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Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine (INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE), alsocalled noradrenaline (BAN) (abbreviated NA, NAd,or norad), or 4,5--trihydroxy phenethylamine is acatecholamine with multiple roles including those asa hormone and a neurotransmitter.[1] It is the hor-mone and neurotransmitter most responsible forvigilantconcentration in contrast to its most chemically simi-lar hormone, dopamine, which is most responsible forcognitive alertness.[2]

Medically it is used in those with severehypotension. It

does this by increasingvascular tone(tension ofvascularsmooth muscle) through -adrenergic receptor activation.

Areas of the body that produce or are affected by nore-pinephrine are described as noradrenergic. The termsnoradrenaline (from the Latin) and norepinephrine (fromthe Greek) are interchangeable, with noradrenaline beingthe common name in most parts of the world. Howeverthe U.S. National Library of Medicine[3] has promotednorepinephrine as the favored name.

One of the most important functions of norepinephrineis its role as the neurotransmitter released from thesympathetic neurons to affect the heart. An increasein norepinephrine from the sympathetic nervous systemincreases the rate of contractions in the heart.[4] As astress hormone, norepinephrine affects parts of the brain,such as theamygdala, whereattentionand responses arecontrolled.[5] Norepinephrine also underlies thefight-or-flight response, along withepinephrine, directly increas-ingheart rate, triggering the release ofglucosefrom en-ergy stores, and increasing blood flow toskeletal muscle.It increases the brains oxygen supply.[6]

Norepinephrine is synthesized from dopamine bydopamine -hydroxylase in the secretory granules ofthe medullary chromaffin cells.[7] It is released fromtheadrenal medullainto the blood as a hormone, andis also a neurotransmitterin thecentral nervous systemand sympathetic nervous system, where it is releasedfrom noradrenergicneuronsin thelocus coeruleus. Theactions of norepinephrine are carried out via the bindingtoadrenergic receptors.

1 Medical uses

Norepinephrine is used forhypotensionas avasopressor

medication for patients with critical hypotension. It isgiven intravenously and acts on both 1 and 2 adren-ergic receptors to cause vasoconstriction. Its effects are

often limited to the increasing ofblood pressurethroughagonist activity on 1 and 2 receptors, and causing aresultant increase inperipheral vascular resistance. Athigh doses, and especially when it is combined withother vasopressors, it can lead to limb ischemia andlimb death. Norepinephrine is used mainly to treat pa-tients in vasodilatory shock states such as septic shockandneurogenic shock, while showing fewer adverse side-effects compared todopaminetreatment.[8]

2 Physiological effects

Norepinephrine is released when a host ofphysiologicalchanges are activated by a stressful event.

In the brain, this is caused in part by activation of an areaof thebrain stemcalled thelocus coeruleus(LC). Thisnucleus is the origin of most norepinephrine pathways inthe brain. Noradrenergic neurons project bilaterally (sendsignals to both sides of the brain) from the locus coeruleusalong distinct pathways to many locations, including thecerebral cortex,limbic system, and thespinal cord, form-

ing aneurotransmitter system.

Norepinephrine is also released from postganglionicneurons of the sympathetic nervous system, to trans-mit the fight-or-flight response in each tissue, respec-tively. Theadrenal medullacan also contribute to suchpost-ganglionic nerve cells, although they release nore-pinephrine into the blood.

2.1 Norepinephrine system

The noradrenergic neurons in the brain form a

neurotransmitter system, that, when activated, ex-erts effects on large areas of the brain. The effects aremanifested in alertness, arousal, and influences on thereward system.

The noradrenergic neurons originate both in the locuscoeruleusand thelateral tegmental field. The axons ofthe neurons in thelocus coeruleusact onadrenergic re-ceptorsin:

Amygdala

Cingulate gyrus

Cingulum

Hippocampus

1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulum_(anatomy)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cingulate_gyrushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_coeruleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_tegmental_fieldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_coeruleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_coeruleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_medullahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flighthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postganglionic_neuronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postganglionic_neuronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_coeruleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_stemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurogenic_shockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_shockhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_vascular_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agonisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_pressurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotensionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasopressorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotensionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_coeruleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_medullahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromaffin_cellshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_%CE%B2-hydroxylasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosynthesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_ratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_responsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_responsehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdalahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_neuronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_smooth_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_smooth_musclehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotensionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alertnesshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_controlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigilance_(psychology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholaminehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenethylaminehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxylhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Approved_Namehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Nonproprietary_Name

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2 2 PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Hypothalamus

Neocortex

Spinal cord

Striatum

Thalamus

SomeBrainstemnuclei

Cerebellum

On the other hand, axons of neurons of the lateraltegmental field act on adrenergic receptors inhypothalamus, for example.

This structure explains some of the clinical uses of nore-pinephrine, since a modification of this system affects

large areas of the brain.

2.2 Role in cognition

Cortical norepinephrine (NE) release during attentionparadigms (patterns) can increase the alteration detec-tion rate (frequency at which an alteration was selected)in multiple-cue probability learning during tasks involv-ing giving predictive cues (such as auditory or visual),and thereby enhance subsequent learning.[9] A. J. Yu etal. developed aBayesianframework to examine NE re-lease in instances of unexpected uncertainty, wherein a

drastic alteration in sensory information produces a largedisparity between top-down expectations and what actu-ally occurs.[10] The model predicts that NE levels spikewhen the predictive context is switched, then subside. Ithas also been shown that lesionsof thelocus coeruleusimpair thisattentional shift.[10]

Similarly, several studies have implicated the LC-NE sys-tem in eliciting the P300, a cortical event-related po-tential that responds to environmental stimuli with be-haviorally relevant, motivational, or attention-grabbingproperties.[11][12][13][14][15] The P300 may reflect updat-ing of prior knowledge regarding stimuli relevant for ac-

curate and efficient decision making. Several studieshave searched for a P300 generator within the brain andhave ultimately concluded that the potential must have asource that is distributed, synchronous and localized incortex.[16] This definition is ideally satisfied both func-tionally and anatomically by the LC neuromodulatory sys-tem. Given its broad projection pattern and the corre-lation between NE release and increased sensory signaltransmission,[17] it seems likely that noradrenergic corti-cal release is the neuronal mechanism of the P300.

Examination of the LCstonicfiring pattern has led tospeculation that it is important for the exploratory be-

havior essential for learning relations between sensory in-put, decision processing, motor output, and behavioralfeedback.[18] Tonic activation within the range of 05 Hz

has been shown to correlate with levels of drowsiness,accurate task performance, and, when slightly more el-evated, distractibility and erratic task performance. Fur-thermore, phasicactivation of the LC is observed in re-sponse to both highly salient, unconditioned and task-relevant stimuli. The phasic response occurs after stim-

ulation and precedes a behavioral response in a time-locked fashion.[19] As such, phasic activation of the LC-NE system is proposed to enhance signal processing andbehavioral responses specifically to task-relevant stim-uli. Given the contrasting functional roles of LC tonicand phasic activity, it is plausible that projections fromthis brain region are important for maintaining a bal-ance between exploratory and goal-directed behaviorsthat regulate probabilistic, environmental learning andcorresponding decision making.

The LC-NE system receives convergent input fromthe orbitofrontal (OFC) andanterior cingulate cortices

(ACC). The OFC has been associated with evaluationof reward. For example, Tremblay et al. found that theresponse magnitude of single-units in this region is var-ied with thehedonicvalue of a stimulus.[20] Additionally,neurons in this region are activated by rewarding stimuli,but not by identification of the stimulus nor correspond-ing response-preparation. Activation of the ACC appearsto reflect some evaluation ofcost-benefit. Several studiesshow ACC activation in response to performance error,negative feedback, or monetary loss.[21][22][23] Addition-ally, ACC responds to task difficulty.[24] Therefore, ACCactivation may serve to integrate evaluations of task dif-

ficulty with corresponding outcome information to gaugethe benefits of taking an action in regards to a particu-lar environmental stimulus. Conceivably, the functionsof the ACC and OFC are directly related to decision-making, and their projections to LC may modulate thephasic release of NE in order to gain-modulate corticalresponses to decision outcomes.

LC-NE may play a significant role in synchronizing cor-tical activity in response to a decision process. In com-putational modeling of decision, the most accurate andefficient decision mechanisms are mathematically de-finedrandom walkor drift-diffusionprocesses that uti-

lize single-layerneural networksto calculate the dispar-ity in evidence between two options.[25] NE release gatedby the LC-NE system is elicited after neurons processingsensory information have presumably reached a decisionthreshold.[26] Thus, the phasic burst can alter activationin all cortical processing layers in a temporally depen-dent manner, essentially collapsing the vast information-processing circuit to the outcome of a single-decisionlayer. Brown et al. found that the addition of a phasic LCmechanism was sufficient to yield optimal performancefrom a single-layer decision network.[27]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_networkshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection%E2%80%93diffusion_equationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_walkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-benefithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_cingulatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitofrontalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic_(physiology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic_(physiology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromodulation_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_makinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-related_potentialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-related_potentialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_shifthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_coeruleushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_brainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_tegmental_fieldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_tegmental_fieldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striatumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cordhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neocortexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus

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5

3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethylene glycol,MHPG or MOPEG (viaMAO)

Epinephrine(viaPNMT)[40]

In the periphery, VMA is the major metabolite of cat-

echolamines, and is excreted unconjugated in the urine.A minor metabolite (although the major one in the cen-tral nervous system) is MHPG, which is partly conjugatedto sulfate or glucuronide derivatives and excreted in theurine.[41]

6 Nutritional sources

Shown here is the chemical structure of L-tyrosine. The

biosynthesisof norepinephrine depends upon the presence of L-

tyrosine, an amino acid building-block of many proteins in meat,

nuts, and eggs, for example.

The synthesis of norepinephrine depends on the presence

oftyrosine, an amino acid found in proteins such as meat,nuts, and eggs. Dairy products such as cheese also con-tain high amounts of tyrosine (the amino acid is namedfor tyros, the Greek word for cheese). However, adulthumans readily synthesize tyrosine fromphenylalanine,an essential amino acid. Tyrosine is the precursor todopamine, which in turn is a precursor to epinephrine andnorepinephrine.

See also

Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachy-cardia

History of catecholamine research

7 References

[1] Norepinephrine definition. dictionary.reference.com.Retrieved 24 November 2008.

[2] http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/523887_4

[3] RxNorm_full_prescribe_01072013.zip. U.S. NationalLibrary of Medicine. Retrieved 22 January 2013.

[4] Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2006). Chapter 10:Rhythmical Excitation of the Heart. In Gruliow, Re-becca. Textbook of Medical Physiology(Book) (11th ed.).

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Elsevier Inc. p. 122. ISBN0-7216-0240-1.

[5] Tanaka M, Yoshida M, Emoto H, Ishii H (September2000). Noradrenaline systems in the hypothalamus,amygdala and locus coeruleus are involved in the provo-cation of anxiety: basic studies. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 405(1-3): 397406. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00569-0.PMID 11033344.

[6] The Hormone Foundation. The Endocrine System &Types of Hormones.

[7] Introduction to Autonomic Pharmacology(PDF). Else-vier International. Link redirected to commercial site!

[8] De Backer, Daniel; et al. (4 March 2010). Compari-son of Dopamine and Norepinephrine in the Treatmentof Shock. New England Journal of Medicine 362 (9):11.doi:10.1056/nejmoa0907118.

[9] Devauges V, Sara SJ, Activation of the noradrenergic sys-tem facilitates an attentional shift in the rat. Behav. BrainRes., 1990 Jun 18;39(1):1928.

[10] Yu, A. J.; Dayan, P. (2005). Uncertainty, neuro-modulation, and attention. Neuron 46 (4): 68192.doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.04.026.PMID 15944135.

[11] Johnson, R.; Jr (1993). On the neural generatorsof the P300 component of the event-related potential.Psychophysiology 30 (1): 9097. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1993.tb03208.x.PMID 8416066.

[12] Pineda, J.A.; Foote, S.L.; Neville, H.J. (1989). Effects

of Locus Coeruleus Lesions on Auditory Event-RelatedPotentials in Monkey. J. Neurosci9 (1): 8193. PMID2563282.

[13] Swick, D., Pineda, J. a, Schacher, S., & Foote, S. L.(1994). Locus coeruleus neuronal activity in awake mon-keys: relationship to auditory P300-like potentials andspontaneous EEG. Experimental brain research. Ex-perimentelle Hirnforschung. Exprimentation crbrale,101(1), 8692.

[14] Duncan-Johnson, C.C.; Donchin, E. (1977). On quanti-fying surprise: The variation of event-related potentialswith subjective probability. Psychophysiology 14 (5):

456467. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1977.tb01312.x.PMID 905483.

[15] Pineda, J.A., Shafer, K., & Belamonte, M (1993). No-radrinergic modulation of auditory and visual P300 inparietal-temporal cortex. Society for Neuroscience Ab-stracts, 19, 1607.

[16] Lutzenberger, W., Elbert, T., Rockstroth, B. (1987). Abrief tutorial on the implications of volume conductionfor the interpretation of the EEG. Journal of Psychophys-iology, 33. S56.

[17] Berridge, C.W., Waterhouse, B.D. (2003) The locus

coeruleus-noradrenergic system: modulation of behav-ioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes. BrainResearch Reviews, 42. 3384.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/905483https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1111%252Fj.1469-8986.1977.tb01312.xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2563282https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8416066https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1111%252Fj.1469-8986.1993.tb03208.xhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1111%252Fj.1469-8986.1993.tb03208.xhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15944135https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016%252Fj.neuron.2005.04.026https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1056%252Fnejmoa0907118https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.fleshandbones.com/readingroom/pdf/225.pdfhttp://www.hormone.org/endocrine_system.cfmhttp://www.hormone.org/endocrine_system.cfmhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hormone_Foundationhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11033344https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016%252FS0014-2999%252800%252900569-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7216-0240-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/umls/rxnorm/docs/rxnormfiles.htmlhttp://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/523887_4http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Norepinephrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_catecholamine_researchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholaminergic_polymorphic_ventricular_tachycardiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catecholaminergic_polymorphic_ventricular_tachycardiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopaminehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalaninehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosynthesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylethanolamine_N-methyltransferasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAO-Ahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethylene_glycol

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6 8 EXTERNAL LINKS

[18] Usher, M.; Cohen, J. D.; Servan-Schreiber,D.; Rajkowski, J.; Aston-Jones, G. (1999).The role of locus coeruleus in the regula-tion of cognitive performance. Science 283(5401): 54954. Bibcode:1999Sci...283..549U.doi:10.1126/science.283.5401.549.PMID 9915705.

[19] Clayton, E. C., Rajkowski, J., Cohen, J. D., & Aston-Jones, G. (2004). Phasic activation of monkey locusceruleus neurons by simple decisions in a forced-choicetask. J.Neurosci. 24(44), 991420.

[20] Tremblay, L., Schultz, W., (1999). Relative reward pref-erence in primate orbitofrontal cortex. Nature, 398. 704708.

[21] Eisenberger, N. I.; Lieberman, M. D.; Williams,K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? AnFMRI study of social exclusion. Science 302(5643): 2902. Bibcode:2003Sci...302..290E.

doi:10.1126/science.1089134.PMID 14551436.

[22] Falkenstein M, Hohnsbein J, Hoorman J, Blanke L.(1991). Effects of crossmodal divided attention on lateERP components: II. Error processing in choice reactiontasks. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 78:44755

[23] Gehring, WJ; Goss, B; Coles, MGH; Meyer, DE;Donchin, E. (1993). A neural system for error detectionand compensation. Psychol. Sci4: 38590.

[24] Barch, DM; Braver, TS; Nystrom, LE; Forman, SD; Noll,DC; Cohen, JD (1997). Dissociating working memory

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[25] Bogacz, R., Cohen, J.D., (2004). Parameterization ofconnectionist models. Behav. Res. Methods, Instru-ments, & Computers, 36(4), pp. 732741.

[26] Nieuwenhuis, S.; Aston-Jones, G.; Cohen, J. D. (2005).Decision making, the P3, and the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine system. Psychological Bulletin 131 (4):51032. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.510. PMID16060800.

[27] Brown, E. T., Gilzenrat, M. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2004).The locus coeruleus, adaptive gain, and the optimizationof simple decision tasks. Technical Report No. 0402.

[28] Zauner, C., Schneeweiss, B., Kranz, A., Madl, C.,Ratheiser, K., Kramer, L., ... & Lenz, K. (2000). Restingenergy expenditure in short-term starvation is increasedas a result of an increase in serum norepinephrine. TheAmerican journal of clinical nutrition, 71(6), 1511-1515.

[29] Welle, S., Lilavivat, U., & Campbell, R. G. (1981). Ther-mic effect of feeding in man: increased plasma nore-pinephrine levels following glucose but not protein or fatconsumption. Metabolism, 30(10), 953-958.

[30] Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: ChurchillLivingstone. ISBN 0-443-07145-4. Page 167

[31] Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Rang, H. P.(2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Living-stone.ISBN 0-443-07145-4.Page 129

[32] Heneka MT, Nadrigny F, Regen T, Martinez-HernandezA, Dumitrescu-Ozimek L, Terwel D, Jardanhazi-KurutzD, Walter J, Kirchhoff F, Hanisch UK, Kummer MP.(2010). Locus ceruleus controls Alzheimers diseasepathology by modulating microglial functions throughnorepinephrine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 17:60586063doi:10.1073/pnas.0909586107 PMID 20231476

[33] Sharma B, Satish A, Kumar R (1999). Dictionary ofDrugs. Anmol Publications.ISBN 81-261-1820-2.

[34] Gaddum JH (June 1956). The Prefix 'Nor' inChemical Nomenclature. Nature 177 (1046):10461046. Bibcode:1956Natur.177.1046G.doi:10.1038/1771046b0.

[35] Matthiessen A, Foster GC (1868). Researches into the

chemical constitution of narcotine and of its products ofdecomposition. Journal of the Chemical Society 358.

[36] These values are from rat heart. Unless else specified intable, then ref is: Rang, H. P. (2003). Pharmacology.Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-07145-4. Page 167

[37] Unless else specified in table, then ref is: Rang, H. P.(2003). Pharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Living-stone.ISBN 0-443-07145-4. Page 167

[38] Unless else specified in boxes, then ref is: Rod Flower;Humphrey P. Rang; Maureen M. Dale; Ritter, James

M. (2007). Rang & Dales pharmacology. Edinburgh:Churchill Livingstone.ISBN 0-443-06911-5.

[39] Figure 11-4 in: Rod Flower; Humphrey P. Rang; Mau-reen M. Dale; Ritter, James M. (2007). Rang & Dalespharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN0-443-06911-5.

[40] Endokrynologia KlinicznaISBN 83-200-0815-8, page502

[41] Chapter 11 in: Rod Flower; Humphrey P. Rang; Mau-reen M. Dale; Ritter, James M. (2007). Rang & Dalespharmacology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN0-443-06911-5.

8 External links

Mental Health: A report of surgeon general. Etiol-ogy of Anxiety Disorders

http://www.biopsychiatry.com/nordop.htm

http://www.biopsychiatry.com/nordop.htmhttp://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.htmlhttp://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-06911-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8320008158https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-06911-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-06911-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-07145-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-07145-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-07145-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=tKsOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepagehttp://books.google.com/?id=tKsOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepagehttp://books.google.com/?id=tKsOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepagehttps://dx.doi.org/10.1038%252F1771046b0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1956Natur.177.1046Ghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-261-1820-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=3JvArcoG2voC&printsec=frontcover#PPA166http://books.google.com/?id=3JvArcoG2voC&printsec=frontcover#PPA166https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20231476?dopt=Abstracthttps://dx.doi.org/10.1073%252Fpnas.0909586107https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.pnas.org.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/content/107/13/6058.full.pdfhttp://www.pnas.org.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/content/107/13/6058.full.pdfhttp://www.pnas.org.libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/content/107/13/6058.full.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-07145-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-07145-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16060800https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1037%252F0033-2909.131.4.510https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9347483https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016%252FS0028-3932%252897%252900072-9https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%252FS0028-3932%252897%252900072-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14551436https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1126%252Fscience.1089134https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Sci...302..290Ehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcodehttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9915705https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1126%252Fscience.283.5401.549https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Sci...283..549Uhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode

8/9/2019 8 Norepinephrine

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9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text

NorepinephrineSource:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine?oldid=644447020Contributors:AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Mav,Tarquin, Alex.tan, Michael Hardy, Looxix, MichaK, Alexis rtenholm, Josh Cherry, Fredrik, Tomchiukc, Romanm, Plandu, Diberri,TimGrin, Bradleyosborn, DocWatson42, MSGJ, SoCal, Bensaccount, Jfdwolff, Eequor, Delta G, PFHLai, Sayeth, Discospinster, Cacy-cle, Paul August, Mashford, Fenice, MisterSheik, Evand, CDN99, Davidruben, Arcadian, Kjkolb, PatrickFisher, Michaledwardmarks,Walkerma, Fantumphool, Alvis, MarcoTolo, Scottanon, Deltabeignet, Rjwilmsi, Crazyvas, Eyu100, Heah, Nimur, Sbrools, DustWolf,WriterHound, YurikBot, Wavelength, Ashleyisachild, Charles Gaudette, AbinoamJr, Hede2000, Euthanatos, Varnav, A314268, , JulesH, SVI, Richardcavell, WanderingHermit, Andrew73, Dlainhart, SmackBot, Shoy, Eskimbot, Cessator, Edgar181, Pee-Jay2K3, Bloomingdedalus, Teemu08, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Bruce Marlin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tamfang, Roadnottaken,Drphilharmonic, Acdx, Attys, SuperTycoon, Scientizzle, ER MD, Beetstra, BranStark, Michaelbusch, J Di, AStudent, Freecat, WeggeBot,Hopkapi, Anthonyhcole, Skittleys, Quibik, Christian75, Heathniederee, Wyvyrn, XanaDrew, Ktai, D Anthony Patriarche, Delegeferenda,Hoffmeier, Gcm, Noobeditor, VoABot II, Albmont, Think outside the box, CatWhisperer, BobArctor, RossMM, Markus451, Panpaniscus,Gwern, Nikpapag, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, 1.1.1, Nbauman, Mrs.meganmmc, Mikael Hggstrm, Tarotcards, LittleHow, Belovedfreak,The Right Honourable, Thedeejay, Burzmali, VolkovBot, Parker007, Rossmcd, JhsBot, Leafyplant, Wingedsubmariner, Flamingnerd,Doc James, SieBot, YonaBot, BotMultichill, Kwijiboamigo, Ponzpons, Miniapolis, COBot, Chem-awb, ClueBot, Gingerjess, Master1228,Lartoven, Sun Creator, Razorflame, The Red, SchreiberBike, AC+79 3888, Runefrost, Vanished 45kd09la13, Vojtch Dostl, Facts707,Porejide, PL290, Addbot, C6541, DOI bot, Wickey-nl, Looie496, CUSENZA Mario, 5 albert square, Ajaybsc, Tide rolls, Xxxx00, Luke-blue9254, Chaldor, Luckas-bot, Yobot, CheMoBot, Amirobot, Anypodetos, TomRau, AnomieBOT, The Son of Man, Casforty, Rubinbot,Choij, Citation bot, Goldenphoenix86, Xqbot, Erud, J, Harbinary, Makeswell, GrouchoBot, AdmiralProudmore, Iraqidude, Riventree,

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9.2 Images

File:Catecholamines_biosynthesis.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Catecholamines_biosynthesis.svgLicense:CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors:own workOriginal artist: NEUROtiker

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Reference: Rod Flower; Humphrey P. Rang; Maureen M. Dale; Ritter, JamesM. (2007)Rang& Dales pharmacology, Edinburgh: ChurchillLivingstone ISBN: 0-443-06911-5. Original artist:Mikael Hggstrm.

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File:Norepinephrine_structure_with_descriptor.svgSource:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Norepinephrine_structure_with_descriptor.svgLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:Own work, based onImage:Noradrenaline chemical structure.pngOriginal artist:Acdx

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