geographical origin, but the chief constituentsesquiterpene hydrocarbons (responsible for the aroma) seem to remainconstant. These compounds include (_)-zingiberene, (_)-ar-curcumene, (_)-_-sesquiphellandrene, and _-bisabolene. Monoterpene aldehydes and alcohols arealso present. The constituents responsible for the pungent taste of the drug andpossibly part of its anti-emetic properties have been identified as 1-(3_-methoxy-4_-hydroxyphenyl)-5-hydroxyalkan-3-ones, known as [3–6]-, [8]-,[10]-, and [12]-gingerols (having a side-chain with 7–10, 12, 14, or 16 carbonatoms, respectively) and their corresponding dehydration products, which areknown as shogaols (1, 4, 6, 14, 19). Representative structures of zingiberene,gingerols and shogaols are presented below.
Dosage forms
Dried root powder, extract, tablets and tincture (2, 14). Powdered ginger should be stored in well-closed containers (not plastic) which prevent access of moisture. Store protected from light in a cool, dry place (4, 5).
Medicinal uses
Uses supported by clinical data
The prophylaxis of nausea and vomiting associated with motion sickness (20– 23), postoperative nausea (24), pernicious vomiting in pregnancy (25), and seasickness (26, 27).
Uses described in pharmacopoeias and in traditional systems of medicine
The treatment of dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, vomiting, diarrhoea, spasms, and other stomach complaints (1, 2, 4, 9, 21). Powdered ginger is further employed in the treatment of colds and flu, to stimulate the appetite, as a narcotic antagonist (1, 2, 4, 6, 11, 12, 21), and as an anti-
inflammatory agent in the treatment of migraine headache and rheumatic and muscular disorders (9, 11, 12, 28).
Uses described in folk medicine, not supported by experimental or clinical data
To treat cataracts, toothache, insomnia, baldness, and haemorrhoids, and to increase longevity (9, 10, 12).
Pharmacology
Experimental pharmacology
Cholagogic activity
Intraduodenal administration of an acetone extract (mainly essential oils) of ginger root to rats increased bile secretion for 3 hours after dosing, while the aqueous extract was not active (29). The active constituents of the essential oil were identified as [6]- and [10]-gingerol (29).
Oral administration of an acetone extract of ginger (75 mg/kg), [6]-shogaol (2.5 mg/kg), or [6]-, [8]-, or [10]-gingerol enhanced gastrointestinal motility in mice (30), and the activity was comparable to or slightly weaker than that of metoclopramide (10mg/kg) and domperidone (30). The [6]-, [8]-, or [10]- gingerols are reported to have antiserotoninergic activity, and it has been suggested that the effects of ginger on gastrointestinal motility may be due to this activity (30, 31). The mode of administration appears to play a critical role in studies on gastrointestinal motility. For example, both [6]-gingerol and [6]- shogaol inhibited intestinal motility when administered intravenously but accentuated gastrointestinal motility after oral administration (6, 12, 32).
Antiemetic activity
The emetic action of the peripherally acting agent copper sulfate was inhibited in dogs given an intragastric dose of ginger extract (33), but emesis in pigeons treated with centrally acting emetics such as apomorphine and digitalis could not be inhibited by a ginger extract (34). These results suggest that ginger's antiemetic activity is peripheral and does not involve the central nervous system (11). The antiemetic action of ginger has been attributed to the combined action of zingerones and shogaols (11).
Anti-inflammatory activity
One of the mechanisms of inflammation is increased oxygenation of arachidonic acid, which is metabolized by cyclooxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase, leading to prostaglandin E2 and leukotriene B4, two potent mediators of inflammation (28). In vitro studies have demonstrated that a hot-water extract of ginger inhibited the activities of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase in the arachidonic acid cascade; thus its anti-inflammatory effects may be due to a decrease in the formation of prostaglandins and leukotrienes (35). The drug was also a potent inhibitor of thromboxane synthase, and raised prostacyclin levels without a concomitant rise in
prostaglandins E2 or F2α (36). In vivo studies have shown that oral administration of ginger extracts decreased rat paw oedema (37, 38). The potency of the extracts was comparable to that of acetylsalicylic acid. [6]- Shogaol inhibited carrageenin-induced paw oedema in rats by inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity (39). Recently, two labdane-type diterpene dialdehydes isolated from ginger extracts have been shown to be inhibitors of human 5- lipoxygenase in vitro (40).
Clinical pharmacology
Antinausea and antiemetic activities
Clinical studies have demonstrated that oral administration of powdered ginger root (940 mg) was more effective than dimenhydrinate (100 mg) in preventing the gastrointestinal symptoms of kinetosis (motion sickness) (22). The results of this study further suggested that ginger did not act centrally on the vomiting centre, but had a direct effect on the gastrointestinal tract through its aromatic, carminative, and absorbent properties, by increasing gastric motility and adsorption of toxins and acids (22).
In clinical double-blind randomized studies, the effect of powdered ginger root was tested as a prophylactic treatment for seasickness (26, 27). The results of one study demonstrated that orally administered ginger was statistically better than a placebo in decreasing the incidence of vomiting and cold sweating 4 hours after ingestion (27). The other investigation compared the effects of seven over-the-counter and prescription antiemetic drugs on prevention of seasickness in 1489 subjects. This study concluded that ginger was as effective as the other antiemetic drugs tested (26).
At least eight clinical studies have assessed the effects of ginger root on the symptoms of motion sickness. Four of these investigations showed that orally administered ginger root was effective for prophylactic therapy of nausea and vomiting. The other three studies showed that ginger was no more effective than a placebo in treating motion sickness (23, 41, 42). The conflicting results appear to be a function of the focus of these studies. Clinical studies that focused on the gastrointestinal reactions involved in motion sickness recorded better responses than those studies that concentrated primarily on responses involving the central nervous system.
The hypothesis that an increase in gastric emptying may be involved in the antiemetic effects of ginger has recently come under scrutiny. Two clinical studies demonstrated that oral doses of ginger did not affect the gastric emptying rate, as measured by sequential gastric scintigraphy (43) or the paracetamol absorption technique (44).
In a double-blind, randomized, cross-over trial, oral administration of powdered ginger (250 mg, 4 times daily) effectively treated pernicious vomiting in pregnancy (25). Both the degree of nausea and the number of vomiting attacks were significantly reduced (25). Furthermore, in a prospective, randomized, double-blind study, there were statistically significantly fewer cases of postoperative nausea and vomiting in 60 patients receiving ginger compared to a placebo (24). The effect of ginger on postoperative nausea and vomiting was reported to be as good as or better than that of metoclopramide (24, 45). In contrast, another double-blind randomized study
concluded that orally administered ginger BP (prepared according to the British Pharmacopoeia) was ineffective in reducing the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (46).
Anti-inflammatory activity
One study in China reported that 113 patients with rheumatic pain and chronic lower back pain, injected with a 5–10% ginger extract into the painful points or reaction nodules, experienced full or partial relief of pain, decrease in joint swelling, and improvement or recovery in joint function (11). Oral administration of powdered ginger to patients with rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders has been reported to provide varying degrees of relief from pain and swelling (28).
Contraindications
No information available.
Warnings
No information available.
Precautions
General
Patients taking anticoagulant drugs or those with blood coagulation disorders should consult their physician prior to self-medication with ginger. Patients with gallstones should consult their physician before using ginger preparations (21).
Drug interactions
Ginger may affect bleeding times and immunological parameters owing to its ability to inhibit thromboxane synthase and to act as a prostacyclin agonist (47, 48). However, a randomized, double-blind study of the effects of dried ginger (2 g daily, orally for 14 days) on platelet function showed no differences in bleeding times in patients receiving ginger or a placebo (49, 50). Large doses (12–14g) of ginger may enhance the hypothrombinaemic effects of anticoagulant therapy, but the clinical significance has yet to be evaluated.
Carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, impairment of fertility
The mutagenicity of ginger extracts is a controversial subject. A hot-water extract of ginger was reported to be mutagenic in B291I cells and Salmonella typhimurium strain TA 100, but not in strain TA 98 (51). A number of constituents of fresh ginger have been identified as mutagens. Both [6]-gingerol and shogaols have been determined to be mutagenic in a Salmonella/microsome assay (52), and increased mutagenesis was observed in an Hs30 strain of Escherichia coli treated with [6]-gingerol (53). However, the mutagenicity of [6]- gingerol and shogaols was suppressed in the presence of various concentrations of zingerone, an antimutagenic constituent of ginger (52). Furthermore, ginger juice was reported to be
antimutagenic and suppressed the spontaneous mutations induced by [6]-gingerol, except in cases where the mutagenic chemicals 2-(2-furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acryl amide and N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine were added to [6]-gingerol (54). Other investigators have also reported that ginger juice is antimutagenic (54, 55).
Pregnancy: teratogenic effects
In a double-blind randomized cross-over clinical trial, ginger (250mg by mouth, 4 times daily) effectively treated pernicious vomiting in pregnancy (25). No teratogenic aberrations were observed in infants born during this study, and all newborn babies had Apgar scores of 9 or 10 after 5 minutes (25).
Paediatric use
Not recommended for children less than 6 years of age.
Other precautions
No information available concerning drug and laboratory test interactions, or non-teratogenic effects on pregnancy or nursing mothers.
Adverse reactions
Contact dermatitis of the finger tips has been reported in sensitive patients (56).
Posology
For motion sickness in adults and children more than 6 years: 0.5 g, 2–4 times daily. Dyspepsia, 2–4g daily, as powdered plant material or extracts (21).
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