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Physical and urban
Infrastructure
H M K G G BandaraConsultant (Road & Transport)
Road and Highways
Development in Transportation• Transportation of Ceylon prior to 1850 remained as it had
for several centuries• Economy was one of local consumption• Distance were not great• Speed not essential
• A system of main roads did exist connecting principal towns
• With the shifting of economic climate towards export of raw material such as rubber, coffee, tea, coconut more rapid and efficient means of transport were required
• Marine shipments along coastal and inland waterways• Bullock cart and railway on land
22/04/2023 4
Road Network in Mid 19th Century
Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe
Based on Tea/Rubber as Export crops rather than those for local
consumption
Connected Administrative Centres
Centred on Port for Export/Import
Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe
Development in Transportation• Early in the 19th century the motor vehicle – Lorry
altered the concept of passenger and goods transportation
• Road construction preceded vehicles, because of the need for permanent roads which could withstand the torrential rains
• By 1905 there were 3765 miles of major roads in Ceylon ( Sri Lanka)
Road Development• The first passenger car was imported into Sri Lanka
(Ceylon ) in 1902
• By the time of the advent of the motor lorry in 1907, the beginnings of a planned constructed, all-weather, motorable road system had been started
• The road system was gradually and progressively extended and improved so that during the period after 1945, it was reasonably able to accommodate an unprecedented motor vehicle growth
1946 1963 1971 1981 1991 1996
All roads 10,730 20,123 21,496 65,890 94,651 100,000
“A” class 1,400 1,800 2,201 3,798 4,116 4,220
‘B’ class 1,300 2,700 3,100 5,059 6,465 6,908
‘C’ class 1,800 3,500 4,488 10,856 5,012 8,457
‘D’ class 2,600 3,800 2,972 7,606 9,078 5,346
Others 3,630 8,413 8,735 38,571 69,980 75,069
Road lengths in selected years
Sources: Arjuna Atlas Sri Lanka, RDA, Central Bank of Sri Lanka
Historical Land Marks• First car was imported to Ceylon in 1902• Motor Lorry came in 1907• Bridge of boats near Colombo to cross the Kelani River
was completed in the year 1822. The bridge of boats was used till 1895
• The Kandy road via Kurunegala and Galagedara was completed in the year 1831
• The Kandy road through Kadugannawa also completed in the year 1831. The construction of the road took about eleven years
• The first lattice girder bridge by the name Victoria Bridge was built in 1895 over the Kelani River
Bridge of Boats
Evolution of Kaleni Bridge • Japan-Sri Lanka Friendship Bridge
• Reasons to replace • To cater for the increasing traffic demand with enhanced capacity. Total
number of lanes 4nos.
• Japan – Sri Lanka friendship Bridge was built under two phases and open to traffic in September 2000.
•
12
The History of Formulation of Transportation Policies for Sri Lanka
Objectives of Road Construction – British Era
The British had several motives in developing a transport network in the island.
First three decades of the nineteenth century – Political and Military considerations.
• Roads constructed to hold the island together as a single unit.• Colombo-Trincomalee road was built to reduce the cost of moving troops and supplies round the island.• Roads constructed to link the garrisons in several inaccessible areas to Colombo.
The History of Formulation of Transportation Policies for Sri Lanka
• With the establishment of centralized political authority, Economic and Commercial considerations were given the priorityTrade Plantation AgriculturePeasant Agriculture
• However, possibility of toll revenue in the construction of many major roads was a major factor taken into consideration.
• The economic policies, tax, and land use policies made strong influence on the decisions related to road construction and maintenance
• However, it can be evidently proven that more money was spent and more roads were constructed in the plantation districts. They were also favored with better roads
22/04/2023 13
Land Transport -Road Network in Sri Lanka
Total Road length Approximately 116,000 km
National Highways------------------------------ 12,165 km• Class “A” Roads - 4220.0 km• Class “B” Roads - 7800.0 km• Class “E” Expressways – 160 km• Under Road Development Authority
Provincial Roads (Class C & D )----------------- 15,532 km
Pradeshiya Sabah/Local Government Roads--- 84,380 km
Other Sectors---------------------------------------- 4,000 km
(Mainly Irrigation, Mahaweli & Estate roads)
CountryRoad
Density in km/km2
Bangladesh 1.36Bhutan 0.05India 0.73Nepal 0.06Sri Lanka 1.50Pakistan 0.32
Road Densities of Selected South Asian Countries
Source: International Road Federation, World Road Statistics – 2001 Edition
Road distribution Class “A” & “B” Roads
Provincial Distribution of National Road Network
• Road lengths in kms
ProvinceRoads
A Class B Class Total Western 374.48 1208.75 1583.23 Central 408.57 1330.79 1739.36 Southern 346.88 1018.5 1365.38 Northern 734.49 524.12 1258.61 Eastern 619.55 551.13 1170.68 North Western 353.22 971.09 1324.31 North Central 495.20 698.64 1193.84 Uva 471.04 693.19 1164.23 Sabaragamuwa 415.57 804.18 1219.75
Total 4219 7800.39 12019.39
Proposed Expressway
NetworkIn addition to national Highway Network , it has been planned to
develop approximately
800kms of Expressway network
for Sri Lanka to augment the Road
Network & presently under different stages
of development
ACCESS AND MOBILITY
• Access is a fixed requirement, necessary at both ends of any trip.
• Mobility along the path of such trips is defined in terms of "level of service." It can incorporate a wide range of indicators:
• Road condition,• Travel speed, • Degree of congestion, and so forth.
Classification• Arterials- emphasize the mobility
function and should have the highest traffic volumes, the greatest amount of commercial traffic, and the longest average trip lengths.
• local roads- emphasize the land access function
• collectors -offer a compromise between both functions
Classification
PURPOSES OF FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION • Delineation of public responsibilities in the provision and standard of public
roads. • Assignment of a road’s ownership and responsibility for its management
and financing. • System planning for the road using travel modes, including non-motorized
traffic; access management (access control); and, coordination with other modes of transport.
• Assistance to road users for selecting a travel route from origin to destination.
• Assignment of (uniform) minimum standards, including permissible vehicle axle loads, weights and dimensions.
• Determination of the size of the public road network and its quality commensurate with what the country can afford at the time.
CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE AND PROCESS
• Location of centers considering• for administration, social and economic activities such
as education and health, commerce and trade, manufacturing, private and public services, and important transport junctions such as ports, rail stations and border crossings.
• Divide them into groups by their importance at national, regional, provincial, and district level
• Provide standards-It is important that the standards adopted are linked to current road standards and what the country can afford at the time.
ACCESS AND MOBILITY
Functional Classification• Demand for road access changes with economic growth
and increasing prosperity, with relocation of population, economic activities and trade routes, and with expansion of urban areas and concerns for the environment.
• The functional classification must thus be updated periodically to take account of changes in transport demands and the road network to fulfill its role as a management tool.
26
Vehicle Trips between Districts/day2011 2031
Source :Prof. A. Kumarage
Classification system • Countries often have their own names for classes
• Arterials:• Motorways and other divided arterials; • Principal arterials; • Minor arterials
• Collectors: • Major collectors; • Minor collectors
• Locals: • Public local roads; • Private local roads;
• Other: Bicycle and pedestrian paths
Road network Sri Lanka• We have very good access function• But Mobility is very limited• Need to carry out functional clasification
Dominant Modes of Land Transportation in Sri Lanka
1. Road2. Rail
Demand Road RailPassenger Demand 92% 8%
Freight Demand 98% 2%
Demand Share
TRANSPORT DEMAND FOR ROADS
• Passenger Transport = 92%• Freight Transport = 98 %Road Transport has advantages over Railway
- Well spread road network- Personalized use of road transport- Reliability attached to road transport- Deterioration of rail transport -Low direct and indirect cost involve in road transport
TRANSPORT DEMAND FOR ROADS Cont….• Increase in Vehicle
PopulationVehicle increase by
- Capacity (GVW)
- Size
- Speed
Vehi-population
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
3000000
3500000
4000000
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Year
Vehi
cle
popu
latio
n
Vehi-population
Increase in income of the people
Deterioration of public services- Start of using motor bicycle 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
0200400600800
10001200140016001800
GDP pre Capita (US$)
STRATAGY FOR MEETING THE DEMAND CONSIDERED • Major rehabilitation and improvements including
realignment and deviation to existing trunk & main roads
• Construction of system of Ring Roads / Bye-Pass to city , Major Towns and Urban Centres
• Construction of Expressways / Highways as alternative to supplement the trunk roads
• Improvement to Urban Traffic Flows
Proposed Expressway
NetworkIt has been planned to
develop approximately 800kms of Expressway network for Sri Lanka to augment the Road Network. Presently, construction of Expressway network is under different stages of development.
Development of expressways• With the liberalization of vehicle imports in 1978, the active
vehicle fleet has increased in very rapid rate • Traffic volumes on the trunk road system of the country has
increased considerably• It has been realized that rehabilitation of existing trunk
route system to cope up with future traffic needs at a meaning full level of service is a daunting task mainly due to the inherent deficiencies in their alignment and widths that cannot be rectified without resorting to large scale acquisition and demolition of buildings and re-locating service utilities involving greater social and economic repercussions.
Development of expressways• The existing system to trunk roads will not be
adequate to cater for the increasing traffic demand as some of the important trunk roads have reached the capacity at that time
• To provide this additional capacity the expressway network was development
Construction of Expressways/Highways • Construction of first ever Expressway in Sri Lanka , Southern Expressway- From Colombo
to Galle has been completed and opened to public on 27th of November 2011 and Balance section from Galle to Matara opened for public on 15th March 2014.
• Colombo – Katunayake expressway opened for the public on 27th October 2013.
• Phase I of Outer Circular Highway opened for public on 8th March 2014.
• The other Expressway and Highway projects which are at various stages of construction at the moment are;
• Balance sections of Outer Circular Highway to the city of Colombo• Southern Expressway Extension with link to Hambantota• Expressway to Kandy and Northern • Hambantota - Batticaloa Expressway• Expressway link to Ratnapura
Southern Expressway
The location map of Southern
Expressway(STDP)
Total length =126.3 km +4.0 km Galle access roadTotal cost = Rs 95.3 bn
Interchangers = 11 nos
For the use of the expressway it is necessary to pay a fee. The fee is based on the length of use of the expressway
5.93 7.745 21.112 11.213 21.575 12.2 16.105
9.3
Kot
taw
a
Kah
atud
uwa
Dod
ango
da
Wel
ipen
na
Bad
dega
ma
Pin
nadu
wa
Gel
anig
ama
Kuru
ndga
hahe
tekm
a
All distances in km
Bandaragama (HO)
Galle
Ben
tota
Gan
ga
Brid
ge (5
2.98
0 km
)
6.98 14.595
Police Patrolling RDA Patrolling Crew
Interchanges, Traffic Operation Centre & Emergency Centres
Interchange(IC)
IC with Emergency Center
IC with Operation Center
OUTER CIRCULAR HIGHWAY
Second section has a length of 8.9 km ( 4.9km Elevated). Construction works are in progress under JICA funding. Contract Price is Rs 44.88 bn
The project will be implemented on 3 sections
The third section from Kadawatha to Kerawalapitiya has a length of 9.2 km. (5.9 elevated) The tentative cost of this section is Rs. 66.69 bn. It is expected to get funding assistance from China for the construction of the section
Construction is ongoing for the first section of 11 km (3.2 km elevated) with funding assistance from JICA. Cost for this section is Rs.24.9bn.
OCH Project Phase I
Via duct Section
OCH Project Phase I
Kottawa IC
KATUNAYAKE I.C
JA – ELA I.C.
PELIYAGODA I.C.
NEW KELANI BRIDGE I.C.
LOCATION MAP
Colombo – Katunayake Expressway Project
46
• Loan Funding: Exim Bank of China• Loan Amount: US$ 248.2 Mn• Total Project Cost: US$ 292 Mn• Total Length (km): 25.8• Numbers of lanes: 4• Maximum allowable Speed : 100 km/h• Contractor: China Metallurgical Group
Corporation (MCC)
• Photographs
Colombo – Katunayake Expressway Cont’d
Southern Expressway Extension
EXTENSION OF SOUTHERN HIGHWAY AND LINK TO HAMBANTOTA
• Length : 96 km from Godagama (Matara) to Mattala and Hambantota
• Numbers of Lanes : 4• Numbers of interchanges : 8• Current Status :
• Four commercial contracts has been signed and arrangement of funding is in progress
49
50
Extension of Southern Expressway
Colombo - Kandy Highway with Kurunegala Link
Colombo - Kandy Highway with Kurunegala Link )
• Total Length : 202 km (including Kurunegala Link)
Stage Name Lengt
h (km)
InterchangeNos Name
IEnderamulla / (Kadawatha)- Ambepussa
53 5 Enderamulla/(Kadawatha), Gampaha, Veyangoda, Mirigama, Ambepussa
II Mirigama - Kurunegala 38 4 Mirigama, Nalakagamuwa, Danbokka, Kurunegala
III Pothuhera – Kandy 51 5 Pothuhera, Rambukkana, Galagedara, Aladeniya, Gannoruwa
IV Kurunegala - Dambulla 60 4 Kurunegala, Melsiripura, Galewela, Dambulla
Colombo - Kandy Highway with Kurunegala Link
HAMBANTOTA – BATTICALOA EXPRESSWAY
• With the growing importance of Batticaloa as a tourist destination, requirement of high speed link between Batticaloa and Hambantota has been identified in the National Physical Planning Policy.
• Accordingly, it has been decided to start this Expressway from Mattala Airport linking Southern Highway Extension and to end about 11km away from Batticaloa town with the view of continuing towards the city of Trincomalee in the future.
HAMBANTOTA – BATTICALOA EXPRESSWAY
• It is required to carry out a comprehensive feasibility study to identify most appropriate trace for the expressway
• Length will be around 182km • It is proposed to provide minimum of 4-lane facility• Cost will be around Rs 150 billion
National Physical Planning PolicySettlement-2030
25 million people70% urban (17.5 m)30% rural (7.5 m)80% in Metro Cities and District
Capitals (14 m)20% in other towns and villages
(3.5 m)Protect Agricultural LandReduce Land fragmentation Reduce cost of InfrastructureProtect the environmentCreate a strong network of
cities, towns and villages
Road Transport
• Develop bus networks to improve inter-city and intra-city connections.
• Maintain and rehabilitate the existing road network
• Construct regional highways between Metro Cities and District Capitals.
Understanding of Expressways• Roads are not pure public goods• Expressways do not have the mechanism of the market
which decides the supply, demand and therefore price• Expressway construction is planned according to the
national policy.• Expressways are consume large part of funds• It provides speed, safety and convenience• By reducing travel time expressway stimulate the
distribution of the population and increase the mobility of the road network.
Understanding of Expressways• Expressway provides better regional and economic
communication• Provide industrial and agriculture developments• Expressways encourage tourism development• It create new jobs
Road Maintenance
Road Maintenance• Roads, and means of transport, make a crucial
contribution to economic development and growth and bring important social benefits. Poorly maintained roads constrain mobility, significantly raise vehicle operating costs, increase accident rates and their associated human and property costs, and aggravate isolation, poverty, poor health, and illiteracy in rural communities.
Road Maintenance• Roads are among the most important public assets
in many countries. Road improvements bring immediate and sometimes dramatic benefits to road users through improved access to hospitals, schools, and markets; improved comfort, speed, and safety; and lower vehicle operating costs.
• For these benefits to be sustained, road improvements must be followed by a well-planned program of maintenance. Without regular maintenance, roads can rapidly fall into disrepair, preventing realization of the longer term impacts of road improvements on development,
Road Maintenance• many countries have tended to favor new
construction, rehabilitation, or reconstruction of roads over maintenance.
• Much of the capital cost of road construction is financed by donor funds, with low perceived cost to the country but high real costs, while maintenance is funded locally, requiring difficult and unpopular tax mobilization.
Timely and appropriate management offers benefits to everyone
• When roads are in poor condition every dollar not spent on road conservation will cost:
• $ 3 to road users in additional vehicle operating costs and
• $ 2 to the road administration (or the tax payer) in reconstruction and rehabilitation costs.
Road Maintenance
WHAT IS MAINTENANCE?• The goal of maintenance is to preserve the asset, not
to upgrade it. Unlike major road works, maintenance must be done regularly.
• Road maintenance comprises “activities to keep pavement, shoulders, slopes, drainage facilities and all other structures and property within the road margins as near as possible to their as-constructed or renewed condition”
• For management and operational convenience, road maintenance is categorized as routine, Recurrent, periodic, and urgent.
Managing the Life Cycle • There are many options
• Good Asset Management is about making the right choices
No Routine Maintenance
With Routine Maintenance
With Preventative Maintenance
Cond
ition
TimeMin
ac
cept
able
Exce
llent
Classification of maintenance activities
Can be classified depending on the nature of the each activity and the frequency of applying
Routine maintenanceRecurrent maintenancePeriodic maintenanceUrgent and emergency maintenance
Road surface elements may change on class of roads ,terrain, alignment, situation &
environmental conditionCarriagewayShouldersVerges(between shoulder & drain)DrainsRoad reservationsEmbankment slopesCut slopesFoot walksCentre medians
MAINTANANCE ACTIVITIES 0F A ROAD
ROAD MAINTANANCE
ROUTINE URGENT
Restoration of Flood
damages including
Earth slips & diversions.
PERIODICBase & surface
corrections;Surface
applications.Grading &
regravelling of Road
shoulders;
RECURRENTRepairing ruts,depressions,cracks,po
t holes, & surface
irregularities
Corrections to the road
edges ; shoulder
edges;
Routine / Recurrent maintenance• comprises small-scale works conducted regularly,
aims “to ensure the daily passability and safety of existing roads in the short-run and to prevent premature deterioration of the roads”
.
Routine Maintenance• Activities carried out for general upkeep of the road
network irrespective of road characteristics and the traffic.
• Cutting grass, weeding, jungle clearing, filling scoured area and planting grass
• Clearing and re-cutting drains• Cutting scupper drains and building scour controls• Cleaning and de-silting culverts• Cleaning and painting of bridges and structures• Cleaning and painting of road furniture
Recurrent maintenance• Activities to be carried out throughout the year but
frequency depend on damaging effect of traffic and rain fall
• Paved roads• Repair potholes, rutting, depressions, cracks and surface
irregularities• Correction of edges of pavement and shoulder edges
• Unpaved roads• Repair potholes, rutting, depressions and erosion gullies• Dragging, brushing and lightly grading to remove
unevenness and corrugations
Periodic maintenance• This covers activities on a section of road at regular and
relatively long intervals, aims “to preserve the structural integrity of the road. These operations tend to be large scale, requiring specialized equipment and skilled personnel. They cost more than routine maintenance works and require specific identification and planning for implementation and often even design.
• Activities can be classified as preventive, resurfacing, overlay, and pavement reconstruction. Resealing and overlay works are generally undertaken in response to measured deterioration in road conditions.
• For a paved road repaving is needed about every eight years; for a gravel road re-graveling is needed about every three years.
TYPICAL DISTRESSES IN ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
Roughness Severe damageSurface DeformationEdge DamageCracking Potholes
Roughness
• Macro level undulation of the surface
• Measured in m/km in International Roughness Index
Severe Damage-Paved RoadsSevere Damages in paved roads can be due to several reasons
1.Due to landslips
2.Due to extensive potholes and poor maintenance of drains
3. Due to tidal waves
4.Due to un-maintained drains and lack of vegetation control
SURFACE DEFORMATION AND RUTTING-PAVED ROADS
Deformation is a change in a road surface from the constructed profile.
Deformation types:
Corrugation Depressions Raveling Shoving
SURFACE DEFORMATION WITH DEPRESSIONS
Deformation
Depression
Corrugation
SHOVING RAVELLING
CORRUGATION
•ASSOCIATED WITH SLIPPAGE MECHANISM•POOR BOND BETWEEN THE SURFACE AND UNDERLAYING LAYER•TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE TACK COAT•STEEP GRADES/INTERSECTIONS.•ACCELERATION/BRAKING EXERT SURFACE TRACTION FORCES•EG:BUS STOPS & INTERSECTIONS
DEPRESSION/RUTTING
DEPRESSION• Reasons for depressions
• Poor drainage of underneath layers• Use of excessive filler materials• User of too many rounded partials in coarse and fine
aggregates• High asphalt content of the mix
POTHOLEPothole formation is often related to problems of drainage. However ,if extensive pothole formation is observed then the cause may be due to general pavement deterioration or inadequate pavement thickness.
Shallow pothole -depth<20mm
Medium pothole -20mm<depth<75mm
Deep pothole -depth>75mm
POTHOLE
POTHOLE REPAIR PROCESS
Step 1 - the edges are cut by a disc saw to achieve a good joint between the new material and existing road surface
Step 2 - the defective road surface is broken away and loaded on to lorry for safe disposal
Step 3 - the area is swept clear of any further loose material and water
Step 4 - the vertical edges are painted with a bitumen based edge sealant to achieve a good bond and waterproof the joint
Step 5 - the hot surfacing material is laid into the patch to the required level
Step 7 - The surfacing material is compacted to the required standard
Step 6 - the work area is swept clean of debris and overspill
Step 8 - Overbanding tape is used to seal the joint and stop the ingress of water
Edge Cracking• Description• Edge cracking is similar to
alligator cracking only located within 1 to 2 feet of the edge of the pavement. Failure begins at the edge of the pavement and progresses toward the wheel path. Pavement edge distress can result in worsening of the wheel path condition and allow moisture into the subgrade soils and base materials.
• Possible Causes• Traffic Loading • Environmental• Construction Related • Low Shoulder • High Shoulder Holding
Water
• Maintenance Treatments• Crack Fill • Thin Cold Mix Overlay • Shoulder Maintenance
EDGE FAILURES
Sangupitty Jetty on Navatkuli – Kerative – Mannar RoadEDGE SUPPORT IS NECESSARY
CRACKING-PAVED ROADSTypes of pavement cracks:• Block and Alligator
(crocodile ) cracking• These cracks occurs in
rectangular or cells or blocks • Spacing of the blocks/cells
varies for crocodile cracking and for block cracking
• Longitudinal, diagonal and transverse cracking
• These cracks are usually reflective cracks caused by shrinkage or movement in the base, sub base or sub grade.
ALLIGATOR CRACKING
ALLIGATOR CRACKS ARE GENERALLY CAUSED BY THE MOVEMENT OF THE PAVEMENT LAYERS OR OF THE SUBGRADE.ANOTHER REASON FOR THIS CRACK IS PROBABLY DUE TO POOR SUPPORT FROM THE UNDELAYING LAYERS MAY BE CAUSED BY MOISTURE IN THE SUBGRADE.ALSO FAILURE OCCURS DUE TO LIMITS OF ITS FATIGUE LIFE BY REPETITIVE AXLE LOAD APPLICATIONS.
CRACKING-PAVED ROADS
Crocodile Cracking Transverse Crack (advance stage)
Longitudinal Cracking Transverse Cracking
CRACK SEALING
DRAINAGE MAINTENANCE
The Objectives of road drainage could be broadly classified as Prevention of accumulation of water on or by the roadway Interception of ground water from entering the road structure from beneath Interception of surface water from flowing into the roadway. Prevention of erosion of the roadway edges, drains, embankment slopes, cut slopes and the road side. Convey river and stream water across the road.
Drainage is most important aspect that determine the performance of a road and failure of roads is often attributed to poor drainage
DRAINAGE
When water enter in to the road structure it weaken the road structure and damage with Traffic
Strom water to surface – too fast erosion, too slow penetrate to structure
Surface slopes• Paved road cross falls- 2-3 %• Gravel road cross falls-4-6 %• Shoulders – Desirable maximum 6%
• Type of Drains• Scupper Drains• Side drains
TYPE OF DRAINSAngle Drains
Saucer Drains
Drainage Ditches
Catch Drains
FOR HIGH WATER TABLE
SUBGRADE
SURFACE DRAINAGE• ActivitiesConstruction of a culvert, Catch pits and Cascade to divert
surface water.Construction of trench drains,Removal of over burden at head of landslide,Filling “toe” to give a toe support,Construction of surface drain, landscaping and turfing.Construction of gabion walls along the streamConstruction of horizontal drains.Clearing and training the stream,
Gabion wall
Horizontal Drains
Trench drain
Surface Drains
DRAINAGE PROBLEM
DRAINAGE PROBLEM
Periodic Maintenance• Surface strength is evaluated and suitable
treatment is decided • SBST• DBST• AC• The period of application is decided based on type
of pavement, design life, traffic load
Maintenance of unpaved roads
• Earth roads• Gravel roads• Defects
• Loss of shapes• Rutting• Formation of potholes
and depressions• Formation of
corrugations• Formation of erosion
gullies
• Maintenance works • Pothole patching• Grading• Re-graveling
MAINTENANCE OF BRIDGEs, CAUSEWAYS AND CULVERTS
Important of bridge maintenance• Bridges are key element in road network and is a major
investment of resources• Due to their strategic locations over natural or manmade
obstacles any failure of bridges may limit or severely disrupt traffic flow in the network creating economic losses
• Over the time bridge will deteriorate and become unfit for its intended purpose if no actions are taken to maintain, rehabilitate or strengthen
• LIFE SPAN IS 75-100 YEARS• Bad maintenance will reduce life drastically
Inspection of Bridges• Substructure all
bridgesScour of river bedsSettlement of
foundationDevelopment of
cracks in abutments, wing walls, piers and corrosion of steel supports
Growing of vegetation
• Superstructure steel bridgesJammed or
defective bearingCorrosion of
membersWater leakageExpansion joints
faulty or ineffective Paint scaling off
from steel girders
Inspection of Bridges- Concrete Bridges-superstructure• Cracks of components• Blocking of expansion
joints• Spoiling of concrete
Culvert damage
Culvert Sinking of pavement (about 1m×1m)
Primary reinforcement has broken. Concrete top slab has been damaged.
Damage situation under top slab. Exposure of reinforcement bars.All almost reinforcement bars are exposed by the cover concrete's coming off.
The corrosion of the reinforcement proceeds, and bars are broken.
Corrosion of steel is advanced. Concrete is deteriorated.
Comments :Immediate reconstruction (replacing slab) is necessary
The surface of concrete and reinforcement bars peels off when touching by the hand and falls..
Routine ActivitiesCleaning / Clearing:
Minor Repairs (Structural): Repair of loose / missing connectors and fixings Replace damaged planks Painting Wood PreservationPainting MasonryRepair Barriers and safety features
Periodic Activities:
Major Repairs:
· Random Stone Filling
· Retaining Wall · Riverbed Scour Apron · Gabions
Transportation
Transport• Transport is essential to the functioning of any society • It influences the location and range of productive and
leisure activities
• It influences range and the provision of goods and services
• It influences the quality of life• Development of society is closely related with the
improved transport technology
Transport• Car became marvelous instrument of personal
mobility• It allow man to go where he likes, when he likes,
whatever the weather condition• This created a situation of increase mobility
Transportation system• Transportation activities take place on five major
systems• Highways• Railways• Air• Water• Pipelines
• Each is divided in to specific modes
Transport of the country Present Transport system consists of Land, Sea
and Air transportTransport in Sri Lanka is based mainly on the road network
which is centered on Sri Lanka's capital, ColomboUnder gone several changes with the socio
economic policies to come to present situation Up to 1950 it was a compact and simple In 1956 it was formed to government institutions
and continued till 1970 In 1977 with implementation of open economic
system the transport was de-regularized and privatised
22/04/2023 134
Policy of the Colonial Government- Railway Construction• The Government considered that the
construction of railways was necessary for the advancement of production, trade and commerce of the island.
• The reduction of transport costs were of importance as cart charges were very high in 1870s.
• It is evident that the policy towards the construction of railways in Sri Lanka was generally based on advancing the economic prosperity of the island.
22/04/2023 135
22/04/2023 136
Roads & Rail During Early
20th Century
• Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe Source : The Colonial Economy on Track, Prof. Indrani Munasinghe
Rail Transport• The railway network is largely a legacy of British
colonial rule and today only handles a small fraction of the country's transport needs
• Service began in 1864, with the construction of the Main Line from Colombo to Ambepussa, 54 kilometers
• The Railway was initially built to transport coffee and tea from the hill country to Colombo for export.
• For many years, transporting such goods was the main source of income on the line.
• In the 1960s, passenger traffic overtook freight as the main source of revenue. The railway is now primarily engaged in the transport of passengers, especially commuters to and from Colombo.
138
Cost of transport per ton mile
By cart By railway
Savings per ton
mile
Rs. Cts. Cts. Rs.cts
Railway rate as a % of cart
rate
Coffee 0.62 14.5 0.47 23.4% Rice 1.25 17 1.08 13.6%
Manure 1.14 8.5 1.05 7.4%
Source: Roads & Railways in Sri Lanka By Prof. Indrani Munasinghe
Savings on cost of transport per ton mile 1860
139
Revenue & Working Expenditure (1905) Revenue Rs. As a %
of total
Revenue
Working Exp. Rs.
As a % of total
W. Exp.
Profits Rs.
As A % of total profit
Main line 5,283,849.00 54.5 1,930,572.00 40.7 3,353,277.00 67.7
Southern line 1,672,294.00 17.2 1,098,312.00 23.2 573,982.00 11.5
Uva Line 1,419,985.00 14.6 833,272.00 16.6 586,713.00 11.8
Matale Line 178,240.00 1.8 153,953.00 3.3 24,287.00 0.5
Nothern Line 538,760.00 5.6 385,813.00 8.2 152,947.00 3.1
Kelani Valley
Line
446,864.00 4.6 220,234.00 4.6 226,630.00 4.6
Uda-Pussellawa
Line
150,622.00 1.6 114,387.00 2.4 36,235.00 0.7
Total 9,690,614.00 100 4,736,543.00 100 4,954,110.00 100
Source: Roads & Railways in Sri Lanka By Prof. Indrani Munasinghe
140
Land Transport - Rail• Opened in 1864
• Total Track length Broad gauge – 1293km
• Double Track – 258 km• Train km operated-
9.88 mn (2012)• Passenger km -5039.3
mn(2012)
Source; National Transport statistics-2012- NTC
Rail Transport
Rail Transport-Lines• Main line• Coastal Line• Puttalam Line• Kelani Valley Line• Matale Line• Northern Line• Mannar Line• Batticaloa Line• Trincomalee Line• Mihintale Line An model of narrow gauge line
Metro transit and tram• Early Trams• The northern and central areas of the city of Colombo
had an electric tram car system, operated by the Colombo Electric Tram Car and Lighting Company Ltd.
• This system commenced operations around 1900.• For half a century, the trams dominated Colombo's
roads, carrying thousands of commuters.• The tram system operated with 42" gauge track, that
was sunk into the road. The system had two tram models in its rolling stock.
• After an infamous tram car strike, the Colombo Municipal Council took over operations. Subsequently, the tram car system was phased out and the system was discontinued by 1960.
Land Transport -VehiclesVehicle Population 4,877,027 at the end of
year 2012 as per Registration.
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Goods vehicles2 axle3 axle4 axle5 axle6 axle
In the year 2012 397,295 new vehicles added to the fleet
10.25%
15.72%
52.21%
1.88%
5.74%6.64% 6.47% 1.09%
Registered vehicle fleet -2012
Motor cars
Motor Tricycle
Motor Cycles
Buses
Dual purpose vehicles
Lorries
Land vehicles-Tractors
Land vehicles-Trailers
Land Transport – Bus IndustryHistory
Cater to 94 % of demand Under gone several changes in the past in
response to socio economic policy changes In 1935 about 2000 buses were operating as
private venture In 1951 formation of private companies and
public companies 1958 Nationalised all companies 1979 Open to private sector again
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Land Transport – Bus IndustryHistory• The history of Sri Lanka Transport Board goes back
to 1 January 1958, at the time known as the Ceylon Transport Board (CTB).
• At its peak, it was the largest omnibus company in the world - with about 7,000 buses and over 50,000 employees. With privatization in 1979, it underwent a period of decline.
Land Transport – Bus Industry Present system
Two categories of operators Government owned 93 boards having 50 to 150
buses now converted to SLCTB Provide service to all level of routes even in
uneconomical routes with pre-arranged time tables Private bus providers mainly with single bus
owner Mainly operation on profitable routes Urban and Intercity routes Not to a time table operate at peak period
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148
Bus OperationOperational data
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
SLTB Fleet 9018 9326 9125 8403 7821 7756
Avg. Buses operated/day
4129 4246 4482 4441 4365 4314
Operated km-mn 304.9 313.7 335.86 341.62 340.84 337.83
Private Fleet 17,731 18665 18665 19805 19699 20444
Avg. Buses operated/day
12610 13116 13066 15884 16602 17129
Operated km 607.2 631.8 629.5 765.3 799.9 825.3
Source; National Transport statistics-2012- NTC
Land Transport – Freight Internal freight transport is dominated by road
transport catering to 98 % of the demand
Operated by private tracking
Rail takes only 1 % of the demand at present
Coastal shipping cater to balance freight transport
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04/22/2023 150
Sea TransportPorts Vessels arrived
(2012)Cargo handled (MT(000))-2012
Colombo 3970 61,669Galle 69 522Trincomalee 161 2,859Hambantota 34 20
Total 4134 65,070Total container traffic =4,187,000 TEU (2012)Transshipment container Traffic = 3,167,000 TEU (2012)
Dikkowitta Fishery Harbour –is the biggest fishery harbor in Asia
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Air Transport Total 19 air
ports in the country
Two international Airport
17 domestic airports
22/04/2023 152Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport.
Air Transport
Airports with paved runways
Runway length Numbers
Over 3,047m 2 International
1,524 m to 2,437m
6
914 m to 1,523m
7
Total 15
Airports with unpaved runways
Runway length Numbers
1,524 m to 2,437m 1
Under 914m 3
Total 4
Other Transport• Water Transport
• Sri Lanka has around 160 km of inland waterways (primarily on rivers in the southwest), navigable by shallow-draught boats
• Pipelines• Sri Lanka has 62 km of pipelines for crude oil and
petroleum products (1987 figures)
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Dutch Canal SystemCentred on the Port of
Colombo Over 200kms in length
Development of Coconut as an Export Industry Eg. Dutch Canal, St. Sebastian
Canal , Hamilton Canal etc.
Urban Development
Urbanization• With the industrial revolution civil life changed. Villages
became towns. Towns became cities. Population migrations and population explosion
• As population increase need for efficient public transport became evident.
• Advent of motor car about end of 19th century had little affect mass movement and town development due to affordability for cars
• With the mass production of cars after world war I changed this situation
Urban Transport Planning• Urban transport is an extremely complex area. It
has many dimensions, all of which need to be taken into account if comprehensive solutions are to be found to the Problems stemming from the growth of cities.
• It is not simply a matter of building a highway or a metro rail system. There must also be an assessment of numerous other factors.
Urban Transport
Terrain Safety Energy Use Land use Environment
Health
AffordabilityLivelihoods
TechnologyEngineering
FinancePolicies
Human Behavior
Disabilities
Gender
Economics
Land Use• Most planned cities have a master plan that lays out
how the land in different parts of the city will be used. Some parts are designated primarily as business districts and others as largely residential.
• Most well planned cities also have sections that have trees, plants, and other green cover, such as parks.
• Some cities are sprawling –spread out over a large area—where as others are compact and dense.
Land Use• Cities with heavily segregated residential and business
districts have longer Travel distances. Sprawling cities also have long travel distances. In both cases, providing transportation systems requires significant infrastructure investments when compared to the requirements in more compact cities.
• Many cities have adopted land use planning in which business and residential districts are more closely interspersed. This is known as mixed use planning. This type of planning tends to reduce travel distances. Shorter travel distances often mean that trips can be made by walking or cycling instead of using motorized modes. This, in turn, results in lower energy use and less pollutants.
Environment• Urban transport mode choices affect the environment. Cities
with a high level of dependence on personal motor vehicles have a higher level of emissions and worse air Quality than those that are less dependent on them.
• Cities with a higher share of public transport or non motorized transport use have a lower level of emissions and thus benefit from cleaner air.
Environment• Cities that have policies to ensure that their
vehicle fleets are well maintained tend to have less pollution.
• Policies regarding fuel quality and regulations relating to the amount of emissions allowed by a motor vehicle also impact the environment.
• The major pollutants from motor vehicle exhaust namely sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter have all been a concern in large cities, though the intensity of their impact has varied across countries and pollutants.
Environment• Today, climate change is becoming a global
concern. • Transport accounts for around 14 percent of
human generated green house gas emissions. These emissions contribute substantially to global climate change.
• Unfortunately, most fuels used in meeting transport demands are carbon based. Thus, urban mobility is a growing contributor to green house gas emissions and climate change.
Health
Air quality has a Substantial impact on Human health.Estimates by the World Health Organization show that polluted air is responsible for approximately 800,000 deaths in urban areas every year.
Health• The negative health impact tends to be more
severe on the poor, who are more exposed to polluted air, as they often live on foot paths and walk or cycle to meet their travel needs.
• Walking and cycling increases their exposure to the polluted air, and the effort exerted by the body entails harder breathing and, thus, a greater intake of pollutants.
Affordability• The cost of transport systems, and therefore
affordability, represents an important factor in urban transport planning because people use the systems so often.
• People need to use urban transport everyday, unlike the case of intercity transport.
• Urban transport is used to reach workplaces and educational institutions, markets, and doctors
• Cities with relatively lower per capita income cannot afford to have expensive systems.
Affordability
Ensuring affordability means charging relatively low fares, which, in turn, means the operator may not be able to recover operating costs. This creates the need for subsidies.
Livelihoods• Urban transport is important to livelihoods because large
numbers of trips in urban areas are made for the purpose of reaching a workplace.
• If transport costs are high, people are able to seek jobs only within a limited area. Lower transport costs allow them to look for job opportunities farther away from where they live.
• The kind of transport systems in use also affect livelihoods by affecting employment in the public transport system. For example, large and extensive bus systems tend to employ more people than do metro rail systems.
Technology• Urban transport often involves a choice between multiple
technologies.• Technology choices also involve decisions about fuel type,
kind of vehicle, and soon, making this an other dimension of urban transport planning.
Technology• The range of technology choices offered by public
transport runs the spectrum from buses sharing road space with cars and bicycles to heavy rail underground metro systems.
• Choices among technology options need to be made on the basis of several factors, such as spatial pattern, load factor, life cycle costs, and environmental sensitivity.
Engineering• The availability of sound engineering and project management
capabilities is another dimension of urban transport planning since number of infrastructure facilities must be built to meet travel demand.
Amount of space Required
Economics• Urban transport has an economics dimension. What makes
economic sense and what does not? What is the value of urban transport to society as a whole, not just its users? Questions such as these need to be answered to assess if we are getting the best value for the investment made
Finance• Money and financing are factors in the urban transport
planning process that raise important questions:
Finance• What kind of additional taxes or levies need to be
imposed to raise resources for urban transport? What other revenue streams exist?
• Who should pay for these investments?• At what point in time should these investments be
made?
• Money and financing questions need to be answered for a successful out come.
Politics• Politics and governance play important roles in urban transport planning,
particularly in democracies.• Any government in power will tend to be attracted toward investments that
can help it in upcoming elections, even if it means a larger than necessary expenditure on the facility to be created. Large and visible projects have often helped candidates win elections.
• Fragmented governance—with responsibilities spread across multiple agencies—can lead to serious problems in coordination. Such situations must be corrected through reduced fragmentation and consolidation of responsibilities among the different areas of urban transport.
Human Behavior
• Human behavior and social image should be taken into account in the planning process.
• In some countries, cycling and traveling by bus are viewed as modes of transport for the poor. Therefore, any one who has sufficient income is likely to acquire and use a personal motor vehicle —viewed as a status symbol—to demonstrate their higher income.
Human Behavior• In other countries, people like the experience of being in their
own cars, even if having more cars on the road means being stuck in traffic for hours.
• In yet others, cycling and walking are fashionable and viewed as healthy and environmentally friendly modes of travel.
Human Behavior
• Issues of human behavior are also important when determining such factors as
• How far people are willing to walk to reach a public transport station,
• How much difficulty they are willing to tolerate in finding a parking space,
• How much they are willing to pay for the use of facilities, and • How much they value the physical exercise of walking.
Disabilities• In every city, a proportion of residents with disabilities confront inherent
difficulties with regard to transport.• They may have a physical disability or be elderly, frail, or very young. Women
and others carrying babies might also require facilities or arrangements that meet their particular needs.
• The transport system must not ignore the special needs of the segments of the population with disabilities.
Gender• Gender is an important dimension in urban transport planning.• Studies have shown that the travel times of women and the nature of their
trips are different from those of men. In some societies ,women need to be protected from harassment. In others, social customs require that women and men not share seats.
• Urban transport should take in to account the different travel needs of women and men.
Terrain
• Terrain is important in determining the kind of transport system in a city.
• Most cities have a flat terrain and therefore have a wide range of transport options.
• Cities with a hilly terrain have more limited possibilities. Thus, a city’s terrain must be thoroughly considered in the urban transport planning process.
Terrain
• Terrain and geographical features—such as the sea, a river, hills—constrain some places, putting limitations on the design of transport systems.
Safety• Safety is an important concern in many parts of the world. Traffic
accidents cause 1.2 million deaths world wide annually. About 40 people under the age of 25 are estimated to die in road incidents every hour. Each day nearly 3,500 people die in traffic accidents, making them a leading cause of death. Children, pedestrians, cyclists, and the elderly tend to be the most affected by accidents.
• The incidence of accidents in cities is rapidly increasing, resulting in death and injury.
• The design of urban transport facilities needs to ensure high standards of safety.
Energy Use• Transport systems are large consumers of energy.
Any intervention that is chosen relates to energy use, including land use patterns, mode of travel, technologies adopted for public transport, policies relating to fuel price, or various demand management strategies.
• The amount of energy required by urban transport is an important consideration during planning.
The many dimensions of urban transport• Here are the many dimensions of urban transport.
Collectively they demonstrate the complexity of urban transport systems. Often, cities have made the mistake of dealing with only some of these elements. These cities have not been able to realize the full benefits of a comprehensively planned system.
Summary
Colombo Metropolitan area• As the largest metropolitan area in Sri Lanka, the
population of Western Province had 5.84 million inhabitants in 2012. It is estimated that the total population of Western Province will increase to 7.9 million persons in 2035 and economic growth with urban development plans are also expected.
A000 – 72,101
Average Daily Traffic at Colombo Entry Points
B062 – 34,210
A001 – 90,548
A003 – 47,079
B435 – 25,339
A002 – 62,917
A004 – 44,182
B084 – 38,970
B152 – 13,531
TRAFFIC PATTERN OF COLOMBO
• Daily Traffic Volume - 567,405 Veh/day• Vehicle categories
• Cars - 31.32 % (177,700.07 Veh/Day)
• Vans - 11.31% ( 64,146.98 Veh/Day)
• Busses - 5.64 % ( 32,004.69 Veh/Day)
• Goods Vehicle - 45.78 % (259,813.39 Veh/Day)
• Heavy Goods vehicle - 5.95 % ( 33,739.15 Veh/Day)
• Average speed - 20 – 25 km/hr• No of Signalized junctions
Maintain by RDA - 31 NosMaintained by CMC - 48 Nos
Problems in Road network• Insufficient Road Network
• Current traffic demands mean that the roads are almost at capacity or exceed capacity at several points during the peak hours
• Especially, road traffic between the CMC and the eastern part of suburban area, such as Battaramulla, depends on one major arterial road and no alternative roads parallel to the major arterial road have been developed yet.
• As a consequence the road network forms a "fish bone" shape and excessive traffic flows are concentrated on the one major arterial road. Merging points at major intersections in suburban areas become bottleneck intersections
Problems in Road network• Lack of Pedestrian Space
• Almost none of the roads have sufficient space for sidewalks and shoulders under the existing conditions
• Most urban roads lack space for pedestrian traffic. • Only a few arterial roads provide sidewalks for
pedestrians and this lack of sidewalks might cause frequent and serious traffic accidents involving pedestrians.
• Establishment of design standards for urban roads is needed and it is essential to improve the urban roads in accordance with the urban road design standards for road traffic safety.
Problems in Road Network
• Lack of Road Design Standards for Urban Roads• Highway design standards for interurban road
have been established and have been applied for road development and maintenance.
• The characteristics of urban traffic are different than intercity traffic.
• Traffic speed of interurban traffic is generally higher than urban traffic and pedestrian traffic is more important in urban areas.
• It is desirable to develop a highway design standard specifically for urban roads.
• Accommodation of public transport not considered
Problems in Road Network• Lack of Road Network Master Plan for the CMA
• The arterial road network has been developed and maintained by the Road Development Authority and CMC, however, no coordinated arterial road network development plan has been established for the whole of CMA.
• The road network master plan which considers a comprehensive development with public transport should be established.
Problems in Road Network• Low Accessibility of the Existing Expressway Network• The existing Southern Expressway (SEW) and on-going Outer
Circular Highway (OCH) will form a circumferential expressway network which will run in the fringe area of the metropolitan area.
• At present it is a considerable distance from the existing Kottawa interchange to the City centre of Colombo and it takes around one hour, depending on traffic condition.
• Car drivers and passengers cannot fully enjoy express service on the expressway due to the long distance from the nearest interchange.
• Accessibility between expressway's interchanges, the suburbs and centre of Colombo should be enhanced.
• Traffic flows on the existing ordinary road network should also be distributed to secure proper travel time and speed
Problems in Road Network
• Need to Enhance Access to Colombo Port for Cargo Transport
• In terms of cargo transport, there is no expressway access to the Port of Colombo at this moment.
• Although the Port Access Road functions as a main access road to the Port as an exclusive road for the port-related vehicles, the Port Access Road does not connect with the expressway network of the Colombo Katunayake Expressway (CKE) and the Southern Expressway. Congestion is, therefore, observed in the area around the entry points of the Port Access Road
• The situation might be similar or even aggravated after the completion of on-going expressway projects, the Outer Circular Highway (OCH) and the Northern Expressway, as there is no direct access from the Port to the expressway network.
• This can significantly contribute to worsen the congestion along with the projected surge in the number of private vehicles in urban areas.
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204
Highest level of Passengers in Kandy corridor
205
Vehicle population in Western province
Source : Colombo Urban Transport study -JICA
206
Urban Air Pollution -
Source : Colombo Urban Transport study -JICA
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End of the Presentation
THANK YOU
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