209

1. IntroductionEucalypts are exotic to India and the term ‘agroforestry’ is also new as it wasintroduced not more than half a century ago. Though the introduction of eucalyptsin the Nilgiri Hills in 1843 was mainly meant to increase the production of fuelwoodand as small timber for the British army cantonments, yet their marvellous fast growth,clear, straight and cylindrical bole attracted the fancy of landscapists, horticulturistsand the foresters. The popularity of eucalypts was never challenged as they startedto grow in the hitherto neglected scrub forests, wastelands and the unproductiveforests soon after their nursery technology was known to the foresters. Availabilityof simple technique of raising eucalypt plants in nurseries in a short span of threemonths, hardiness to grazing by cattle, suitability to grow in the drought-proneareas, capacity to regrow from coppice, capacitated them to replace the rather slow-growing indigenous trees, which could take years to establish the crop, wheneucalypts were ready for harvesting for a mid-yield. All these characters have wonthe acclaim for eucalypts all over the country in no uncertain terms that they pervadedthe houses of farmers and then, to their fields in the farm-forestry block plantations.Around 1956, a Eucalyptus hybrid, known as ‘Mysore gum’ became popular inMysore. Large scale plantations of this species were taken up in Uttar Pradesh.Eucalyptus grandis which was first introduced in Kerala for afforesting the grasslands emerged as the most important species for pulpwood plantations in Kerala. Infact, no other species has influenced the afforestation and reforestation programmesin India as much as eucalypts and they occupy a formidable position in theagroforestry.

The introduction of eucalypts in India was in the middle of times when theforests were receding, the demands for timber and firewood were rising, the stockingof the forests was thin and the productivity was at the lowest ebb. As per theestimates of the National Commission on Agriculture, 1976, the demand for fuelwoodin the country was 202 M m3 in 1985 and it was expected to rise to 225 M m3 by 2000

Eucalypts in AgroforestryR.K. Luna

9

210 R.K. Luna

AD. The total legitimate availability was, however, 127 M m³ on a sustainable basis.Same was the case of timber and industrial demands for wood. The forests of Indiawhich were known to be inexhaustible in the 18th century, were now classed as leastproductive and degraded. Foresters were on the lookout for a fast growing treespecies which could increase productivity of the forests.

For a tree to qualify for agroforestry it should have the qualities such as fastgrowth, no negative effect on the production of grains or else net returns to farmersmust compensate the loss due to less production of grains, provide shelter againstcrops and orchards, litter or organic matter to enrich the farmers’ land, fodder forcattle, fuelwood and small timber for domestic needs. Eucalypts, though, did notmeet most of the criteria, yet their capability to resist unfavourable soil conditions,the easy initial establishment, quick response to irrigation, fertilizers and productionof small sized straight knot-free timber which only a few of the indigenous treescould produce, soon became a favoured species of the farmers. Like conifers,eucalypts could be grown in close spacings, which would mean intensive cultivationin limited areas instead of managing extensive areas. The population of India wasincreasing at the rate of 2.78 per cent per annum which meant more houses forshelter, fuel wood to warm and cook and clothes and paper. The industry requiredraw material to manufacture the industrial quantities of consumables. Eucalyptswere the only species which could be grown in the farmlands to increase theproduction.

Eucalypts planting in India started taking shape through extension activities ofthe state forest departments in the late sixties and early seventies. It graduallygained momentum in all parts of India, especially in Punjab, Haryana, western UttarPradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, North Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. They were themost widely planted species in the foreign aided social forestry projects of theeighties in different states. In farm forestry component, eucalypts comprised 71.6per cent of the total trees planted. In Punjab, more than 3 per cent of the cultivatedarea was planted under eucalypts in only a decade (Saxena, 1991). In Gujarat, from1983-84 farmers planted 195 M trees which was four times the target. In Uttar Pradesh,farmers exceeded the original target of eight million seedlings by planting 350 millionseedlings between 1979 and 1984 (Goldin et al., 2002). Though, the earliest adoptersof eucalypts as a cash crop were the wealthiest farmers who had significant sourcesof off-farm income and who were seeking to minimize labour supervisionrequirements; it was soon adopted by the small and big farmers for production ofsmall timber, poles, firewood and local house constructional material in the form ofbeams. In some cases, planting of eucalypts was financed by urban capital. With theestablishment of new uses of eucalypts wood for pit props, crates, packing boxes,pulp wood and scaffolding, they were intertwined in the social, agricultural,economical and industrial applications in the country. With the course of time,

211

eucalypts have changed the agricultural landscape of the states like Punjab andHaryana where monocultures of paddy and wheat berefted the soil of its nutrientsand robbed off groundwater. Not only it has provided employment to the millions ofagricultural labourers in the lean period, but also yielded additional employment tothe wood cutters, transporters and the industrialists.

2. Decline of EucalyptusHowever, after mid-eighties, eucalypts plantations suffered a serious set back onmany counts. There were onslaughts on eucalypts for low economic returns andecological reasons though by not those who were to be directly affected. Inagroforestry, the primary cause for downfall of eucalypt popularity was the lowprices of wood in the market against the high expectation of the farmers. The priceboom in eucalypts was evident upto about 1984. However, by the 1986, the priceshad crashed; for example in Punjab, a seven- to eight-year-old tree, then projected tobe saleable at Rs. 150, did not sell even at Rs. 18 in 1988. In Gujarat, the price of a poleof 10-12 cm diameter fell from Rs. 60 in 1986 to Rs. 23 in 1988 (Saxena, 1991). InHaryana, a six-year-old tree could not be sold even at Rs. 10 as against the projectedsale price of Rs. 100 (Athreya, 1989). As the forest departments did not have anyagroforestry models developed at that time, people resorted to dense planting withnumber of stems ranging from 3,000 to 10,000 ha-1 with the main objective of earningquick returns at a short rotation. As the prices went down, there was a virtual panicamongst the farmers about the future of eucalypts plantations raised by them. Somefarmers uprooted the young plantations. This further resulted in a glut in the marketand the prices further collapsed. Number of reasons were offered for the collapse ofthe prices (Saxena, 1991). Perhaps one or more reasons were operative at one or theother time. The depression in eucalypts prices gave a fillip to poplar plantationsunder agroforestry systems. The plantation of poplar began around mid eighties whenWimco Ltd. endeavoured towards match wood production in collaboration with farmers.Poplars, being leafless in winter, were more suitable as cultivation of crops could bedone under its shade for three to four years. Some of the poplar plantation in agriculturesector could produce mean annual increment of up to 50 m3 ha-1 yr-1, the average being20 m3 ha-1 yr-1 as against a maximum average of 4.5 m3 ha-1 yr-1 achievable from forestryplantation. Since returns from poplar plantations were high as compared to eucalypts,large scale plantations of the species were raised, especially on irrigated, fertile andwell-drained soils in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttrakhand and Uttar Pradesh.However, geographically poplar plantations were limited to the belt falling under theTerai region of U.P. and Uttrakhand between 27º N and 30º N latitudes and in thePunjab plains between 290 to 320 N latitude.

Meanwhile, eucalypts had established their credentials as excellent source forpulp and paper, particle board and hard board industries; an excellent source of

Eucalypts in agroforestry

212

firewood and charcoal as well. Eucalypts timber is also used for light and heavyconstruction, railway sleepers, bridges, piles, poles and mining timber. IndianStandards are now available for its timber use for door frames, window frames,furniture, tool handles, packing cases and crates. As an agroforestry species, it hasbeen shown to be more remunerable than agricultural crops alone. E. tereticornis, isa major source of pollen in apiculture and produces a medium amber honey ofdistinctive flavour.

3. Resurgence of EucalyptusEarlier to 1992, people were largely dependent on seed route planting materialraised by the forest departments. A number of private nursery growers alsocontributed a large proportion of seedlings. These plantations were attacked bytermites and foliar blight disease caused by Cylindrocladium spp., resultantlythere was high mortality, and productivity was only 6 to 10 m3 ha-1 yr-1 which wasextremely low (Piare Lal, 2006). The other possible reasons for low productivitywere lack of availability of quality seeds and primitive nursery practices (Kulkarni,2002). This adverse scenario changed with the introduction of clonal technology.ITC Ltd. was the pioneer to adopt this technology in 1989, and developed 86promising high yielding, disease resistant and adaptable clones, which later cameto be known as ITC clones. The survival percentage of the majority of these cloneswas reported to be 95 per cent and the productivity ranged from 24 to 58 m3 ha-1 yr-1.Apart from increase in productivity by two to three times, the rotation period wasalso reduced by aproximately half. This reduced the rotation time of farm forestryplantations from seven to eight years to four to five years. Clonal demonstrationplantations raised by the company resulted in large-scale adoption of ITC clones ofeucalypts by the farmers and state forest departments. Further, distribution waspossible due to mass multiplication in the modern clonal nurseries. With the aim toraise raw material in partnership with farmers in consonance with the National ForestPolicy, 1988, the company has distributed more than 51 M clonal plants to growersbetween 1992 to 2006. The clonal technology with root trainers has given considerableimprovement in the production of quality planting material as well as in theimprovement of productivity. The current level of production of clonal eucalypts inIndia is mostly controlled by industrial houses and is estimated to be about 110 M yr-1,whereas the demand is about four to five times more (Table 1). The demand is expectedto increase still more, provided the plantlets are available at the nearest points ofplanting, and the cost of plants is reduced to half. The current price of plantlets isexorbitantly high at Rs. 800 to Rs. 1,200 per 100 plants, which increases the cost ofplantation enormously.

The planting of eucalypts has again shown an increase in the 1990s and theirproduction and growing stock in the non-forest areas has almost stabilized. It is

R.K. Luna

213

Table 1. Production of clonal planting material of eucalypts in IndiaCompany Installed

capacity (M) Annual

production (M) Andhra Pradesh Paper Mills, Rajamundhry 5.00 5.00

BILT (Chandrapur, and Gadcharoli in Maharashtra and Koraput in Odisha).

25.00

20.00

ITC Bhadrachalam, Andhra Pradesh 30.00 20.00

J.K. Paper Mills, Odisha 10.00 8.00

Pragati Biotechnologies, Hoshiarpur, Punjab 15.00 10.00

Prakriti Clonal Agrotech, Ambala, Haryana 2.50 2.00

Star Paper Mills, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh 4.00 3.00

Tamil Nadu Paper Mills Ltd., Kavithapuram 10.00 10.00

West Coast Paper Mills, Dandeli, Karnataka 5.00 4.00

WIMCO Ltd., Rudarapur, Uttrakhand 10.00 7.00

State Forest Departments/Corporations 15.00 6.50

Others (Local units in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) 20.00 15.00

Total 151.5 110.5

 estimated that eucalypts has been planted over an area of 4.00 Mha. Besides, industrialhouses have also raised captive plantation of clonal eucalypts over an area of 70,000ha. However, in the northern states, the annual plantation rate of eucalypts has aninverse relationship with poplar plantation but it is not the only determining factor foreucalypts as other factors like high water demand, less compatibility with agriculturalcrops, low price regime than poplar and longer rotation period are the limiting factorsfor its plantation. A study by the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun had shown thatin Punjab there were two peak values of plantation during 1996 and 2003. During 1996,due to ban by the Supreme Court of India on felling and shifting of plywood industriesout of north eastern states of the country, the demand as well as price of poplarincreased to a great extent. It affected the annual plantation rates of eucalypts from1996 onwards. After 2001, the price of poplar started falling and again poplar plantationrate reduced to the minimum and the farmers resumed planting of eucalypts whichcontinued upto 2001. The data over the years reveal that people start raising treeswhen returns from tree crop appear to be more attractive than the alternative crops andthe prices remain stabilized over a period of time. The rate of planting has largely beendependent on the average market prices of the wood products. The higher the prices,the greater is the intensity of planting. Average market price and the rate of planting inPunjab indicate the trend (Table 2) .

4. Agroclimatic ZonesMainly five species of eucalypts are grown in different agroclimatic zones of the country.Performance of species varies considerably with the site and climatic conditions (Jagdish

Eucalypts in agroforestry

214

Table 2. Average price of eucalypt wood in the market and their rate of planting over time

Chandra et al., 1994). While E. camaldulensis, E.globulus and E. grandis have restrictedadaptability, E. tereticornis (Mysore gum) has been planted in the country both in theforests and outside in the agricultural fields on a large scale-except in the north-easternstates. The species has usually been raised in areas experiencing 600 to 1,500 mm annualrainfall as it does not grow well in wet areas of eastern India and areas subject to diseasesin high rainfall areas of south India. In the arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana,it can be grown with initial working for two to three years (Table 3). The species hasproved to be frost- tolerant and can tolerate one to 15 incidences of frosts in a coldseason. E. camaldulensis can be planted in areas having saline and alkaline soils, sandyareas and soils deficient in nutrients experiencing very low rainfall. In the ravinous areas,E. tereticornis and E. camaldulensis can be grown. E. grandis and E. tereticornis can beplanted in grasslands without tree growth and vegetation (Luna, 1996). Most of theagroforestry plantations raised in India lie in the plains and lower altitudes of the hills upto an elevation of about 1,000 m. On the basis of site quality, it has been ascertained thatEucalyptus hybrid under agroforestry grow better in hot arid regions than hot semi-aridregions and hot sub-humid regions of Punjab (Luna et al., 2006). The suitability of thespecies in different agroforestry zones has been given in Table 3.

Table 3. Suitability of eucalypts species in different agroclimatic zones of India

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Price per q (Rs.)

180

190

250

280

250

290

300

340

110

190

270

Rate of planting (stem ha-1)

0.350

0.466

0.429

0.259

0.226

0.317

0.356

.566

0.577

0.516

0.524

 

R.K. Luna

S. no

Species Climatic zone Longitude (East)

Latitude (South)

Altitude (m)

Annual rainfall (mm)

State

1. E. camaldulensis Tropical and sub-tropical

77º-40 ́to 80º-05´E

20º-45 ́to 32º-22´N

Upto 1,800 250-625 Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand

2. E. globulus Mild temperate to cool tropical climate

76º30 ́to 77º45´E

8º 0 to 11º 48´N

1,500 to 2,343

1,270 to 2,500 but without snowfall

Kerala, Karnataka (Annamalai and Palni hills)

3. E. grandis Lower sub-tropical areas

76º45 ́to 77º20´E

8º15 ́to 10º20´N

800 to 1,500

2,000 to 4,000

Kerala (Plateau plains, high rainfall areas)

4. E. tereticornis Dry tropical to moist tropical areas

68º-92ºE 8º-32ºN Upto 1,000 400 to 4,000

Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

5. Eucalyptus citriodora

Mild temperate areas

70º 0 ́to 77º45´E

11º0 ́to 11º 48´N

600 to 1,200

Hilly areas

 

215

5. Eucalypt Growing RegionsTree growing generally increases in areas where there is an intensive cultivation ofcrops, however, the tree growth has either declined as a result of overexploitation offorests decline in the tree stock (Warner, 1993). This is true for adoption of eucalyptsalso. After decades of growing monoculture of crops of rice, wheat, cotton or sugarcane,the farmers have been looking out for smart trees which could increase their overallproductivity without affecting the crop yield. In some areas, labour shortage or highwages rates have compelled farmers to switch over to eucalypts growing. It has alsopopularized after the number of cattle were drastically reduced and most of them werestall fed under the well known Government sponsored dairy development programmes.Most of the farmers in north India have been growing eucalypts mainly as cash crop(Arnold and Dewees, 1999). Eucalypts have matched with the development of marketingand establishment of industrial units consuming massive quantities of raw material. Atpresent, eucalypts occupy the most predominant species in the ‘trees outside forests’constituting from 12.10 per cent to 23.72 per cent of the total growing stock in any state(Table 4).

In Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, eucalypts are the most preferredspecies under agroforestry plantations. A kaleidoscopic view will reveal that eucalyptplantations in agroforestry sector have established distinctive regions in thecountry. Unlike poplar, which is confined from western limits of Punjab to easternlimits of western Bihar, eucalypts have been grown over larger parts of the countryranging from Ravi River in its western limits to Gangetic plains and Deccan plains,barring the eastern Himalayas, Garo and Khasi Hills, Western and Eastern Ghats.Within the intensive cultivation areas and elsewhere, the intensity of eucalyptculture is concentrated in certain locations particularly near the river basins, floodprone areas, and catchments of paper and paper board industries in the country. Theintensive eucalypt growing regions in different states in the country are given inTable 5.

6. SoilsEucalypts have been raised successfully in diverse kind of soils such as recentalluvial soils (Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh), Tarai soils (Uttarakhand),

Eucalypts in agroforestry

Table 4. Growing stock of eucalypts in trees outside forestsState Growing stock of eucalypts

outside forests (M m3) Total growing stock of

trees outside forests (M m3) Percentage of eucalypts growing stock (M m3)

Punjab 6.79 19.85 34.22 Haryana 3.83 14.44 26.50 Gujarat 14.98 47.78 31.36

 

216

lateritic soils (Bihar, Orissa and southern West Bengal), shifting sand dunes(Rajasthan), deeply cut ravines (Rajasthan), red sandy and loamy soils (Bihar,Madhya Pradesh and Orissa), skeletal rocky and murran soils, denuded hill slopes,red and yellow soils (Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh), black cotton soils(Gujarat, Karnataka and Maharashtra) and coastal alluvial soils (Tamil Nadu).Though grown on a diverse type of soils, its best growth is achieved in deep,fertile, well-drained loamy soil with adequate moisture. In Bhabar and Tarairegion of Uttrakhand, a bhabar soil with coarse texture and excessive boulderysub-soil, having deficient moisture supply is not found favourable for goodgrowth. Similarly, calcareous, alkaline and clayey soil in Bhabar and Tarai withpoor aeration are found unsuitable. It is also not suitable for growing on steepslopes, dry and waterlogged areas. Its growth is very poor in poor, solid andsandy soil, not resorted to irrigation. It cannot grow on sites having pH exceeding10.0, soluble salt content 0.7 per cent and possessing impervious pan (Kaushiket al., 1969). Its favourable soil textures are clayey loam, heavy clay (containingmore than 50 per cent clay), high to medium clay (35-35% clay), loam, sandyloam, sandy clay loam or sandy soil. Suitable soil pH range lies in acidic (6.5 to2.0).

Studies of the soils supporting Quality class I E. tereticornis in West Bengalshowed that these soils are light, acidic and have trends of laterisation of organic

Table 5. Intensive eucalypt growing regions in the country

R.K. Luna

S. no State Intensive eucalypts growing areas 1.

Andhra Pardesh Khammam, Telangana (Rangareddy), Warangal, Nizomabad, Medhak, Karimnagar, West Godavari, East Godavari, Prateasam, Nellore and Royalseema region (Anantapur, Karnool, Chittoor)

2. Chhatisgarh Bastar, Kanker, Durg and Raipur 3. Gujarat Dahod, Surat, Panchmahals, Bharuch, Sabar Kantha, Kheda and

Bhavnagar 4. Haryana Foot hills of Shiwalik hills, Yamuna and Gaggar River basins 5. Himachal Pradesh Una and Sirmour 6. Jammu and Kashmir Kathua 7. Karnataka Belgaum, Bangalore and Kumarapatnam area 8. Madhya Pradesh Chhindwara and Seoni 9. Maharashtra Chandrapur, Gadchiroli and Yadatmal 10. Odisha Korapur and Raygada 11. Punjab Bet and Mand areas of river Beas and Ravi, foothills of

Shiwaliks hills ranging from Ropar to Pathankot, Ferozepur, Faridkot, Abohar and Fazilka in the Malwa area

12. Rajasthan Hanumangarh, Sri Ganganagar and Suratpur 13. Tamil Nadu Pudukattai and Trichy 14. Uttar Pradesh Saharanpur, Muzaffarpur, Bijnour, Bulandshahr, Moradabad,

Rampur, Bareilly, Pilibhit, Shahjahapur, Sitapur, and Faizabad 15. Uttrakhand Hardwar, Roorkee and Rudrapur

 

217

matter and breakdown of parent material into free silica and sesquioxides(Banerjee et al., 1986). Among the physical properties, presence of gravel, sandand water holding capacity seem to influence the height growth of eucalypts(Alexender and Thomas, 1985). The growth on old alluvial beds as well as onfresh river embankments and canal sides is exceedingly fast. On poor soils, afterearly height growth, the further growth stagnates. Therefore, poor and dry erodedlands are not suitable for raising economically viable plantations of this species.

7. Supply of PlantsIn the 1980s, eucalypts plants in the forest department nurseries were the majorsource of supply to farmers. The forest departments in various states have beengrowing eucalypt seedlings to the extent of 15-20 M yr-1. As the demand grew,the private people also established small nurseries in the intensive eucalyptsgrowing areas. As there was no regulation to monitor the growth of nurseries,the quality of plants deteriorated to a great extent. Many nurseries wereestablished under the National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board whereeucalypt plants were raised and distributed to the public. Later, the practice toraise eucalypt plants continued under the Employment Guarantee Scheme andafterwards under the afforestation activities of MGNREGA. Eucalypt seedlingshave been raised from the beginning in the polythene bags of various sizesranging from 10 cm x 22 cm to 15 cm x 22 cm. The raising of seedlings is veryeasy. Seeds are sown on raised beds under shade. No pre-sowing treatment isrequired. Rapid and complete germination is achieved under moist, warmconditions in presence of light. Seedlings are pricked out and transferred topolybags at the second leaf-pair stage after about six weeks of sowing. Seedlingsare planted out in the field when they reach a height of 25-30 cm. On an average,one kilogram of E. tereticornis seed produces 25,000-30,000 healthy seedlings.Most of plants raised by the state forest departments (SFDs) are supplied to thefarmers at subsidized rates. The rates of supply have escalated from Re. 0.25 in1980s to Rs. 8.00 per plant at present. Due to market trends, conflicting viewsabout the ecological role of eucalypt and introduction of poplar have affectedthe production and supply of eucalypt plants by the SFDs. A detailed study ofPunjab state shows that supply of eucalypt plants to the public has been about40 per cent of the total plants supplied (Table 6).

8. Patterns of PlantingEucalypts are mostly planted scattered in singles or multiples near the tubewells,labour huts, farmer houses, cattle sheds, or in rows along the farm paths, irrigationchannels, along the field boundary, boundary of fruit orchards or enbloc in theagricultural fields. In boundary planting, eucalypts are planted in a single row on

Eucalypts in agroforestry

218

Table 6. Supply of eucalypt seedlings vis-a-vis total supply of all species in Punjab

one side, or on two, three or four sides of the field. The spacing generally varies from1.00 m to 2.00 m between tree to tree. Generally two to three rows of eucalypts areplanted at a distance of 1.0 m apart in a alternate fashion on the periphery of orchardsto protect the fruit trees from hot and desiccating winds in the arid areas. In theblock planting category, many agroforestry alternatives are possible:

(a) Eucalypt and crop in alternate row.(b) Eucalypt and crop in alternate strip.(c) Eucalypt and other trees in mixture.

The adoption of pattern depends upon the size of the holding of the farmer,number of family members, availability of labour and economic condition of thefarmer, experience of the tree grower, alternative or supplementary income fromother sources and marketability of tree produce. Most of the farmers adoptingeucalypts in the beginning of eighties, had been the absentee farmers in Haryanaand Punjab and the one having large size holdings. The marginal and small farmershad adopted row plantations or planted only a few scattered trees. Most of thefarmers prefer to plant trees in linear rows than in block plantations as the shadeeffect is the least in the former. As an example, in Punjab, the total volume in thescattered form (9.69 M m3) is more than in either block (2.68 M m3) or linear (6.22 Mm3) plantations (FSI, 2006).

9. Spacing in Agroforestry PlantationsPlant spacing is important to control the number and distribution of plants in theplantation area. In agroforestry plantations, optimum spacing has to becompromised between the cultivation of crops as well as maximizing the production

R.K. Luna

Year Number of eucalypt hybrid seedlings distributed (M)

Total number of seedlings of all species distributed (M)

Eucalypt plants distributed (%)

2000-01 1.03 2.27 45.35

2001-02 0.86 1.62 52.77

2002-03 0.84 1.65 51.00

2003-04 0.92 2.29 40.09

2004-05 0.76 1.89 40.35

2005-06 0.29 0.84 34.16

2006-07 0.21 0.69 29.88

2007-08 0.63 1.84 34.35

2008-09 0.64 1.64 38.73

2009-10 0.80 2.36 33.78

2010-11 0.76 1.86 40.82

 

219

of wood and minimizing the costs of management and utilization. As a rule, whenit is proposed to raise agricultural crops in conjunction with plantation, widerspacing has to be adopted to protect the agricultural crops from shading as well asfor free movement of agricultural machines. Moisture plays an important role indeciding the spacing in agroforestry plantations of eucalypt. Wider spacing ispracticed in dry areas where soil moisture is the limiting factor. In irrigatedplantations, closer spacing is adopted, as the cost for irrigation increases withwider spacing. In shallow soils unless fertilized, the spacing will also have to bewider for providing more spacing for root development. In wet areas, on the otherhand, where ridges are prepared on drain ploughs, spacing has to be coordinatedwith the drainage pattern. Where there is market for small diameter stems, closespacing is usually adopted. Closer spacing can be adopted for production offuelwood, and small diameter poles for pulp wood or pit props. Also when mainobjective is to get the maximum production of saleable volume, closer spacing atshort rotation helps. With wider spacings and short rotation, there is a loss ofvolume production since the site is not fully occupied and the mean tree sizeincreases. The stem taper is also increased by wider spacing resulting in a reductionof the percentage conversion when the log is sawn. Keeping in view the aboveprinciples in mind, the farmers have adopted the various spacings as per therealization of harvestable produce (Maithani and Sharma, 1987).

There are a number of combinations in agroforestry plantations. Puttingplants 1 m apart in a row and keeping the distance between rows higher thanthis, gives higher yields in Eucalyptus hybrid plantations under agroforestrysystem (Table 7). The most common practice adopted in irrigated agroforestryplantations is to have two-row strips, on a wider soil-worked ridge 1.5 m wide,30-45 cm high, the planting in a row being done at 1m espacement. The distancebetween strips is kept 4 or 6 m depending on the cultivation practice. Anotherspacing that has become popular is 4 m x 2.5 m, wherein crops are cultivatedupto the rotation period of four years. In Haryana, a study conducted in 27villages in five districts found 1.0 m spacing in the boundary planting the mostcommon. In block planting, among the 14 types of spacing ranging from 2.5 m2

Table 7. Range of espacement for Eucalyptus hybrid

Eucalypts in agroforestry

S. no

Object of planting Spacing No. of stems (ha-1)

Rotation (yr)

Remark

1. Fire wood 1 m x 1 m to 1.5 m x 1.5 m

10,000 to 4,444

5 Higher bark percentage and lower under bark diameters expected

2. Pulpwood and poles 2 m x 2 m 3 m x 2 m

2,500 1,667

6-8 Low bark percentage

3. Saw logs 3 m x 3 m 1,110 10-20 - 4. Windbreaks and

shelterbelts 1 m x 1 m to 1.5 m x 1.5 m

400 533

- -

One row Two rows

220

(2.5 m x 1 m) to 18 m2 (4.5 m x 4.0 m) area per plant, 4 m x 2.5 m was found the mostcommon (42%) followed by 2 m x 3 m or 3 m x 3 m (20%) (Kaul, 2008). The resultsof the experiments have proved that the closest spacing gives the highestvolume production, but at higher rotation of about 10 years, a very closespacing does not give as much as the survival rate decreases (Rawat et al.,2013). The diameter and volume production at different spacings at the age of sixyears is given in Table 8.

These trials indicated that when higher diameter classes are taken intoconsideration, close spacings still give high volume production at the age of sixyears. However, wider spacings of 5-6 m2 per plant gives more of volume productionat the age of eight to 10 years.

In the 1980s, seed route planted eucalypts were usually harvested at the ageof eight years. The foresters recommended espacement of 2.5 m x 2.5 m and 3 m x1.5 m which gave the maximum volume production of 106.1 m3 (u.b.) and 78.92 m3

(u.b.) at this age, whereas agricultural crops could be grown only for first twoyears (Lohani, 1980). Another popular spacing was 4.0 m x 2.0 m and 6.0 m x 1.0 mas practiced by the farmers in and Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh as agriculturalcrops could be grown for a longer period.

10. Plantation EstablishmentThe seedlings of E. globulus, E grandis and Eucalyptus hybrid can be usuallytransplanted when they attain 25-30 cm height in 45 cm3 or 30 cm3 pits. Areas to be

Table 8. Recommended spacings for eucalyptsS. no.

Spacing (m x m)

Average diameter (cm)

Volume ha-1

(m3) Survival rate

(%) 1. 1x1 9.0 148.00 56 2. 1.4x1.4 9.0 80.0 65 3. 2x2 10.0 36.0 63 4. 2.45x2.45 11.0 50.0 73 5. 3x3 13.0 60.0 91 6. 1x2 10.0 132.0 78 7. 1x3 10.0 119.0 75 8. 1x4 12.0 112.0 83 9. 1x5 13.0 115.0 93 10. 1x6 14.0 106.0 86 11. 2x0.5 8.0 114.0 58 12. 2x1.5 10.0 81.0 71 13. 2x2.5 11.0 66.0 81 14. 2x3 12.0 74.0 85 15. 3x0.3 10.0 288.0 80 16. 3.x0.6 11.0 152.0 88

 

R.K. Luna

221

intercultivated should be ploughed and harrowed. In dry and sloping areas, contourtrenching, continuous or interrupted is combined with pitting. In marshy andwaterlogged areas, mounds higher than anticipated water level are made for planting.In irrigated plantations, drainage channels are dug out along the rows of pits, thechannels are 30 cm to 45 cm in section with a depth of about 30 cm. Though plantingis done at the break of monsoon, eucalypt can be planted throughout the year,provided irrigation is available.

For planting clonal eucalypt, deep ploughing of the soil with disc ploughs ormould-board ploughs in both directions is recommended for preparing the fields.Transplanting in 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm pits is carried out during the early parts of themonsoon rains so that plants establish early benefitting from the moisture. Soil inand around the pits is treated with 2 ml of chloropyriphos in one litre of water toprevent damage against termites during the establishment stage. Application ofbotanical pesticides like kodesa (Cleistanthus collinus) for controlling termites isalso recommended (Kulkarni, 2002).

Cultural practices recommended include timely weeding and soil working,protection against damage by insect pests and cattle and raising of leguminouscrops in between 3 m wide planting rows for green manuring. In addition, intercultivation with cotton, chilli, pulses, tobacco, vegetables and horticulture plantsshould be encouraged during the first year of planting which gives additional earningto the farmers. As most of the soils in India are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus,application of fertilizers is recommended. Addition of fertilizers late in winter maycause to produce new flush of leaves which may be vulnerable to frost.

Owing to its fast growth, eucalypts are a heavy feeder and requires supplements inform of organic and chemical fertilizers. Deficiency of nitrogen in soils is a limiting factorfor growth and can reduce the yield by almost 60 per cent. For maintaining the soilfertility, it is advisable to raise eucalypts with legumes as an intercrop. Deficiency of iron(Fe) is reported in agroforestry plantations in Punjab, which is exhibited by yellowing ofyounger leaves that extend towards the older leaves. In advance stage, the leaves havea bleached appearance. Six to seven sprays of 0.25 per cent (250 g FeSO4. 7H2O in 100 lof water) and 0.50 per cent (500 g FeSO4. 7H2O in 100 l of water) in nurseries and plantations,respectively are found to be better treatments (Dhanda et al., 2008).

Eucalypts require frequent but light irrigation during the first year for betterestablishment and survival under field conditions. Three to four irrigations per monthduring the summer and two irrigations per month during winter are sufficient foroptimum growth. Light irrigation is usually advisable through channels as heavyirrigation by flooding may uproot plants during strong winds. Generally, decline ingrowth is directly related to moisture stress or excess of water (Tewari, 1992).

Eucalypts are a good coppicer. Once the tree is felled, the stump throws manycoppice shoots. Best time for coppice in northern India has been found to be

Eucalypts in agroforestry

222

November to February. In dry areas, eucalypt coppices poorly. Coppice shootsshould be singled out to keep only one vigorous stem per stump, which will form thesecond crop. The yield in the first and second coppiced crops is more or less thesame, but it declines in the 3rd and 4th rotation by about 9 per cent and 20 per cent,respectively. Therefore, it is advisable to change the planting stock after the secondharvest (Rawat et al., 2013).

Organic matter and exchangeable potassium are depleted in soil under eucalyptplantations, but there are no signs of depletion of calcium and magnesium (George,1991). Substantial amount of nutrients are received back through inputs to the soilthrough litter fall, stem flow and through fall. Input of various nutrients by way ofgeochemical cycle and other means of biological fixation of nitrogen and gains ofnitrogen from atmosphere would compensate any loss of nutrients by woodharvesting. However, Eucalyptus being a fast growing species and particularly whenplantations are to taken under coppice system, fertilizer application (N and P) isdesirable for sustained biomass production.

11. IntercroppingIntercropping is usually recommended for two reasons. The foremost reason beingthat farmers care for trees when they care for crops. The second reason being thatregular irrigation and fertilizer application to crops benefit trees as well. However,tree and crop management is required to make the system economically viable. Asthe intensity of shade increases year after year, there is a need to select appropriateshade tolerant crops and standardise cultural practices that are complementary toeach other. Of all the agroforestry systems that are being practiced, the adverseeffects of single row boundary plantation are minimum. Studies on the effect ofboundary plantation of eucalypt on the yield of adjoining agriculture crops showedmaximum yield reduction of 64.4, 58.4 and 42.6 per cent in wheat, rice and potatocrops, respectively near the base of the tree line (Dhillon et al., 1979 and 1982) Thereduction in the yield is, however, dependent on the direction of tree line, itscomposition, spacing of trees, cropping season and type of agriculture cropcultivated. The minimum reduction in yield of crop sown on southern side andmaximum on northern side of the tree line is also noticed.

In Gujarat, eucalypts planted as windbreaks helped in increasing the atmospherichumidity and, thus, resulted in an increase in the yield of wheat and mustard by 23-24 per cent (Kumar, 1984). Similar trend was available in Andhra Pradesh for groundnut,pigeon pea and pearl millet where an increase in yield to the order of 40-43 per cent,39-47 per cent and 23-64 per cent, respectively was observed. In another study onthe effect of eight year old eucalypts hybrid plantation in Dehradun on kharif maizecrop found no significant reduction in yield because of moisture availability (Dadwaland Narain, 1984). The results of still another study indicated that single sided

R.K. Luna

223

boundary plantations of eucalypts showed negligible adverse effects on wheatyield under irrigated conditions (Sharma and Unnikrishnan, 2000). The low yield ofcrops has been attributed to allelochemicals released by the leaf litter of eucalypts(Basu et al., 2000). It can, therefore, be concluded that eucalypts grown on fieldboundaries do compete with agricultural crops for water, nutrients and light to varyingdegrees, thereby, affecting crop production. However, eucalypts raised as windbreakor shelterbelt plantations under arid or semi-arid conditions has helped in increasingcrop production.

Low light intensity brings in decreased rates of photosynthesis under shade;affects relative growth rate, reproductive and ripening phases of crops and, thus,ultimately leads to loss of yield. Under certain tree canopy manipulation conditionsand choice of suitable crops maturing at suitable spatial times can only help to workout an integrated approach for maximum production of tree and agricultural cropyields. Therefore, there is a need to identify the suitable agricultural and horticulturalcrops which can grow well along with tree plantations with limited solar energyavailability.

Some of the crops that can be grown in the rabi season include wheat, mustard,potato, and fodders like barseem and oats that can be grown for the first two to threeyears depending upon the spacing and the intensity of shade. During kharif season,fodders like sorghum and pearl millet can be grown successfully after the first yearof planting. Out of fodders, cow pea and pearl millet are reported to yield higher thansorghum during the initial three to four years. However, after 4th year of plantation (4m x 2 m), yield of these intercrops is negligible. The vegetables that can be grown arecucurbits, ginger, potato and turmeric. Fast growing taller crops such as sugarcane,sunflower, sorghum, etc. should be avoided during the first year as these may suppressthe growth of young plants. The undercrop should be so rapid growing that it canexploit the relatively short period during which solar radiation penetration throughthe tree canopy is maximum.

The effect of eucalypt on agricultural crops is not very well researched and needsto be thoroughly investigated. There are a number of interactions between theatmosphere, tree and agricultural crops both above and underground. There is a lossin agricultural production because of the shade covering the agricultural crops andcompetition for nutrients and soil moisture. The presence of trees changes themicroclimate near the ground level by reducing the wind velocity, intercepting lightand heat radiation and also moisture. Reduced wind velocity reduces evapo-transpiration from understorey plants. The greater the leaf area and more horizontalare the leaves the greater would be the shading effect and evapo-transpiration.Eucalypts cast less shade on an average than other broadleaved species because ofdifferent leaf sizes and orientations. Interception of light radiation during daylightcauses reduced photosynthesis because of lower temperature and reduced evaporation.

Eucalypts in agroforestry

224

Effect of light intensity is well noted on the flowering, anthesis and yields. Still, thereare some crops which are shade tolerant and from which underground biomass can beutilized as food. There is a need to find out C3 crops which can be profitably grownunder tree crops as they are more efficient in utilizing light intensities. The minimumlight intensities that can be provided to undergrown crops and, accordingly, trees canbe geometrically spaced to achieve that minimum desirable light intensities. Only suchinnovative research can boost the agroforestry prospects and achieve the maximumproductivity from a unit piece of land.

It is, generally, believed that agricultural crops and trees meet their nutrientrequirements from different depths. Most of agricultural crops are spread over thetop layer of soil from 20 to 50 cm soil depth. However, a higher concentration offine tree roots in the soil layer upto 50 cm suggests that trees also obtain most ofthe nutrient requirements from the soil layer upto 50 cm. The main function of theroots reaching greater depths appears to be water uptake, particularly duringperiods of water stress (Bowen, 1984). The proportional abundance of fine rootsof agricultural crops, grasses and trees suggests that there is a tough competitionfor nutrients among these components in the top soil. The competition betweentree roots and crop roots is reduced by repeated ploughing in the surface soil. Butthe overall requirement of nutrients by eucalypts species. is found to becomparatively less than the annual agricultural crops (Ghosh et al.,1978). Moreover,the uptake of nutrients by eucalypts is not more than that of other hardwoodspecies. It may be possible to return 10-12 per cent more nutrients to the soil byleaving the bark and other logging residues to decompose and be incorporatedinto the soil (Chandrasekhran, 1984).

Some beneficial effects of eucalypts growing are also reported on the soilphysicochemical properties. With the accumulation of biomass, there is an overallenrichment of the nutrient pool, especially in respect of N, P and K which aregenerally applied in the form of inorganic fertilizers (Table 9) (Srinivas et al., 2000).

R.K. Luna

Table 9. Nutrient requirement in some crops (kg ha-1 yr-1)Crop P2O5 K2O CaO Eucalyptus spp. 1.4 58.6 34.8 Rye (grain + straw) 29.0 57.0 15.0 Oats (grain + straw) 34.0 69.0 15.0 Wheat (grain + straw) 30.0 53.0 15.0 Potatoes (tubers + residue) 45.0 210.0 79.0

12. Water ConsumptionIn India and elsewhere, planting of eucalypts has become controversial due toits alleged excessive water consumption and adverse effect on the ecology and

225

hydrology of the tract. The reliable measure of water consumption efficiency byplants is the weight of biomass produced per unit volume of water consumed.Some guide can be made from the ratio of rates of evapo-transpiration to panevaporation for different species. E. camaldulensis is reported to have a verylow evapo-transpiration (Davidson, 1985). E. globulus is reported to transpireabout 347.5 mm equivalent, that is about 38 per cent of the total rainfall. Studiescarried out regarding water consumption by different species indicate that thevalue of water consumption per unit of biomass produced (litre/gm) is lower inE. citriodora (1.41) as compared to Dalbergia latifolia (2.59), Pinus roxburghii(8.87) and Populus casale (3.04) (Dabral, 1970). It was evident from the studythat fast growing species naturally consume more water to produce maximumquantity of biomass. Later experiments by Chaturvedi et al. (1984) also reportedsimilar results confirming that Eucalyptus hybrid consumed 0.48 l of water pergram dry matter production against 0.77 l by Dalbergia sissoo, 0.72 l by Acaciaauriculiformis, 0.50 l by Syzigium cumini, 0.55 by Albizia lebbeck and 0.88 l byPongamia pinnata. Further studies showed that maximum amount of water byeucalypts was consumed during rains and lowest during summer months, whenthere was shortage of soil moisture. These results indicated that eucalypts werean efficient utilizer of water depending upon the availability. Lima (1984) citingHolmes and Wronski (1981) has stated that in South Australia with annual rainfallof 700 mm or more, eucalypts forest would create a soil water deficit of 250 mmeach year, against 180 mm by annual crops meaning, thereby, that forested landwould yield 70 mm less runoff or recharge of groundwater in comparison toannual crops. This is particularly important when Green Revolution states arepassing through a great water crisis. The groundwater table in the states likeHaryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh has fallen down alarmingly, endangering thefood security of the country. In view of this situation, the agroforestry has toplay an important role to overcome the crisis through diversification of paddy-wheat rotation (Box 1).

13. Economics of Eucalypt PlantationsIn farms, where soil is well worked, deep and rich, eucalypts can give very highreturns on investments. Economics of these plantations have been worked out byvarious workers in the past at suitable spacings and at appropriate rotations. Theeconomic feasibility of Eucalyptus hybrid both with or without intercropping undervarying spacings of 2.5 m x 2.5 m, 3.0 m x 1.5 m, 4.0 m x 2.0 m and 6.0 m x 1.0 m aspracticed by farmers in Haryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, were worked out (Mathuret al., 1984). The results are tabulated in Table 10.

The conclusions drawn were that eucalypts planting in combination withagricultural crops at 6.0 m x 1.0 m spacing with eight year rotation gave the

Eucalypts in agroforestry

226

Box 1. Changing Role of EucalyptsPunjab is predominantly an agricultural state with 82.56 per cent of its area under agriculture. Withthe introduction of high-yielding varieties of wheat and, subsequently, rice in the sixties with thetechnological inputs of chemical fertilizers and irrigation largely dubbed as ‘Green Revolution’, theproductivity of crops has changed tremendously, as a result Punjab got the title of ‘Grain Bowl ofIndia’. The policy to enhance the production of foodgrains has to be encouraged for meeting theemergent food situation in the country, especially during the seventies and eighties. Consequently,the production of foodgrains in Punjab has risen more than seventies, from 3.16 Mt in 1964-65 to25.30 Mt in 2000-01 (Punjab and Stock, 2000). However, over the times, the wheat – rice rotationnow covering more than 60 per cent gross of sown area, has created serious environmental problems.Both these crops use water intensively, thus, leading to large scale depletion of groundwater in manyareas. Rice, which is traditionally not grown in Punjab, now occupies 35 per cent of the area. During1965, rice occupied an area of 0.29 Mha whereas during 2010-11, it occupied an area of 2.7 Mha.The total demand of water for these high water guzzling crops, in the state is estimated at 4.38Mha m against a total supply of 3.130 Mha m from both canal and ground water resources, leavinga deficit of 1.251 Mha m. The deficit is met from overexploitation of groundwater table below thecritical depth of 10 metres. There are 9,35,000 tubewells to lift the underground water for irrigation.Due to incessant exploitation of groundwater, the water table in 110 blocks out of the total 138blocks in the state stands over exploited (more than 100%) and only 17 per cent area is under thesafe category for water development. The water table is going down at the more than 2 metres perannum in some districts of central Punjab. To meet this crisis, the government has proposed todivert 0.2 Mha of land from wheat-paddy rotation to agroforestry plantations. In the past, manygovernment schemes to allure the farmers to shift from wheat-paddy rotation to other crops havefailed. Agroforestry is possibly the new alternative because of promising high returns. Farmers arewilling to adopt clonal eucalyptus under agroforestry plantations. This will serve the goals ofsustaining the productivity of land, provide alternative agroforestry model to the farmers, increasethe forest and tree cover in the state, and conserve the water. Whereas, for production of one kg ofrice grain, 3,702 l of water are consumed, for production of 1 kg of dry biomass production ofeucalypts, 785 l of water is consumed (Davidson, 1985). Annual consumption of water both underwheat-paddy rotation and eucalypts based agro-based system is calculated as under:

Wheat-paddy cultivation systemRice production ha-1 =3,828 kg

Water required for one kgproduction = 3,702 lWater consumption ha-1 = 3,828 x 3,702 l

=14,171.256 m3 ha-1

Wheat production in rabi crop = 4,600 kg ha-1

Water consumed for one kgproduction = 1,654 lWater consumption ha-1 = 1,654x4,600 l

= 7,608.4 m3 ha-1

Total water consumption = 21,779.65 m3 ha-1

Total for 6 years @ 21,780 m3 ha-1 = 130,680 m3 ha-1

Eucalyptus-based agroforestry systemDry biomass production ofeucalypts ha-1 = 15 t per annumWater requirement for one kg ofdrybiomass production inagroforestry system = 785 l kg-1

Water consumption in one ha = 11,775 m3 ha-1

Biomass production of sorghumin kharif crop = 5 tWater consumption kg-1

production = 1,000 lWater consumption by sorghum = 5,000 m3 ha-1

Rabi crop of fodder = 5,000 m3 ha-1

Total 1st year = 21,775 m3 ha-1

Total 1st and 2nd yr@ 21,775 m3 ha-1 = 43,550 m3

3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th yr = 11,775 m3 ha-1 y-2

Total 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th yr@ 11,775 m3 ha-1 y-2 = 47,100 m3

Contd. on next page…

R.K. Luna

227

highest net present value and benefit cost ratio at 12 per cent rate of interest inHaryana, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. The internal rate of return was found to behigher for 4.0 m x 2.0 m spacing with intercropping in these states. The studyconcluded that for small farmers planting of eucalypts on bunds is economicallyviable without sacrificing the agricultural crops. It was recommended that cultivationof eucalypts at wider spacing in combination with agricultural crops at eightyears rotation ensures high economic returns (Mathur et al., 1984). Similar viewswere expressed by Dogra (1984) that eucalypt plantations on agricultural farmsproved to be highly economical giving an internal rate of return of 35 per cent to38 per cent without intercropping and 85 per cent with intercropping (Table 11).It was concluded that on good agricultural land where irrigation is available,intercropping must be practiced since opportunity cost of this land is high. In

Total consumption in six years = 90,650 m3 ha-1

Saving of water = 40,030 m3 ha-1

Total saving expected after bringing 0.1 Mha under agroforestry system = 4,003 M m3

...Contd. from previous page

Thus, by bringing a 0.1 Mha area under agroforestry system Punjab can save 4000 M m3

of groundwater over a period of six years. Moreover, water consumption by eucalypts can bereduced by planting trees apart or by thinning existing plantations, which the farmers won’tdo with agricultural crops. The faster trees grow because of their genetic make up or they aremade to grow fast by application of fertilizer. To accumulate more living biomass, the treehas to withdraw more water reserves. The decision, therefore, can be taken as to how quicklythe biomass is to be harvested or how quickly benefits from trees are required. A balance canbe struck between growing a large biomass or alternatively, growing a lesser biomass over amuch longer period of time to save water. Rate of biomass production (read water consumption)can be adjusted through cultural practices or by choice of species. As suggested, the density oftrees can also be adjusted keeping in view the annual rainfall, needs of other vegetation,livestock and human consumption.

Table 10. Economics of eucalypts growing under agroforestry systems at eight yearsrotation

(Labour rate Rs. 10.0 per manday).

Eucalypts in agroforestry

Spacing No. of plants

Volume (u.b.) m3

NPV (@ 12%)

B:C (@ 12%)

IRR (%)

(a) Without cropping (i) 2.5 m x 2.5 m (ii) 3.0 m x 1.5 m

1,600 2,222

106.1 78.92

Rs. 21,422 Rs. 14,687

3.43 2.45

40 32

(b) With inter cropping (i) Bund planting

2m apart (ii) 2.5 m x 2.5 m (iii) 3.0 m x 1.5 m (iv) 4.0 m x 2.0 m (v) 6.0 m x 1.0 m

200 1,600 2,222 1,250 1,666

-

106.0 79.0 78.0

116.0

Rs. 31,681 Rs. 15,563 Rs. 8,727

Rs. 11,914 Rs. 17,022

2.32 2.08 1.57 1.88 2.17

-

64.6 40.0 73.0 63.0

228

other words, good quality land should not be brought under eucalypts unlessinter cropping is practiced.

The productivity of clonal eucalypts is more than two to three times of the seedroute plantations. The experimental trials carried out by Pragati Biotechnologies haveindicated seven most productive clones with MAI ranging from 24 to 30 m3 ha-1 yr-1 atthe age of four years. Some clones are reported to produce 30 to 36 m3 ha-1 yr-1. Theanalysis of data from private agroforestry farms revealed that clone 288 gave MAI of48.79 m3 ha-1 yr-1 followed by clone 316 with MAI to the tune of 33.70 m3 ha-1 yr-1 at theage of 4 and five years, respectively (Luna et al., 2009). Studies in Haryana state haveindicated a yield of 50.2 t ha-1 yr-1 in a four year old irrigated clonal plantation. Theprofitability of this plantation was worked out Rs. 27,587 acre-1 yr-1. Even under rainfed conditions, a six year old clonal plantation gave 37.4 t ha-1 yr-1 which showed anincrease of about 179 per cent over seed route plantation. The profitability of thisclonal plantation was worked out to Rs. 27,249 acre-1 yr-1 which was about three timesof seed route plantation. Thus clonal plantations are a boon for the farmers (Sapra,2006). Many farmers in Punjab have achieved record growth rates of 50-58 m³ ha-1 yr-

1 making farm forestry an economically attractive land use option with better returnscompared to traditional crops (Piare Lal, 2006). Table 12 summarises the productivityof clonal eucalypts and the income generation.

In Andhra Pradesh, the farmers have harvested MAI (MT ha-1) of 23 in Khammam,28 in Prakasam, 21 in Guntur, 24 in Krishna and 39 in West Godavari districts. TheIRR per acre (%) in different districts worked out to be 40 in West Godavari, 48 inKhammam, 32 in Prakasam, 26 in Guntur and 30 in Krishna (Kulkarni, 2004). Some ofthe most important considerations which prompt farmers to adopt agroforestry as a

Land site type I II III IV Description of site

Undulating irrigated land

Fair quality irrigated land no

intercropping

Average quality irrigated land

Good quality irrigated land (intercropped)

Annual land rent (Rs. ha-1)

400 600 1,000 1,500-2,500

N.P.V. (Rs. ha-1) at 6%

26,802

31,794

42,732

47,811

15% 8,050 9,714 13,012 17,458 I.R.R. (%) 35 38 37 85

Table 11. Economics of eucalypts plantation on agricultural farms in Punjab

R.K. Luna

Table 12. The income from clonal eucalypts plantationsSpacing (m x m)

Year Average weight (q acre-1)

Total income (M Rs. acre-1)

Average total income (Rs. acre-1 yr-1)

4 x 2 7-8 1,200 0.30 37,000 4 x 2 3-4 350 0.06 15,000+crops 8 x 2 (block) 7 700 0.18 25,000+crops 2 (on field bunds) 7 350 0.09 12,500+crops

 

229

preferred land use option are high productivity, better returns as compared to crops,long-term market demand, availability of genetically improved planting material andhigh quality extension services (Piare Lal, 2006).

14. MarketingAs compared to agricultural sector, the concept of marketing has not developed wellin the forestry sector. Not much work has been done in the country on theinterrelationships between production levels and marketing of tree products. Eucalyptgrowers throughout the country sell their produce to the private traders at the lumpsum price or on the basis of weight. Very few farmers prefer to cut the trees themselvesand bring the logs on their own transport to the nearby markets, where it is sold inauction by weight. The rates of wood in markets all over the country varyconsiderably in a particular season and also in different months its one particularseason, and also in different months at one particular place depending upon thequality as well as demand of the wood in the market. At the time of harvesting ofcrops during rabi and kharif seasons, the arrival of wood in the market declines,whereas with the onset of winter season, the market shows upward trends due toincrease in the demand of fuelwood as well as timber. Lack of efficient marketingsystem is believed to be the major factor in depressing returns from eucalyptsplantations in Punjab and elsewhere (Negi et al., 1996). There is a decline in producer’sshare in consumer’s rupee, with the increase in length of marketing chain. Theexisting marketing rules and customs also tend to complicate the marketing channelsand the middlemen take the advantages of the faulty market mechanism.

There is no follow up of the rigid rotations as the trees are felled as and whenthe need arises. Further, the harvest sales has an effect on the post-harvest sales toget competitive price in the regulated markets (Singh and Grover, 1998). There is aneed to educate the farmers by providing them the reasonable estimates of quantityand quality of wood in the standing trees through extension services. Sagar (1983)after examining the various aspects of utilization and the market prices of differentend users of eucalypts suggested to set up forest products price commission to fixthreshold prices of different end-use products in order to save the farmers from thevagaries of the market. Quli (2001) also agreed that lack of proper marketing facilityis a common feature for the villagers resulting in their exploitation by middle men.Some states like Haryana and Uttar Pradesh have set up forest corporations whichpurchase trees directly from farmers, but these purchases are estimated to about 0.1per cent of the total farm output of eucalypt trees.

Negi et al. (2001) reported that only 8 per cent of the farmers of Yamunanagardistrict preferred self-harvesting before marketing their produce. Whereas, rest ofthem sold their standing trees in the fields. The reasons for adopting sale of standingtrees were reported to be high labour input in harvesting, poor knowledge of sizes

Eucalypts in agroforestry

230

and logging techniques, lack of equipment for proper transport and communication,delay in payment by the traders and industrialists. Besides these, the malpracticessuch as under measurement of the sizes and weight and under assessment of thequality of tree products forced the farmers to sell their trees in standing condition. Thetypes of sale (pre-harvest or post-harvest) depend on many factors such as distanceof timber markets from plantation sites, number of trees available for sale, area underplantation, cost of felling and transportation, availability of labour and market price ofthe produce. Farmers with small area under tree plantation mostly disposed off theirtrees in standing condition through contractors. The farmers away from marketspreferred pre-harvest mode of sale as compared to the villages located near to timbermarkets due to high transportation costs. The study on marketing condition in Punjabby the FRI (2006) further revealed that the farmers were getting only 56.4 to 64.8 percent of the buyers’ price through this channel, as there were three to four intermediatorieswho shared the profit. The farmers incurred a number of charges (Rs. q-1) such asharvesting and loading, transportation, octroi, weighing, unloading, quality, discountand commission. The total of these charges came to almost 50 per cent of value ofwood. The study strongly recommended the establishment of Tree GrowersCooperative with the main function of securing sales and negotiating contracts.

15. Policy and Research NeedsThough most significant plantation species in the country, eucalypt has not receiveddue attention in the research circles. The productivity levels of the species differ toa great extent in the different agroclimatic zones as well as within the zones. Thefarmers are dependent on a very narrow genetic base of the species for planting. Allover the country, clones developed by the ITC Bhadrachalam are propagated andmultiplied extensively. The government departments have neither made efforts todevelop new clones nor taken pains to broaden the genetic base of planting materialfor supply to the farmers. Instead the uncertified planting material is sold to thefarmers at uncontrolled prices because regulations are not there on both the fronts.The government has not developed or institutionalized the mechanism to supportthe prices of eucalypts wood. The state departments are supplying the plantingmaterial without studying the future dynamics of demand and supply of wood in themarket. Most of the farmers are planting eucalypts at various spacings withoutknowing the silvicultural or economical aspects of planting under agroforestry. Evenafter half a century of eucalypt planting in the field, package and practices arewidely under developed or unknown to the farmers. The research institutions havebeen mainly working on biomass and mensurational studies preparing the yield andvolume tables, which have little applications for the farmers. In our country, both forpromotion of eucalypt as well as for the welfare of farmers, the species has to becultivated in association with agricultural crops.

R.K. Luna

231

Therefore, research institutions should prioritise the research needs forworking out the interaction of crops, manipulation of tree canopies, substitutionof new agricultural crops, and the water and nutrient dynamics between trees andagricultural crops to give a new meaning to agroforestry. There is a tremendousscope for improvement of eucalypts to produce the disease free clones particularlyagainst the gall wasp (Leptocybe invasa), little leaf (Mycoplasma like organism),leaf blight (Cylindrocladium quinquenceptum) and psyllid of eucalypts whichare becoming a great threat in some intensive eucalypt planting zones in thecountry. The prioritization of policy and research needs on eucalypt are givenbelow:

15.1. Priorities• Development of high yielding and disease resistant eucalypt clones.

Widening the genetic base and diversity of clones by developing a largenumber of field tested superior clones with desirable genetic traits.Introduction of new germplasm of promising provenances and species.

• Development of package of practices for different agroclimatic zones of thecountry including correct choice of species/clones, spacings to be adopted,cultural practices, rotation, yield expectation and economics. Field testing ofclones for identification of site specific clones with high adaptability andproductivity.

• Certification of planting material and regulation on sale and proliferation ofunscientific eucalypt nurseries.

• Reduction of per plant cost of production of clonal planting stockparticularly improving the rooting percentage of vegetative cuttings.

• Interaction of agricultural crops and trees, manipulation of canopies oftrees toward the shade effect.

• Trials on new varieties of agricultural crops suitable for growing underpartial shade.

• Working out economics of eucalypt grown under agroforestry vis-à-visagricultural crops grown alone.

• Nutrient demands of eucalypt grown in association with agricultural cropsand grown alone.

• Water relations of eucalypt and agricultural crops.

ReferencesAlexander, T.G. and Thomas, P. 1985. Physical properties of soils in relation to

Eucalyptus growth. KFRI Report No. 27. Peechi, KFRI. 11p.Arnold, J.E.M. and Dewees, P.A. 1999. Trees in managed landscapes: Factors in

farmer decision making. In: Buck, L.E.; Lassoie, J.P. and Fernandes, E.C.M.

Eucalypts in agroforestry

232

Eds. Agroforestry and sustainable agricultural system. Boca Raton, CRCPress.

Athreya, V. 1989. Pilot study on experiences in farm forestry in Haryana. New Delhi,Athreya Management Consultants.

Banerjee, B.; Nandi, A.; Nath, S. and Banerjee, S.K. 1986. Characteristics of the soilssupporting quality I Eucalyptus tereticornis in South Bengal. IndianForester, 112(9): 762-771.

Basu, P.K.; Kapoor, K.S.; Nath, S. and Benerjee, S.K. 2000. Allelopthic influence: Anassessment of the response of agricultural crops growing near Eucalyptustereticernis. In: Singhal, R.M. and Rawat, J.K. Eds. Effects of growingEucalyptus. 2nd ed. Dehradun, FRI. pp. 218-225.

Bowen, G.D. 1984. Tree roots and the use of soil nutrients. In: Bowen, G.D. andNambiar, E.K.S. Eds. Nutrition of plantation forests. London, AcademicPress. 516p.

Chandra, B.K.; Kariyappa, G.S. and Manjunath, B.E. 1994. Evaluation of Eucalyptuscamaldulensis provenance trials in Karnataka. Indian Forester, 120(8): 670-676.

Chandrasekharan, K.S. 1984. Eucalyptus and forestry II. Times of India, 2nd October1984.

Chaturvedi, A.N.; Sharma, S.C. and Srivastava, R. 1984. Water consumption andbiomass production of some forest trees. Commonwealth Forestry Review,63(3): 217-223.

Dabral, B.G. 1970. Preliminary observations on potential water requirement in Pinusroxburghii, Eucalyptus citriodora, Populus casale and Dalbergia latifolia.Indian Forester, 96(10): 775-778.

Dadwal, K.S. and Narain, P. 1984. Root effects of the boundary trees on the rabicrops can be reduced by trenching. Soil Conservation Newletter, 3(2).

Davidson, J. 1985. Setting aside the idea that eucalypts are always bad. WorkingPaper No. 10. Rome, FAO. 26p.

Dhanda, R.S.; Gill, R.I.S.; Singh, Baljit and Navneet Kaur. 2008. Agroforestry modelsfor crops diversification in Punjab plains. Ludhiana, PAU.

Dhillon, G.S.; Singh, Surjit; Dhillon, M.S. and Atwal, A.S. 1982. Developingagrisilvicultural practices: Studies on the shading effect of Eucalyptuson the yield of adjoining crops. Indian Journal of Ecology, 9(2): 228-236.

Dhillon, G.S.; Grewal, S.S. and Atwal, A.S. 1979. Developing agri-silvicultural practices:Effect of farm trees (Eucalyptus) on the adjoining crops (India). IndianJournal of Ecology, 6(2): 88-97.

Dogra, A.S. 1984. Farm and agroforestry in south western Punjab. In: Mathur, R.S.and Gogate, M.G. Eds. Agroforestry in India. Dehradun, FRI. pp. 157-177.

R.K. Luna

233

FRI (Forest Research Institute, Dehradun). 2006. Studies on interrelationshipsbetween production level and marketing of important forestry species inPunjab. Final project report. Dehradun, FRI.

FSI (Forest Survey of India, Dehradun). 2006. Report on inventory of trees outsideforests (ToF) in Punjab. Dehradun, Forest Survey of India.

George, M. 1991. Nutrient cycle and nutrient removal in Eucalyptus hybrid plantations.In: Singhal, R.M. and Rawat, J.K. Eds. Effects of growing Eucalyptus.Dehradun, FRI. pp. 59-72.

Ghosh, R.C.; Kaul, O.N. and Subha Rao, B.K. 1978. Some aspects of water relationsand nutrition in Eucalyptus plantation. Indian Forester, 104(7): 517-524.

Goldin, I.; Rogers, H. and Stem, N.H. 2002. The role and effectiveness of developmentassistance: Lessons from World Bank experience. [Available at: http://go.worldbank.org/16O8JRI6W0 ].

Holmes, J.W. and Wronski, E.B. 1981. The influence of plant communities upon thehydrology of catchments. Agricultural Water Management, 4(1-3): 19-34.

Kaul, O.N. 2008. Biomass estimation study in Haryana Community Forestry Projectvillages. Final report. New Delhi, Institute for Sustainable Development. 32p.

Kaushik, R.C.; Qureshi; I.M.; Yadav, J.S.P. and Jai Prakash. 1969. Suitability of soilsfor Eucalyptus hybrid (Mysore gum syn E. tereticornis) in Haryana andPunjab. Indian Forester, 95(6): 377-388.

Kulkarni, H.D. 2002. Bhadrachalam clones of Eucalyptus - An achievement of ITC. In:Workshop on Forest Science and Forest Policy in the Asia-Pacific Region:Buildings Bridges to a Sustainable Future, Chennai, 16-19 July 2002.Proceedings. The author.

Kulkarni, H.D. 2004. Clonal forestry for industrial wood species. An ITC experience.In: Parthiban, K.T.; Paramathma, M. and Neelakantan, K.S. Eds.Compendium on clonal forestry. Mettupalyam, TNAU. pp. 92-113.

Kumar, D. 1984. Place of Eucalyptus in Indian agroforestry systems. In: NationalSeminar on Eucalypts in Indian Forestry: Past, Present and Future, Peechi,30-31 January 1984. Eucalypts in India: Past present and future: Proceedingsedited by J.K. Sharma, C.T.S. Nair, S. Kedharnath and S. Kondos. Peechi,KFRI. pp. 257-260

Lima, W.P. 1984. The hydrology of Eucalyptus forests in Australia: A review. IPEFNo. 28. pp. 11-32.

Lohani, D.N. 1980. Studies on spacing in Eucalyptus plantation. U.P. Forest Department,Bulletin No. 42. Lucknow, Research and Development Circle. 56p.

Luna, R.K. 1996. Plantation trees. Dehradun, International Book Distributors. 975p.Luna, R.K.; Rawat, V.R.S.; Singh, B. and Chandra, A. 2006. Site suitability of

Eucalyptus under agroforestry system in different agro-climatic zones ofPunjab. In: National Seminar on Trees Outside Forests: Potential for Soci-

Eucalypts in agroforestry

234

Economic and Ecological Development, Chandigarh, 25-26 April 2006.Proceedings.

Luna, R.K.; Thakur, N.S. and Vijay Kumar. 2009. Performance of clonal Eucalyptus indifferent agro-climatic zones of Punjab, India. Indian Forester, 135(11): 1455-1464.

Maithani, G.P. and Sharma, D.C. 1987. Initial spacing in Eucalyptus planting. IndianForester, 113(5): 323-332.

Mathur, R.S.; Sharma, K.K. and Ansari, M.Y. 1984. Economics of Eucalyptusplantations under agroforestry. Indian Forester, 110(2): 171-201.

Negi, Y.S.; Tewari, S.C. and Jitendra Kumar 1996. Eucalyptus marketing in Punjab. Acomparative inter-market analysis. Indian Forester, 122(12): 1127-1135.

Piare Lal. 2006. Clonal forestry in India. In: Regional Consultation Workshop onScope of Production Forestry for Carbon Sequestration, 7-8 December2006. Proceedings. Dehradun, FSI.

Punjab, I. and Stock, C.P. 2000. Development of agriculture and allied sectors. In:Planning Commission. Punjab state development report. New Delhi, PlanningCommission. pp. 111-147.

Rawat, A.S.; Singh, Ombir and Luna, R.K. 2013. Nursery and plantation technologyof common trees of Punjab. Dehradun, FRI.

Sagar, S.R. 1983. Marketing of Eucalyptus wood with special reference to Punjab.Indian Forester, 109(12): 969-972.

Sapra, R.K. 2006. Clonal forestry with reference to Eucalyptus and poplar in Punjab andHaryana. In: Regional Consultation Workshop on Scope of Production Forestryfor Carbon Sequestration, 7-8 December 2006. Proceedings. Dehradun, FSI.

Saxena, N.C. 1991. Marketing constraints of Eucalyptus from farm lands in India.Agroforestry Systems, 13(1): 73-85.

Sharma, K.K. and Unnikrishnan, K.P. 2000. Effect of Eucalyptus on yield ofagricultural crops under agro-forestry. In: Singhal, R.M. and Rawat, J.K.Eds. Effects of growing Eucalyptus. 2nd ed. Dehradun, FRI. pp. 205-217.

Singh, Joginder and Grover, D.K. 1998. Marketing of major forest products in Punjab.In: National Workshop on Marketing of Forest Products in India. Dehradun,30-31 October 1998. Proceedings. Dehradun, FRI.

Srinivas, S.; Singhal, R.M. and Rawat, J.K. 2000. Allelopathic effect of Eucalyptuson agricultural crops. In: Singhal, R.M. and Rawat, J.K. Eds. Effects ofgrowing Eucalyptus. 2nd ed . Dehradun, FRI. pp. 234-248.

Tewari, D.N. 1992. Monograph on Eucalyptus. Dehradun, Surya Publications. 361p.Warner, K. 1993. Patterns of farmer tree growing by farmers in eastern Africa: A socio

economic analysis, OFI Tropical Forestry Papers, 27. Oxford, Oxford ForestryInstitute. 270p.

R.K. Luna