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AG'ENDA

THE I 'NITED NATIONI5P RO(ERAII'IIVIE (oF ACTT(ON

FROm Rr(O

@

ACENDA 2lzProgromme of Action forSusto i noble Development

RIO DECTARAflONon Environment ond Development

Stotement of

FOREST PRINCIPTES

The finol text of ogreementsnegotioted by Governments

ot the United Notions Conference onEnvironment ond Development (UNCED),3-1 4 June 1992, Rio de Joneiro, Brozi l

Moteriol contoined in this book is not subiect to copyright. lt moy be reproduced for strictlynon<ommerciol purposes, provided ocknowledgement is given to the United Notions.

Address enquiries to:Proiect Monoger for Sustoinoble Development, Deportment of Public Informotion,Room 9. |032, Uni ted Not ions, New York, NY l00lZ, USA Fox l2 l2) 963- l l86

ISBN:92- l -100509-4Uni ted Not ions Publ icot ions-Soles No. E.93.1.1 I

Published by the United Notions Deportment of Public Informotion

Foreword.

In t roduc t ion . . . . . . . . . . . .

Acronyms

Toble of Contents

lnternotionol cooperotion to qccelerote sustoinoble developmentin developing countries ond reloted domestic policies

Comboting poverty....

Chonging consumption potterns .....

Demogrophic dynomics ond sustoinobil ity ...

Protecting ond promoting humon heolth

Promoting sustoinoble humon settlement development ...

Integroting environment ond development i n decision-moking . . ......

PARAGRAGHS PAGE

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5

RIO D:CIARATIOI{ OI{ E]IYINOililENT AIID DIVE1OPMENT

ACE]IDA 2I: PROGNAftlllE OF ACTloil ;OR SUSIAINAB]E DEYETOPffIENT......

r. Preomble r . 6

2.

4.

5 .

6 .

7.

8 .

2.1- 2 .43

3 . r - 3 . r 2

4 . 1 - 4 . 2 7

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6 . 1 - 6 . 4 6

7 .1 - 7 .80

8 . r - 8 .54

1 7

l 9

27

3 l

35

42

52

65

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1 5

75

77

84

88

Secllon 2; Conrervcllon ond ilcnngemenl of Resources for Developmenl ...

s. Protection of the otmosphere......

to Integroted opprooch to the plonning ond monogementor lond resources.

tt Comboting debrestotion ...

i2. Monoging frogile ecosystems:Comboting desertif icotion ond drought...

13. Monoging frogile ecosystems:Sustoi noble mountoi n development.

14. Promoting sustoinoble ogriculture ond rurol development

15. Conservotion of biologicol diversity

16. Environmentolly sound monogement of biotechnology..

17. Protection of the oceons, oll kinds of seos, includinq enclosedond semi-enclosed seos, ond coostol oreos ond thJ protection,rotionol use ond development of their living resources

Y . t - v . J 5

r 0 . t - r 0 . ' t 8

i l . t - 1 r . 4 0

12.1- 12.63

r 3 . 1 - r 3 . 2 4

1 4 . 1 - 1 4 . 1 0 4

t 5 . t - 1 5 . 1 1

1 6 . 1 - 1 6 . 4 6

1 7 . 1 - 1 7 . 1 3 7

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r09

1 1 4

1 3 1

1 3 6

147

PARAGRAPHS

r 8 . t - 18 .90

19.1- 19.76

20.1-20.46

21.1 21.49

22 .1 22 .9

2 4 . 1 - 2 4 . 1 2

2 5 . 1 - 2 5 . 1 7

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27 .1 - 27 .13

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29 .1 - 29 14

3 0 . r - 3 0 . 3 0

3 t . r - 3 1 . 1 2

3 2 . 1 - 3 2 . 1 4

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3 4 . 1 - 3 4 . 2 9

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40. r 40.30

PAGEi 8

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Protection of the quolity ond supply of fresh*oter resources:Applicotiorr of integrotecJ oporooches to the cjevelopmenr,mCInogernent ond use of woter resources

Environmentol ly sound monoqement of toxic chemicolsincluding prevent ion of i l lego[ internot ionol t rof f ic intoxic ond dongerous products

E nvi ronm ento I ly sound- mo nogement of hozo rdous wostes,including prevent ion of i l legol internot ionol t rof f ic inhozordous wostes

Environmeniol ly sound monoqement of soi id wostesl ' r r . v

ono sewoge-retoted tssues

Sofe ond environmentol ly sound rnonogement of rodiooctive wostes

Globol oction for women towords sustoinobie ondequi toble deuelopment. . . . .

Chi ldren ond youth in sustoinoble developmentReco.gnizing ond s'trengthening the role of indigenous peopleond the i r communi t ies . . . ^ .

Strengthening the role of ,non,-governmentol orgonizot ions:!-orfners tor susto r noble development

Locol outhor i t ies ' in i t iot ives in support of Agendo 2j . . . .sirengthening the roie of workers ond their trode unionsStrengthening the role of business ond industrySc ien t i f i c ond techno log ico l communi ty . . . . . . .

166

206

t t 3

24.

1 1

l l

Section 3: Strengthening the Role of Molor Groups

Preomble 23.1_ 23.4

2 1 7

21923

) A

25

26

220

224

l /

2B

29.

30

3 1 .

227

230

233

235

237

240

243Strengthening the role of formers. . . . . .

Sectlon 4: Meons of lmplemenlal ion

Finonciol resources ond mechonisms

Tronsfer of environmentolly sound technology, cooperotionond copoc i ry -bu i ld ing . . . . . . .

Science for sustoinoble development.

Promot ing educct ion, publ ic oworeness ond troining.. . . . .Not ionol mechonisms ond internot ionol cooperot ion forcopoc i f -bu i ld ing in deve lop ing count r ies . . . .

38 Internoi ionol inst i tut ionol orrongements.

39 internot ionol legol instruments ond mechonisms .4a !n fo r rno t ion fo r dec is ion-mok ing . . . , . .

247

24933

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389SIATEMENT OF FOREST PRINCIPTES

Foreword

Humanity today is in the midst of a profound civilizational change. There are signs ofit everywhere, and for the thousands of dedicated people who were involved in thatextraordinary event at Rio a year ago-indeed, for all the people of the globe-theyare exhilarating, uplifting signs.

While it is still too early to provide a precisely calibrated measure of the ultimatesuccess of the Earth Summit, I believe it has ignited a wildfire of interest and supportat every level of society in every corner of the planet. Since last June, there has been aprofusion of conferences, seminars, symposia and other organized colloquies ofmajor sectoral groups. Industrialists, economists, financiers, engineers, scientists-those who, in truth, hold the levers of economic power and change-have joined theconstituency of earnest environmentalists in a commitment to the fulfilment of thehopes and aspirations engendered by Rio.

In short, the movement to turn the world from its self-consumptive course to oneof renewal and sustenance has unmistakably spread from the grass roots to the brassroots. The Declaration of Rio and its Agenda 2l actron programme are now, it seemsclear, on everyone's agenda.

But this discernible increase in momentum is still only a beginning, albeit a highlyencouraging one. The economic gulfs which lie within and among the world'speoples and nations not only remain, but are daily deepening. Hunger and poverty-which are both a cause and an effect of global environmental degradation- are stillappallingly pervasive in the developing world, where population growth compoundsthe problems of alleviating them. Industrial countries continue to be addicted to thepatterns of production and consumption which have so largely produced the majorrisks to the global environment.

Though in the aftermath of Rio there is a heightened awareness of, and debateover, the compelling needs for action, there is not yet a concerted and decisiveresponse to the magnitude and urgency of the task. Nor do we possess detailedspecifications for the tools we will need to forge this second industrial revolution-this eco-revolution that is essential in order to shift the world onto a new pathway to amore secure, sustainable and equitable future.

There is much to be done. And I look to the new United Nations Commission onSustainable Development to be the focal point for the massive effort needed to createthe new era of international cooperation, the new global partnership, that will makethis shift possible.

zZa;Mourice F. Strong, Secretory-GenerolUnited Notions Conference on Environment ond Development

Introduction

Agenda 2I-a programme of action for sustainable development worldwide, the RioDeclaration on Environment and Development, and the statement of principles for the

sustainable management of forests were adopted by more than 178 Governments at

the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, known as theEarth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil, from 3 to l4 June 1992.

Together they fulfil the mandate given to the Conference by the United NationsGeneral Assembly when, in 1989, it called for a global meeting to devise integratedstrategies that would halt and reverse the negative impact of human behaviour on thephysical environment and promote environmentally sustainable economic develop-rnent in all countries.

The agreements, which were negotiated over two and a half years leading up tothe Surnmit and finalized in Rio, are presented here in final form. While they lack theforce of international law. the adoption of the texts carries with it a strong moralobligation to ensure their full implementation.

Agenda 21 stands as a comprehensive blueprint for action to be taken globally-from now into the twenty-first century-by Governments, United Nations organiza-tions, development agencies, non-governmental organizations and independent-sectorgroups, in every area in which human activity impacts on the environment.

The Agenda should be studied in conjunction with both the Rio Declaration-which provides a context for its specific proposals-and the statement of forest prin-

ciples. It is hoped that the forest principles will form the basis for a f-uture internation-al-level agreement.

Underlying the Earth Summit agreements is the idea that humanity has reached aturning point. We can continue with present policies which are deepening economicdivisions within and between countries-which increase poverty, hunger, sicknessand illiteracy and cause the continuing deterioration of the ecosystem on which lifeon E,arth depends.

Or we can change course. We can act to improve the living standards of thosewho are in need. We can better manage and protect the ecosystem and bring about arnore prosperous future for us all. No nation can achieve this on its own. Together wecan-in a global partnership for sustainable development.

Central to that partnership will be the United Nations Commission on SustainableDevelopment, established by the General Assembly in response to a request of theConference. Made up of Government representatives, it will examine progress madein implementing Agenda 2l globally. The Commission will first meet in June 1993-the first anniversarv of the Earth Summit.

Acronyms

APELL Aworeness ond Preporedness for Emergencies ot Locol Level

CFC ch lorof luorocorbon

CGIAR Consul to t ive Group on In ternot iono l Agr icu l turo l Reseorch

CILSS Permonent In ter -Stote Commit tee on Drought Cont ro l in the Sohel

EEZ exc lus ive economic zone

ECA Economic Commiss ion for Af r ico

ECE Economic Commiss ion for Europe

ECLAC Economic Commiss ion for Lot in Amer ico ond the Cor ibbeon

ELCI Env i ronmento l L io ison Centre In ternot iono l

EMINWA env i ronmento l ly sound monogement o f in lond wqter

ESCAP Economic ond Soc io l Commiss ion for As io ond the Poc i f ic

ESCWA Economic ond Soc io l Commiss ion for Western As io

FAO Food ond Agr icu l ture Orgonizot ion o f the Uni ted Not ions

GATT Generol Agreement on Torif fs ond Trode

GAW Globol Atmosphere Wotch (WMO)

GEF Globol Env i ronment Foc i l i t ' y

GEMS Globol Env i ronmento l Moni tor ing System (UNEP)

GEMS/WATER Globol Woter Quoli ty Monitoring Progromme

GESAMP Jo in t Group of Exper ts on the Sc ient i f ic Aspects o f Mor ine Pol lu t ion

GIPME Globol Invest igot ion o f Po l lu t ion in the Mor ine Env i ronment (UNESCO)

GiS Geogrophico l In formot ion System

GLOBE Globol Leg is lo tors Orgonisot ion for o Bolonced Env i i "onment

GOS Globol Observing System (WMO/WV\A//)

GRID Globol Resource In formot ion Dotobose

GSP generol ized system of preferences

H IV humon immunode f i c i ency v i r us

IAEA In ternot iono l Atomic Energy Agency

IAP-WASAD In ternot iono l Act ion Progromme on Woter ond Susto inoble Agr icu l turo l Developmenf

IARC In ternot iono l Agency for Reseorch on Concer

IBSRAM Internot iono i Boord o f So i l Resources ond Monogement

ICCA in ternot iono l Counc i l o f Chemico l Assoc io t ions

ICES In ternot iono l Counc i l for the Explorot ion o f the Seo

ICPIC In ternot iono l C leoner Product ion In formot ion Cleor ino House

ICSC In ternot iono l C iv i l Serv ice Commiss ion

ICSU In te rno t i ono l Counc i l o f Sc ien t i f i c Un ions

IEEA in tegroted env i ronmento l ond economic occount inq

IFAD In ternot iono l Fund for Agr icu l turo i Development

IGADD In tergovernmento l Author i iy for Drought ond Development

IGBP In ternot iono l Geosphere-Biosphere Progromme ( ICSU)

IGBP/START ln ternot iono l Geosphere-Biosphere Progromme/Globol Chonge System for Ancr iys is ,

Reseo rch ond T ro in i ng

ILO In ternot iono l Lobour Orgonisot ion

IMF In ternot iono l Monetory Fund

IMO In ternot iono l Mor i t ime Orgonizot ion

INFOTERRA In ternot iono l Env i ronment In formot ion System (UNEP)

rocIPCCrPcsIPMIRPTCrTcITTOIUCNMARPOLOECDPGRFAPICSADCCSARDUNCTADUNDPUNDROUNEPUNESCOUNFPAUNICEFUNIDOUNUWCPWFCWHOWMOWWFWWW

Intergovernmentol Oceonogroph ic Com m issionIntergovernmentol Ponel on Climote Chongelnternotionol Progromme on Chemicol Sofetyintegroted pest monogementInternotionol Register of Potentiolly Ioxic ChemicolsInternot ionol Tin Counci lI nternotionol Tropicol Ti mber Orgon izotionInternotionol Union for Conservotion of Noture ond Noturol ResourcesInternotionol Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ShipsOrgonisotion for Economic Cooperotion ond Developmentplont genetic resources for ogricultureprior informed consent procedureSouthern Africon Development Coordinotion Conferencesustoinoble ogriculture ond rurol developmentUnited Notions Conference on Trode ond DevelopmentUnited Notions Development ProgrommeOffice of the United Notions Disoster Relief CoordinotorUnited Not ions Environment ProgrommeUnited Not ions Educot ionol , Scient i f ic ond Culturol Orgonizot ionUnited Notions Populotion FundUnited Not ions Chi ldren's FundUnited Notions lndustriol Development OrgonizotionUnited Notions UniversityWorld C I i mote Prog ro m me {WMO/UNE P/ICSU/U N ESCO)World Food CouncilWorld Heolth Orgon izotionWorld Meteorologicol OrgonizotionWorld Wide Fund for Noture (olso colled World Wildl;fe Fund)World Weother Wotch (WMO)

RloDECLARAilON

on Environment ond Development

Rio Declorotion on Environment ond Development

Having met at Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992,

Reaffirming the Declaration of the United Nations Con-ference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stock-holm on 16 June I972.o and seeking to build upon it,

With the goal of establishing a new and equitable globalpartnership through the creation of new levels of cooper-ation among States, key sectors of societies and people,

Working towards international agreements which respect

the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global

environmental and developmental system,

Recognizingthe integral and interdependent nature of theEarth. our home.

Proclaims that:

PRINCIPLE I

Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sus-tainable development. They are entitled to a healthy andproductive life in harmony with nature.

PRINCIPLE 2

States have, in accordance with the Charter of the UnitedNations and the principles of international law, the sover-eign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to theirown environmental and developmental policies, and theresponsibility to ensure that activities within their juris-

diction orcontrol do not causedamage to the environmentof other States or of areas bevond the limits of nationaljurisdiction.

PRINCIPLE 3

The right to development must be fulfilled so as toequitably meet developmental and environmental needsof present and future generations.

PRINCIPLE 4

In order to achieve sustainable development, environ-mental protection shall constitute an integral part of thedevelopment process and cannot be considered in isola-tion from it.

PRINCIPLE 5

All States and all people shall cooperate in the essentialtask of eradicating poverty as an indispensable require-ment for sustainable development, in order to decreasethe disparities in standards of living and better meet theneeds of the majority of the people of the world.

PRINCIPLE 6

The special situation and needs of developing countries,particularly the least developed and those most environ-mentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority. In-ternational actions in the field of environment and devel-opment should also address the interests and needs of allcountries.

PRINCIPLE Z

States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership toconserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of

the Earrh's ecosystem. In view of the different contribu-tions to global environmental degradation, States have

common but differentiated responsibilities. The developedcountries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear

in the international pursuit of sustainable development in

view of the pressures their societies place on the global

environment and of the technologies and financialresources they command.

PRINCIPLE 8

To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality

of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminateunsustainable patterns of production and consumptionand promote appropriate demographic policies.

PRINCIPLE 9

States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capac-ity-building for sustainable development by improvingscientific understanding through exchanges of scientificand technological knowledge, and by enhancing the de-velopment, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of tech-nologies, including new and innovative technologies.

PRINrcIPLE IO

Environmental issues are best handled with the partici-pation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. Atthe national level, each individual shall have appropriateaccess to information conceming the environment that isheld by public authorities, including information on haz-ardous materials and activities in their communities, andthe opportunity to participate in decision-making pro-

cesses. States shall facil i tate and encourage publicawareness and participation by making informationwidely available. Effective access to judicial andadministrat ive proceedings, including redress andremedy, shall be provided.

PRINCIPIE I1

States shall enact effective environmental legislation.Environmental standards, management objectives andpriorities should reflect the environmental and develop-mental context to which they apply. Standards appliedby some countries may be inappropriate and of unwar-ranted economic and social cost to other countries, inparticular developing countries.

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PRINCIPLE 'I2

States should cooperate to promote a supportive and openinternational economic system that would lead to eco-nomic growth and sustainable development in allcountries, to better address the problems of environmen-tal degradation. Trade policy measures forenvironmentalpurposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary orunjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction oninternational trade. Unilateral actions to deal withenvironmental challenges outside the jurisdiction ofthe importing country should be avoided. Environmentalmeasures addressing transboundary or global envi-ronmental problems should, as far as possible, be basedon an international consensus.

PRINCIPLE I3

States shall develop national law regarding liability andcompensation for the victims of pollution and otherenvironmental damage. States shall also cooperate in anexpeditious and more determined manner to developfurther i nternational law re garding liability and compen-sation for adverse effects of environmental damagecaused by activities within their jurisdiction or control toareas beyond their jurisdiction.

PRINCIPLE I4

States should effectively cooperate to discourage orprevent the relocation and transfer to other States of anyactivities and substances that cause severe environmentaldegradation or are found to be harmful to human health.

PRINCIPLE I5

In order to protect the environment, the precautionaryapproach shall be widely applied by States according totheir capabilities. Where there are threats of serious orirreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shallnot be used as a reason for postponing cost-effectiveme as ures to prevent environrnental degradati on.

PRINCIPLE 16

National authorities should endeavour to promote theinternalization of environmental costs and the use ofeconomic instruments, taking into account the approachthat the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of

pollution, with due regard towithout distorting international

the public interest andtrade and investment.

FRINCIPLE I Z

Environmental impact assessment, as a national instru-ment shall be undertaken for proposed activities that arelikely to have a significant adverse impact on the envi-ronment and are subject to a decision of a competentnational authority.

PRINrcIPLE I8

States shall immediately notify other States of any naturaldisasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce

sudden harmful effects on the environment of thoseStates. Every effort shall be made by the intemationalcommunity to help States so afflicted.

PRINICIPLE I9

States shall provide prior and timely notification andrelevant information to potentially affected States onactivities that may have a significant adverse transbound-ary environmental effect and shall consult with thoseStates at an early stage and in good faith.

PRINCIPLE 20

Women have a vital role in environmental managementand development. Their full participation is thereforeessential to achieve sustainable development.

PRNICIPTE 2I

The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of theworld should be mobilized to forge a global partnershipin order to achieve sustainable development and ensurea better future for all.

o Report of the United Notions Conference on the Humon Environ-ment, Stockholm, 5-.l6 June 1972 lUnited Notions publicoiion,Soles No. E.Z3. l l .A . l4 ond corr igendum), chopfer l .

PR]NCIPLE 22

Indigenous people and their communities and other localcommunities have a vital role in environmental manage-ment and development because of their knowledge andtraditional practices. States should recognize and dulysupport their identity, culture and interests and enabletheir effective participation in the achievement of sus-tainable development.

PRINCIPIE 23

The environment and naturaloppression, domination andtected.

resources of people underoccupation shall be pro-

PRINCIPLE 24

Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable develop-ment. States shall therefore respect international lawproviding protection for the environment in times ofarmed conflict and cooperate in its further development,as necessary.

PRINCIPLE 25

Peace, developrnent and environmental protection areinterdependent and indivisible.

PRINCIPLE 26

States shall resolve all their environmental disputespeacefully and by appropriate means in accordance withthe Charter of the United Nations.

PRINCIPLE 2Z

States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in aspirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principlesembodied in this Declaration and in the further develop-ment of international law in the field of sustainabledevelopment.

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AOENDA 2IA blueprint for oct ion for globol

sustoinoble developmentinto the 2l s t century

I Preomble

l . l Humanity stands at a defining moment in history.We are confronted with a perpetuation of disparitiesbetween and within nations, a worsening of poverty,hunger, i l l health and il l i teracy, and the continuingdeterioration of the ecosystems on which we depend forour well-being. However, integration of environmentand development concerns and greater attention to themwill lead to the fulfilment of basic needs, improved livingstandards for all. better protected and managed ecosys-tems and a safer, more prosperous future. No nation canachieve this on its own; but together we can - in a globalpartnership for sustainable development.1.2 This global partnership must build on the premisesof General Assembly resolution 411228 of 22 December1989, which was adopted when the nations of the worldcalled for the United Nations Conference on Environ-ment andDevelopment, andon the acceptance of the needto take a balanced and integrated approach to environ-ment and development questions.1.3 Agenda 2l addresses the pressing problems of todayand also aims at preparing the world for the challengesof the next century. It reflects a global consensus andpolitical commitment at the highest level on developmentand env i ronment coopera t ion . I t s success fu l im-plementation is f irst and foremost the responsibil i tyo f G o v e r n m e n t s . * N a t i o n a l s t r a t e g i e s , p l a n s ,po l i c ies and processes are c ruc ia l in ach iev ing th is .Internat ional cooperat ion should support and sup-plement such nat ional ef for ts. In th is context , theUnited Nat ions system has a key role to play. Otherinternat ional , regional and subregional organiza-t ions are also cal led upon to contr ibute to th is ef for t .The broadest publ ic part ic ipat ion and the act iveinvolvement of the non-governmental organizat ionsand other groups should also be encouraged.1.4 The developmental and environmental objectivesof Agenda 2l will require a substantial flow of new andadditional frnancial resources to developing countries, in

order to cover the incremental costs for the actions theyhave to undertake to deal with global environmentalproblems and to accelerate sustainable development.Financial resources are also required for strengtheningthe capacity of international institutions for the im-plementation of Agenda2l. An indicative order-of-mag-nitude assessment of costs is included in each of theprogramme areas. This assessment will need to be ex-amined and refined by the relevant implementing agen-cies and organizations.1.5 In the implementation of the relevant programmeareas identified in Agenda 21, special attention should begiven to the part icular c i rcumstances facing theeconomies in transition. It must also be recognized thatthese countries are facing unprecedented challenges intransforming theireconomies, in some cases in the midstof considerable social and political tension.1.6 The programme areas that constitute Agenda?l aredescribed in terms of the basis for action, objectives,activities and means of implementation. Agenda 21 is adynamic programme. It will be carried out by the variousactors according to the different situations, capacities andpriorities of countries and regions in full respect of all theprinciples contained in the Rio Declaration on Environ-ment and Development. It could evolve over time in thelight of changing needs and circumstances. This processmarks the beginning of a new global partnership forsustainable development.

* When the term "Governments" is used, it will be deemed toinclude the Europeon Economic Communily within i ts oreos ofcompetence. Throughout Agendo 2l the term "environmentol lysound" meons "environmentol ly sofe ond sound", in port iculorwhen opplied to the terms "energy sources", "energy supplies","energy syslems" ond "technology" or "iechnologies".

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Section I

Sociol ondEconomic

Dimensions

Internotionol cooperotion to occelerote sustoinobledevelopment in developing countries ond reloteddomestic policies

I N T R O D U C T I O N

2.1 In order to meet the challenges of environment anddevelopment, States have decided to establish a newglobal partnership. This partnership commits all Statesto engage in a continuous and constructive dialogue,inspired by the need to achieve a more efficient andequitable world economy, keeping in view the increasinginterdependence of the community of nations and thatsustainable development should become a priority itemon the agenda of the international community. It isrecognized that, for the success of this new partnership,it is important to overcome confrontation and to foster aclimate of genuine cooperation and solidarity. It is equal-ly important to strengthen national and intemationalpolicies and multinational cooperation to adapt to the newreal i t ies.2.2 Economic policies of individual countries andinternat ional economic relat ions both have greatrelevance to sustainable development. The reactivationand acceleration of developmentrequires both adynamicand a supporlive international economic environmentand determined policies at the national level. It will befrustrated in the absence of either of these requirements.A supportive external economic environment is crucial.The development process will not gather momentum ifthe global economy lacks dynamism and stability and isbeset u,ith uncertainties. Neither will it gather momen-tum if the developing countries are weighted down byexternal indebtedness, if developrnent finance is inade-quate, if bamers restrict access to markets and if com-modity prices and the terms of trade of developingcountries remain depressed. The record of the 1980s wasessentially negative on each of these counts and needs tobe reversed. The policies and measures needed to createan international environment that is strongly supportive

of national development efforts are thus vital. Interna-tional cooperation in this area should be designed tocomplement and support - not to diminish or subsume- sound domestic economic policies, in both developedand developing countries, if global progress towardssustainable development is to be achieved.2.3 The international economy should provide a sup-portive international climate for achieving environmentand development goals by:(a) Promoting sustainable development through tradeliberalization;(b) Making trade and environment mutually suppor-tive;(c) Providing adequate financial resources to develop-ing countries and dealing with international debt;(d) Encouraging macroeconomic policies conducive toenvironment and development.2.4 Governments recognize that there is a new globaleffort to relate the elements of the international economicsystem and mankind's need for a safe and stable naturalenvironment. Therefore, it is the intent of Governmentsthat consensus-building at the intersection of the environ-mental and trade and development areas will be ongoingin existing intemational forums, as well as in the domesticpolicy of each country.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) PROTVTOT|NG SUSTAINABLE DEVETOPMENTTHROUGH TRADE

BASIS FOR ACTION

2.5 An open, equitable, secure, non-discriminatory andpredictable multilateral trading system that is consistent

l 9

with the goals of sustainable development and leads to

the optimal distribution of global production in accord-

ance with comparative advantage is of benefit to all

trading partners. Moreover, improved market access for

developing countries'exports in conjunction with sound

macroeconomic and environmental policies would have

a positive environmental impact and therefore make an

important contribution towards sustainable develop-

ment.2.6 Experience has shown that sustainable development

requires a commitment to sound economic policies and

management, an effective and predictable public ad-

ministration, the integration of environmental concems into

decision-making aurd progress towards democratic govem-

ment, in the light of country-specific conditions, which

allows for full participation of all parties concerned.

These attributes are essential for the fulfilment of the

policy directions and objectives listed below.2J The commodity sector dominates the economies of

many developing countries in terms of production,

employment and export earnings. An important feature

of the world commodity economy in the 1980s was the

prevalence of very low and declining real prices for most

commodities in international markets and a resulting

substantial contraction in commodity export earnings for

many producing countries. The ability of those countries

to mobilize. through international trade, the resources

needed to finance investments required for sustainable

development may be impaired by this development and

by tariff and non-tariff impediments, including tariff

escalation, limiting their access to export markets. The

removal of existing distortions in international trade is

essential. In particular, the achievement of this objectiverequires that there be substantial and progressive reduc-

tion in the support and protection of agriculture -cover-

ing intemal regimes, market access and export subsidies- as well as of industry and other sectors, in order to

avoid infl icting large losses on the more efficientproducers, especially in developing countries. Thus, in

agriculture, industry and other sectors, there is scope for

initiatives aimed at trade liberalization and at policies tomake production more responsive to environment and

development needs. Trade liberalization should therefore

be pursued on a global basis across economic sectors so

as to contribute to sustainable development.2.8 The international trading environment has been

affected by a number of developments that have creatednew challenges and opportunities and have made multi-

lateral economic cooperation of even greater importance.World trade has continued to grow faster than world

output in recent years. However, the expansion of world

trade has been unevenly spread, and only a lirnited num-

ber of developing countries have been capable of achiev-

ing appreciable growth in their exports. Protectionistpressures and unilateral policy actions continue to en-

danger the functioning of an open multilateral tradingsystem, affecting particularly the export interests of

developing countries. Economic integration processes

have intensified in recent years and should impart

dynamism to global trade and enhance the trade and

development possibilities for developing countries. In

recent years, a growing number of these countries have

adopted courageous policy reforms involving ambitious

autonomous trade liberalization, while far-reaching

reforms and profound restructuring processes are takingplace in Central and Eastern European countries, paving

the way for their integration into the world economy and

the international trading system. Increased attention is

being devoted to enhancing the role of enterprises andpromoting competitive markets through adoption of

competitive policies. The GSP has proved to be a useful

trade policy instrument, although its objectives will have

to be fulfilled, and trade facilitation strategies relating to

electronic data interchange (EDI) have been effective in

improving the trading efficiency of the public and private

sectors. The interactions between environment policies

and trade issues are manifold and have not yet been fully

assessed. An early, balanced, comprehensive and suc-

cessful outcome of the Uruguay Round of multilateraltrade negotiations would bring about further liberaliza-

tion and expansion of world trade, enhance the trade and

development possibilities of developing countries andprovide greater security and predictability to the interna-

tional trading system.

OBJECTIVES

2.9 In the years ahead, and taking into account theresults of the Uruguay Round of multilateral tradenegotiations, Governments should continue to strive tomeet the following objectives:(a) To promote an open, non-discriminatory and equi-table multilateral trading system that will enable all

countries - in particular, the developing countries - toimprove theireconomic structures and improve the stand-ard of living of their populations through sustained eco-nomic development;(b) To improve access to markets for exports ofdeveloping countries;(c) To improve the functioning of commodity markets

and achieve sound, compatible and consistent com-modity policies at national and international levels with

a view to optimizing the contribution of the commoditysector to sustainable development, taking into accountenvironmental considerations ;(d) To promote and support policies, domestic and

20

international, that make economic growth and environ-mental protection mutually supportive.

ACTIVITIESA) /NTERNAT/ONAL AND REG/ONA/ COO7ERATIONAND COORD/NAIION

> Promoting on internotionol troding system that fokes oc-counf of the needs of developing countries

2.10 Accordingly, the international comnrunity should:(a) Halt and reverse protectionism in order to bringabout further liberalization and expansion of world trade,to the benefit of all countries, in particular the developingcountries;( b ) P r o v i d e f o r a n e q u i t a b l e , s e c u r e , n o n - d i s -criminatory and predictable internati onal tradin g system ;(c) Facilitate, in a timely way, the integration of allcountries into the world economy and the intemationaltrading system;(d) Ensure that environment and trade policies aremutually supportive, with a view to achieving sustainabledevelopment:(e) Strengthen the international trade policies systemthrough an early, balanced, comprehensive ancl success-ful outcome of the Uruguay Round of multilateral tradenegotiations.2.11 The international community should aimatfindingways and means of achieving a better functioning andenhanced transparency of commodity markets, greaterdiversification of the cornmodity sector in developingeconomies within a macroeconomic framework thattakes into consideration a country's economic structure,resource endowments and market opportunities, and bet-ter management of natural resources that takes into ac-count the necessities of sustainable development.2J2 Therefore, all countries should implement pre-vious commitments to hal t and reverse protect ionismand further expand market access, particularly in areasof interest to developing countr ies. This improvementof market access wil l be facil i tated by appropriates t r u c t u r a l a d j u s t m e n t i n d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s .Developing countr ies should cont inue the trade-pol icyreforms and structural adjustment they have uncler-taken. I t is thus urgent to achieve an improvement inmarket access condi t ions for comntodi t ies, notablythrough the progressive removal o l - barr iers thatr e s t r i c t i m p o r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y 1 ' r o m d e v e l o p i n gcountr ies, of commodity products in pr imary andprocessed forms. as well as the substantial and progres-sive reduction of types of support that induce uncompeti-t ive production, such as production and export subsidies.

B ) MAN AGEMENT-RE LAT ED ACTTV tTt ES

>-Devgloping domestic policies thot moximize the benefitsof trode liberolization for sustainable development

2.13 For developing countr ies to benef i t f rom theliberalization of trading systems, they should implementthe following policies, as appropriate:(a) Create a domestic environment supportive of anoptimal balance between production for the domestic andexport markets and remove biases against exports anddiscourage inefficient import-substitution ;(b) Promote the policy framework and the infrastruc-ture required to improve the efficiency of export andirnport trade as well as the functioning of domesticmarkets.2.14 The fol lowing pol ic ies should be adopred bydeveloping countries with respect to commodities con-sistent with market efficiency:(a) Expand processing, distr ibut ion and improvemarketing practices and the competitiveness of the com-modity sector;(b) Diversify in order to reduce clependence on com-modity exports,(c) Reflect efficient and sustainable use of factors ofproduction in the formation of commodity prices, includ-ing the reflection of environmental, social and resourcescosts.

c) DATA AND /NFO RMATTON

> Encouroging doto collection ond reseorch

2.15 GATT, UNCTAD and other reler,'ant institutionsshould continue to collect appropriate trade data andinformation. The Secretary-General of the United Na-tions is requested to strengthen the Trade ControlMeasures Inforrnation System managed by UNCTAD.

> lmproving internationol ,cooperation in commodity tradeond the diversificotion of the sector

2.16 With regard to commodity trade, Governmentsshould, directly or through appropriate international or-ganizations, where appropriate:(a) Seek optimal functioning of commodity markets,inter alia, through improved market transparency involv-ing exchanges of views and information on investmentplans, prospects and markets for inciividual commodities.Substantive negotiations between proclucers and con-sumers should be pursued with a view to achieving viableand more efficient international agreements that take into

21

account market trends, or affangements, as well as studygroups. In this regard, particular attention should be paid

to the agreements on cocoa, coffee, sugar and tropicaltimber. The importance of international commodityagreements and alrangements is underlined. Occupation-al health and safety matters, technology transfer andservices associated with the production, marketing andpromotion of commodities, as well as environmentalconsiderations, should be taken into account;(b) Continue to apply compensation mechanisms forshortfalls in commodity export earnings of developingcountries in order to encourage diversification efforts;(c) Provide assistance to developing countries uponrequest in the design and implementation of commoditypolicies and the gathering and utilization of informationon commodity markets;(d) Support the efforts of developing countries topromote the policy framework and infrastructure re-quired to improve the efticiency of export and importtrade:(e) Support the diversification initiatives of the developingcountries at the national, regional and intemational levels.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION

2.17 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities in this progralrune area to be about $8.8 bil-lion from the international community on grant or con-cessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-mag-nitude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, includ-ing any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,inter alia, the specific strategies and programmesGovernments decide upon for implementation.

B) CAPACTTY-BUtLDING

2.18 The above-mentioned technical cooperationactivities aim at strengthening national capabilities fordesign and implementation of commodity policy, use andmanagement of national resources and the gathering andutilization of information on commodity markets.

B) frrAKrNG TRADE AND ENVIRONTYIENTfiIUTUAILY SUPPORTIVE

BASIS FOR ACTION

2.19 Environment and trade policies should be mutually

supportive. An open, multilateral trading system makespossible a more efficient allocation and use of resourcesand thereby contributes to an increase in production andincomes and to lessening demands on the environment.It thus provides additional resources needed for economicgrowth and development and improved environmentalprotection. A sound environment, on the other hand,provides the ecological and other resources needed tosustain growth and underpin a continuing expansion oftrade. An open, multilateral trading system, supportedby the adoption of sound environmental policies, wouldhave a positive impact on the environment and contributeto sustainable development.2.20 International cooperation in the environmentalfield is growing, anci in anumberof cases trade provisionsin multilateral environment agreements have played arole in tackling global environmental challenges. Trademeasures have thus been used in certain specific in-stances, where considered necessary, to enhance the ef-fectiveness of environmental regulations for the protec-tion of the environment. Such regulations should addressthe root causes of environmental degradation so as not toresult in unjustified restrictions on trade. The challengeis to ensure that trade and environment policies areconsistent and reinforce the process of sustainabledevelopment. However, account should be taken of thefact that environmental standards valid for developedcountries may have unwarranted social and economiccosts in devdloping countries.

OBJECTIVES

2.21 Govemments should strive to meet the followingobj ectives, through relevant multilateral forums, inc ludingGATT, UNCTAD and other international organizations:(a) To make international trade and environmentpolicies mutually supportive in favour of sustainabledevelopment;(b) To clarify the role of GATT, UNCTAD and otherinternational organizations in dealing with trade andenvironment-related issues, including, where relevant,conciliation procedure and dispute settlement;(c) To encourage international productivity and com-petitiveness and encourage a constructive role on the partof industry in dealing with environment and developmentissues.

ACTIVITIES

> Developing on environment/trodeord deuJlophent ogendo

2.22 Governments should encourage GATT, UNCTAD

22

and other relevant international and regional economicinstitutions to exarnine, in accordance with their respec-tive mandates and competences, the following proposi-t ions and pr inciples:(a) Elaborate adequate studies for the better under-standing of the relationship between trade and environ-ment for the promotion of sustainable development;(b) Promote a dialogue between trade, developmentand environnrent comrnunities:(c) In those cases when trade measures related to en-vironment are used, ensure transparency and com-patibil i ty with international obligations;(d) Deal with the root causes of environment anddevelopment problems in a manner that avoids the adop-tion of enr,' ironmental measures resulting in unjustif iedrestrictions on trade :(e) Seek to avoid thc use of trade restrictions or distor-tions as a means to offset differences in cost arising fromdifferenccs in environmental standards and regulations,since their application could lead to trade distortions andincrease protectionist tendencies:(f) Ensure that environment-related regulations orstanclards. including those related to health and safetystandards, do not constitute a means of arbitrary orunjustif iable discrimination or a disguised restriction ontrade:(g) Ensure that special factors affecting environmentand trade policies in the developing countries are bornein mind in the application of environmental standards, aswell as in the use of any trade measures. It is worth notingthat standards that are valid in the most advancedcountries mav be inappropriate and of unwarranted socialcost lbr the developing countries;(h ) Encourage participation of developing countries innrultrlateral agreements through such mechanisms asspecial t ransi t ional ru les:(i) Avorcluniiateral actions to deal with environmentalc i ra l lengcs outside the . jur isdict ion of the import ingcountr\'. Environrnental measures addressing transbor-der or glohal cnvirclnmental problems should, as far aspossiblc. be based on an internationalconsensus. Domes-tic nreasures tar_qeted to achieve certain environmentalob.jcctives may need tracle ntcasures io render them ef-l 'ectrr e'. Should trade policy measures be found necessaryfor thr- enforccrnent of environmental policies, certainpr i r rc ip lc-s ancl ru les should apply. These could include,iritr uiitr. the principie of non-discrirnination; the prin-ciple thei t lte trade measure chosen should be the leasttrade-rcstrictivc necessary to achieve the objectives; anobligation to ensure transparency in the use of traderllcdsulcs rclatc'c-l to the environment and to providelucleiluaic notif ication of national regulations: and theneed to girc ' t 'orrs ideratron to the special condi t ions and

developmental requirements of developing countries asthey move towards internationally agreed environmentalobjectives;

C) Develop more precision, where necessary, andclarify the relationship between GATT provisions andsome of the multilateral measures adopted in the environ-ment area;(k) Ensure public input in the formation, negotiationand implementation of trade policies as a means offostering increased transparency in the light of country-specific conditions;(l) Ensure that environmental policies provide the ap-propriate legal and institutional framework to respond tonew needs for the protection of the environment that mayresult from changes in production and trade specializa-tion.

c) PROVTD|NG ADEQUATE F|NANC|AT RESOURCESTO DEVETOPING COUNTRIES

BASIS FOR ACTION

2.23 Investment is critical to the ability of developingcountries to achieve needed economic growth to improvethe welfare of their populations and to meet their basicneeds in a sustainable manner, all without deterioratingor depleting the resource base that underpins develop-ment. Sustainable development requires increased in-vestment, for which domestic and external financialresources are needed. Foreign private investment and thereturn of flight capital, which depend on a healthy invest-ment climate, are an important source of financial re-sources. Many developing countries have experienced adecade-long situation of negative net transferof financialresources, during which their financial receipts wereexceeded by payments they had to make, in particular fordebt-servicing. As a result, domestically mobil izedresources had to be transferred abroad instead of beinginvested locally in order to promote sustainable eco-nomic development.2.24 For many developing countries, the reactivation ofdevelopment will not take place without an early anddurable solution to the problems of external indebted-ness, taking into account the fact that, for many develop-ing countries, external debt burdens are a significantproblem. The burden of debt-service payments on thosecountries has imposed severe constraints on their abilityto accelerate growth and eradicate poverty and has led toa contract ion in imports, investment and consump-t ion. External indebtedness has emerged as a mainfactor in the economic stalemate in the developingcountr ies. Cont inued vigorous implementat ion of the

23

evolving international debt strategy is aimed at re-storing debtor countries' external f inancial viabil ity,

and the resumption of their growth and developmentwould assist in achieving sustainable growth and

development. In th is context , addi t ional f inancialresources in favour of developing countries and theefficient uti l ization of such resources are essential.

OBJECTIVES

2.25 The specific requirements for the implementationof the sectoral and cross-sectoral programmes includedin Agenda 27 are dealt with in the relevant programn're

areas and in chapter 33 (Financial resources andmechanisms).

ACTIVITIES

A) MEETING /NIERNAI/ONAI TARGETS OF OFFICIAL

D EVE LA P MENI ASS'SIANCE FUNDING

2.26 As discussed in chapter 33, new and additionalresources should be provided to support Agenda 21programmes.

B) ADDRESSING THE DEBT 'SSUE

2.27 In regard to the external debt incurred with com-mercial banks, the progress being made under thestrengthened debt strategy is recognized and a more rapidimplementation of this strategy is encouraged. Somecountries have already benefited from the combinationof sound adjustment policies and commercial bank debtreduction orequivalent measures. The international com-munity encourages:(a) Other countries with heavy debts to banks tonegotiate similar commercial bank debt reduction with

their creditors:(b) The parties to such a negotiation to take due accountof both the medium-term debt reduction and new moneyrequirements of the debtor country;(c) Multi lateral institutions actively engaged in thestrengthened international debt strategy to continue tosupport debt-reduction packages related to commer-cial bank debt with a view to ensuring that the mag-nitude of such financins is consonant with the evolvingdebt strategy;(d) Credi tor banks to part ic ipate in debt and debt-service reduction:(e) Strengthened policies to attract direct investment,avoid unsustainable levels of debt and foster the returnof flight capital.

2.28 With regard to debt owed to otficial bilateralcreditors, the recent measures taken by the Paris Clubwith regard to more generous terms of relief to the poorestmost indebted countries are welcomed. Ongoing effortsto implement these "Trinidad terms" measures in a man-ner cofiunensurate with the payments capacity of thosecountries and in a way that gives additional support totheir economic refbrm efforts are welcomed. The sub-stantial bilateral debt reduction undertaken by somecreditor countries is also welconted, and others which arein a position to do so are encouraged to take similar action.2 .29 The ac t ions o f low- income count r ies w i th sub-stant ia l debt burdens which cont inue, at great cost ,to service their debt and safeguard their credi twor-th iness are commended. Part icular at tent ion shouldbe paid to their resource needs. Other debt-dis-t ressed developing countr ies which are making greatef for ts to cont inue to service their debt and meettheir external f inancial obl ieat ions also deserve dueattent ion.2.30 In connection with multilateral debt, it is urged thatserious attention be given to continuing to rvork towardsgrow'.h-oriented solutions to the problem of developingcountries with serious debt-servicing problems, includ-ing those whose debt is mainly to official creditors or tomulti lateral f inancial institutions. Particularly in the caseof low-income countr ies in the process of economicreform, the support of the mult i lateral f inancial in-st i tut ions in the form of new disbursements and theruse of their concessional funds is welcomed. The useof support groups should be cont inued in providingresources to c lear arrears o1' countr ies embarkingupon vigorous economic reform prograntmes sup-ported by IMF and the World Bank. Measures by themult i lateral f inancial inst i tut ions such as the ref i -nanc ing o f in te res t on non-concess iona l loans w i thIDA ref lows - " f i f th dimension" - are noted rv i thappreciat ion.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION-

D) ENCOURAGTNG ECONOMIC POLICIESCONDUCIVE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

2.31 The unfavourahle external environment facing

developing countr ies makes domestic resource mobil iza-

tion and efficient allocation and utilization of domesti-

24

*See chop . 33 {F inonc io l resources ond mechon isms} .

cally mobilized resources all the more important for thepromotion of sustainable development. In a number ofcountries, policies are necessary to correct misdirectedpublic spending, large budget deficits and other macro-economic imbalances, restrictive policies and distortionsin the areas of exchange rates, investment and finance,and obstacles to entrepreneurship. In developedcountries. continuing policy reform and adjustment, in-cluding appropriate savings rates, would help generateresources to supportthe transition to sustainable develop-ment both domestically and in developing countries.232 Good management that fosters the association ofeffective, efficient, honest, equitable and accountablepublic administration with individual rights and oppor-tunities is an essential element for sustainable, broadlybased development and sound economic performance atall development levels. All countries should increasetheir efforts to eradicate mismanagement of public andprivate affairs, including corruption, taking into accountthe factors responsible for, and agents involved in, thisphenomenon.2.33 Many indebted developing countries are undergo-ing structural adjustment programmes relating to debtrescheduling or new loans. While such programmes arenecessary for improving the balance in fiscal budgets andbalance-of-payments accounts, in some cases they haveresulted in adverse social and environmental effects, suchas cuts in allocations for health care, education andenvironmental protection. It is important to ensure thatstructural adjustment programmes do not have negativeimpacts on the environment and social development sothat such programnles can be more in line with theobjectives of sustainable development.

OBJECTIVES

2.34 It is necessary to establish, in the light of thecountry-specific conditions, economic policy reformsthat promote the efficient planning and utilization ofresources for sustainable development through soundeconomic and social policies, foster entrepreneurship andthe incorporation of social and environmental costs inresource pricing, and remove sources of distortion in thearea of trade and investment.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMFNI-RETATED ACTIVITIES

D Promoting sound economic policies

2.35 The industrialized countries and other countries ina position to do so should strengthen their efforts:

(a) To encourage a stable and predictable intemationaleconomic environment, particularly with regard tomonetary stability, real rates of interest and fluctuationsin key exchange rates;(b) To stimulate savings and reduce fiscal deficits;(c) To ensure that the processes of policy coordinationtake into account the interests and concerns of thedeveloping countries, including the need to promotepositive action to support the efforts of the leastdeveloped countries to halt their marginalization in theworld economy;(d) To undertake appropriate national macroeconomicand structural policies aimed at promoting non-inflation-ary growth, narrowing their major extemal imbalancesand increasing the adjustment capaci ty of theireconomies.2.36 Developing countries should consider strengthen-ing their efforts to implement sound economic policies:(a) That maintain the monetary and fiscal disciplinerequired to promote price stability and external balance;(b) That result in realistic exchange rates;(c) That raise domestic savings and investment, as wellas improve returns to investment.2.37 More specifically, all countries should developpolicies that improve efficiency in the allocation ofresources and take full advantage of the opportunitiesoffered by the changing global economic environment.In particular, wherever appropriate. and taking into ac-count national strategies and objectives, countriesshould:(a ) Remove the bar r ie rs to p rogress caused bybureaucratic inefficiencies, administrative strains, un-necessary controls and the neglect of market conditions;(b) Promote t ransparency in administrat ion anddecision-making;( c ) E n c o u r a g e t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r a n d f o s t e rentrepreneurship by inrproving institutional facilities forenterprise creation and market entry. The essential ob-jective would be to simplify otr remove the restrictions,regulations and formalities that make it more compli-cated, costly and time-consuming to set up and operateenterprises in many developing countries.(d) Promote and support the investment and infrastruc-ture required for sustainable economic growth and diver-sification on an environmentally sound and sustainablebasis;(e) Provide scope for appropriate economic instru-ments, including market mechanisms, in hannony withthe objectives of sustainable development and fulfilmentof basic needs;(t) Promote the operation of effective tax systems andfinancial sectors;(g) Provide opportunities for small-scale enterprises,

25

both farm and non-farm, and for the indigenous popula-

tion and local communities to contribute fully to the

attainment of sustainable development;(h) Remove biases against exports and in favour of

inefficient import substitution and establish policies that

allow them to benefit fully from the flows of foreign

investment. within the framework of national, social,

economic and developmental goals;(i) Promote the creation of a domestic economic en-

vironment supportive of an optimal balance betweenproduction for the domestic and export markets.

8/ 'NTERNAilONAL ,AND REG/ONAL COOPERAflONAND COORDINAI'ON

2.38 Governments of developed countries and those of

other countries in a position to do so should, directly or

through appropriate international and regional otganiza-

tions and international lending institutions, enhance their

efforts to provide developing countries with increased

technical assistance for the following:(a) Capacity-building in the nation's design and im-plementation of economic policies, upon request;(b) Design and operation of efficient tax systems, ac-

counting systems and financial sectors;(c) Promotionofentrepreneurship.2.39 International financial and development institutionsshould further review their policies and programmes in

the light of the objective of sustainable development.2.40 Stronger economic cooperation among developingcountries has long been accepted as an important com-ponent of efforts to promote economic growth and tech-nological capabilities and to accelerate development in

the developing world. Therefore, the efforts of thedeveloping countries to promote economic cooperationamong themselves should be enhanced and continue tobe supported by the international community.

MEANS OF IMPI-EMENTATION

,A' T,NANCTNG AND COST EVALUATTON

2.41 The Conference secretariat has estimated the

average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities in this prograrnme area to be about $50million from the international community on grant orconcessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, includ-ing any that are non-concessional, will depen dupon, interalia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

B) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG

2.42 Theabove-mentioned policy changes in developingcountr ies involve substant ia l nat ional ef for ts for

capacity-building in the areas of public administration,central banking, tax administration, savings institutionsand financial markets.2.43 Particular efforts in the implementation of the fourprogrirmme areas identified in this chapter are warrantedin view of the especially acute environmental anddevelopmental problems of the least developed countries.

26

Comboting poverty

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

ENABUNG THE POOR TO ACHIEVESUSTAINABTE TIVETIHOODS

BASIS FOR AC-TION

3.1 Poverty is a complex multidimensional problemwith origins in both the national and internationaldomains. No uniform solution can be found for globalapplication. Rather, country-specific programmes totackle poverty and intemational efforts supporting nationaleffofts, as well as theparallel processofcreatinga supportiveinternational environment, are crucial for a solution to thisproblem. The eradication of poverty and hunger, greaterequity in income disribution and human resource develop-ment remain major challenges everywhere. The struggleagainst poverty is the shared responsibility of all countries.3.2 While managing resources sustainably, an environ-mental policy that focuses mainly on the conservationand protection of resources must take due account ofthose who depend on the resources for their livelihoods.Otherwise it could have an adverse impact both onpoverty and on chances for long-terrn success in resourceand environmental conservation. Equally, a developmentpolicy that focuses mainly on increasing the production ofgoods withclut addressing the sustainability of the resourceson which production is based will sooner or later run intodeclining productivity, which could also have an adverseimpact on poverty" Aspecitic anti-poverty strategy is there-fore one of the basic conditions for ensuring sustainabledevelopment. An effective strategy for tackling theproblems of poverty, development and environment simul-taneously should begin by focusing on resources, produc-tion and people and should cover demographic issues,enhanced health care and education, the rights of women,the role of youth and of indigenous people and local com-

munities and a democratic participation process inassociation with improved govemance.3.3 Integral to such action is, togetherwith intemationalsupport, the promotion of economic growth in develop-ing countries that is both sustained and sustainable anddirect action in eradicating poverty by strengtheningemployment and income-generating programrnes.

OBJECTIVES

3.4 The long-term objective of enabling all people toachieve sustainable livelihoods should provide an in-tegrating factor that allows policies to address issues ofdevelopment, sustainable resource management andpoverty eradication simultaneously. The objectives ofthis progratnme area are:(a) To provide all persons urgently with the opportunityto eam a sustainable l ivelihood;(b) To implement policies and strategies that promoteadequate levels of funding and focus on integrated humandevelopment policies, including income generation, in-creased local control of resources, local institution-strengthening and capacity-building and greater involve-ment of non-governmental organizations and local levelsof government as delivery mechanisms;(c) To develop for all poverty-sfficken areas integratedstrategies and programmes of sound and sustainablemanagement of the environment. resource mobilization,poverty eradication and alleviation, employment andincome generation;(d) To create a focus in national developmentplans andbudgets on investment in human capital, with specialpolicies and progranunes directed at rural areas, the urbanpoor, women and children.

ACTIVITIES

3.5 Activities that will contribute to the integrated pro-

27

motion of sustainable livelihoods and environmental pro-

tection cover a variety of sectoral interventions involving

a range of actors, from local to global, and are essentialat every level, especially the community and local levels.

Enabling actions will be necessary at the national andinternational levels, taking full account of regional andsubregional conditions to support a locally driven andcountry-specific approach. In general design, theprogrammes should:(a) Focus on the empowerment of local and communitygroups through the principle of delegating authority,accountability and resources to the most appropriate level

to ensure that the programme will be geographically and

ecologically specific;(b) Contain immediate measures to enable those groups

to alleviate poverty and to develop sustainability;(c) Contain a long-term strategy aimed at establishingthe best possible conditions for sustainable local, regionaland national development that would eliminate poverty

and reduce the inequalities between various populationgroups. It should assist the most disadvantaged groups- in particular, women, children and youth within thosegroups - and refugees. The groups will include poor

smallholders, pastoralists, artisans, fishing communities,landless people, indigenous communities, migrants andthe urban informal sector.3.6 The focus here is on specific cross-cutting measures- in particular, in the areas of basic education,primary/matemal health care, and the advancement ofwomen.

A) EMPOWFRING COMMUNTTTES

3.7 Sustainable development must be achieved at everylevel of society. Peoples' organizations, women's groups

and non- governmental organizations are important sourc e sof innovation and action at the local level and have astrong interest and proven ability to promote sustainablelivelihoods. Governments, in cooperation with ap-propriate international and non-governmental organrza-tions, should support a community-driven approach tosustainability, which would include, inter alia:(a) Empowering women through full participation indecision-making;(b) Respecting the cultural integrity and the rights ofindigenous people and their communities;(c) Promoting or establishing grass-roots mechanismsto allow for the sharing of experience and knowledgebetween communities;(d) Giving communities a large measure of participa-tion in the sustainable management and protection of thelocal natural resources in order to enhance their produc-

tive capacity;

28

(e) Establishing a network of community-based learn-ing centres for capacity-building and sustainabledevelopment.

B) MANAGEMFNT-REL ATED ACTIVITtES

3.8 Governments, with the assistance of and in coopera-tion with appropriate international, non-govemmentaland local community organizations, should establishmeasures that will directly or indirectly:(a) Generate remunerative employment and productive

occupational opportunities compatible with country-specific factor endowments, on a scale sufficient to takecare of prospective increases in the labour force and tocover backlogs;(b) With international support, where necessary,develop adequate infrastructure, marketing systems,technology systems, credit systems and the like and thehuman resources needed to support the above actions andto achieve a widening of options for resource-poorpeople. High priority should be given to basic educationand professional training;(c) Provide substantial increases in economically effi-cient resource productivity and measures to ensure thatthe local population benefits in adequate measure fromresource use:(d) Empower community organrzations and people toenable them to achieve sustainable livelihoods;(e) Set up an effective primary health care and maternalhealth care system accessible to all;( f ) C o n s i d e r s t r e n g t h e n i n g / d e v e l o p i n g l e g a lframeworks for land management, access to land resour-ces and land ownership - in particular, for women -

and for the protection of tenants;(g) Rehabilitate degraded resources, to the extent prac-ticable, and introduce policy measures to promote sus-tainable use of resources for basic human needs;(h) Establish new community-based mechanisms andstrengthen existing mechanisms to enable communitiesto gain sustained access to resources needed by the poorto overcome their poverty;(i) Implement mechanisms for popular participation -

particularly by poorpeople, especially women - in localcommunity groups, to promote sustainable development;

0) Implement, as a matter of urgency, in accordancewith country-specific conditions and legal systems,measures to ensure that women and men have the sameright to decide freely and responsibly on the number andspacing of their children and have access to the informa-tion, education and means, as appropriate, to enable themto exercise this right in keeping with their freedom,dignity and personally held values, taking into accountethical and cultural considerations. Governments should

take active steps to implement programmes to establishand strengthen preventive and curative health facilities,which include women-centred, women-managed, safeand effective reproductive health care and affordable,accessible services, as appropriate, for the responsibleplanning of family size, in keeping with freedom, dignityand personally held values, taking into account ethicaland cultural considerations. Programmes should focus onproviding comprehensive health care, including pre-natal care, education and information on health andresponsible parenthood and should provide the oppor-tunity for all women to breast-feed fully, at least duringthe first four months post-partum. Programmes shouldfully support women's productive and reproductive rolesand well-being, with special attention to the need forproviding equal and improved health care for all childrenand the need to reduce the risk of maternal and childmortality and sickness;(k) Adopt integrated policies aiming at sustainabilityin the management of urban centres;(l) Undertake activities aimed at the promotion of foodsecurity and, where appropriate, food self-sufficiencywithin the context of sustainable agriculture;(m) Support research on and integration of traditionalmethods of production that have been shown to be en-vironmentally sustainable;(n) Actively seek to recognize and integrate informal-sector activities into the economy by removing regula-tions and hindrances that discriminate asainst activitiesin those sectors;(o) Consider making avai lable l ines of credi t andother facil i t ies for the informal sector and improvedaccess to land for the landless poor so that they canacquire the means of product ion and rel iable accessto natural resources. In many instances special con-siderations for women are required. Strict feasibil i tyappraisals are needed for borrowers to avoid debtc r i se s :(p) Provide the poor with accesssanitation;(q) Provide the poor with accesst ion.

to fiesh water and

to primary educa-

C) DATA, /NFORMAI/ON AND EVALUATION

3.9 Governments should improve the collection of in-formation on target groups and target areas in order tofacilitate the design of focused programmes and activities,consistent with the target-group needs and aspirations.Evaluation of such programmes should be gender-specific, since women ere a particularly disadvantagedgroup.

D/ TNTERNAT/ONAI AND REG/ONA L COO?ERAilONAND COORD/NAT'ON

3.10 The United Nations system, through its relevantorgans, organizations and bodies, in cooperation withMember States and with appropriate intemational andnon-governmental organizations, should make povertyalleviation a major priority and should:(a) Assist Governments, when requested, in the formu-lation and implementation of national action programmeson poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Ac-tion-oriented activities of relevance to the above objec-tives, such as poverty eradication, projects and program-mes supplemented where relevant by food aid, and sup-port and special emphasis on employment and incomegeneration, should be given particular attention in thisregard;(b) Prornote technical cooperation among developingcountries for poverty eradication activities;(c) Strengthen existing structures in the United Nationssystem for coordination of action relating to povertyeradication, including the establishment of a focal pointfor information exchange and the formulation and im-plementation of replicable pilot projects to combat pov-ert!,(d) In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda21, gle high priority to the review of the progress madein eradicating poverty;(e) Examine the international economic framework,including resource flows and structural adjustmentprogrammes, to ensure that social and environnrentalconcerns are addressed, and in this connection, conducta review of the policies of international organizations,bodies and agencies, including financial institutions, toensure the continued provision of basic services to thepoor and needy;(0 Promote international cooperation to address theroot causes of poverty. The development process will notgather momentum if developing countries are weighteddown by external indebtedness, if development financeis inadequate, if barriers restrict access to markets and ifcommodity prices and the terms of trade in developingcountries remain depressed.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

3.l I The secretariat of the Conference has estimated theaverage total annual cost (19%-2m0) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $30 billion,including about $15 billion from the international com-

29

munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Ciovernments. This estimate overlapsestimates in other parts of Agenda 2l . Actual costs andfinancial terms, including any that are non-concessional,will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprogrammes Governments decide upon for implementa-tion.

B) CAPACITY-BUILDING

3.12 National capacity-building for implementationof the above activit ies is crucial and should be eiven

high priority. It is particularly important to focus capac-ity-building at the local community level in order tosupport a community-driven approach to sustainabil ityand to establish and strengthen mechanisms to allowsharing of experience and knowledge between com-munity groups at national and international levels. Re-quirements for such activities are considerable and arerelated to the various relevant sectors of Agenda 2lcall ing for requisite international, f inancial and tech-nological support.

30

/ l ' r 'Chonging consumption potterns

4.1 This chapter contains the folkrwing programme areas:(a) Focusing on unsustainable patterns of productionand consumption;(b) Developing national policies and strategies to en-courage changes in unsustainable consumption pattems.4.2 Since the issue of changing consumption patternsis very broad, it is addressed in several parts of Agenda21 , notably those dealing with energy, transportation andwastes, and in the chapters on economic instruments andthe transfer of technology. The present chapter shouldalso be read in conjunction with chapter 5 (Demographicdynamics and sustainability).

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) FOCUSTNG ON UNSUSTATNABIE PATTERNSOF PRODUCTION AND CONSU}TPTION

BASIS FOR ACTION,1.3 Poverty and environmental degradation are close-ly intenelated. While poverty results in certain kinds ofenvironmental stress, the major cause of the continueddeterioration of the global environment is the unsustain-able pattern of consumption and production, particularly inindustrialized countries, which is a matter of grave concern,aggravating poverty and imbalances.4.4 Measures to be undertaken at ttre international levelfor the protection and enhancernent of tlte environment musttake fully into account the current imbalances in the globalpatterns of consumption and production.4.5 Special attention should be paid to the demand fornatural resources generated by unsustainable consump-tion and to the efficient use of those resources consistentwith the goal of minimizing depletion and reducingpollution. Although consumption patterns are very high

in certain parts of the world, the basic consumer needs ofa large section of humanity are not being met. This resultsin excessive demands and unsustainable lifestyles amongthe richer segments, which place immense stress on theenvironment. The poorer segments, meanwhile, are un-able to meet food. health care. shelter and educationalneeds. Changing consumption pattems will require amultipronged strategy focusing on demand, meeting thebasic needs of the poor, and reducing wastage and the useof finite resources in the production process.4.6 Crowing recognition of the imporlance of addressingconsumption has also not yet been matched by an under-standing of irs implications. Some economists are questioningtraditional concepts of economic growttr and underlining theimportance of pursuing economic objectives that take accountof the full value of natural resource capital. More needs to beknown about the role of consumption in relation to economicgrowth and population dynamics in order to formulatecoherent intemational and national policies.

OBJECTIVES

4.7 Action is needed to meet the followins broad ob-jectives:(a) To promote patterns of consumption and productionthat reduce environmental stress and will meet the basicneeds of humanity;(b) To develop a better understanding of the role ofconsumption and how to bring about more sustainableconsumption pattems.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI.R ELATED ACTIVITIES

> Adopt.ing on international approach to ochievingsusfoi noble consumption pattern s

4.8 In principle, countries should be guided by the

3 1

following basic objectives in their efforts to addressconsumption and lifestyles in the context of environmentand development:(a) All countries should strive to promote sustainableconsumption patterns;(b) Developed countries should take the lead in achiev-ing sustainable consumption patterns;(c) Developing countries should seek to achieve sus-tainable consumption patterns in their developmentprocess, guaranteeing the provision of basic needs for thepoor, while avoiding those unsustainable patterns, par-ticul arly i n indu stri alized countrie s, general ly rec ognizedas unduly hazardous to the environment, inefficient andwasteful, in their development processes. This requiresenhanced technological and other assistance from in-dustriali zed countries.4.9 In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda2I the review of progress made in achieving sustainableconsumption patterns should be given high priority.

B) DATA AND 'NFORMAT/ON

> lJndertoking reseorch on consumption

4.10 In order to support this broad strategy, Govern-ments, and/or private research and policy institutes, withthe assistance of regional and international economic andenvironmental organizations, should make a concertedeffort to:(a) Expand or promote databases on production andconsumption and develop methodologies for analysingthem;(b) Assess the relationship between production andconsumption, environment, technological adaptation andinnovation, economic growth and development, anddemographic factors;(c) Examine the impact of ongoing changes in thestructure of modern industrial economies away frommaterial-intensive economic growth ;(d) Consider how economies can grow and prosperwhile reducing the use of energy and materials and theproduction of harmful materials;(e ) Ident i f y ba lanced pa t te rns o f consumpt ionworldwide which the Earlh can support in the long term.

> Developing new concepts of sustoinoble economic growthond prosperity

4.ll Consideration should also be given to the presentconcepts of economic growth and the need for newconcepts of wealth and prosperity which allow higherstandards of living throughchanged lif-estyles and are less

32

dependent on the Earth's finite resources and more inharmony with the Earth's carrying capacity. This should bereflected in the evolution of new systems of national ac-counts and other indicators of sustainable development.

c/ /NTERNAT/ONAI COOqERATION ANDCOORD/NAI/ON

4.12 While international review processes exist for ex-amining economic, development and demographic fac-tors, more attention needs to be paid to issues related toconsumption and production patterns and sustainablelifestyles and environment.4.13 In the follow-up of the inrplementation of Agenda21, reviewing the role and impact of unsustainableproduction and consumption patterns and lifestyles andtheirrelation to sustainable development should be given

high priority.

> Finoncing and cost evaluotion

4.14 The Conference secretariat has estimated that im-plementation of this programme is not likely to requiresignificant new financial resources.

B) DEVETOPTNG NATTONAT POUC|ES ANDSTRATEGIES TO ENCOURAGE CHANGES INU NSUSTAINABTE CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

BASIS FOR ACTION

a.l5 Achieving the goals of environmental quality andsustainable development wil l require efficiency inproduction and changes in consumption patterns in orderto emphasize optimization of resource use and minimiza-tion of waste. In many instances, this will require re-orientation of existing production and consumption pat-terns that have developed in industrial societies and arein turn emulated in much of the world.4.16 Progress can be made by strengthening positivetrends and directions that are emerging, as part of aprocess aimed at achieving significant changes in theconsumption patterns of industr ies, Governments,households and individuals.

OBJECTIVES

4.11 ln the years ahead, Governments, working with

appropriate organizations, should strive to meet the fol-

lowing broad objectives:(a) To promote efficiency in production processes andreduce wasteful consumption in the process of economicgrowth, taking into account the development needs ofdeveloping countries;(b) To develop a domestic policy framework that will

encourage a shift to more sustainable patterns of produc-

tion and consumption:(c) To reinforce both values that encourage sustainableproduction and consumption patterns and policies that

encourage the transfer of environmentally sound tech-nologies to developing countries.

ACTIVITIES

A) ENCOURAG'NG GREATER EFFICIENCYIN IHE USE OF ENERGY AND RFSOURCES

4.l8 Reducing the amount of energy and materials usedper unit in the production of goods and services cancontribute both to the alleviation of environmental stressand to greater economic and industrial productivity andcompetitiveness. Governments, in cooperation with in-

dustry, should therefore intensify efforts to use energyand resources in an economically efficient and environ-mentally sound manner by:(a) Encouraging the dissemination of existing environ-mentally sound technologies;(b) Promoting research and development in environ-mentally sound technologies;(c) Assisting developing countries to use these tech-nologies efficiently and to develop technologies suitedto their particular circumstances.(d) Encouraging the environmentally sound use of newand renewable sources of energy,(e) Encouraging the environmentally sound and sus-tainable use of renewable natural resources.

B) M|N|MIZING THE GENERAT/ON OF WASTES

4.19 At the same t ime, society needs to develop ef fec-tive ways of dealing with the problenr of disposing ofmount ing levels of waste products and mater ia ls.Governments, together wi th industrv. households andthe public, should make a concerted effort to reduce

the generation of wastes and waste products by:(a) Encouraging recycling in industrial processes andat the consumer level;(b) Reducing wasteful packaging of products,(c) Encouraging the introduction of more environmen-tally sound products.

C/ A55/SI'NG /NDIYIDUALS AND HOUSEHOI.DSTO MAKE ENY/RONMENTALLY SOUNDPURCHASING DECISIONS

4.20 The recent emergence in many countries of a moreenvironmentally conscious consumer public, combinedwith increased interest on the part of some industries inproviding environmentally sound consumer products, isa significant development that should be encouraged.Governments and intemational organizations, togetherwith the private sector, should develop criteria andmethodologies for the assessment of environmental im-pacts and resource requirements throughout the full lifecycle of products and processes. Results of those assess-ments should be transformed into clear indicators in orderto inform consumers and decision makers.4.21 Governments, in cooperation with industry andother relevant groups, should encourage expansion ofenvironmental labelling and other environmentally re-lated product information prografitmes designed to assistconsumers to make informed choices.4.72 T\ey should also encourage the emergence of an in-formed consumer public and assist individuals andhouseholds to make environmentally informed choices by:(U Providing inforrnation on the consequences of con-sumption choices and behaviour so as to encouragedemand for environmentally sound products and use ofproducts;(b) Making consumers aware of the health and environ-mental impact of products, through such means as con-sumer legislation and environmental labelling;(c) Encouraging speci f ic consumer-or iented pro-grammes, such as recycling and deposiVrefund systems.

D) EXERC/S/NG LEADERSHIP THROUGHGOVERNMENI PURCHASING

4.23 Governments themselves also play a role in con-sumption, particularly in countries where the public sec-tor plays a large role in the economy and can have aconsiderable influence on both corporate decisions andpublic perceptions. They should therefore review thepurchasing policies of their agencies and departments sothat they may improve, where possible. the environmentalcontent of government procurement policies, withoutprejudice to intemational trade principles.

E) MOVTNG TOWARDS ENy/RONMENTALI.ySOUND PR/CING

4.24 Without the stimulus of prices and market signals

33

that make clear to producers and consumers the environ-mental costs of the consumption of energy, materials andnatural resources and the generation of wastes, sig-nificant changes in consumption and production patternsseem unlikely to occur in the near future.4.25 Some progress has begun in the use of appropriateeconomic instruments to influence consumer behaviour.These instruments include environmental charges andtaxes, deposit/refund systems, etc. This process shouldbe encouraged in the light of country-specific conditions.

F) RETNFORC'NG VALUES THAT SUPPORTSUSIA'NA8 [F CONS U MPT I O N

4.26 Governments and private-sector organizationsshould promote more positive attitudes towards sus-tainable consumption through education, public aware-

ness programmes and other means, such as positiveadvertising of products and services that utilize environ-mentally sound technologies or encourage sustainableproduction and consumption patterns. In the review ofthe implementation of Agenda 21, an assessment o1' theprogress achieved in developing these national policiesand strategies should be given due consideration.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

4.27 This programme is concerned primarily withchanges in unsustainable patterns of consumption andproduction and values that encourage sustainable con-sumption patterns and lifestyies. It requires the com-b i n e d e f f o r t s o f G o v e r n m e n t s , c o n s u m e r s a n dproducers. Particular attention should be paid to thesignificant role played by women and households asconsumers and the potential impacts of their combinedpurchasing power on the economy.

34

Demogrophic dynomics ond sustoinobility

-5. 1 This chapter contains the following prograrnme areas:(a) Developing and disseminating knowledge concern-ing the links between demographic trends and factors andsustainable development;(b) Fornrulating integrated national policies for en-vironment and development, taking into accountdemographic trends and factors;(c ) Imp lement ing in tegra ted , env i ronment andder.'eloprnent prograrrunes at the local level, taking intoaccount demographic trends and factors.

[ion, and development. Population policy should alsorecognize the role played by human beings in environ-mental and development concerns. There is a need toincrease awareness of this issue among decision makersat all levels and to provide both better information onwhich to base national and international policies and atramework against which to interpret this information.5.4

'Ihere is a need to develop strategies to mitigate boththe adverse impact on the environment of human activ-ities and the adverse impact of environmental change onhuman populations. The world's population is expectedto exceed 8 billion by the year 2020. Sixty per cent ofthe world's population already live in coastal areas, while65 per cent of cities with populations above 2.5 millionare located along the world coasts; several of thern arealready at or below the present sea level.

OBJECTIVES

5.5 The following objectives should be achieved assoon as practicable:(a) To incorporate demographic trends and factors in theglobal analysis of environment and development issues;(b) To develop a better understanding of the relationshipsamong demographic dynamics, technology, cultural be-haviour, natural resources and life support systems;(c) To assess human vulnerability in ecologically sen-sitive areas and centres of population to determine thepriorities for action at all levels, taking full account ofcommunity-defined needs.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

Al DEVETOPTNG AND DtSSErYilNAIlNGKNOIA/IEDGE CONCERNING THE TINKSDEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS AND FACTORSSUSTAI NABLE DEVETOPMENT

BETWEENAND

BASIS FOR ACTION

-5.1 Demographic trends and factors and sustainableder,'elopment have a synergistic relationship..s.3 The growth of world population and production com-bined with unsustainable consumption patterns places in-creasingly severe stress on the life-supporting capacities ofour planet. These interactive processes affect the use of land,\\'ater. air, energy and other resources. Rapidly growingcrties. unless well-managed, face major environmentalprohlems. The increase in both the number and size of citiescalis fbr greater attention to issues of local govemment andmr"rnicipal management. The human dimensions are keye lement-s to consider in this intricate set of relationships andther should be adequately taken into consideration in com-prehensive policies for sustainable development. Suchpolicics shor"rld address ttre linkages clf demographic trendsand factors. resource use, appropriate technology dissemina-

ACTIVITIES

> Reseorch on the inferoction befween demogrophic trendsond foctors ond sustoinoble development

5.6 Relevant international, regional and national in-

35

stitutions should consider undertaking the following ac-

tivities:(a) Identifying the interactions between demographic

processes, natural resources and life support systems,

bearing in mind regional and subregional variations

deriving from, int e r a lia,differen t I eve I s of deve I opment ;

(b) Integrating demographic trends and t-actors into the

ongoing study of environmental change, using the exper-

tise of international, regional and national research net-

works and of local communities, first, to study the human

dimensions of environmental change and, second, to

identify vulnerable areas ;(c) Identifying priority areas for action and developing

strategies andprogrammes to mitigate the adverse impact

of environmental change on human populations' and vice

versa.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATTON

5.7 The Conference secretariat has estirnated the

average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing

the activities of this programme to be about $10 million

from the international comrnunity on grant or conces-

sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-mag-

nitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by

Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, includ-

ing any that are non-concessional, wil l depend upon,

inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes

Governments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SIRENGIHEN'NG RESEARCH PROGRAMMES

THAT INTEGRAIE POPU LAT'ON, ENYIRONMENI

AND DEVELOPMENT

5.8 In order to integrate demographic analysis into a

broader social science perspective on environment and

development, interdisciplinary research should be in-

creased. International institutions and networks of

experts should enhance their scientiflc capacity, taking

full account of community experience and knowledge,

and should disseminate the experience gained in multi-

disciplinar,v approaches and in linking theory to action.

5.9 Better modelling capabilities should be developed,

identifying the range of possible outcomes of current

human activities, especially the interrelated impact of

demographic trends and factors, per capita resource use

and wealth distribution, as well as the major migration

flows that may be expected with increasing climatic

events and cumulative environmental change that may

destroy people's local l ivelihoods.

36

c) DEVELOP'NG /NFORMATION AND

PUBLIC AWARFNESS

5 . 1 0 S o c i o - d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d b e

developed in a suitable format for interfacing with physi-

cal, biological and socio-economic data. Compatible spa-

tial and ternporal scales and cross-country and time-series

infbrmation, as well as global behavioural indicators,

shouid be developed, learning from local communities'

perceptions and attitudes.5.1 1 Awareness should be increased at all ievels concern-

ing the need to optimize the sustainable use of resources

through efficient resource management, taking into ac-

count the development needs of the populations of

developing countries.5. t2 Awareness should be increased of the fundamental

linkages between improving the status of women and

demographic dynamics, particularly through women's

access to education, primary and reproductive health care

programme s, economic independence and their effecti ve,

equitable participation in all levels of decision-making.

5.13 Results of research concerned with sustainable

development issues should be disseminated through tech-

nical reports, scientific joumals, the media, workshops,

forums or other means so that the information can be used

by decision makers atall levels toincreasepublic awareness.

D) DEVELOPING AND/OR ENHANCING,NSI/IUIIONAI CAPAC'IY AND COLLABORAI'ON

5.14 Collaboration and exchange of information should

be increased between research institutions and interna-

tional, regional and national agencies and all other sectors(including the private sector, local communities, non-

governmental organizations and scientific institutions)

from both the industrialized and developing countries, as

appropriate.5.15 Efforts should be intensified to enhance the

capaci t ies of nat ional and local governments, the

private sector and non-governmental organizations in

developing countries to meet the growing needs for

improved management of rapidly growing urban areas.

B) FORfrTULATING INTEGRATED NATIONALPOTICIES FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVETOPMENT'TAKING INTO ACCOUNT DEMOGRAPHIC TR,ENDSAND FACTORS

BASIS FOR ACTION

5.16 Existing plans for sustainable development have

generally recognized demographic trends and factors as

elements that have a critical influence on consumptionpatterns, production, lifestyles and long-term sustaina-bility. But in future, rrore attention will have to be givento these issues in general policy formulation and thedesign of development plans. To do this" all countries willhave to improve their own capacities to assess the envi-ronment and development implications of their demo-graphic trends and f-actors. They will also need to formu-late and implement policies and action prograrnmeswhere appropriate. Policies should be designed to addressthe consequences of population growth built into popu-lation momentum, while at the same time incorporatingmeasures to bring about demographic transition. Theyshould combine environmental concerns and populationissues within a holistic view of development whoseprimary goals include the alleviation of povertli securelivelihoods; good health; quality of life; improvement ofthe status and income of women and their access toschooling and professional training. as well as fulfilmentof their personal aspirations; and empowerment of indi-viduals and communities. Recognizing that large in-creases in the size and number of cities will occur indeveloping countries under any likely population scena-rio, greater attention should be given to preparing for theneeds, in particular of women and children, for improvedmunicipal management and local govenrment.

OBJECTIVE

5.17 Full integration of population concems into nationalplanning, policy and decision-making processes shouldcontinue. Population policies and programmes should beconsidered, with full recognition of women's rights.

ACTIVITIES

5. I 8 Governments and other relevant actors could, interalia. undertake the following activities, with appropriateassistance from aid agencies, and report on their statusof implementation to the International Conference onPopulation and Development to be held in 1994, esF,e-cially to its committee on population and environment.

A/ ASSESS/NG THE tMPt-tCArlONS OF NAI/ONAI.DEMOGRAPH'C IRENDS AND FACIORS

5.19 The relationships between demographic trends andfactors and environmental change and between environ-mental degradation and the components of demographicchange should be analysed.5.20 Research should be conducted on how environmen-

tal factors interact with socio-economic factors as a causeof migration.5.21 Vulnerable population groups (such as rural land-less workers, ethnic minorities, refugees, migrants, dis-placed people, women heads of household) whosechanges in demographic structure may have specificimpacts on sustainable development should be identified.5.22 An assessment should be made of the implicationsof the age structure of the population on resource demandand dependency burdens, ranging from educational ex-penses for the young to health care and support for theelderly, and on household income generation.5.23 An assessment should also be made of nationalpopulation carrying capacity in the context of satisfactionof human needs and sustainable development, and specialattention should be given to critical resources, such aswater and land, and environmental factors such as eco-system health and biodiversity.5.24 The impact of national demographic trends andfactors on the traditional livelihoods of indigenousgroups and local communities, including changes intraditional land use because of internal population pres-sures, should be studied.

B) BUILDING AND SIRENGIHENINGA NAI/ONAT /NFORMATION SASE

5.25 National databases on demographic trends and fac-tors and environment should be built and/or strengthened,disaggregating data by ecological region (ecosystem ap-proach), and population/environment profiles should beestablished by region.5 .26 Methodo log ies and ins t ruments shou ld bedeveloped to identify areas where sustainability is, ormay be, threatened by the environmental effects of demo-graphic trends and factors, incorporating both current andprojected demographic data linked to natural environ-mental processes.5.27 Case-studies of local level responses by differentgroups to demographic dynamics should be developed,particularly in areas subject to environmental stress andin deteriorating urban centres.5.2t1 Population data should be disaggregated by, interalia, sex and age in order to take into account the impli-cations of the gender division of labour for the use andmanagement of natural resources.

CJ /NCORPORAI/NG DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURES,NIO POLICIES AND PIANS

5.29 In formulating human settlements policies, account

37

should be taken of resource needs, waste production andecosystem heal th.5.30 The direct and induced effects of demographicchanges on environment and development programmesshould, where appropriate, be integrated, and the impacton demographic features assessed.5 . 3 1 N a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n p o l i c y g o a l s a n d p r o -grammes that are consistent with national environmentand development plans for sustainabil ity and in keep-ing with the freedom, dignity and personally heldvalues of individuals should be established and im-plemented.5.32 Appropriate socio-economic policies for the youngand the elderly, in terms of both family and state supportsystems, should be developed.5.33 Policies and programmes should be developed forhandling the various types of migrations that result fromor induce environmental disruptions, with special atten-tion to women and vulnerable groups.5.34 Demographic concerns, including concerns for en-vironmental migrants and displaced people, should beincorporated in the programmes for sustainable develop-ment o1' relevant international and regional institutions.5.-15 National reviews should be conducted and the inte-gration of population policies in national development andenvironment strategies should be monitored nationally.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Ai F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

5.36 The Conference secretar iat has est imated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) ol implementingthe activit ies of this programme to be about $90 mill ionfrom the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-tude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, in-cluding any that are non-concessional. wil l dependupon, inter al ia. the speci f ic strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementa-t ion.

B/ RA/S/NG AWARENESS OF DEMOGRAPHTCAND SUSIA/NA8TF DEVELOPMENI /NIERACI/ONS

5.37 Understanding of the interactions between demo-graphic trends and factors and sustainable developmentshould be increased in all sectors of society. Stress shouldbe placed tln local and national action. Demographic andsustainable development education should be coordi-nated and integrated in both the formal and non-formal

38

education sectors. Particular attention should be given topopulation literacy programmes, notably for women.Special emphasis should be placed on the linkage be-tween these programmes, primary environmental careand the provision of primary health care and services.

C/ SIRENGIHEN'NG INSI'IUI/ONS

5.38 The capacity of national, regional and local struc-tures to deal with issues relating to demographic trendsand factors and sustainable development should be en-hanced. This would involve strengthening the relevantbodies responsible for population issues to enable themto elaborate pol ic ies consistent wi th the nat ionalprospects for sustainable development. Cooperationamong Govemments, national research institutions, non-governmental organizations and local communities inassessing problems and evaluating policies should alsobe enhanced.5.39 The capacity of the relevant United Nations or€ans,organizations and bodies, international and regional inter-govemmental bodies, non-governmental organizations andlocal communities should, as appropriate, be enhanced tohelp countries develop sustainable development policies onrequest and, as appropriate, provide assistance to environ-mental migrants and displaced people.5.40 Inter-agency support for nat ional sustainabledevelopment policies and programmes should be im-proved through better coordination of population andenvironment activities.

D) PROMOI'NG HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

5.41 The international and regional scientific institutionsshould assist Governments, upon request, to includeconcerns regarding the population/environment interac-tions at the global, ecosystem and micro-levels in thetraining of demographers and population and environ-ment specialists. Training should include research onlinkages and ways to design integrated strategies.

cl rrvlPtEMENTtNG TNTEGRATED ENVIRONTVIENTAND DEVETOPMENT PROGRAM'VIES AT THE LOCATLEVEL, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT DEMOGRAPHICTRENDS AND FACTORS

BASIS FOR ACTION

5.42 Population programmes are more effective when

implemented together with appropriate cross-sectoralpolicies. To attain sustainability at the iocal level, a new

framework is needed that integrates demographic trends

and factors with such factors as ecosystem health, tech-

nology and human settlements, and with socio-economic

structures and access to resources. Population pro-

grammes should be consistent with socio-economic and

environmental planning. Integrated sustainable develop-

ment programmes should closely correlate action on

demographic trends and factors with resource manage-

ment activities and development goals that meet the

needs of the people concemed.

OBJECTIVE

5.43 Population programmes should be implemented

along with natural resource management and develop-

ment programmes at the local level that will ensure

sustainable use of natural resources, improve the quality

of life of the people and enhance environmental quality.

ACTIVITIES

5.44 Governments and local communities, including

community-based women's organizations and national

non-governmental organizations, consistent with na-

tional plans, objectives, strategies and priorities, could,

inter alia, undertake the activities set out below with the

assistance and cooperation of international otganiza-

tions, as appropriate. Governments could share their

experience in the implementation of Agenda 2l at the

International Conference on Population and Develop-

ment, to be held in 1994, especially its committee onpopulation and environment.

A] DEVELOP'NG A FRAMEWORK FOR ACIION

5.45 An effective consultative process should be estab-

lished and implemented with concerned groups of societywhere the formulation and decision-making of all com-ponents of the programmes are based on a nationwide

consultative process drawing on community meetings,

regional workshops and national seminars. as appropri-

ate. This process should ensure that views of women and

men on needs, perspectives and constraints are equallywell reflected in the design of programmes, and that

solutions are rooted in specific experience. The poor and

underprivileged should be priority groups in this process.

5.46 Nationally determined policies for integrated and

multifaceted programmes, with special attention to

women, to the poorest people living in critical areas and

to other vulnerable groups should be implemented, en-

suring the involvement of groups with a special potential

to act as agents for change and sustainable development.Special emphasis should be placed on those programmesthat achieve multiple objectives, encouragin g sustainabl eeconomic development, mitigating adverse impacts ofdemographic trends and f'actors and avoiding long-termenvironmental damage. Food security, access to securetenure, basic shelter. and essential infrastructure, educa-tion, family welfare, women's reproductive health, fam-

ily credit schemes, reforestation programmes, primary

environmental care and women's employment should, as

appropriate, be included among other factors.5.41 An analytical framework should be developed toidentify complementary elements of sustainable devel-opment policies as well as the national mechanisms tomonitor and evaluate their etfbcts on population dy-namics.5.48 Special attention should be given to the critical role

of women in population/environment programmes andin achieving sustainable development. Projects should

take advantage of opportunities to link social, economicand environmental gains for women and their families.Empowerment of women is essential and should beassured through education, training and policies to accordand improve women's right and access to assets, humanand civil r ights, labour-saving measures, job oppor-tunities and participation in decision-rnaking. Popula-tion/environment programmes must enable women tomobilize themselves to alleviate their burden and im-prove their capacity to participate in and benefit from

socio-economic development. Specific measures should

be undertaken to close the gap between female and maleilliteracy rates.

B) SUPPORIING PROGRAMMES THAT PROMOTECHANGES IN DEMOGRAPHIC IRENDS ANDFACIORS TOWARDS SUS IAINA BILITY

5.49 Reproductive health programmes and servicesshould, as appropriate, be developed and enhanced toreduce maternal and infant mortality from all causes andenable women and men to fulfil their personal aspirationsin terms of family size, in keeping with theirfreedom anddignity and personally held values.5.-50 Governments should take active steps to implement,as a matter of urgency, in accordance with country-spe-cific conditions and legal systems, measures to ensurethat women and rnen have the same right to decide freelyand responsibly on the number and spacing of their

children and to have access to the information, educationand means, as appropriate. to enable them to exercise thisright in keeping with their freedom, dignity and person-

39

ally held values, taking into account ethical and culturalconsiderations.5.51 Governments should take active steps to imple-ment programmes to establish and strengthen preven-tive and curative health facilities that include women-centred. women-managed, safe and effective reproduc-tive health care and affordable, accessible services, asappropriate, for the responsible planning of family size,in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally heldvalues and taking into account ethical and cultural con-siderations. Programmes should focus on providingcomprehensive health care, including pre-natal care,education and information on health and responsibleparenthood, and should provide the opportunity for allwomen to breast-feed fully, at least during the first fourmonths post-partum. Programmes should fully supportwomen's productive and reproductive roles and well-being, with special attention to the need for providingequal and improved health care for all children and theneed to reduce the risk of maternal and child mortalitvand sickness.5.52 Consistent with national priorities, culturally basedinformation and education programmes that transmitreproductive health messages to men and women that areeasily understood should be developed.

C) CREATING APP RO PRIATE'NSI/IUI'ONAI.coND/r,oNs

5.53 Constituencies and institutional conditions to facili-tate the implementation of demographic activities should,as appropriate, be fostered. This requires support andcommitment from political, indigenous, religious andtraditional authorities, the private sector and the nationalscientific community. In developing these appropriateinstitutional conditions, countries should closely involveestablished national machinery for women.5.54 Population assistance should be coordinated withbilateral and multilateral donors to ensure that populationneeds and requirements of all developing countries areaddressed, fully respecting the overall coordinatingresponsibil i ty and the choice and strategies of therecipient countries.5.55 Coordination should be improved at local and inter-national levels. Working practices should be enhancedin order to make optimum use of resources, draw oncollective experience and improve the irnplementation ofprogrammes. UNFPA and other relevant agencies shouldstrengthen the coordination of international cooperationactivities with recipient and donor countries in order toensure that adequate funding is available to respond togrowing needs.

40

5.56 Proposals should be developed for local, nationaland international population/environment programmesin line with specific needs for achieving sr"rstainability.Where appropriate, institutional changes must be im-plemented so that old-age security does not entirelydepend on input from family members.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FTNANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

5.57 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this prograrnme to be about $7 billion, in-cluding about $3.5 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Go'rernments decide upon for implementation.

8/ RESEARCH

5.58 Research should be undenaken with a view to de-veloping specific action prograrnmes; itwill be necessaryto establish priorities between proposed areas of research.5.59 Socio-demographic research should be conductedon how populations respond to a changing environment.5.60 Understanding of sociocultural and political factorsthat can positively influence acceptance of appropriatepopulation policy instruments should be improved.5.61 Surveys of changes in needs for appropriate servicesrelating to responsible planning of family size, reflectingvariations among different socio-economic groups andvariations in diff-erent geographical regions, should beundertaken.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTAND CAPACITY-BUILDING

5.62 The areas of human resource development and ca-pacity-building, with particular attention to the educationand training of women, are areas of critical importanceand are a very high priority in the implementation ofpopulation programmes.5.63 Workshops to help programme and project man-agers to link population programmes to other develop-ment and environmental goals should be conducted.5.64 Educational materials, including guides/workbooksfor planners and decision makers and other actors of

population/environment/development programmes,should be developed.5.65 Cooperation should be developed between Govern-ments, scientific institutions and non-govemmental or-ganizations within the region, and similar institutionsoutside the region. Cooperation with local or:ganizationsshould be fostered in order to raise awareness, engage lndemonstration projects and report on the experiencegained.5.66 The recofiImendations contained in this chaptershould in no way prejudice discussions at the Interna-

tional Conference on Population and Development in1994, which will be the appropriate forum for dealingwith population and development issues, taking intoaccount the recommendations of the International Con-ference on Population, held in Mexico City in 1984,r andthe Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement ofWomen,2 adopted by the World Conference to Reviewand Appraise the Achievements of the United NationsDecade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace,held in Nairobi in 1985.

'Report of the lnternationol Conference on Populotion, MexicoCity, 6-14 August 1984 lUnited Notions publicotion, Soles No.E.84.Xl l l .8 l , chop. l .

2 Report of the World Conference to Review ond Approise theAchievements of the United Nofions Decode for Women:Equolity, Development ond Peoce, Noirobi, l5-26 July 1985(Uni ted Not ions publ icot ion, So les No. E.84. |V.10) , chop. l ,sect. A.

4 l

Protecting ond promoting humon heolth

I N T R O D U C T I O N

6.1 Health and development are intimately intercon-nected. Both insufficient development leading to pov-

erty and inappropriate development resulting in overcon-sumption, coupled with an expanding world population,

can result in severe environmental health problems inboth developing and developed nations. Action itemsunder Agenda 2l must address the primary health needsof the world's population, since they are integral to theachievement of the goais of sustainable development andprimary environmental care. The linkage of health, en-vironmental and socio-economic improvements requiresintersectoral efforts. Such efforts, involving education,housing, public works and community groups, includingbusinesses, schools and universities and religious, civicand cultural c>rganizations, are aimed at enabling peoplein their communities to ensure sustainable development.Particularly relevant is the inclusion of prevention pro-grarrrmes rather than relying solely on remediation andtreatment. Countries ought to develop plans for priority

actions, drawing on the programme areas in this chapteqwhich are based on cooperative planning by the variouslevels of government, non-governmental organizationsand local communities. An appropriate intemationalorganization, such as WHO, should coordinate theseactivit ies.6.2 The fbllowing programme areas are contained in

this chapter:(a) Meeting primary health care needs, particularly inrural areas:(b) Control of communicable diseases;(c) Protecting vulnerable groups;(d) Meeting the urban health challenge;(e) Reducing health risks from environmental pollution

and hazards.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A! 'YTEEnNG PRITVIARY HEALTH CARE NEEDS,PARNCUTARIY IN RURAT AREAS

BASIS FOR ACTION

6.3 Health ultimately depends on the ability to managesuccessfully the interaction between the physical. spiri-tual , b io logical and economicisocial environment.Sound development is not possible without a healthypopulation; yet most developmental activities affect theenvironment to some degree, which in tum causes orexacerbates many health problems. Conversely, it is thevery lack of developmentthat adversely affects the healthcondition of many people, which can be alleviated onlythrough development. The health sector cannot meetbasic needs and objectives on its own; it is dependent onsocial, economic and spiritual development, while direct-ly contributing to such development. It is also dependenton a healthy environment, including the provision of asafe water supply and sanitation and the promotion of asafe food supply and proper nutrition. Particular attentionshould be directed towards food safety, with priorityplaced on the elimination of food contamination; com-prehensive and sustainable water policies to ensure safedrinking water and sanitation to preclude both micro-bial and chemical contamination; and promotion ofheal th educat ion, immunizat ion and provis ion ofessential drugs. Education and appropriate services re-garding responsible planning of family size, with respectfor cultural, religious and social aspects, in keeping withfreedom, dignity and personally held values and takinginto account ethical and cultural considerations, alsocontribute to these intersectoral activities.

42

OBJECTIVES

6.4 Within the overall strategy to achieve health for allby the year 2000, the objectives are to meet the basichealth needs of rural, peri-urban and urban populations;to provide the necessary specialized environmentalhealth services; and to coordinate the involvement ofcitizens, the health sector, the health-related sectors andrelevant non-health sectors (business, social, educationaland religious institutions) in solutions to health problems.As a matter of priority, health service coverage should beachieved for population groups in greatest need, particu-larly those living in rural areas.

ACTIVITIES

6.5 National Governments and local authorities, withthe support of relevant non-governmental organizationsand international organizations, in the light of countries'specific conditions and needs, should strengthen theirhealth sector programrnes, with special attention to ruralneeds, to:

A) BU|LD BASTC HEALTH TNFRASTRUCTURES, MONTTORTNG ANDPLANNING SYSTEMS:

(i) Develop and strengthen primary health care systemsthat are practical, community-based, scientifi call y sound,sociall-v" acceptable and appropriate to their needs andthat meet basic health needs for clean water. safe foodand sanitation;(ii) Support the use and strengthening of mechanismsthat irnprove coordination between health and relatedsectors at all appropriate levels of government, and incommunities and relevant organizations;(iii) Develop and implement rational and affordable ap-proaches to the establishment and maintenance of healthfaci l i t ies:(iv) Ensure and, where appropnate, increase provisionof social services suppon;(v) Develop strategies, including reliable health indi-cators. to monitor the progress and evaluate the effective-ness of health programmes;(vit Explore ways to finance the health system based onthe assessment of the resources needed and identify thevarious linancing alternatives;(vii) Promote health education in schools, informationexchange, technical support and training;(viii; Support initiatives for self-management of serv-ices by vulnerable groups;(ix) Integrate traditional knowledge and experienceinto national health systems, as appropriate;(x) Promote the provisions for necessary logistics foroutreach activities, particularly in rural areas;

(xi) Promote and strengthen community-based re-habilitation activities for the rural handicapped.

B) SUPPORT RESEARCH AND MFIHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

(i) Establish mechanisms for sustained community in-volvement in environmental health activities, includingoptimization of the appropriate use of community finan-cial and human resources;(ii) Conduct environmental health research, includingbehaviour research and research on ways to increasecoverage and ensure greater utilization of services byperipheral, underserved and vulnerable populations, asappropriate to good prevention services and health care;(iii) Conduct research into traditional knowledge ofpreventive and curative health practices.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FTNANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

6.6 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $40 billion,including about $5 billion fiom the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon fbr implementation.

B/ sC/ENTIFIC AND TECHNOLAGICAL MEANS

6.7 New approaches to planning and managing healthcare systems and facilities should be tested. and researchon ways of integrating appropriate technologies intohealth infrastructures supported. The development ofscientifically sound health technology should enhanceadaptability to local needs and maintainability by com-munity resources, including the maintenance and repairof equipment used in health care. Programmes to facili-tate the transfer and sharing of infonnation and expertiseshould be developed, including communication methodsand educational materials.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMFNI

6.8 Intersectoral approaches to the reform of healthpersonnel development should be strengthened to ensureits relevance to the "Health for All" stratesies. Efforts to

43

enhance managerial skills at the distnct level should be

supported, with the aim of ensuring the systematic devel-

opment and efficient operation of the basic health system'

Intensive, short, practical training prograrnmes with em-

phasis on skills in effective communication, community

organization and facilitation of behaviour change should

be developed in order to prepare the local personnel of

all sectors involved in social development for carrying

out their respective roles. In cooperation with the edu-

cation sector, special health education progratrunes

should be developed fbcusing on the role of women in

the health-care system.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

6.g Govetnments should consider adopting enabling

and facilitating strategies to promote the participation of

cclmmunities in meeting their own needs, in addition to

providing direct support to the provision of health-care

services. A major focus should be the preparation of

community-based health and health-related workers to

assume an active role in community health education'

with emphasis on team work, social mobilization and the

support of other development workers. National pro-

grammes should cover district health systems in urban,

peri-urban and rural areas, the delivery of health pro-

grammes at the district level, and the development and

support clf referral services.

B) CONTROT OF CO,\IIVIUNICABLE DISEASES

BASIS FOR ACTION

6.10 Advances in the development of vaccines and che-

motherapeutic agents have brought many communicable

diseases under control. However, there remain many

important communicable diseases for which environ-

mental control measures are indispensable. especially in

the field of water supply and sanitation. Such diseases

include cholera, diarrhoeal diseases, leishmaniasis. ma-

laria and schistosomiasis. In all such instances, the envi-

ronmental measures, either as an integral part of primary

health care or undertaken outside the health sector, form

an indispensable component of overall disease control

strategies, together with health and hygiene education,

and. in some cases, are the only component.

6.1 1 With HIV infection levels estimated to increase to

30-40 million by the year 2000, the socio-economic

impact of the pandemic is expected to be devastating for

all countries, and increasingly for women and children.

While direct health costs wil l be substantial, they wil l be

dwarfed by the indirect costs of the pandemic - mainly

costs associated with the loss of income and decreased

productivity of the worktorce. The pandemic will inhibit

growth of the service and industrial sectors and signifi-

cantly increase the costs of human capacity-building and

retraining. The agricultural sector is particularly af-

fected where production is labour-intensive.

OBJECTIVES

6.12 A number of goals have been formulated through

extensive consultations in various international forums

attended by virtually all Governments, relevant United

Nat ions organizat ions ( including WHO, UNICEF

UNFPA, UNESCO, UNDP and the World Bank) and a

number of non-governmental organizations. Goals (in-

cluding but not limited to those listed below) are recom-

mended for implementation by all countries where they

are applicable, with appropriate adaptation to the specific

situation of each country in terms of phasing, standards,

priorities and availability of resources, with respect for

cultural, religious and social aspects, in keeping with

freedom, dignity and personally held values and taking

into account ethical considerations. Additional goals that

are particularly relevant to a country's specific situation

should be added in the country's national plan of action(Plan of Action for Implementing the World Declaration

on the Survival, Protection and Development of Children

in the 1990s).t Such national-level action plans should

be coordinated and monitored from within the public

health sector. Some major goals are:(a) By the year 2000, to eliminate guinea worm disease(dracunculiasis);(b) By the year 2000, to eradicate polio;(c) By the year 2000, to eff-ectively control onchocer-

ciasis (river blindness) and leprosy;(d) By 1995, to redttce measles deaths by 95 per cent

and reduce measles cases by 90 per cent compared with

pre-immunization level s :(e) By continued effbrts, to provide health and hygiene

education and to ensure universal access to safe drinking-

water and universal access to sanitary measures of excreta

disposal, thereby markedly reducing waterborne diseases

such as cholera and schistosomiasis and reducing:(i) By the year 2000, the number of deaths from child-

hood diarrhoea in developing countries by 50 to 70 per

cent:(ii; By the year 2000, the incidence of childhood diar-

rhoea in developing countries by at least 25 to 50 percent;

(f) By the year 2000, to initiate comprehensive pro-

grammes to reduce mortality from acute respiratory in-

fections in children under five years by at least one third,

particularly in countries with high infant mortality;

(g) By the year 2000, to provide 95 per cent of theworld's child population with access to appropriate carefor acute respiratory infections within the community andat first referral level;(h) By the year 2000, to institute anti-malaria pro-grammes in all countries where malaria presents a signi-ficant health problem and maintain the transmission-freestatus of areas freed from endemic malaria;(i) By the year 2000, to implement control programmesin countries where major human parasitic infectionsare endemic and achieve an overall reduction in theprevalence of schistosomiasis and of other trematodeinfections by 40 per cent and25 per cent, respectively,from a 1984 baseline, as well as a marked reduction inincidence, prevalence and intensity of f i larial infec-tions;

0) To mobilize and unify national and internationalefforts against AIDS to prevent infection and to reducethe personal and social impact of HIV infection;(k) To contain the resurgence of tuberculosis, withparticular emphasis on multiple antibiotic resistantforms;(l) To accelerate research on improved vaccines andimplement to the fullest extent possible the use of vac-cines in the prevention of disease.

ACTIVITIES

6.13 Each national Government, in accordance withnational plans for public health, priorities and objectives,should consider developing a national health action planwith appropriate international assistance and support,including, at a minimum, the following components:

A) NATIONAL PUBLIC HEALTH SYSTEMS:

(i) Programmes to identify environmental hazards inthe causation of communicable diseases;(ii) Monitoring systems of epidemiological data to en-sure adequate forecasting of the introduction, spread oraggravation of communicable diseases;(iii) Intervention programmes, including measures con-sistent with the principles of the global AIDS strategy;(iv) Vaccines for the prevention of communicable dis-C A S C S :

B) PUBLTC TNFORMATION AND HEALTH EDUCATION:

Provide education and disseminate information on therisks of endemic communicable diseases and buildawareness on environmental methods forcontrol of com-municable diseases to enable communities to play a rolein the control of communicable diseases:

C ) I NTERSECTORAL C@PE RATION AN D COORDI NATION :

(i) Second experienced health professionals to relevantsectors, such as planning, housing and agriculture;(ii) Develop guidelines foreffective coordination in theareas of professional training, assessment of risks anddevelopment of control technology;

D) CONTROLOF ENVTRONMENTAL FACTORSTHAT INFLUENCE THESPREAD OF COM/\AUN ICABLE DISEASES:

Apply methods for the prevention and control of commu-nicable diseases, including water supply and sanitationcontrol, water pollution control, food quality control, inte-grated vector control, garbage collection and disposal andenvironmentally sound irrigation practices;

E) PRIMARY HEALTH CARE SYSTEM:

(i) Strengthen prevention programmes, with particularemphasis on adequate and balanced nutrition;(ii) Strengthen early diagnostic programmes and im-prove capacities for early preventive/treatment action;(iii) Reduce the vulnerability to HIV infection of womenand their offspring;

F) SUPPORT FOR RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

(i) Intensify and expand multidisciplinary research, in-cluding focused efforts on the mitigation and environ-mental control of tropical diseases;(ii) Carry out intervention studies to provide a solidepidemiological basis for control policies and to evaluatethe efficiency of alternative approaches:(i i i) Undertake stuclies in the population and amonghealth r,l'orkers to determine the influence of cultural.behavioural and social factors on control policies;

G} DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION OF TECHNOLOGY

(a) Develop new technologies for the effective controlof communicable diseases;(iit Promote studies to determine how optimally todisseminate results from research:(i i i) Ensure technical assistance, including the sharingof knowledge and know-how.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

6.14 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2W0) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $4 billion,including about $900 mill ion from the international

45

cofilmunity on grant or concessional terms. These areindicative and order-of-magnin"rde estimates only and havenot been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and fi-nancial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will

depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-gmmmes Govemments decide upon for implementation.

B/ 5C/FNIFtC AND TECHNOI.OG\CAL MEANS

6.15 Efforts to prevent and control diseases should in-

clude investigations of the epidemiological, social andeconomic bases for the development of more effectivenational strategies for the integrated control of commu-nicable diseases. Cost-effective methods of environmen-tal control should be adapted to local developmentalconditions.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

6.16 National and regional training institutions shouldDromote broad intersectoral approaches to preventionand control of communicable diseases, including trainingin epidemiology and community prevention and control,immunology, molecular biology and the application ofnew vaccines. Health education materials should bedeveloped for use by community workers and for theeducation of mothers for the prevention and treatment ofdiarrhoeal diseases in the home.

D) CAPACTTY-BUILDING

6.17 The health sector should develop adequate data onthe distribution of communicable diseases, as well as theinstitutional capacity to respond and collaborate withother sectors for prevention, mitigation and correction ofcommunicable disease hazards through environmentalprotection. The advocacy at policy- and decision-mak-ing levels should be gained, professional and societalsupport mobilized, and communities organized in de-veloping self-reliance.

c) PROTECTTNG VULNERABTE GROUPS

BASIS FOR ACTION

6.1 8 In addition to meeting basic health needs, specificemphasis has to be given to protecting and educatingvulnerable groups, particularly infants, youth, women,indigenous people and the very poor as a prerequisite forsustainable development. Special attention should also

45

be paid to the health needs of the elderly and disabledpopulation.6.19 INFANTS AND CHIIDREN Approximately one third ofthe world's population are children under 15 years old.At least l5 million of these children die annually fromsuch preventable causes as birth trauma, birth asphyxia,acute respiratory infections, malnutrition, colnmunicablediseases and diarrhoea. The health of children is affectedmore severely than other population goups by malnutritionand adverse environmental factors, and many children riskexploitation as cheap labour or in prostitution.6.20 YOUTH As has been the historical experience of allcountries, youth are particularly vulnerable to the prob-lems associated with economic development, whichoften weakens traditional forms of social support essen-tial for the healthy development, of young people. Ur-banization and changes in social mores have increasedsubstance abuse, unwanted pregnancy and sexually trans-mitted diseases, including AIDS. Currently more thanhalf of all people alive are under the age of 25, and fourof every five live in developing countries. Therefore itis important to ensure that historical experience is notreplicated.6.21 woMEN In developing countries, the health statusof women remains relatively low, and during the 1980spoverty, malnutrition and general ill-health in womenwere even rising. Most women in developing countriesstill do not have adequate basic educational opportunitiesand they lack the means of promoting their health, re-sponsibly controlling their reproductive lif-e and improv-ing their socio-economic status. Particular attentionshould be given to the provision of prenatal care to ensurehealthy babies.6.22 INDIGENOUS PEOPTE AND THEIR COMMUNITIES Indige-nous people and their communities make up a significantpercentage of the global population. The outcomes oftheirexperience have tended to be very similar in that thebasis of their relationship with traditional lands has beenfundamentally changed. They tend to feature dispropor-tionately in unemployment, lack of housing, poverty andpoor health. In many countries the number of indigenouspeople is growing faster than the general population.Therefore it is important to target health initiatives forindigenous people.

OBJECTIVES

6.23 The general objectives of protecting vulnerablegroups are to ensure that all such individuals should beallowed to develop to their full potential (including

healthy physical, mental and spiritual development); toensure that young people can develop, establish andmaintain healthy lives; to allow women to perform their

key role in society; and to support indigenous peoplethrough educational, economic and technical oppor-tunities.6.24 Specific major goals for child survival, develop-ment and protection were agreed upon at the WorldSummit for Children and remain valid also for Agen-da 21. Supporting and sectoral goals cover women'shealth and education, nutrition, child health, water andsanitation, basic education and children in difficult cir-cumstances.6.25 Governments should take active steps to implement,as a matter of urgency, in accordance with country-spe-cific conditions and legal systems, measures to ensurethat women and men have the same right to decide freelyand responsibly on the number and spacing of theirchildren, to have access to the information, education andmeans. as appropriate, to enable them to exercise thisright in keeping with their freedom, dignity and person-ally held values, taking into account ethical and culturalconsiderations.6.26 Governments should take active steps to imple-ment programmes to establish and strengthen preventiveand curative health facilities which include women-cen-tred. women-managed, safe and effective reproductivehealth care and affordable, accessible services, as appro-priate, for the responsible planning of family size, inkeeping with freedom, dignity and personally heldvalues and taking into account ethical and culturalconsiderations. Programmes should focus on providingcomprehensive health care, including pre-natal care,education and information on health and responsibleparenthood and should provide the opportunity for allwomen to breast-feed fully, at least during the first fourrnonths post-partum. Programmes should fully supportwomen's productive and reproductive roles and well-being, with special attention to the need for providingequal and improved health care for all children and theneed to reduce the risk of maternal and child mortalityand sickness.

ACTN''TES

6.21 National Governments, in cooperation with localand non-governmental organizations, should initiate orenhance programmes in the following areas:

A) INFANTS AND CHILDREN:

(i) Strengthen basic health-care services for children inthe context of primary health-care delivery, includingpren at al c are. breast-feeding, immunization and nutritionprogriimmes:(ii) Undertake widespread adult education on the use oforal rehydration therapy for diarrhoea, treatnent of res-

piratory infections and prevention of communicable dis-EASCS;

(iii) Promote the creation, amendment and enforcementof a legal framework protecting children from sexual andworkplace exploitation ;(iv) Protect children from the effects of environmentaland occupational toxic compounds;

B} YOUIH:

Strengthen services for youth in health, education andsocial sectors in order to provide better information,education, counselling and treatment for specific healthproblems, including drug abuse;

c) WoMEN:

(i) Involve women's groups in decision-making at thenational and community levels to identify health risksand incorporate health issues in national action pro-grammes on women and development;(ii) Provide concrete incentives to encourage and main-tain attendance of women of all ages at school and adulteducation courses, including health education and train-ing in primary, home and maternal health care;(iii) Carry out baseline surveys and knowledge, attitudeand practice studies on the health and nutrition of womenthroughout their life cycle, especially as related to theimpact of environmental degradation and adequateresources:

D) INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND THEIR COI4MUNITIES:(i) Strengthen, through resources and self-manage-ment, preventive and curative health services;(ii) Integrate traditional knowledge and experience intohealth svstems.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

6.28 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2ffi0) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $3.7 billion,including about $400 mill ion from the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional terms. These areindicative and order-of-magnitlrde estimates only andhave not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costsand financial terms, including any that are non-con-cessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, the specificstrategies and programmes Governments decide uponfor implementation.

47

8' SCIENIIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

6.29 Educational, health and research institutions shouldbe strengthened to provide support to improve the healthof vulnerable groups. Social research on the specificproblems of these groups should be expanded and meth-ods for implementing flexible pragmatic solutions ex-plored, with emphasis on preventive measures. Technicalsupport should be provided to Govemments, institutionsand non-governmental organizations for youth, womenand indigenous people in the health sector.

C) HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

6.30 The development of human resources for the healthof children, youth and women should include reinforce-ment of educational institutions, promotion of interactivemethods of education for health and increased use of massmedia in disseminating information to the target groups.This requires the training of more community healthworkers, nurses, midwives, physicians, social scien-tists and educators, the education of mothers, familiesand communities and the strengthening of ministriesof education, health, population etc.

D) CAPACTTY-BU\LD\NG

6.31 Governments should promote, where necessary: (i)the organization of national, intercountry and interre-gional symposia and other meetings for the exchange ofinformation among agencies and groups concerned withthe health of children, youth, women and indigenouspeople, and (ii) women's organizations, youth groupsand indigenous people's organizations to facilitate healthand consult them on the creation, amendment and en-forcement of legal frameworks to ensure a healthy envi-ronment for children. vouth. women and indisenouspeoples.

D) ftTEETTNG THE URBAN HEATTH CHATTENGE

BASIS FOR ACTION

632 For hundreds of millions of people, the poor livingconditions in urban and peri-urban areas are destroyinglives, health, and social and moral values. Urban growthhas outstripped society's capacity to meet human needs,leaving hundreds of millions of people with inadequateincomes, diets, housing and services. Urban growthexposes populations to serious environmental hazardsand has outstripped the capacity of municipal and local

governments to provide the environmental health serv-ices that the people need. All too often, urban develop-ment is associated with destructive effects on the physicalenvironment and the resource base needed for sustainabledevelopment. Environmental pollution in urban areas isassociated with excess morbidity and mortality. Over-crowding and inadequate housing contribute to respi-ratory diseases, tuberculosis, meningitis and other dis-eases. In urban environments, many factors that affecthuman health are outside the health sector. Improvementsin urban health therefore will depend on coordinatedaction by all levels of government. health care providers,businesses, religious groups, social and educational in-stitutions and cit izens.

OBJECTIVES

6.33 The health and well-being of all urban dwellers mustbe improved so that they can contribute to economic andsocial development. The global objective is to achieve a10 to 40 per cent irnprovement in health indicators by theyear 2000. The same rate of improvement should beachieved for environmental, housing and health serviceindicators. These include the development of quantitativeobjectives f-or infant mortality, maternal mortality, per-centage of low-birth-weight newboms and specific indi-cators (e.g. tuberculosis as an indicator of crowded hous-ing, diarrhoeaidiseases as indicators of inadequate waterand sanitation, rates of industrial and transportation ac-cidents that indicate possible opportunities for preventionof injury, and social problems such as drug abuse,violence and crime that indicate underlying social disor-ders).

ACTIVITIES

6.34 Local authorities, with the appropriate support ofnational Governments and intemation al organizations,should be encouraged to take effective measures to in-itiate or strengthen the tollowing activities:

A) DEVELOP AND TMPLEMENT MUNtCtpAL AND LOCALHEALTH PLANS:

(i) Establish or strengthen intersectoral committees atboth the polit icai and technical level, including activecollaboration on linkages with scientific, cultural, reli-gious. rnedical, business, social and other city institu-tions, using networking alrangements;(ii) Adopt or strengthen rnunicipal or local "enablingsffategies" that emphasize "doing with" rather than "doingfor" and create supportive environments for health;(iii) Ensure that public healttr education in schools, work-place, mass media etc. is provided or strengthened;

48

(iv) Encourage communities to develop personal skillsand awareness of primary health care;(v) Promote and strengthen community-based rehabili-tation activities for the urban and peri-urban disabled andthe elderly;

B) SURVEY WHERE NECESSARY THE EXTSTTNG HEALTH, SOCTALAND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN CITIES, INCLUDINGDOCUMENTATION OF I NTRA-URBAN DIFFERENCES;

C) STRENGTHEN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SERVICES:

(i) Adopt health impact and environmental impact as-sessment procedures;(ii) Provide basic and in-service training for new andexisting personnel;

D} ESTABUSH AND MAINTAIN CITY NFIWORKS FOR COTIABOR,ATIONAND EXCHANGE OF MODELS OF GOOD PRACNCE.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Al F/NANCTNG AND COST EVALUATTON

6.35 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $222 million,including about $22 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, ttre specifrc strategies and pro.grammes Govemments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENI/F/C AND TECHNOLOG|CAL A4EANS

6.36 Decision-making models should be further de-veloped and more widely used to assess the costs and thehealth and environment impacts of alternative technol-ogies and strategies. Improvement in urban developmentand management requires better national and municipalstatistics based on practical, standardized indicators. De-velopment of methods is a priority for the measurementof intra-urban and intra-district variations in health statusand environmental conditions. and for the application ofthis information in planning and management.

c) HUMAN RFSOURCES DEVELOPMENT

6.37 Programmes must supply the orientation and basic

training of municipal staff required for healthy city pro-cesses. Basic and in-service training of environmentalhealth personnel will also be needed.

D) CAPACITY.BUILDING

6.38 The programme is aimed towards improved plan-ning and management capabilities in the municipal andlocal government and its partners in central Government,the private sector and universities. Capacity develop-ment should be focused on obtaining sufficient informa-tion, improving coordination mechanisms linking alt thekey actors, and making better use of available instrumentsand resources for implementation.

El R.EDUCTNG HEATTH R|SKS FROMENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND HAZARDS

BASIS FOR ACTION

6.39 In many locations around the world the generalenvironment (air, water and land), workplaces and evenindividual drvellings are so badly polluted that the healthof hundreds of millions of people is adversely affected.This is, inter alia, due to past and present developmentsin consumption and production pattems and lifestyles, inenergy production and use. in industry, in transportationetc., with little or no regard for environmental protection.There have been notable improvements in some coun-tries, but deterioration of the environment continues. Theability of countries to tackle pollution and health prob-lems is greatly restrained because of lack of resources.Pollution control and health protection measures have oftennot kept pace with economic development. Considerabledevelopment-related environmental health hazards exist inthe newly industrializing countries. Furthermore, the recentanalysis of WHO has clearly established the interdepend-ence arnong the factors of health, environment and devel-opment and has revealed that most countries are lackingsuch integration as would lead to an effective pollutioncontrol mechanism.2 Withort prejudice to such criteria asmay be agreed upon by the international community, or tostandards which will have to be determined nationally, itwill be essential in all cases to considerthe systems of valuesprevailing in each county and the extent of the applicabilityof standards that are valid for the most advanced countriesbut may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social costforthe developing countries.

OBJECTIVES

6.40 The overall objective is to minimize hazards and

49

maintain the environment to a degree that human healthand safety is not impaired or endangered and yet encour-age development to proceed. Specific programme objec-tives are:(a) By the year 2000, to incorporate appropriate envi-ronmental and health safeguards as part of national de-velopment programmes in all countries;(b) By the year 2000, to establish, as appropriate, ade-quate national infrastructure and programmes for pre-venting env iron me ntal i nj ury,hazardsurvei I I ance and thebasis for abatement in all countries;(c) By the year 2000, to establish, as appropriate, inte-grated programmes fbr tackling pollution at the sourceand at the disposal site, rvith a focus on abatement actionsin all countriesl(d) To identify and compile, as appropriate, the neces-sary statistical information on health ef'fects to supportcost/benefit analysi s, includi ng environmental health im-pact assessment for pollution control, prevention andabatement measures.

ACTIVITIES

6.41 Nationally determined action programmes, with in-ternational assistance, support and coordination, wherenecessary, in this area should include:

A) URBAN AtR POLLUTTON:

(i) Develop appropriate pollution control technology onthe basis of risk assessment and epidemiological researchfor the introduction of environmentally sound productionprocesses and suitable safe mass transport;(ii) Develop air pollution control capacities in largecities, emphasizing enforcement programmes and usingmonitoring networks, as appropriate;

B) TNDOOR AtR POLLUTTON:

(i) Support research and develop programmes for ap-plying prevention and control methods to reducing indoorair pollution. including the provision of economic incen-tives for the installation of appropriate technology;(i i) Develop and implement health education cam-paigns, particuliuly in developing countries, to reduce thehealth impact of domestic use of biomass and coal:

c) WATER POLLUTTON:

(i) Develop appropnate water pollution control tech-nologies on the basis of health risk assessment;(ii; Develop water pollution control capacities in largeci t ies:

D) PESTTCTDES:

Develop mechanisms to control the distribution and useof pesticides in order to minimize the risks to humanhealth by transportation, storage, application and residualeffects of pesticides used in agriculture and preservationof wood;

E) SOLID WASTE:

(i) Develop appropriate solid waste disposal technol-ogies on the basis of health risk assessment:(ii) Develop appropriate solid waste disposal capacitiesin large cities;

F) HUMAN SETTLEMENTS:

Develop programmes for irnproving health conditions inhuman settlements, in particular within slums and non-tenured settlements, on the basis of health risk assess-ment;

G) NOTSE:

Develop criteria for maximum permitted safe noise ex-posure levels and promote noise assessment and controlas part of environmental health programmes;

H) roNtztNc AND NON-|ON|Z|NG RAD|AT|ON:

Develop and implement appropriate national legislation.standards and enforcement procedures on the basis ofexisting international guidelines;

t) EFFECTS OF ULTRAVTOLET RAD|ATION:(i) Undertake, as a rnatter of urgency, research on theeffects on human health of the increasing ultravioletradiation reaching the earth's surface as a consequenceof depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer:(ii) On the basis of the outcome of this research, consiclertaking appropriate remedial measures to mitigate theabove-mentioned effects on human beings:

J) INDUSTRY AND ENERGY PRODUCTION:(i) Establish environmental health impact assessmentprocedures for the planning and development of newindustries and energy facilities;(ii) Incorporate appropriate health risk analysis in allnational programmes for pollution control and manage-ment, with particular emphasis on toxic compounds suchas lead:(iii) Establish industrial hygiene programmes in all major

50

industries for the surveillance of workers' exposure tohealth hazards;(v) Promote the introduction of environmentally soundtechnologies within the industry and energy sectors;

K) MONTTORTNG AND ASSESSMENT:

Establish, as appropriate, adequate environmental moni-toring capacities for the surveillance of environmentalquality and the health status of populations;

L} INJURY MONITORING AND REDUCTION:

(i) Support, as appropriate, the development of systemsto monitor the incidence and cause of injury to allowwe I I -targe te d interventi on/pre venti on strateg ie s ;( i i ) Develop, in accordance with nat ional p lans,strategies in all sectors (industry, traffic and others) con-sistent with the WHO safe cities and safe communitiesprogrammes, to reduce the frequency and severity ofinjury;(iii) Emphasize preventive strategies to reduce occupa-tionally derived diseases and diseases caused by environ-mental and occupational toxins to enhance worker safety;

M) RESEARCH PROMOTION AND METHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT:

(i) Support the development of new methods for thequantitative assessment of health benefits and costs as-sociated with different pollution control strategies;(i i) Develop and carry out interdisciplinary researchon the combined health eff'ects of exposure to multipleenvironmental hazards, including epidemiological in-vestigations of long-term exposures to low levels ofpollutants and the use of biological markers capableof estimating human exposures, adverse effects andsusceptibil i ty to environmental agents.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FiNANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

6.42 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $3 billion,including about $115 mill ion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon. inter alia. the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENI/F'C AND IECHNOI.OGICAL MEANS

6.43 Although technology to prevent or abate pollutionis readily available for a large number of problems, forprogramme and policy developmeltt countries shouldundertake research within an intersectoral framework.Such efforts should include collaboration with the busi-ness sector. Cost/effect analysis and environmental im-pact assessment methods should be developed throughcooperative international prograffLmes and applied to thesetting of priorities and strategies in relation to health anddevelopment.6.44 In the activities listed ln paragraph 6.41 (a) to (m)above, developing country efforts should be facilitated byaccess to and ffansfer of technology, know-how and infor-mation, from the repositories of such knowledge and tech-nologies, in conformity with chapter 34.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

6.45 Comprehensive national strategies should be de-signed to overcome the lack of qualified human re-sources. which is a major impediment to progress indealing with environmental health hazards. Trainingshould include environmental and health officials at alllevels from managers to inspectors. More emphasis needsto be placed on including the subject of environmentalhealth in the curricula of secondary schools and univer-sit ies and on educating the public.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

6.46 Each country should develop the knowledge andpractical skills to foresee and identify environmentalhealth hazards, and the capacity to reduce the risks. Basiccapacity requirements must include knowledge aboutenvironmental health problems and awareness on the partof leaders, cit izens and specialists; operational mecha-nisms fbr intersectoral and intergovernmental coopera-tion in development planning and management and incombating pollution; arrangements for involving privateand community interests in dealing with social issues;delegation of authority and distribution of resources tointermediate and local levels of government to providefront-l ine capabil it ies to meet environmental healthneeds.

1 a/u/025, onnex.2 ^ . r . l'

Report of the WHO Commission on Heol th ond Environment(Genevo, forthcomi ng) .

5 t

Promoting sustoinoble humon setilement development

I N T R O D U C T I O N

1.1 In industrializ.ed countrics. the consumption pat-

terns of cities are severely stressing the global ecosystem,while settlements in the developing world need more raw

material, energy, and econornic development simply toovercome basic economic and social problems. Humansettlement conditions in many parts of the world, particu-

larly the developing countries, are deteriorating mainlyas a result of the low levels of investment in the sectorattributable to the overall resource constraints in thesecountries. In the low-income countries for which recentdata are available, an average of clnly 5.6 per cent ofcentral government expendi ture went to housing,amenities. social security and welfare.r Expenditure byinternational support and flnance organizations is equallylow. For example, only I per cent of the United Nationssystem's total grant-financed expenditures in 1988 went

to human settlements,' while in 1991, loans from theWorld Bank and the International Development Associ-

ation (IDA) for urban development and water supply andsewerage amounted to 5.5 and 5.4 per cent, respectively,of their total lending.'7.2 On the other hand, available information indicatesthat technical cooperation activities in the human settle-rnent sector generate considerable public and private

sector investment. For example, every dollar of UNDPtechnical cooperation expenditure on human settlementsin 1988 generated a follow-up investment of $122, thehighest of all UNDP sectors of assistance."7.3 This is the foundation of the "enabling approach"advocated for the human settlement sector. Externalassistance will help to generate the internal resourcesneeded to improve the living and working environmentsof all people by the year 2000 and beyond, including thegrowing number of unemployed - the no-income group.

52

At the same time the environmental implications of urbandevelopment should be recognized and addressed in anintegrated fashion by all countries, with high prioritybeing given to the needs of the urban and rural poor, theunemployed and the growing number of people withoutanv source of income.

HUMAN SETTLEMENT OBJECTIVE

7.4 The overall human settlement objective is to im-prove the social, economic and environmental quality ofhuman settlements and the living and working environ-ments of all people, in particular the urban and rural poor.Such improvement should be based on technical cooper-ation activities, partnerships among the public, privateand community sectors and participation in the decision-making process by community groups and special inter-est groups such as women. indigenous people, the elderlyand the disabled. These approaches should form the coreprinciples of national settlement strategies. In developingthese strategies, countries will need to set prioritiesamong the eight programme areas in this chapter inaccordance with their national plans and objectives, tak-ing fully into account their social and cultural capa-bilities. Furthermore, countries should make appropriateprovision to monitor the impact of their strategies onmarg inali zed and di senfranchi sed groups, with partic u larreference to the needs of women.7.5 The prograrrune areas included in this chapter are:(a) Providing adequate shelter for all;(b) Improving human settlement management;(c) Promoting sustainable land-use planning and man-agement;(d) Promoting the integrated provision of environmen-tal infrastructure: water. sanitation. drainage and solid-waste management:(e) Promoting sustainable energy and transport systemsin human settlements:

(f) Promoting human settlement planning and manage-ment in disaster-prone areas;(g) Promoting sustainable construction industry activities;(h) Promoting human resource development and capac-ity-building for human settlement development.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) PROV|DTNG ADEQUATE SHETTER FOR ALr

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.6 Access to safe and healthy shelter is essential to aperson's physical, psychological, social and economicwell-being and should be a fundamental part of nationaland intemational action. The right to adequate housingas a basic human right is enshrined in the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights and the lntemational Cove-nant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Despitethis, it is estimated that at the present time, at least Ibillion people do not have access to saf-e and healthyshelter and that if appropriate action is not taken, thisnurnber will increase dramatically by the end of thecentury and beyond.7.7 A major global programme to address this problemis the Global Strategy for Shelter ro rhe Year 2000,adopted by the General Assembly in December 1988(resolution 43ll8l, annex). Despite its widespread en-dorsement, the Strategy needs a much greater level ofpolitical and financial support to enable it to reach its goalof facilitating adequate shelter for all by rhe end of thecentury and beyond.

OBJECTIVE

7.8 The objective is to achieve adequate shelter forrapidly growing populations and for the cuffently de-prived urban and rural poor through an enabling approachto shelter development and improvement that is environ-mentally sound.

ACTIVITIES

7.9 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) As a first step towards the goal of providing ade-quate shelter for all, all countries should take immediatemeasures to provide shelter to their homeless poor, whilethe international community and financial institutionsshould undertake actions to support the ef'forts of thedeveloping countries to provide shelter to the poor;(b) All countries should adopt and/or strengthen na-

tional shelter strategies, with targets based. as appropri-ate, on the principles and recofiunendations contained inthe Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000. peopleshould be protected by law against unfair eviction fromtheir homes or land;(c) All countries should, as appropriate, support theshelterefforts of the urban and rural poor, the unemployedand the no-income group by adopting and/or adaptingexisting codes and regulations, to facilitate their accessto land, finance and low-cost building materials, and byactively promoting the regularization and upgrading ofinformal settlements and urban slums as an expedientmeasure and pragmatic solution to the urban shelterdeficit;(d) All countries should, as appropriate, facilitate ac-cess of urban and rural poor to shelter by adopting andutilizing housing and finance schemes and new innova-tive mechanisms adapted to their circumstances;(e) All counties should support and develop environ-mentally compatible shelter strategies at national,state/provincial and municipal levels through parnrershipsamong the private, public and community sectors and withthe support of community-based organizations;(f,) All countries, especially developing ones, should,as appropriate, formulate and implement programmes toreduce the impact of the phenomenon of rural to urbandrift by improving rural living conditions;(g) All countries, where appropriate, should developand implement resettlement programmes that address thespecific problems of displaced popularions in rheirrespective countries;(h) All countries should. as appropriate, document andmonitor the implementation of their national shelterstrategies by using, inter alia, the monitoring guidelinesadopted by the Comrnission on Human Settlements andthe shelterperformance indicators being producedjointlyby the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements(Habitat) and the World Bank;(i) Bilateral and multilateral cooperation should bestrengthened in order to support the implementation ofthe national shelter strategies of developing countries;0) Global progress reports covering national action andthe support activities of international organizations andbilateral donors should be produced and disseminated ona biennial basis, as requested in the Global Strategy forShelter to the Year 2000.

MEANS OF IMPIEMENTATION

,A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALaJATTON

7.iO The Conference secretiuiat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2(nU of implementing the

53

activities of this programme to be about $75 billion,

including about $10 billion from the international com-

munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-

tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not

been reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and finan-

cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will

depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-

grammes Governments decide upon for implementation'

8] SCIENTFrc AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

7.1 I The requirements under this heading are addressed

in each of the other programme areas included in the

present chapter.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI AND

CAPACITY.BUILDING

7.12 Developed countries and funding agencies should

provide specific assistance to developing countries in

arJopting an enabling approach to the provision of shelter

for all, including the no-income group, and covering

research institutions and training activities for govern-

ment officials, professionals, communities and non-gov-

ernmental organrzations and by strengthening local ca-

pacity for the development of appropriate technologies.

B) IMPROVING HUrtiAN sErrlrMENT T ANAGEMEM

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.13 By the turn of the century, the majority of the

world 's populat ion wi l lbe l iv ing in c i t ies. Whi le urban

settlements, particularly in developing countries' are

showing many of the symptoms of the global environ-

ment and development crisis, they nevertheless generate

60 per cent of gross national product and' if properly

managed, can develop the capacity to sustain their pro-

ductivity, improve the living conditions of their residents

and manage natural resources in a sustainable way'

7.14 Some metropolitan areas extend over the boun-

daries of several political and/or administrative entities

(counties and municipalities) even though they conform

to a continuous urban system. In many cases this political

heterogeneity hinders the implementation of compre-

hensive environmental management programmes.

OBJECTIVE

7.15 The objective is to ensure sustainable management

of all urban settlements, pafticularly in developing coun-

54

tries, in order to enhance their ability to improve the living

conditions of residents, especially the marginalized and

disenfranchised, thereby contributing to the achievement

of national economic development goals.

ACTIVITIES

A) IMPROV/NG URBAN MANAGFMENI

7.16 One existing framework for strengthening lnanage-

ment is in the Uni ted Nat ions Development Pro-

grammeNVorld Bank/United Nations Centre for Human

Settlements (Habitat) Urban Management Programme

(UMP), a concerted global effort to assist developing

countries in addressing urban management issues. Its

coverage should be extended to all interested countries

during the period 1993-2000. All countries should' as

appropriate and in accordance with national plans, objec-

tives and priorities and with the assistance of non-gov-

ernmenfal organizations and representatives of local

authorities, undertake the following activities at the na-

tional, state/provincial and local levels, with the assist-

ance of relevant programmes and support agencies:

(a) Adopting and applying urban management guide-

lines in the areas of land management, urban environ-

mental management, infrastructure management and

municipal fi nance and administration;(b) Accelerating efforts to reduce urban poverty

through a number of actions, including:(i) Generating employment for the urban poor, particu-

larly women, through the provision, improvement and

maintenance of urban infrastructure and services and the

support of economic activities in the informal sector, such

as repairs, recycling, services and small cofitmerce;(ii) Providing specific assistance to the poorest of the

urban poor through, inter alia, the creation of social

infrastructure in order to reduce hunger and homeless-

ness, and the provision of adequate community services;

(iii) Encouraging the establishment of indigenous com-

muni ty -based organization s, private v o luntary or ganrza-

tions and other forms of non-governmental entities that

can contribute to the efforts to reduce poverty and im-

prove the quality of life for low-income families;(c) Adopting innovative city planning strategies to ad-

dress environmental and social issues by:(i) Reducing subsidies on, and recovering the full costs

of, environmental and other services of high standard

(e.g. water supply, sanitation, waste collection, roads'

telecommunications) provided to higher income neigh-

bourhoods;(ii) Improving the level of infrastructure and service

provision in poorer urban areas;(d) Developing local strategies for improving the quality

of life and the environment, integrating decisions on landuse and land management, investing in the public andprivate sectors and mobilizing human and material re-sources, thereby promoting employment generation thatis environmentally sound and protective of human health.

8/ STRENGTHENING UREAN DATA SySIEMS

7.17 During the period 1993-2000 all countries shouldundertake, with the active participation of the businesssector as appropriate, pilot projects in selected cities forthe collection, analysis and subsequent dissemination ofurban data, including environmental impact analysis, atthe local, state/provincial, national and internationallevels and the establishment of city data managementcapabil it ies.5 United Nations organizations, such asHabitat, UNEP and UNDP, could provide technicaladvice and model data management systems.

C) ENCOURAGING /NIERMEDIATE CITY DEVELOPMENT

7. I 8 In order to relieve pressure on large urban agglomer-ations of developing countries, policies and strategiesshould be implemented towards the development of in-termediate cities that create employment opportunitiesfor unemployed labour in the rural areas and supportrural-based economic activities, although sound urbanmanagement is essential to ensure that urban sprawl doesnot expand resource degradation over an ever wider landarea and increase pressures to convert open space andagriculturaUbuffer lands for development.7. l9 Therefore all countries should, as appropriate, con-duct reviews of urbanization processes and policies inorder to assess the environmental impacts of growth andapply urban planning and management approaches spe-cifically suited to the needs, resource capabilities andcharacteri stics of thei r growing intermediate-si zed c itie s.As appropriate, they should also concentrate on activitiesaimed at facilitating the transition from rural to urbanlifestyles and settlement patterns and at promoting thedevelopment of small-scale economic activities, particu-larly the production of food, to support local incomegeneration and the production of intermediate goods andsen,ices for rural hinterlands.7.20 All cities. particularly those characterized by severesustainable development problems, should, in accord-ance u,ith national laws, rules and regulations, developand strengthen programmes aimed at addressing suchproblems and guiding their development along a sustain-able path. Some international initiatives in support ofsuch efforts. as in the Sustainable Cities prosramme of

Habitat and the Healthy Cities programme of WHO,should be intensified. Additional initiatives involving theWorld Bank, the regional development banks and bilat-eral agencies, as well as other interested stakeholders.particularly international and national representatives oflocal authorities, should be strengthened and coordi-nated. Individual cities should, as appropriate:(a) Institutionalize aparticipatory approach to sustain-able urban development, based on a continuous dialoguebetween the actors involved in urban developrnent (thepublic sector, private sector and communities), especiallywomen and indigenous people;(b) Improve the urban environment by promoting so-cial organization and environmental awareness throughthe participation of local communities in the identifica-tion of public services needs, the provision of urbaninfrastructure, the enhancement of public amenities andthe protection and/or rehabilitarion of older buildings,historic precincts and other cultural artifacts. In addition,"green works" programmes should be activated to createself-sustaining human development activities and bothformal and informal employment opportunities for low-income urban residents;(c) Strengthen the capacities of their local governingbodies to deal more effectively with the broad range ofdevelopmental and environmental challenges associatedwith rapid and sound urban growth through comprehen-sive apprdaches to planning that recognize the individualneeds of cities and are based on ecologically sound urbandesign practices;(d) Participate in international "sustainable city net-works" to exchange experiences and mobilize nationaland international technical and financial support;(e) Promote the formulation of environmentally soundand culturally sensitive tourism programmes as a strategyfor sustainable development of urban and rural settle-ments and as a way of decentralizingurban developmentand reducing discrepancies among regions;(f) Establish mechanisms, with the assistance of rele-vant international agencies, to mobilize resources forlocal initiatives to improve environmental quality;(g) Empower community groups, non-governmental or-ganizations and individuals to assume the authority andresponsibility for rnanaging and enhancing their immediateenvironment through participatory tools, techniques andapproaches embodied in the concept of environmental care.7.21 Cities of all countries should reinforce cooperationamong themselves and cities of the developed countries,underthe aegis of non-governmental organizations activein this field, such as the International Union of LocalAuthorities (IULA), the International Council for LocalEnvironmental Initiatives (ICLEI) and the World Feder-ation of Twin Cities.

55

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

1.22 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-

age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the

activities of this programme to be about $100 billion,

including about $ 15 bil l ion from the international com-

munity on grant or concessional terms. These are in-

dicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and

have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs

and financial terms. including any that are non-conces-

sional , wi l l depend upon, inter al ia. the speci f ic

strategies and programmes Governments decide upon

for implementation.

B) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI ANDCAPACITY-BUILDING

1.23 Developing countries should, with appropriate in-

ternational assistance, consider focusing on training and

developing a cadre of urban managers, technicians, ad-

ministrators and other relevant stakeholders who can

successfully manage environmentally sound urban de-

velopment and growth and are equipped with the skills

necessary to analyse and adapt the innovative experi-

ences of other cities. For this purpose, the full range of

training methods __ from formal education to the use of

the mass rnedia - should be utilized, as well as the"learning by doing" option.7.24 Developing countries should also encourage tech-

nological training and research through joint efforts by

donors, non-governmental organizations and private

business in such areas as the reduction of waste, water

quality, saving of energy, safe production of chemicals

and less polluting transpoftation.7.25 Capacity-building activities carried out by all coun-

tries, assisted as suggested above, should go beyond the

training of individuals and functional groups to include

institutional arrangements, admini strative routines, inter-

agency linkages, information flows and consultative pro-

C C S S C S .

7.26 In addi t ion, internat ional ef for ts, such as the

Urban Management Programme, in cooperation with

multi lateral and bilateral agencies, should continue to

assist the developing countries in their efforts to de-velop a part ic ipatory structure by mobi l iz ing the

human resources of the private sector, non-governmen-

tal organizations and the poor, particularly women and

the disadvantaged.

c) PROMOTTNG SUSTAINABLE IAND-USEPTANNING AND }TANAGEMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.27 Access to land resources is an essential componentof sustainable low-impact lifestyles. Land resources are

the basis for (human) living systems and provide soil,

energy, water and the opportunity for all human activity.In rapidly growing urban areas, access to land is rendered

increasingly difficult by the conflicting demands of in-

dustry, housing, commerce, agriculture, land tenure

structures and the need for open spaces. Furthermore, therising costs of urban land prevent the poor from gaining

access to suitable land. In rural areas, unsustainablepractices, such as the exploitation of marginal lands andthe encroachment on forests and ecologically fragileareas by commercial interests and landless rural popula-

tions, result in environmental degradation, as well as in

diminishing returns for impoverished rural settlers.

OBJECTIVE

7 .28 Theobjective is to provide for the land requirementsof human settlement development through environmen-tally sound physical planning and land use so as to ensureaccess to land to all households and, where appropriate,the encouragement of communally and collectivelyowned and rnanaged land.6 Particular attention shouldbe paid to the needs of women and indigenous people foreconomic and cultural reasons.

ACTIVITIES

7 .29 Allcountries shouldconsider, as appropriate, under-taking a comprehensive national inventory of their landresources in order to establish a land information systemin which land resources will be classified according totheir most appropriate uses and environmentally fragileor disaster-prone areas will be identified for specialprotection measures.7 .30 Subsequent ly , a l l count r ies shou ld cons iderdeveloping national land-resource management plans toguide land-resource development and utilization and, tothat end, should:(a) Establish, as appropriate, national legislation toguide the implementation of public policies for environ-mentally sound urban development, land utilization,housing and for the improved management of urbanexpansion;(b) Create, where appropriate, efficient and accessibleland markets that meet coffImunity development needsby, inter alia. improving land registry systems andstreamlining procedures in land transactions;

56

(c) Develop fiscal incentives and land-use controlmeasures, including land-use planning solutions for amore rational and environmentally sound use of limitedland resources;(d) Encourage partnerships among the public, privateand community sectors in managing land resources forhuman settlements development;(e) Strengthencommunity-based land-resource protec-tion practices in existing urban and rural settlements;(f) Establish appropriate forms of land tenurc that pro-vide security of tenure for all land-users, especially in-digenous people, women,local communities, the low-in-come urban dwellers and the rural poor;(g) Accelerate efforts to promote access to land by theurban and rural poor, including credit schemes for thepurchase of land and for building/acquiring or improvingsafe and healthy shelter and infiastructure services;(h) Develop and support the implementation of im-proved land-management practices that deal compre-hensively with potentially competing land require-ments for agriculture, industry, transport, urban devel-opment, green spaces, preserves and other vital needs;(i) Promote understanding among policy makers of theadverse consequences of unplanned settlements in envi-rorunentally vulnerable areas and of the appropriate na-tional and local land-use and settlements policies re-quired for this purpose.7.31 At the international level, global coordination ofland-resource management activities should be strength-ened by the various bilateral and multilateral agenciesand programmes, such as UNDP, FAO, the World Bank,the regional development banks, other interested organ-izations and the UNDPAVoTId Bank/Habitat Urban Man-agement Programme, and action should be taken to pro-mote the transfer of applicable experience on sustainableland-management practices to and among developingcountries.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

7.32 The Conference secretar iat has est imated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implement-ing the activit ies of this programme to be about $3bi l l ion. including about $300 mi l l ion f rom the interna-t ional community on grant or concessional terms.These are indicative and order-of-rnagnitude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional. wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespeci f ic strategies and programmes Governmentsdecide upon for implementat ion.

B/ SC'ENI/F/C AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

7.33 All countries, particularly developing countries,alone or in regional or subregional groupings, should begiven access to modern techniques of land-resourcemanagement, such as geographical information systems,satellite photography/imagery and other remote-sensinstechnologies.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI ANDCAPACITY-BUILDING

7.34 Environmentally focused training activit ies in sus-tainable land-resources planning and managemelt tshould be undertaken in all countries, with developingcountries being given assistance through internationalsupport and funding agencies in order to:(a) Strengthen the capacity of national, state/provincialand local educational research and training institutionsto provide formal training of land-management techni-cians and professionals;(b) Facilitate the organizational review of governmentministries and agencies responsible for land questions,in order to devise more etficient mechanisrns of land-resource management, and carry out periodic in-servicerefresher courses for the managers and staff of suchministries and agencies in order to familiarize them withup-to-date land-resource-management technolo gie s ;(c) Where appropriate, provide such agencies withmodern equipment, such as computer hardware andsoftware and survey equipment;(d) Strengthen existing programmes and promote anintemational and interregional exchange of informationand experience in land management through the estab-lishment of professional associations in land-manage-ment sciences and related activit ies, such as workshopsand seminars.

D) PROMOTTNG THE TNTEGRATED pROVtStON OFENVIRONI ENTAI INFRASTRUCTURE: WATER,SANITATION, DRAINAGE AND SOTID-WASTEMANAGEMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.35 The sustainability of urban development is definedby many parameters relating to the availability of watersupplies, air quality and the provision of environmentalinfrastructure for sanitation and waste management. Asa result of the density of users, urbanization, if properlymanaged, offers unique opportunities for the supply of

\7

sustainable environmental infrastructure through ade-

quate pricing policies, educational programmes and

equitable access mechanisms that are economically and

environmentally sound. In most developing countries,

however, the inadequacy and lack of environmental in-

frastructure is responsible for widespread ill-health and

a large number of preventable deaths each year. In those

countries cclnditions are set to worsen due to growing

needs that exceed the capacity of Governments to

respond adequateiy.1 .36 An integrated approach to the provision of environ-

mentally sound intiastructure in human settlements. in

particular for the urban and rural poor, is an investment

in sustainable development that can improve the quality

of life, increase productivity, improve health and reduce

the burden of investments in curative medicine and

poverty alleviation.7.37 Most of the activities whose management would be

improved by an integrated approach. are covered in

Agenda 2l as follows: chapters 6 (Protecting and pro-

moting human health conditions), 9 (Protecting the at-

mosphere), 18 (Protecting the qualitv and supply of

freshwater resources) and 21 (Environmentally sound

management of solid wastes and sewage-related issues).

OBJECTIVE

7.38 The objective is to ensure the provision of adequateenvironmental infrastructure facilities in all settlements

by the year 2025. The achievement of this objectivewould require that all developing countries incorporate

in their national strategies programmes to build the neces-

sary technical, flnancial and human resource capacity

aimed at ensuring better integration of infrastructure and

environmental planning by the year 2000.

ACTIVITIES

7.39 All countries should assess the environmental suit-

ability of infrastructure in human settlements, develop

national goals for sustainable management of waste, and

implement environmentally sound technology to ensure

that the environment, human health and quality of life areprotected. Settlement infrastructure and environmentalprogrammes designed tcl promote an integrated human

settlements approach to the planning, development,maintenance and management of environmental infra-

structure (water supply, sanitation, drainage, solid-wastemanagement) should be strengthened with the assistance

of bilateral and multi lateral agencies. Coordinationamong these agencies and with collaboration from inter-

national and national representatives of local authorities,the private sector and community groups should also be

58

strengthened. The activities of all agencies engaged in

providing environmental infrastructure should, where

possible, reflect an ecosystem or metropolitan area ap-proach to settlements and should include monitoring,

applied research, capacity-building, transfer of appropri-

ate technology and technical cooperation among the

range of programme activities.7.40 Developing countries should be assisted at the na-

tional and local levels in adopting an integrated approach

to the provision of water supply. energy, sanitation, drain-

age and solid-waste management, and external funding

agencies should ensure that this approach is applied in

particular to environmental infiastructure improvement

in informal settlements based on regulations and stand-

ards that take into account the living conditions andresources of the communities to be served.7.41 All countries should, as appropriate, adopt the fol-

lowing principles for the provision of environmentalinfrastructure:(a) Adopt policies that minimize if not altogether avoid

environmental damage, whenever possible;(b) Ensure that relevant decisions are preceded by en-

vironmental impact assessments and also take into ac-

count the costs of any ecological consequences;(c) Promote development in accordance with indige-

nous practices and adopt technologies appropriate to

local conditions;(d) Promote policies aimed at recovering the actual costof infrastructure services, while at the same time recogniz-ing the need to find suitable approaches (including sub-sidies) to extend basic services to all households;(e) Seekjoint solutions to environmental probiems that

affect several localities.7.42 The dissemination of information from existingprograrnmes should be facilitated and encouraged amonginterested countries and local institutions.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANCING AND COST EVALUATION

7.43 The Conference secretariat has estimated most of

the costs of implementing the activities of this pro-gramme in other chapters. The secretariat estimates theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of technical assist-ance from the international comrnunity on grant or con-cessional terms to be about $50 million. These areindicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only andhave not been reviewed by Govemments. Actual costsand financial terms, including any that are non-conces-sional, will depend upon, inter olia,the specific strategiesand programmes Governments decide upon fbr im-plementation.

8' SC'ENIIFIC AND IECHNOI.OGICAL ME,ANS

7.44 Scientific and technological means within the exist-

ing programmes should be coordinated whereverpossible and should:(a) Accelerate research in the areaof integratedpoliciesof environme ntal infrastruc ture programme s and proj ects

based on cost/benefit analysis and overall environmentalimpact;(b) Promote methods of assessing "effective demand",utilizing environment and development data as criteriafor selecting technology.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMFNT ANDCAPACITY-BUILDING

7..15 With the assistance and support of funding agencies,all countries should, as appropriate, undertake training andpopular participation programmes aimed at:(a) Raising awareness of the means, approaches andbenefits of the provision of environmental infrastructurefacilities, especially among indigenous people, women,low-income groups and the poor;

ft) Developing a cadre of professionals with adequateskills in integrated infrastructural service planning andmaintenance of resource-efficient, environmentallysound and socially acceptable systems;(c) Strengthening the institutional capacity of localauthorities and administrators in the integrated provisionof adequate infrastructure services in partnership withlocal communities and the private sector;(d) Adopting appropriate legal and regulatory instru-ments, including cross-subsidy anangements, to extendthe benefits clf adequate and affordable environmentalinfrastructure to unserved population groups, especiallythe poor.

El PROIIOTING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY ANDTRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN HUftIAN SETITE'VIENTS

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.46 N{ost of the commercial and non-commercial en-ergy produced today is used in and forhuman settlements,and a substantial percentage of it is used by the householdsector. Developing countries are at present faced with theneed to increase their energy production to acceleratedevelopment and raise the living standards of their popu-lations, while at the same time reducing energy produc-tion costs and energy-related pollution. Increasing theefficiency of energy use to reduce its polluting effectsand to promote the use of renewable energies must be a

priority in any action taken to protect the urban environ-ment.7.47 Developed countries, as the largest consumers ofenergy, are faced with the need for energy planning andmanagement, promoting renewable and alternate sourcesof energy, and evaluating the life-cycle costs of currentsystems and practices as a result of which many metro-politan areas are suffering from pervasive air qualityproblems related to ozone, particulate matters and carbonmonoxide. The causes have much to do with technologi-cal inadequacies and with an increasing fuel consumptiongenerated by inefficiencies, high demographic and indus-trial concentrations and a rapid expansion in the numberof motor vehicles.7.48 Transport accounts for about 30 per cent of com-mercial energy consumption and for about 60 per cent oftotal global consumption of liquid petroleum. In develop-ing countries, rapid motorization and insufficient invest-ments in urban-transport planning, traffic managementand infrastructure are creating increasing problems interms of accidents and injury, health, noise, congestionand loss of productivity similar to those occurring inmany developed countries. AII of these problems have asevere impact on urban populations, particularly thelow-income and no-income groups.

OBJECNVES

7.49 The objectives are to extend the provision of moreenergy-efficient technology and alternative/renewableenergy for human settlements and to reduce negativeimpacts of energy production and use on human healthand on the environment.

ACTIVITIES

7.50 The principal activities relevant to this programmearea are included in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmos-phere), programme area B, subprogramme I (Energy

development, efficiency and consumption) and subpro-gramme 2 (Transportation).7.51 A comprehensive approach to human settlementsdevelopment should include the promotion of sustainableenergy development in all countries, as tollows:

A) DEVELOPING COUNTRTES, lN PARTICULAR, SHOULD:

(i) Formulate national action prograrnmes to prolnote andsupport reaftbrestation and national forest regeneration witha view to achieving sustained provision of the biornassenergy needs of the low-income groups in urban areas andthe rural poor, in particular women and children;(ii) Formulate national action programlnes to promote

59

integrated development of energy-saving and renewableenergy technologies, particularly for the use of solar,hydro, wind and biomass sources;(iii) Promote wide dissemination and commercialization ofrenewable energy technologies through suitable measures,inter alia, fiscal and technology transfer mechanisms;(iv ) Cany out information and training progftImmes directedat manufacturers and users in order to promote energy-savingtechniques and energy-efficient appliances;

B) TNTERNATTONAL ORGANTZATIONS AND BILATERAL DONORSSHOULD:

(i) Support developing counfies in implementing nationalenergy programmes in order to achieve widespread use ofenergy-saving and renewable energy technologies, particu-larly ttre use of solar, wind, biomass and hydro sources;(ii) Provide access to research and development resultsto increase energy-use efficiency levels in human settle-ments.7.52 Promoting efficient and environmentally soundurban transport systems in all countries should be acomprehensive approach to urban-transport planning andmanagement. To this end, all countries should:(a) Integrate land-use and transportation planning toencourage development pattems that reduce transportdemand;(b) Adopt urban-transport programmes favouring high-occupancy public transport in countries, as appropriate;(c) Encourage non-motonzed modes of transport byproviding safe cycleways and footways in urban andsuburban centres in countries, as appropriate;(d) Devote particular attention to effective traffic man-agement, efficientoperation of public transport and main-tenance of transport infrastructure ;(e) Promote the exchange of information among counfiesand representatives of local and metropolitan areas;(0 Re-evaluate the present consumption and produc-tion patterns in order to reduce the use of energy andnational resources.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC/NG ,AND COST EVALUATION

7.53 The Conference secretariat has estimated the costsof implementing the activities of this programme inchapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere).

B) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI ANDCAPACITY-BUILDING

7 .54 ln order to enhance the skills of energy service and

60

transport professionals and institutions, all countriesshould, as appropriate:(a) Provide on-the-job and other training of govern-ment officials, planners, traffic engineers and managersinvolved in the energy-service and transport section:(b) Raise public awareness of the environmental im-pacts of transport and travel behaviour through massmedia campaigns and support for non-governmental andcommunity initiatives promoting the use of non-mo-torized transport, shared driving and improved trafficsafety measures;(c) Strengthen regional, national, state/provincial, andprivate sector institutions that provide education andtraining on energy service and urban transport planningand management.

F) PROMOTING HUMAN SETTTEMENT PIANNINGAND 'TAANAGEIAENT IN DISASTER.PRONE AREAS

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.55 Natural disasters cause loss of life, disruption ofeconomic activities and urban productivity, particularlyfor highly susceptible low-income groups, and environ-mental damage, such as loss of fertile agricultural landand contamination of water resources, and can lead tomajor resettlement of populations. Over the past twodecades, they are estimated to have caused some 3 mil-lion deaths and affected 800 million people. Global eco-nomic losses have been estimated by the Office of theUnited Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator to be in therange of $30 billion to $50 billion per year.7.56 The General Assembly, in resolutton 441236, pro-claimed the I 990s as the International Decade for NaturalDisaster Redr.rction. The goals of the DecadeT bear relev-ance to the objectives 01'the present programme area.7.57 ln addition. there is an urgent need to address theprevention and reduction of man-made disasters and/ordisasters caused by. inter a/ia, industries, unsafe nuclearpower generation and toxic wastes (see chapter 6 ofAgenda 2 l ) .

OBJECTIVE

7.58 The objective is to enable all countries, in particularthose that are disaster-prone, to mitigate the negativeimpact of natural and man-made disasters on humansettlements, national economies and the environment.

ACTIVITIES

7.59 Three distinct areas of activity are fbreseen underthis programme area, namely, the development of a "cul-

ture of safety", pre-disaster planning and post-disasterreconstruction.

A) DEVELOP'NG A CULTURE OF SAFETY

7.60 To promote a "culture of safety" in all countries.especially those that are disaster-prone, the fclllowingactivities should be carried out:(a) Completing national and local studies on the natureand occurrence of natural disasters, their impact onpeople and economic activities, the effects of inadequateconstruction and land use in hazard-prone areas, and thesocial and economic advantages of adequate pre-disasterplanning;(b) Implementing nationwide and local awarenesscampaigns through all available media, translating theabove knowledge into information easily comprehen-sible to the general public and to the populations directlyexposed to hazards;(c) Strengthening and/or developing global, regional,national and local early warning systems to alert popu-lations to impending disasters;(d) Identifying industrially based environmental disas-ter areas at the national and international levels andimplementing strategies aimed at the rehabilitation ofthese areas through, inter alia:(i) Restructuring of the economic activities and pro-moting new job opportunities in environmentally soundsectors;(i i) Promoting close collaboration between govern-mental and local authorit ies, local communities andnon-governmental organi zations and private business ;(iii) Developing and enforcing strict environmental con-trol standards.

B) DEVELOPING PRE-DTSASTER PT.ANNING

7.61 Pre-disaster planning should form an integral partof human settlement planning in all countries. The fol-lowing should be included:(a) Undertaking complete multi-hazard research intorisk and vulnerability of human settlements and settle-ment infrastructure, including water and sewerage, com-munication and transportation networks, as one type ofrisk reduction may increase vulnerability to another (e.g.,an earthquake-resistant house made of wood will be morevulnerable to wind storms);(b) Developing methodologies for determining riskand vulnerability within specific human settlements andincorporating risk and vulnerability reduction into thehuman settlement planning and management process;

(c) Redirecting inappropriate new development andhuman settlements to areas not prone to hazards;(d) Preparing guidelines on location, design andoperation of potentially hazardous industries andactivit ies;(e) Developing tools (legal, economic etc.) to encour-age disaster-sensitive development, including means ofensuring that limitations on development options are notpunitive to owners, or incorporate alternative means ofcompensation;(0 Further developing and disseminating infbrmationon disaster-resistant building materials and constructiontechnologies for buildings and public works in general;(g) Developing training programmes for contractorsand builders on disaster-resistant construction methods.Some programmes should be directed particularly tosmall enterprises, which build the great majority of hous-ing and other small buildings in the developing countries,as well as to the rural populations, which build their ownhouses:(h) Developing training programmes for emergencysite managers, non-governmental organizations andcommunity groups which cover all aspects of disastermitigation, including urban search and rescue, emer-gency comtnunications, early warning techniques, andpre-disaster planning ;(i) Developing procedures and practices to enable localcommunities to receive information about hazardousinstallations or situations in these areas, and facilitatetheir participation in early warning and disaster abate-ment and response procedures and plans;

0) Preparing action plans fbr the reconstruction ofsettlements, especially the reconstruction of communitylifelines.

c) TN|T|ATTNG POSI-DTSASTER RECONSTRUCT/ONAND REHA BILITATION PTANN'NG

1.62 The international community, as a major partner inpost-reconstruction and rehabi litation. shoul d en sure thatthe countries involved derive the greatest benefits from thefunds allocated by undertaking the following activities:(a) Carrying out research on past experiences on thesocial and economic aspects of post-disaster reconstruc-tion and adopting effective strategies and guidelines forpost-disaster reconstruction, with particular emphasis ondevelopment-focused strategies in the allocation ofscarce reconstruction resources, and on the opportunitiesthat post-disaster reconstruction provides to introducesustainable settlement patterns;(b) Preparing and disserninating international guide-lines for adaptation to national and local needs;

6 l

(c) Supporting effclrts of national Governments to initiatecontingency planning, with pafiicipation of affected com-munities. for post-dr saster reconstmction eurd rehabilitation.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

AI FINANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

7.63 The Conf'erence secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $50 rnillion fromthe international cotnmunity on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and programmes Governments decideupon for implenrentation.

8/ 5C/ENIFtC AND TECHNOT.OG\CAL MEANS

7.64 Scientists and engineers specializing in this field rnboth developing and developed countries should col-laborate with urban and regional planners in order toprovide the basic knowledge and means to mitigate lossesowing to disasters as well as environmentally inappro-priate development.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI ANDCAPACITY-BUILDING

7.65 Developing countries should conduct training pro-grammes on disaster-rcsistant construction methods forcontractors and builders, who build the majority of hous-ing in the developing countries. This should focus on thesn-rall business enterprises which build the majority ofhousing in the developing countries.1.66 Training programmes should be extended togovernment officials and planners and contmunity andnon-govemmental organizations to cover all aspects ofdisaster rnit igation, such as early warning techniques,pre-disaster planning ancl construct ion, post-disasterconstnrctron and rehabi l i tation.

G) PROMOTTNG SUSTATNABTE CONSTRUCTTONINDUSTRY ACTIVITIES

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.67 The activi t ies of the construction sector are vital tcr

the achievement of the national socio-econornic devel-opment goals of providing shelter, infrastructure andemployment. However. they can be a ma.ior source ofenvironmental darnage through depietion of'the naturalresource base, degradation of fragile ec-o-zones, chemicalpollution and the use of building materials harmful tohuman health.

OBJECTIVES

7.68 The objectives are, first, to adopt policies and tech-nologies and to exchange information on them in orderto enable the construction sector to meet human settle-ment development goals, while avoiding harmful side-effects on human health and on the biosphere, and,second, to enhance the employment-generation capacityof the construction sector. Governments should work inclose collaboration with the private sector in achievinsthese objectives.

ACTIVITIES

7.69 All countries should, as appropriate and in accord-ance with national plans, objectives and priorities:(a) Establish and strengthen the indigenous buildingmaterials industry, based, as much as possible, on inputsof locally available natural resources;(b) Formulate programmes to enhance the utilizationof local materials by the construction sectorby expandingtechnical suppoft and incentive schernes for increasingthe capabilities and economic viability of small-scale andinformal operatives which make use of these materialsand traditional construction techniques;(c) Adopt standards and other regulatory measureswhich promote the increased use of energy-efficientdesigns and technologies and sustainable utilization ofnatural resources in an economicallv and environmen-tally appropriate way,(d) Formulate appropriate land-use policies and introduceplanning regulations specially aimed at the protection ofeco-sensitive zones against physical disruption by construc-tion and cons0uction-related activities;(e) Promote the use of labour-intensive constructionand maintenance technologies which generate employ-ment in the construction sector for the underemployedlabour force found in most large cities, while at the sametime promoting the developlnent of skills in the construc-tion sector:(f) Develop policies and practices to reach the intormalsector and sel f -help housing bui lders by adopt ingmeasures to increase the affordability ol-building materi-als on the part of the urban and rural poor, through, inleruliu, credit schemes and bulk procurement of buildins

62

materials for sale to small-scale builders and com-rnunities.7.70 All countries should:(a) Promote the free exchange of information on theentire range of environmental and health aspects of con-struction, including the development and disseminationof databases on the adverse environmental effects ofbuilding materials through the collaborative efforts of theprivate and public sectors;(b) Promote the development and dissemination ofdatabases c-rn the adverse environmental and health ef-fects of building materials and introduce legislation andfinancial incentives to promote recycling of energy-intensive materials in the construction industry and con-servation of waste energy in building-materials produc-tion methods;(c) Promote the use of economic instruments, such asproduct charges, to discourage the use of constructionmaterials and products that create pollution during theirl i fe cycle;(d) Promote information exchange and appropriatetechnology transfer among all countries. with particularattention to developing countries, for resource manage-ment in construction, particularly for non-renewableresources:(e) Promote research in construction industries andrelated activities, and establish and strengthen institu-tions in this sector.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Ai F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

7.7 | The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this prograrnme to be about $40 billion,including about $4 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, wil ldepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grarnmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

B) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI ANDCAPACITY.BUILDING

7.72 Der eloping countr ies should be assisted b,v inter-national support and funding agencies in upgrading thetechnical and managerial capacities of the small entre-preneur and the vocational skil ls of operatives andsupervisors in the building materials industry, using a

var ie ty o f t ra in ing methods . These count r ies shou lda lso be ass is ted in deve lop ing programrnes to en-coL l rage the use o f non-wastc and c lean te chno lc lg iesthrough appropr iate t ransfer of technologl , .7 . 7 3 G e n e r a l e d t r c a t i o n p r o g r a m n r e s s h o u l d b edeveloped in all countries, as appropriate, to increasebuilder awareness of available sustainable technologies.1.14 Local authorit ies are called upon to play a pio-neering role in promoting the increased use of envi-ronmental ly sound bui ld ing mater ia ls and construct iontechnologies, c.g. , by pursuing an innovat ive procure-ment pol icy.

H) PROMOTTNG HUrylAN RESOURCE DEVETOPMENTAND CAPACITY.BUILDING FOR HUMANSETTTEME NTs DEVELOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

7.75 Most countries, in addition to shortcomings in theavailabil ity of specialize d expertise in the areas of hous-ing, settlement management, land management, infra-structure. construction, energy. transport, and pre-disas-ter planning and reconstruction, face three cross-sectoralhuman resolrrce development and capacity-buildingshortfalls. First is the absence of an enabling policyenvironment capable of integrating the resources andactivities of the public sector, the private sector and thecommunity, or social sector: second is the weakness ofspecialized training and research institutions; and thirdis the insufficient capacity for technical training a:rdassistance for low-income cclmmunities. both urban andrural.

OBJECTIVE

I .16 ' fhe

objective is to irnprove hurnan resource devel-

opment and capacity-bui lding in al l countr ies by enhanc-

ing the personal and institutional capacity of all actors,

parlicularly indigenous people and women, involved in

human settlement development. In this regard, account

should be taken of traditional cultural practices of indigen-

ous people and their relationship to the environment.

ACTIVITIES

7 . 7 1 S p e c i f i c h u m a n r e s o u r c e d e v e l o p r n e n t a n dcapacity-building activit ies have been built into each ofthe programme areas of this chapter. More gencrally,however, additional steps should be taken to reinforcethose activit ies. In order to do so, all countries, asappropriate, should take the follor.ving action:

63

(a) Strengthening the development of human resourcesand of capacities of public sector institutions throughtechnical assistance and international cooperation so asto achieve by the year 2000 substantial improvement inthe efficiency of governmental activities;(b) Creating an enabling policy environment suppor-tive of the partnership between the public, private andcommunity sectors;(c) Providing enhanced training and technical assist-ance to institutions providing training for technicians,professionals and administrators, and appointed, electedand professional members of local govemments andstrengthening their capacity to address priority trainingneeds, particularly in regard to social, economic andenvironmental aspects of human settlements develop-ment;(d) Providing direct assistance for human settlementdevelopment at the community level, inter alia,by:(i) Strengthening and promoting prograrnmes for socialmobilization andraising awareness of the potential of womenand youth in human settlements activities;(ii) Facilitating coordination of the activities of women,youth, community groups and non-govemmental organi-zations in human settlements development;(iii) Promoting research on women's programmes andother groups, and evaluating progress made with a viewto identifying bottlenecks and needed assistance;(e) Promoting the inclusion of integrated environmen-tal management into general local government activities.7.78 Both international orgamzations and non-govern-mental organizations should support the above activitiesby, inter alia, stengthening subregional training institu-tions, providing updated raining materials and disseminat-ing the results of successful human resource and capacity-building activitie s, programmes and projects.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

7.79 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $65 million fromthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of--magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and progranunes Governments decideupon for implementation.

BJ sC/ENi lFtC AND TECHNOT.OG|CAL MEANS

7.80 Both formal training and non-formal types of humanresource development and capacity-building prograrnmesshould be combined, and use should be made of user-oriented training methods, up-to-date training materials eurdmodern audio-visual communication systems.

I'No oggregote figures ore ovoiloble on internol expenditure orofficiol development ossistonce on humon settlements. However,doto ovoiioble in the World Development Report, 1991, for 16low-income developing countries show thot the percentoge of centrolgovernment expenditure on housing, omenities ond sociol securityond welfore for l9B9 overoged 5.6 per cent, with o high of

. |5.1

per cent in the cose of Sri Lonko, which hos emborked on o vigoroushousing progromme. In OECD indushiolized countries, during thesomeyeor, the percentoge of centrol government expenditure on housing,omenities ond sociol security ond welfore ronged from o minimum of29.3 per cent to o moximum of 49.4 per cent, with on overoge of39 per cent {World Bonk, World Development Report, 1991, WorldDevelopment Indicotors, toble I 1 iWoshington, D.C., l99l)1.

2See the report of the Director-Generol for Development ondInternotionol Economic Cooperotion contoining prel iminory sto-t ist icol doto on operotionol oct ivi t ies of the United Notions systemfor I 988 lA/ 44/324-E/ 1989 / 1 06/ Add.4, onnex).

3world Bonk, Annu al Report, I 99 I (Woshington, D.C., I 99.l ) .aUNOp, "Reported investment commitments reloted to UNDPas-sisted proiects, 1 988", toble I , "sectorol distr ibution of investmentcommitment in I 988- l 989" .5'A pi lot progromme of thls type, the Ciiy Doto Progromme (CDP),is olreody in operoi ion in the United Notions Centre on HumonSett lements (Hobitot), oimed ot the production ond disseminotionto port icipoting cit ies of microcomputer oppl icot ion softworedesigned to store, process ond retr ieve city doto for locol, notionolond in ternot iono l exchonge ond d isseminot ion.6This col ls for integroted lond+esource monogement pol icies, whichore olso oddressed in chopter l0 of Agendo 2 1 ( lntegrotedopprooch to plonning ond monogement of lond resources).

ZTh" gool, of the Internotionol Decode for Noturol DisosterReduction, set out in ihe onnex to Generol Assembiy resolut ion44/236, ore os fol lows:(o) To improve the copocity of eoch country to mitigote the effects ofnoturol disosters expeditiously ond effectively, poying speciol otten-tion to ossisting developing countries in the ossessment of disosterdomoge potentiol ond in the estobl ishment of eorly worning systemsond disosier-resisiont structures when ond where needed;(b) To devise oppropriote guidel ines ond strotegies for opplyingexist ing scienti f ic ond technicol knowledge, toking into occountthe culturol ond economic diversity omong notions;(c) To foster scientific ond engineering endeovours oimed ot closingcriticolgops in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life ond property;(d) To disseminote exist ing ond new technicol informotion relotedto meosures forthe ossessment, predict ion ond mit igotion of noturoldisosters;(e) To develop meosures for the cssessment, predict ion, preventionond mit igotion of noturol disosiers through progrommes of techni-col ossistonce ond technology tronsfer, demonstrot ion proiects,ond educotion ond troining, toi lored to specif ic disosters ondlocotions, ond io evoluote the effect iveness of those progrommes.

64

Integroting environment ond developmentin decision-moking

I N T R O D U C T I O N

8.1 This chapter contains the following programme areas:(a) lntegrating environment and development at thepolicy, planning and management levels;(b) Providing an ef fect ive legal and regulatoryframework,(c) Making eftective use of economic instruments andmarket and other incentives;(d) Establishing systems for integrated environmentaland economic accountine.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) TNTEGRATING ENVIRONI ENT ANDDEVETOPfrIENT AT THE POLICY, PTANNING ANDftTANAGEMENT LEVETS

BASIS FOR ACTION

8.2 Prevailing systems for decision-making in manycountries tend to separate economic. social and environ-mental factors at the policy, planning and managementlevels. This influences the actions of all groups in society,including Governments, industry and individuals, andhas important implications for the efficiency and sustain-ability of development. An adjustment or even a fun-damental reshaping of decision-making, in the light ofcountry-specific conditions, may be necessary if envi-ronment and development is to be put at the centre ofeconomic and pol i t ical decis ion-making, in ef fectachieving a full integration of these factors. In recentyears, some Govemments have also begun to make sig-

nificant changes in the institutional structures of govern-ment in order to enable more systematic consideration ofthe environment when decisions are made on economic,social, fiscal, energy, agricultural, transpoftation, tradeand other policies, as well as the implications of policiesin these areas for the environment. New torms of dia-logue are also being developed for achieving better inte-gration among national and local government, industry,science, environmental groups and the public in theprocess of developing effective approaches to environ-ment and development. The responsibility for bringingabout changes lies with Governments in partnership withthe private sector and local authorities, and in collabo-ration with national. regional and international organiz-ations, including in particular UNEP, UNDP and theWorld Bank. Exchange of experience between countriescan also be significant. National plans, goals and objec-tives, national rules, regulations and law, and the specificsituations in which difl-erent countries are placed are theoverall framework in which such integration takes place.In this context, it must be borne in mind that environmen-tal standards may pose severe economic and social costsif they are uniformly applied in developing countries.

OBJECIMES

8.3 The overall objective is to improve or restructurethe decision-making process so that consideration ofsocio-economic and environmental issues is fully inte-grated and a broader range of public participation as-sured. With the understanding that countries will developtheir own priorities in accordance with their prevailingconditions, needs, national plans, policies and pro-grammes, the following objectives are proposed:(a) To conduct a national review of economic, sectoraland environmental policies, strategies and plans to ensurethe progressive integrat ion of environmental anddevelopmental issues;

65

(b) To strengthen institutional structures to allow thefull integration of environmental and developmental is-sues, at all levels of decision-making;(c) To develop or improve mechanisms to facilitate theinvolvement of concerned individuals, groups and organ-izations in decision-making at all levels;(d) To establish domestically determinedprocedures tointegrate environment and development issues indecision-making.

ACTIVITIES

A) IMPROYING DECISiON -MAKING PROCESSES

8.4 The primary need is to integrate environrnental anddevelopmental decision-making processes. To do this,Governments should conduct a national review and,where appropriate, improve the processes of decision-making so as to achieve the progressive integration ofeconomic, scrcial and environmental issues in the pursuitof development that is economically efficient, sociallyequitable and responsible and environmentally sound.Countries will develop their own priorities in accordancewith their national plans, policies and programmes forthe following activities:(a) Ensuring the integration of economic, social andenvironmental considerations in decision-making at alllevels and in all ministries;(b) Adopting a domestically formulated policy frame-work that reflects a long-term perspective and cross-sec-toral approach as the basis for decisions, taking accountof the linkages between and within the various political,economic, social and environmental issues involved inthe development process;(c) Establishing domestically determined ways andmeans to ensure the coherence of sectoral, economic,social and environmental policies, plans and policy in-struments, including fiscal measures and the budget:these mechanisms should apply at various levels andbring together those interested in the developmentprocess;(d) Monitoring and evaluating the development processsystematically and conducting regular reviews of the stateof human resources development, economic and socialconditions and trends and the state of the environment andnatural resources: this could be complemented by annualenvironment and development reviews, with a view toassessing sustainable development achievements by thevarious sectors and departments of govemment;(e) Ensuring transparency of, and accountability for,the environmental implications of economic and sectoralpolicies;

(0 Ensuring access by the public to relevant infbrma-tion, facilitating the reception of public views and allow-ing for effective participation.

B) IMPROVING PI.ANN'NG AND MANAGEMENI SYSIEMS

8.5 To support a more integrated approach to decision-making, the data systems and analytical methods used tosupport such decision-making processes may need to beimproved. Governments, in collaboration, where appro-priate, with national and international orgamzations,should review the status of their planning and manage-ment systems and, where necessary, modif , t " andstrengthen procedures so as to facilitate the integratedconsideration of social, economic and environmentalissues. Countries will develop their own priorities inaccordance with their national plans, policies andprogrammes for the following activities:(a) Improving the use of data and information at allstages of planning and management, making systematicand simultaneous use of social, economic, developnien-tal, ecological and environmental data; analysis shoulclstress interactions and synergisms; a broad range ofanalytical methods should be encouraged so as to providevarious points of view;(b) Adopting comprehensive analytical procedures forprior and simultaneous assessment of the impacts ofdecisions, including the impacts within and among theeconomic, social and environmental spheres; these pro-cedures should extendbeyondthe project level to policiesand programmes; analysis should also include assess-ment of costs, benefits and risks;(c) Adopting flexible and integrative planning ap-proaches that allow the consideration of rnultiple gcialsand enable adjustment of changing needs; integrativearea approaches at the ecosystem or watershed level canassist in this approach:(d) Adopting integrated management systenrs. parlicu-larly for the management of natural resources: traditionalor indigenous methods should be studied and consideredwherever they have proved effective: \ /omen's tradi-tional roles should not be marginalized as a result of theintroduction of new management systems;(e) Adopting integrated approaches to sustainable de-velopment at the regional level, including transbclundarvareas, subject to the requirements of particular circunr-stances and necds;(D Using policy instruments (legal/r"egulatorl ' andeconomic) as a tool for planning and management. seek-ing incorporation of efficiency criteria in decisions: in-struments should be regularly reviewed and adapted toensure that they continue to be effective;

66

(g) Delegating planning and management responsi-

bilities to the lowest level of public authority consistentwith el'fective action; irt peuticular the advantages of

cff'ective and equitable opportunities for participation by

wornen should be discussed;(h) Estatrlishing procedures for involving local com-

rnunities in contingency planning for environmental and

industrial accidents, and maintaining an open exchange

clf information on local hazards.

c) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

8.6 Countries could develop systems for monitoring and

evalr.ration of progress towards achieving sustainabledevelopment by adopting indicators that measure changesacross economic, social and environmental dimensions.

D) ADOFTING A NAnONA L STRATEGY FOR

SUSIA/NA B LE DEVELOPMENT

8.7 Governments" in cooperation, where appropriate,with international orgamzations, should adopt a nationalstrategy for sustainable development based on, inter alia,

the irnplenrcntation of decisions taken at the Conf'erence,particularly in respect of Agenda 2 I . This strategy should

build upon and harmonize the various sectoral economic,social and environmental policies and plans that are

opcrating in the country. The experience gained througheristing planning exercises such as national reports for

the Conf-crence, national conservation strategies and en-vininnrent action plans should be fully used and incor-porated into a country-driven sustainable development

strategy. Its goals should be to ensure socially respon-

sible economic development while protecting the re-

sourcrc base and the environment for the benefit of futuregcnerations. It should be developed through the widest

possible participation. It should be based on a thorough

assessme nt of the current situation and initiatives.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

l{.E Thc Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-

age total annual cost (199:l-2000) of implementing the

actir iiit's of this programme to be about $50 million from

thc- irrternational conrmunity on grant or concessional

ternls. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-

mates onlv and have not been reviewed by Governments.

Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are

non-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, the

specific strategies and programmes Governments decideupon for implementation.

B] RESEARCH'NG ENY'RONMENI ANDD EV E LOP MENI INTERA CI'ONS

8.9 Governments, in collaboration with the national andinternational scientific community and in cooperationwith international organizations, as appropriate, shouldintensify efforts to clarify the interactions between andwithin social, economic and environmental consider-ations. Research should be undertaken with the explicitobjective of assisting policy decisions and providingreconunendations on improving management practices.

C' ENHANC'NG EDUCATION AND IRA'N/NG

8.10 Countries, in cooperation, where appropriate, withnational, regional or international organizations, shouldensure that essential hurnan resources exist, or are de-veloped, to undertake the integration of environment anddevelopment at various stages of the decision-makingand implementation process. To do this, they shouldimprove.education and technical training, particularly for

women and girls, by including interdisciplinary approaches.as appropriate, in trchnical, vocational, university and other

curricula. They should also undertake systematic trainingof government personnel, planners and managers on aregular basis. giving priority to the requisite integrativeapproaches and planning and management techniques thatare suited to country-specific conditions.

D) PROMOIING PUBLIC AWARENESS

8.1I Countries, in cooperation with national institutions

and groups, the media and the international community,

should promote awareness in the public at large, as well

as in specializedcircles, of the importance of considering

environment and development in an integratedmanner, and

should establish mechanisms for facilitating a direct ex-

change of information and views with the public. Priority

should be given to highlighting the responsibilities andpotential contributions of dift-erent social groups.

E/ SIRENGIHEN'NG NAI'ONAI.INSI'IU i/O N AL C APAC ITY

8.12 Governments, in cooperation, where appropriate.

with intemational organizations, should strengthen na-

67

tional institutional capability and capacity to integratesocial, economic, developmental and environmentalissues at all levels of development decision-makingand implementation. Attention should be given tomoving away from narrow sectoral approaches andprogressing towards full cross-sectoral coordinationand cooperation.

Bl PROVIDING AN EFFECTTVE rEGAL ANDREGUTATORY FRAMSWOR,K

BASIS FOR ACTION

8.13 Laws and regulations suited to country-specificconditions are among the most important instruments fortransforming environment and development policies intoaction, not only through "command and control" meth-ods, but also as a normative framework for economicplanning and market instruments. Yet, although the vol-ume of legal texts in this field is steadily increasing, muchof the law-making in many countries seems to be ad hocand piecemeal, or has not been endowed with the neces-sary institutional machinery and authonty for enforce-ment and timely adjustment.8.14 While there is continuous need for law improve-ment in all countries, many developing countries havebeen affected by shortcomings of laws and regulations.To effectively integrate environment and development inthe policies and practices of each country, it is essentialto develop and implement integrated, enforceable andeffective laws and regulations that are based upon soundsocial, ecological, economic and scientif ic principles. Itis equally critical to develop workable programmes toreview and enforce compliance with the laws, regulationsand standards that are adopted. Technical support maybe needed for many countries to accomplish these goals.Technical cooperation requirements in this field includelegal information, advisory services and specializedtraining and institutional capacity-building.8.15 The enactment and enforcement of laws and regu-lations (at the regional, national, state/provincial orlocal/municipal level) are also essential for the im-plementation of most international agreements in thefield of environment and development. as illustrated bythe frequent treaty obligation to report on legislativemeasures. The survey of existing agreements undertakenin the context of conference preparations has indicatedproblems of compliance in this respect. and the need forimproved national implementation and, where appropri-ate, related technical assistance. In developing theirnational priorities, countries should take account o1'theirinternational obligations.

OBJECTIVES

8.16 The overall objective is to promote, in the light ofcountry-specific conditions, the integration of environ-ment and development policies through appropriate legaland regulatory policies, instruments and enforcementmechanisms at the national, state, provincial and locallevels. With the understanding that countries will developtheir own priorities in accordance with their needs andnational and, where appropriate, regional plans, policiesand prograrunes, the following objectives are proposed:(a) To disseminate information on effective legal andregulatory innovations in the field of environment anddevelopment, including appropriate instruments andcompliance incentives, with a view to encouraging theirwider use and adoption at the national, state, provincialand local levels;(b) To support countries that request it in their nationalefforts to modernize and strengthen the policy and legalframework of governance for sustainable development,having due regard for local social values and infrastruc-tures;(c) To encourage the development and implementationof national, state, provincial and local programmes thatassess and promote compliance and respond appropri-ately to non-compliance.

ACTIVITIES

A) MAKTNG LAWS AND REGUTAT/ONS MORE EFFECTTVE

8.17 Governments, with the support, where appropri-ate, of competent international organizations, shouldregularly assess the laws and regulations enacted andthe related institutional/administrative machinery es-tablished at the national/state and local/municipal lev-els in the field of environment and sustainable devel-opment, with a view to rendering them effective inpractice. Programmes for this purpose could includethe promotion of public awareness, preparation anddistr ibut ion of guidance mater ia l , and special izedtraining, including workshops, seminars, educationprogrammes and conferences, for public officials whodesign, implement, monitor and enforce laws andregulat ions.

B) ESTABL/SH/NG JUD\C\AL ANDA DM /NIs T RAT IV E PROC EDU RE S

8.18 Governments and legislators, with the support,where appropriate, of competent international organi-zations, should establish judicial and administrative pro-

68

cedures for legal reclress and remedy of actions affecting

environment and development that may be unlawful or

infringe on rights uncler the law. and should provide

access to individuals, groups and organizations with a

recognized iegal interest"

C) PROVIDING LEGAT REFERENCE AND

SUPPORT SERY/CES

8.19 Competent intergovernmentai and non-govern-

mental organizations could cooperate to provide Gov-

ernments and legislators, upon request, with an inte-

grated programme of environment and development

law (sustainable development law) services, carefully

adapted to the specific requirements of the recipient

legal and administrative systems. Such systems could

usefully include assistance in the preparation of com-

prehensive inventories and reviews of national legal

systems. Past experience has demonstrated the useful-

ness of combining specializedlegal information ser-

vices with legal expert advice. Within the United Na-

tions system, closer cooperation arnong all agencies

concerried would avoid duplication of databases and

faci l i tate div is ion of labour. These agencies could

examine the possibi l i ty and meri t of performing

reviews of selected nat ional legal svstems.

D) ESTABL'SH/NG A COOPERATIVE IRA/N/NG

NEIWORK FOR SUSIAINAEI.E DEVELOPMENT LAW

8.20 Competent international and academic institutions

could, within agreed fratneworks, cooperate to provide,

especially for trainees from developing countries, post-

graduate programmes and in-service training facilities in

environment and development law. Such training should

address both the effective application and the progressive

improvement of applicable laws, the related skills of

negotiating, drafting and mediation, and the training of

trainers. Intergovernmental and non-governmental or-

ganizations already active in this field could cooperatewith related university programmes to harmonize cur-

riculum planning and to ol r an optimal range of options

to interested Governrnents and potential sponsors.

E) DEVELaP'NG EFFECTIVE NATIONAIPROGRAMMES FOR REVIEWING ANDENFORC/NG COMPLIANCE WITH NAI/ONAI,

STATE, PROY/NCIAT AND LOCAL I.AWS ONENYIRONMFNI AND DEVELOPMENT

8.21 Each country shoLrld develop integrated strategies

to maximize compliance with its laws and regulationsrelating to sustainable development, with assistance fromintemational organizations and other countries as appro-priate. The strategies could include:(a) Enforceable, effective laws, regulations and stand-

ards that are based on sound economic, social and envi-ronmental principles and appropriate risk assessment,

incorporating sanctions designed to punish violations,

obtain redress and deter future violations;(b) Mechanisms for promoting compliance;(c) Institutional capacity for collecting compliance data,regularly reviewing compliance, detecting violations, es-

tabli shing e nforcemen t priori tie s, undertaking effective en-forcement, and conducting periodic evaluations of the ef-fectiveness of compliance and enforcement programmes;(d) Mechanisms for appropriate involvement of individ-

uals and groups in the development and enforcement of laws

and regulations on environment and development.

F/ NAnON AL MONTTOR/NG OF LEGAL TOLLOW'UP TO

,NTERNAIIONA I. /NSIRUM EN IS

8.22 Contracting parties to international agreements, in

consultation with the appropriate secretariats of relevantintemational conventions as appropriate, should improvepractices and procedures for coliecting information onlegal and regulatory measures taken. Contracting parties

to international agreements could undertake sample sur-veys of domestic follow-up action subject to agreementby the sovereign States concerned.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Ai F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

8.23 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-

age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the

activities of this programme to be about $6 million from

the international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude es-

timates only and have not been reviewed by Govern-ments. ,A.ctual costs and financial terms, including any

that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia,the specific strategies and programmes Governmentsdecide upon for implementation.

B/ SCIENI/F/C AND IECHNOI.OGICAL MEANS

8.24 The prograrnme relies essentially on a continuationof ongoing work for legal data collection, translation and

69

assessment. Closer cooperation between existing data-bases may be expected to lead to better division of labour(e.9., in geographical coverage of national legislativegazettes and other rel'erence sources) and to irnprovedstandardization and compatibility of data, as appropriate.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMFNI

8.25 Participation in training is expected to benefit prac-tit ioners from developing countries and to enhance train-ing opportunities for women. Demand for this type ofpostgraduate and in-service training is knor.vn to be high.The senrinars. workshops and conferences on review andenforcement that have been held to date have been verysuccessful and well attended. The purpose of these ef-forts is to develop resources (both human and institu-tional) to design and implement effective programmes tocontinuously revierv arrd enforce national and loc:al laws,regulations and standards on sustainable development.

D/ STRENGTHFN/NG IEGAr AND/NSI/IUIlO NAL CAPACITY

8.26 A mitjor part of the programme should he orientedtow'ards intproving the legal-institutional capacities ofconntries to cope with national problems of governanceand effective law-making and law-applying in the fieldof environment and sustainable development. Regionalcentres o1't- 'xcellence could be designatcd and supportedto build up specialized databases and rraining tacil i t iesfor l inguistic/cultural groups of legal systems.

c) ,uAKrNG EFFECTTVE USE OF ECONOMTCINSTRUMENTS AND IYIARKET AND OTHER INCENTIVES

BASIS FOR ACTION

i1.27 Environmental law and regulat ion are important butcannot alone be expected to deal with the problenrs ofenv i ronnrent and development . Pr ices. markets ande(rVe r r rn lenta l f lsca l and econorn ic po l tc ics a ls( ) p lav aconrplr-nrelt tarv role in shaping att i tudes and behaviourtowards the environment.

8.28 During the past several years, many Governments,pr imar i ly in indust r ia l ized cc lunt r ies but a lso in Cent ra land Eastern Europe and in developing cct irntr ies, havebeen making increasing use of economic approaches.including those that are market-oriented. txarnples in-clude lhe pol luter-pays principle and the ntore recentnatural-resource-u ser-pays concept.8 .29 Wi th in a suppor t ive in ternat iona l and nat iona l

70

economic context and given the necessary legal andregulatory framework, economic and market-orientedapproaches can in many cases enhance capacity to dealwith the issues of environment and development. Thiswould be achievedbyprovi di ngcost-eftective sol ution s,apply ing integrated pol lut ion prevent ion control , pro-rnoting technological innovation and influencing en-vironmental behaviour, as well as providing financialresources to meet sustainable development objective s.8.30 What is needed is an appropriate effort to exploreand make more effective and widespread use of eco-nomic and market-oriented approaches within a broadframework of development policies, law and regula-tion suited to country-specific conditions as part of ageneral transition to economic and environmentalpolicies that are supportive and mutually reinforcing.

OBJECTIVES

8.31 While it is understood that counrries wil l developtheir own priorities in accordance with their needs andnational plans, policies and prograffrfiles, the c-hallengeis to achieve significant progress in the years ahead inmeeting three fundamental objectives:(a) To incorporate environmental costs in the decisionsof producers and consumers and to reverse the tendencyto treat the environment as a "free good" and to pass thesecosts on to other pafis of society, othercountries orfuturegenerations:(b) To move more fully towards integration of socialand environmental costs into economic activit ies. so thatprices will appropriately reflect the relative scarcity andtotal value of resources and contribute towards ttreprevention of environmental degradation;(c) To include, wherever appropriate, the use of mar-ket principles in the framing of economic instrumentsand pol ic ies to pursue sustainable development.

ACTIVITIES

A) tMPROylNG OR REOR/ENI/NGGOVERNMENIAT POLICIES

8.32 ln the near term, Govemments should considergradually building on experience with economic instru-ments and market mechanisms by undertaking to reorienttheir policies, keeping in mind national plans, prioritiesand objectives. in order to:(a) Estab l ish e f fbc t ive combinat ions o f economic.regulatory and voluntary (self'-regulatory) approaches;(b) Remove or reduce those subsidies that tJo not cron-form with sustainable development objectives;

(c) Reform or recast existing structures of economic

and fiscal incentives to meet environment and develop-

ment objectives;(cl) Establish a policy lramework that encourages the

creation of new markets in pollution controland environ-

mentally sclunder resource management;(e) Move towards pricing consistent with sustainable

development obj ectives.8.33 In particular, Governments should explore, in co-

operation with business and industry, as appropriate' how

effective use can be made of economic instruments and

market mechanisms in the following areas:(a) Issues related to energy, transportation, agriculture

and forestry, water, wastes, health, tourism and tertiary

serv'ices;(b) Global and transboundarv issues;(c) Thedevelopmentandintroductionofenvironmentallysound technology and its adaptation, diftusion and transfer

to developing countries in conformity with chaptet 34.

BJ IAKING ACCOUNI OF THE PARTICULAR

CIRCUMSTANCFS OF DEVELOPING COUNIR/FS

AND COUNIR/ES WITH ECONOM/ES/N IRANS/I'ON

8.-14 A special eflbrt should be made to develop applica-

tions of the use of economic instruments and market

mechanisms geared to the particular needs of developing

countries and countries with economies in transition,

with the assistance of regional and international eco-

nomic andenvironmental organizations and, as appropri-

ate, non-governmental research institutes, by:(a) Providing technical support to those countries on

issues relating to the application of economic instruments

and market mechanisms;(b) Encouraging regional seminars atld, possibly, the

developrnent of regional centres of expertise'

c) :REATING AN /NyENTORY OF EFFECTIVE

USES OF ECONOMIC /NSIRUMENIS AND

MARKET MECHAN/SM5

8.35 Given the recognition that the use of economic

ins t ruments and marke t mechan isms is re la t i ve ly

recent . exchange o f in fo rmat ion about d i f fe ren t

countr ies ' exper iences with such approaches should be

actively encouraged. tn this regard, Governments

should encourage the use of existing means of infor-

mation exchange to lclok at ef lbctive uses of economic

instruments.

D/ /NCREAS/NG UNDERSIAND/NG OF THE ROI.E

OF ECONOMIC /NSIRUMENIS ANDMARKET MECHANIS/I4S

8.36 Governments should encourage research and

analysis on effective uses of economic instruments and

incentives with the assistance and support of regional and

international econornic and environmental organrza-

tions, as well as non-governmental research institutes,

with a focus on such key issues as:(a) The role of environmental taxation suited to na-

tional conditions:(b) The implications of econornic instruments and in-

centives for competitiveness and international trade, and

potential needs for appropriate future international

cooperation and coordination ;(c) The possible social and distributive irnplications of

using vari ous instruments"

E) ESTABLISH'NG A PROCESS FORFOCUS/NG ON PR/CING

8.37 The theoretical advantages of using pricing policies-

where appropriate, need to be better understood, and

accompanied by greatcr understanding of what it means

to take significant steps in this direction. Processes should

therefore be init iated, in cooperation with business. in-

dustry, large enterprises and transnational ctlrporations,

as well as other social groups, as appropriate, at both the

national and international levels, to examine:(a) The practical implications of moving towardsgreater reliance on pricing policies that intemalize envi-

ronmental costs appropriate ti.r help achieve sustainable

development objectivcs:(b) The implications tor resource pricing in the case of

resource-exporting cou nf rie s. I nc I u<li n g the i rnpl i cations

of such pr ic ing pol ic ies for dn'eloping countr ies.(c) 'Ihe

methodologies used in valuing environmentalcosts.

F/ FNHANC/NG UNDERSIAND/NG OF SUSIA/NA8I-E

DEVELOPMENI FCONOMICS

8.38 lncreased interest in economic instrtrments, includ-

ing market mechanisms, also requires a concerted effort

to improve understanding of sustainable development

ecclnomics by:(a) Encouraging institutions of higher learning to re-

view thcir cun'icuia and strengthen sttrdies in sustainable

der eloprtrent cconotnics:(b) Encouraging regional and international economic

7 1

organizations and non-governmental research instituteswith expertise in this area to provide training sessionsand seminars for government offrcials;(c) Encouraging business and industry, including largeindu stri al enterprise s and transnational c orporation s withexpertise in environmental matters, to organize trainingprogrammes for the private sector and other groups.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTAIION

8.39 This programme involves adjustments or reorien-tation of policies on the part of Governments. It alsoinvolves international and regional economic and en-vironmental organizations and agencies with expertisein this area, including transnational corporations.

A/ F/NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATION

8.40 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-20CI0) of implementingthe activit ies of this programme to be about $5 mill ionfrom the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-mag-nitude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, in-cluding any that are non-concessional, wil l dependupon, inter al ia, the speci f ic strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementa-t ion.

D) ESTABLTSHTNG SySTEryrS FOR TNTEGRATEDENVIRON,I,IENTAI AND ECONO,YTrc ACCOUNTING

BASIS FOR ACTION

8.41 A first step towards the integration of sustain-abil ity into economic management is the establishmentof better measurement of the crucial role of the envi-ronment as a source of natural capital and as a sink forby-products generated during the production of man-made capital and other human activit ies. As sustain-able development encompasses social, economic andenvironmental dimensions, it is also important thatnational accounting procedures are not restricted tomeasuring the production of goods and services thata r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y r e m u n e r a t e d . A c o m m o nframework needs to be developed whereby the contri-butions made by all sectors and activit ies of society,that are not included in the convent ional nat ionalaccounts, are included, to the extent consistent withsound theory and practicabil ity, in satell i te accounts.Aprogramme to develop national systems of integrated

72

environmental andeconomic accountins in all countriesis proposed.

OBJECTIVES

8.42 The main objective is to expand existing systems ofnational economic accounts in order to integrate environ-ment and social dimensions in the accounting framework,including at least satellite systems of accounts for naturalresources in all member States. The resulting systerns ofintegrated environmental and economic accounting(IEEA) to be established in all member States at theearliest date should be seen as a complement to, ratherthan a substitute for, traditional national accounting prac-tices for the foreseeable future. IEEAs would be designedto play an integral part in the national developmentdecision-making process. National accounting agenciesshould work in close collaboration with national environ-mental statistics as well as the geographic and naturalresource deparlrnents. The definition of economicallyactive could be expanded to include people performingproductive but unpaid tasks in all countries. This wouldenable their contribution to be adequately measured andtaken into account in decision-making.

ACTIVITIES

A/ STRENGTHEN'NG /NTERNAI/ONAI. COO?ERALON

8.43 The Statistical Office of the United NationsSecretariat should:(a) Make available to all member States the meth-odologies contained in the SNA Handbook on IntegratedEnv ironmental and Ec onomic Acc ount ingl(b) In collaboration with other relevant United Nationsorganizations, further develop, test, refine and then stand-ardize the provisional concepts and methods such as thoseproposed by the SNA Handbook,keeping member Statesinformed of the status of the work throughout this process;(c) Coordinate, in close cooperation with other inter-national organizations, the training of national account-ants, environmental statisticians and national technicalstaff in small groups for the establishment, adaptation anddevelopment of national IEEAs.8.44 The Department of Economic and Social Develop-ment of the Uni ted Nat ions Secretar iat . in c losecollaboration with other relevant United Nations organ-izations, should:(a) Support, in all member States, the utilization ofsustainable development indicators in national economicand social planning and decision-making practices, witha view to ensuring that IEEAs are usefully integrated ineconomic developrnent planning at the national level;

(b) Promote improved environmental and economic

and social data collection.

B/ STRENGTHFN'NG NAflONAI" ACCOUNTING SVSIEMS

8.45 At thc national level, the programme could be

adopted mainly by the agencies dealing with national

accounts, in close cooperation with environmental sta-

tistics and natural resource departments, with a view to

assisting national economic analysts and decision makers

in charge of national economic planning. National in-

stitutions should play a crucial role not only as the

depositary of the system but also in its adaptation, estab-

lishment and continuous use. Unpaid productive work

such as domestic work and child care should be included,

where appropriate, in satellite national accounts and

economic statistics. Time-use surveys could be a first step

in the process of developing these satellite accounts.

C) ESTABL/SH/NG AN ASSESSMENI PROCESS

8.46 At the international level, the Statistical Com-

mission should assemble and review experience and

advise member States on technical and methodological

issues related to the further development and implemen-

tation of IEEAs in member States.8.47 Governments should seek to identify and consider

measures to correct price distortions arising from envi-

ronmentalprogrammes affecting land, water, energy and

other natural resources.8.48 Governments should encourage corporations:(a) To provide relevant environmental information

through transparent reporting to shareholders, creditors,

employees, govemmental authorities, consumers and thepubl ic:(b) To develop and implenrent methods and rules for

accounting for sustaining development.

D/ SIRENGIHENING DATA AND/NFORMAIION COII.ECIION

8.49 National Ciovernments could consider implement-ing the necessary enhancemenl in data collection to set

in place national IEEAs with a view to contributingpragmatically to sound economic management. Major

efforts should be made to augment the capacity to collect

and analyse' environmental data and information and to

integrate it with economic data. including gender-disag-gregated data. Efforts should also be made to developphysical environmental accounts. Intemational donor

agencies should consider financing the development of

intersectoral data banks to help ensure that nationalplanning for sustainable development is based on precise,

reliable and effective information and is suited to nationalconditions.

E/ STRENGTHEN'NG IECHNICAL COOPERAilON

8.50 The Statistical Office of the United Nations Secreta-

riat, in close collaboration with relevant United Nations

organizations, should strengthen existing mechanisms for

technical cooperation among countries. This should alsoinclude exchange of experience in ttre establishment of

IEEAs, particularly in connection with the valuation ofnon-marketed natural resources and standardization in datacollection. The cooperation of business and industry, in-

cluding large industrial enterprises and transnational cor-porations with experience in valuation of such resources,should also be sousht.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENIATION

A/ FTNANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

8.51 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $2 million from

the international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude es-timates only and have not been reviewed by Govern-ments. Actual costs and financial terms, including anythat are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia,the specific strategies and prograrnmes Governmentsdecide upon for implementation.

8/ SIRENGIHEN'NG /NSI'IUI'ONS

8.52 To ensure the application of IEEAs:(a) National institutions in developing countries couldbe strengthened to ensure the effective integration ofenvironment and development at the planning anddecision-making levels ;(b) The Statistical Office should provide the necessarytechnical support to member States, in close collabora-tion with the assessment process to be established bythe Stat ist ical Commission; the Stat ist ical Off iceshould provide appropriate support for establishingIEEAs, in collaboration with relevant United Nations'

agencies.

73

c/ ENHANCTNG THE USE OFI N F OR MAIION T E C H N O LOGY

8.53 Guidelines and mechanisms could be developed andagreed upon for the adaptation and diffusion of informa-tion technologies to developing countries. State-of-the-art data managenent technologies should be adopted forthe most efficient and widespread use of IEEAs.

D/ STRFNGTHEN'NG NAr/ONA L CApACtTy

8.54 Governments, with the support of the internationalcommunity, should strengthen national institutional

capacity to collect, store, organize, assess and use data indecision-making. Training in all areas related to theestablishment of IEEAs, and at all levels, will be required,especially in developing countries. This should includetechnical training of those involved in economic andenvironmental analysis, data collection and national ac-counting, as well as training decision makers to use suchinformation in a pragmatic and appropriate way.

74

Section 2

Conservotionond Monogement

of Resourcesfor Development

Protection of the otmosphere

I N T R O D U C T I O N

9.1 Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multi-dimensional endeavour involving various sectors ofeconomic activity. The options and measures describedin the present chapter are recommended for considerationand, as appropriate, implementation by Governments andother bodies in their efforts to protect the atmosphere.9.2 It is recognized that many of the issues discussedin this chapter are also addressed in such internationalagreements as the 1985 Vienna Convention for theProtection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 MontrealProtocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layeras amended, the 1992 United Nations Framework Con-vention on Climate Change and other international,including regional, instruments. In the case of activ-it ies covered by such agreements, it is understood thatthe recommendations contained in this chapter do notoblige any Government to take measures which exceedthe provisions of these legal instruments. However,within the framework of this chapter, Governments arefree to caffy out additional measures which are con-sistent with those legal instruments.9.3 It is also recognized that activities that may beundertaken in pursuit of the objectives of this chaptershould be coordinated with social and economic devel-opment in an integrated manner with a view to avoidingadverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account thelegitimate priority needs of developing countries for theachievement of sustained economic growth and theeradication of poverty.9.4 In this context particular reference is also made toprogramme area Aof chapter 2 of Agenda2l (Promotingsustainable development through trade).9.5 The present chapter includes the following fburprogramme areas:

A) ADDRESSING THE UNCERTAINTIES: IMPROVINGTHE SCIENTIFIC BASIS FOR DECISION-Iv1AK|NG;

B) PROMOTTNG SUSTATNABLE DEVELOPMENT

(i) Energy development, efficiency and consumption;(ii) Transportation;(iii) Industrial development;(iv) Tenestrial and marine resource development and

land use;

C) PREVENTING STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION;

D) TRANSBOUNDARY ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) ADDRESSTNG THE UNCERTATNTIES:IfrIPROVING THE SCIENTIFIC BASIS FORDECISION.'VIAKING

BASIS FOR ACTION

9.6 Concern about climate change and climate vari-ability, air pollution and ozone depletion has created newdemands for scientific, economic and social informationto reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields.Better understanding and prediction of the variousproperties of the atmosphere and of the affected ecosys-tems, as well as health impacts and theirinteractions withsocio-economic factors. are needed.

OBJECTIVES

9.7 The basic objective of this programme area is to

77

improve the understanding of processes that influenceand are influenced by the Earth's atmosphere on aglobal, regional and local scale, including, inter alia,physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic,hydrological, economic and social processes; to buildcapacity and enhance international cooperation; and toimprove understanding of the economic and socialconsequences of atmospheric changes and of mitiga-tion and response measures addressing such changes.

ACTIVITIES

9.8 Governments at the appropriate level, with thecooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and,as appropri ate, i ntergo vern me ntal and non - governme n talorganizations, and the private sector, should:(a) Promote research related to the natural processesaffecting and being affected by the atmosphere, as wellas the critical linkages between sustainable developmentand atmospheric changes, including impacts on humanhealth, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;(b) Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage ofthe Global Climate Observing System and its compo-nents, including the Global Atmosphere Watch, byfacilitating , inter alia. the establishment and operation ofadditional systematic observation stations, and by con-tributing to the development, utilization and accessibilityof these databases;(c) Promote cooperation in:(i) The development of early detection systems con-cerning changes and fluctuations in the atmosphere;(ii) The establishment and improvement of capabilitiesto predict such changes and fluctuations and to assess theresulting environmental and socio-economic impacts;(d) Cooperate in research to develop methodologiesand identify threshold levels of atmospheric pollu-tants, as well as atmospheric levels of greenhouse gasconcentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenicinterference with the climate system and the environmentas a whole, and the associated rates of change that wouldnot allow ecosystems to adapt naturally;(e) Promote, and cooperate in the building of scien-tif ic capacities for, the exchange of scientif ic data andinformation, and the facil i tation of the participationand training of experts and technical staff, particularlyof developing countries, in the fields of research, dataassembly, collection and assessment, and systematicobservation related to the atmosphere.

B) PROMOTING SUSTA|NABTE DEVETOPfrIENT

I ) ENERGY DEVELOPMENT, EFFtCtENCY AND CONSUMPTTON

BASIS FOR ACTION

9.9 Energy is essential to economic and social devel-opment and improved quality of life. Much of the world'senergy, however, is currently produced and consumed inways that could not be sustained if technology were toremain constant and if overall quantities were to increasesubstantially. The need to control atmospheric emissionsof greenhouse and other gases and substances will in-creasingly need to be based on efficiency in energyproduction, transmiss i on, di stribution and consumption,and on growing reliance on environmentally sound en-ergy systems, particularly new and renewable sources ofenergy.' All energy sources will need to be used in waysthat respect the atmosphere, human health and the envi-ronment as a whole.9.10 The existing constraints to increasing the environ-mentally sound energy supplies required for pursuing thepath towards sustainable development, particularly indeveloping countries, need to be removed.

OBJECTIVES

9.1 1 The basic and ultimate objective of this programmearea is to reduce adverse effects on the atmosphere fromthe energy sector by promoting policies or prograffrmes,as appropriate, to increase the contribution of environ-mentally sound and cost-effective energy systems, par-ticularly new and renewable ones, through less pollutingand more efficient energy production, transmission, dis-tribution and use. This objective should reflecf the needfor equity, adequate energy supplies and increasing en-ergy consumption in developing countries, and shouldtake into consideration the situations o{'countries that arehighly dependent on income generated from the produc-tion, processing and export, and./or consumption of fcrssilfuels and associated energy-intensive products and/or theuse of fbssil fuels fbr which countries have serious diffi-culties in switching to alternatives, and the situations clfcountries highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climatechange.

ACTIVITIES

9.12 Governments at the appropriate level, with thecooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies_and,a s appropriate, intergovernmental and non- governmentalorganizations, and the private sector, should:(a) Cooperate in identifying and developing econom-

78

icalty viablc, environmentally sound energy sources topromote the availability of increased energy supplies tosupport sustainable development efforts, in particular inr le r e loping countr ies:(b) Promote the development at the national level ofappropriate methodologies for making integrated energy,environment and economic policy decisions for sustain-able development, inter alia, through environmental im-pact assessments,(c) Promote the research, development, transfer anduse of improved energy-efficient technologies and prac-tices, including endogenous technologies in all relevantsectors, giving special attention to the rehabilitation andmodernization of power systems, with particular atten-tion to developing countries;(d) Promote the research, development, transfer and useof technologies and practices for environmentally soundenergy systems, including new and renewable energy sys-tems. with particular attention to developing countries;(e) Promcrte the development of institutional, scientific,planning and management capacities, particularly in de-veloping countries. to develop, produce and use increas-ingiy efficient and less polluting forms of energy;(f) Review current energy supply mixes to determinehow the contribution of environmentally sound energysysterns as a whole. particularly new and renewableenergv systems, could be increased in an economicallyefficient manner, taking into account respective coun-tries' unique social, physical, economic and polit icalcharacteristics, and examining and implementing, whereappropriate, measures to overcome any barriers to theirdevelopment and use;(g) Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregion-ally, where applicable, and study the feasibility of effi-cient distribution of environmentally sound energy fromnew and renewable energy sources;(h) ln accordance with national socio-economic devel-opment and environment priorities, evaluate and, as ap-propr iate, promote cost-ef fect ive pol ic ies or pro-

srarnmes, including administrative, social and economicnrcilsLlres, in order to improve energy efficiency;(i) Build capacity for energy planning and progralnmenranagement in energy efficiency, as well as for thedevekrprnent. introduction, and promotion of new andrcnewahle sources of energy;(-i) Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emissionstanciiirds or recommendations at the national level,2airnecl at the development and use of technologies thatmininrize adverse impacts on the environmentl(k) Encourage education and awareness-raising pro-granrrnes at the local. national, subregional and regionallevels concerning energy efficiency and environmentallysclund energY svstems:

(l) Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperationwith the private sector, labelling programmes for prod-

ucts to provide decision makers and consumers withinformation on opportunities for energy efficiency.

2) TRANSPORTATION

BASIS FOR ACTION

9.13 The transport sector has an essential and positiverole to play in economic and social development, andtransportation needs will undoubtedly increase. How-ever, since the transport sector is also a source of atmos-pheric emissions, there is need for a review of existingtransport systems and for more effective design andmanagement of traffic and transport systems.

OBJECTIVES

9.14 The basic objective of this programme area is todevelop and promote cost-effective policies or pro-grammes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce or control, asappropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere andother adverse environmental effects of the transport sec-tor, taking into account development priorities as well asthe specific local and national circumstances and safetyaspects.

ACTIVITIES

9.15 Govemments at the appropriate level, with the co-operation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, asappropriate, intergovernmental and non-governmentalorganizations, and the private sector, should:(a) Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost-effec-tive, more efficient, less polluting and safer transportsystems, particularly integrated rural and urban masstransit, as well as environmentally sound road networks,taking into account the needs for sustainable social,economic and development priorities, particularly indeveloping countries;(b) Facilitate at the international, regional, subregionaland national levels access to and transfer of safe, efficient,including resource-efticient, and less polluting transporttechnologies, particularly to the developing countries,including the implementation of appropriate trainingprogrammes;(c) Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collect-ing, analysing and exchanging relevant information onthe relation between environment and transport, withparticular emphasis on the systematic observation'ofemissions and the development of a transport database;(d) In accordance with national socio-econornic devel-

79

opment and environment priorities, evaluate and, as ap-

propr iate, promote cost-ef fect ive pol ic ies or pro-

grammes, including administrative, social and economic

measures, in order to encourage use of transportation

modes that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere;(e) Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to

integrate transporl planning strategies and urban and

regional settlement planning strategies, with a view to

reducing the environmental impacts of transport;(0 Study, within the framework of the United Nations

and its regional commissiotts, the feasibility of convening

regional conferences on transport and the environment.

3) TNDUSTRTAL DEVELOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

9.16 Industry is essential for the production of goods and

services and is a major source of employment and in-

come, and industrial development as such is essential for

economic growth. At the same time, industry is a major

resource and materials user and consequently industrial

activities result in emissions into the atmosphere and the

environment as a whole. Protection of the atmosphere

can be enhanced. inter ctlia, by increasing resource and

materials efficiency in industry, installing or improvingpo l lu t ion abatement techno log ies and rep lac ing

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depletingsubstances with appropriate substitutes, as well as by

reducing wastes and by-products.

OBJECTIVES

9.17 The basic objective of this programme area is to

encourage industrial development in ways that minimize

adverse inrpacts on the atmosphereby, inter alia, rncteas-

ing efficiency in the production and consumption by

industry of all resources and materials, by improvingpollution-abatement technologies and by developingnew, environmentally sound technologies.

ACTIVITIES

9.18 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and.

as appropri ate. intergovernmental and non - gove rn me ntal

organizations. and the private sector. should:(a) In accordance with national socio-economic devel-

opment and enl' ironment priorit ies, evaluate and. as ap-propr iate, promote cost-ef fect ive pol ic ics or pro-

grammes, including administrative, social and economic

measures, in order to minirnize industrial pollution and

adverse impacts on the atntosphere;

(b) Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its

capacity to develop technologies, products and processes

that are safe, are less polluting and make more efficientuse of all resources and materials, including energy;(c) Cooperate in the development and transfer of such

industrial techncllogies and in the development of capac-ities to manage and use such technologies, particularly

with respect to developing countries;(d) f)evelop, improve and apply environmental impact

assessments to foster sustainable industrial development;(e) Promote efficient use of materials and resources,

taking into account the life cycles of products, in order

to realize the economic and environmental benefits of

using resources more efficiently and producing fewer

wastes;(0 Support the promotion of less polluting and more

efficient technologies and processes in industries, taking

into account area-specific accessible potentials for en-

ergy. particularly safe and renewable sources of energy,with a view to limiting industrial pollution and adverseimpacts on the atmosphere.

4) TERRESTRIAL AND MARINE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTAND IAND USE

BASIS FOR ACTION

9.19 Land-use and resoutce policies will both affect and

be affected by changes in the atmosphere. Certain prac-

tices related to terrestrial and marine resources and land

use can decrease greenhouse qas sinks and increase

atmospheric emissions. The loss of biological diversitymay reduce the resilience of ecosystems to climaticvar iat ions and air pol lut ion damage. Atmospher ic

changes can have important impacts on forests, biodiver-sity, and treshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as

on economic activitie s, such as agriculture. Policy objec-tives in diffbrent sectors may often diverge and will need

to be handled in an intesrated manner.

OBJECTIVES

9.20 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To promote terrestrial and marine resource utiliza-

tion and appropriate liind-use practices that contribute to:(i) The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or thelimitation of anthrcpogenic emissions of greenhousegases:(i i) The conservation, surstainable management and en-

hancement. u,hcre appropriate, of all sinks for green-

house gases:(i i i) The conservation and sustainable use of natural

and environntental resources:

80

(b) To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric

changes and their socio-economic and ecological im-

pacts are fully taken into account in planning and

implementing policies and programmes concerning

terrestrial and marine resources utilization and land-

use practices.

ACTIVITIES

9.21 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and,

as appropriate, intergovefflmental and non- governmental

organizations, and the private sector, should:(a) In accordance with nat ional socio-economic

development and environment priorities, evaluate and,

as appropr iate, promote cost-ef fect ive pol ic ies or

programmes, including administrat ive, social and

economic measures, in order to encourage environmen-

tally sound land-use practices:(b) Implement policies and programmes that will dis-

courage inappropriate and polluting land-use practices

and promote sustainable utilization of terrestrial and

marine resources;(c) Consider promoting the development and use of

terrestrial and marine resources and land-use practices

that will be more resilient to atmospheric changes and

fluctuations;(d) Promote sustainable management and cooperation

in the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of

sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases, including

biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other terrestrial,

coastal and marine ecosystems.

cl PRTENT|NG STRATOSPHERIC OZONE DEPEnON

BASIS FOR ACTION

9.22 Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the

growing concern about the continuing depletion of the

Earth's stratospheric ozone layerby reactive chlorine and

bromine from man-made CFCs. halons and related sub-

stances. While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the

Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal

Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (as

amended in London in 1990) were important steps in

international action, the total chlorine loading of the

atmosphere with ozone-depleting substances has contin-

ued to rise. This can be changed through compliance with

the control measures identified within the Protocol.

OBJECTIVES

9.23 The objectives of this progralrune area are:

(a) To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna

Convention and the Montreal Protocol and its 1990

amendments, including the consideration in those instru-

ments of the special needs and conditions of the develop-

ing countries and the availability to them of alternativesto substances that deplete the ozone layer. Technologies

and natural products that reduce demand for these sub-

stances should be encouraged;(b) To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the ad-

verse effects of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's

surface as a consequence of depletion and modification

of the stratospheric ozone layer.

ACTIVITIES

9.24 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and,

as appropriate, i ntergovernmental and non- governmental

orgamzations, and the private sector, should:(a) Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol

and its 1990 amendments; pay their contributions to-

wards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds and the interim

multi lateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as

appropr ia te , towards ongo ing e f fo r ts under the

Montreal Protocol and its implementing mechanisms,

including making available substitutes for CFCs and

other ozone-depleting substances and facil i tating the

transfer of the corresponding technologies to develop-

ing countries in order to enable them to comply with

the obligations of the Protocol;(b) Support further expansion of the Global Ozone

Observing System by facilitating - through bilateral andmultilateral funding - the establishment and operation

of additional systematic observation stations, especiallyin the tropical belt in the southern hemisphere;(c) Participate actively in the continttous assessment of

scientific information and the health and environmental

effects, as well as of the technological/economic impli-

cations of stratospheric ozone depletion; and considerfurther actions that prove warranted and feasible on the

basis of these assessments,(d) Based on the results of research on the effects of the

additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's sur-

face. consider taking appropriate remedial measures in

the fields of human health. agriculture and marine envi-ronment;(e) Replace CFCs and other ozone-deplet ing sub-

s tances , cons is ten t w i th the Mont rea l Pro toco l ,recogn iz ing tha t a rep lacement 's su i tab i l i t y shou ld

be evaluated hol ist ical ly and not s imply based on i ts

contr ibut ion to solv ing one atmospher ic or environ-

mental problem.

8 l

D) TRANSBOUNDARY ATMOSPHERTC POUUnON

BASIS FOR ACTION

9.25 Transboundary air pollution has adverse health im-pacts on humans and other detrimental environmentalimpacts, such as tree and forest loss and the acidificationof water bodies. The geographical distribution of atmos-pheric pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with thedeveloping countries severely underrepresented. Thelack of reliable emissions data outside Europe and NorthAmerica is a major constraint to measuring transbound-ary air pollution. There is also insufficient informationon the environmental and health effects of air pollutionin other regions.9.26 The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transbound-ary Air Pollution, and its protocols, have established aregional regime in Europe and North America, based ona review process and cooperative programmes forsystematic observation of air pollution, assessment andinforrnation exchange. These programmes need to becontinued ancl enhanced, and their experience needs tobe shared with other resions of the world.

OBJECTIVES

9.27 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To develop and apply pollution control and meas-urement technologies for stationary and mobile sourcesof air pollution and to develop alternative environmen-tally sound technologies;(b) To observe and assess systematically the sourcesand extent of transboundary air pollution resulting fromnatural processes and anthropogenic activities:(c) To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of de-veloping countries, to measure, model and assess the fateand impacts of transboundary airpollution, through ,interalia, exchange of information and training of experts;(d) To develop capabil it ies to assess and mitigatetransboundary air pollution resulting from industrial andnuclear accidents, natural disasters and the deliberateand/or accidental destruction of natural resources;(e) To encourage the establishment of new and thei mplenientati on of exi sting regional agreements for limiring transboundary air pollution;(0 To develop strategies aiming at the reduction ofemissions causing transboundary air pollution and theireffects.

ACTIVITIES

9.28 Governments at the appropriate level, with thecooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and,as appropri ate, i ntergovernmental and non- govem mental

82

organizations, the private sector and financial institu-t ions, should:(a) Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements fortransboundary air pollution control and cooperate, par-ticularly with developing countries, in the areas of sys-tematic observation and assessment, modell ing and thedevelopment and exchange of emission control technol-ogies for mobile and stationary sources of air pollution.In this context, greater emphasis should be put on ad-dressing the extent, causes, health and socio-economicimpacts of ultraviolet radiation. acidif ication of the en-vironment and photo-oxidantdamage to forests and othervegetation;(b) Establish or strengthen early warning systems andresponse mechanisms for transboundary air pollutionresulting from industrial accidents and natural disastersand the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of naturalresources;(c) Facilitate training opportunities and exchange ofdata, information and national and/or regional experi-ences:(d) Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateralbases to assess transboundary air pollution, and elaborateand implement programmes identifying specific actionsto reduce atmospheric emissions and to address theirenvironmental, economic, social and other effects.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

9.29 Existing legal instruments have created institutionalstructures which relate to the purposes of these instru-ments, and relevant work should primarily continue inthose contexts. Governments should continue to co-operate and enhance their cooperation at the regional andglobal levels, including cooperation within the UnitedNations system. In this context reference is made to therecommendations in chapter 38 of Agenda 21 (Interna-tional institutional arrangements).

9.30 Countries, in cooperation with the relevant UnitedNations bodies, international donors and non-govern-mental organizations, should mobilize technical and fi-nancial resources and facilitate technical cooperationwith developing countries to reinforce their technical,managerial, planning and administrative capacities topromote sustainable development and the protection ofthe atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.

HU MAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

9.3 i Education and awareness-raising programmes con-cerning the promotion of sustainable development andthe protection of the atmosphere need to be introducedand strengthened at the local, national and intemationallevels in all relevant sectors.

FINANC/At AND COSI EVALUATION

9.32 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities under programme area A to be about $640million from the international community on grant orconcessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs andfinancial terms, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend upon, interalia, the specific strategies and prograffrnes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.9.33 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing

the act iv i t ies of the four-part programme underprograrnme area B to be about $20 billion from theinternational community on grant or concessional terms.These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actualcosts and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specificstrategies and programmes Governments decide upon forimplementation.9.34 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities under programme area C to be in the range of

$160 million to $590 million on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and programmes Governments decideupon for implementation.9.35 The Conference secretariat has included costing fortechnical assistance and pilot programmes under para-graphs 9.32 and9.33.

'New ond renewoble energy sources ore solor thermol, solor

photovoltoic, wind, hydro, biomoss, geothermol, oceon, onimolond humon power, os referred to in the reports of the Committeeon the Development ond Uti l izot ion of New ond RenewobleSources of Energy, prepored specificolly for the Conference (seeA/CONF. | 51 /PC/ 1 I 9 ond A/ AC.218/ 1992/ 5l, .

2Thi, includes stondords or recommendotions promoted byregionol economic integrotion orgonizotions.

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10 ond monogement of lond resourcesIntegroted opprooch to the plonning

I N T R O D U C T I O N

l0.l Land is normally defined as a physical entity in

terms of its topography and spatial nature; a broader

integrative view also includes natural resources: the soils,

minerals, water and biota that the land comprises. These

components are organized in ecosystems which provide

a variety of services essential to the maintenance of the

integrity of l i f-e-support systems and the productive

capacity of the environntent. Land resources are used in

ways that take advantage of all these characteristics.Land is a finite resource, while the natural resources it

supports can vary over time and according to manage-

ment conditions and uses. Expanding human require-

ments and economic activit ies are placing ever increasingpressures on land resources, creating competition and

conflicts and resulting in suboptimal use of both land and

land resources. If, in the future, human requirements are

to be met in a sustainable manner, it is now essential to

resolve these conflicts and move towards more effectiveand efficient use of land and its natural resources. Inte-grated physical and land-use planning and tnanagementis an eminently practical way to achieve this. By exam-

ining all uses of land in an integrated manner, it makes itpossible to minimize conflicts, to make the most efficienttrade-offs and to link social and economic developmentwith environmental protection and enhancement, thushelping to achieve the objectives of sustainable develop-

ment. The essence of the integrated approach finds

expression in the coordination of the sectoral planning

and management activit ies concerned with the various

aspects of land use and land resources.10.2 The present chapter consists of one programme

area, the integrated approach to the planning and man-

agement of land resources, which deals with the reorgan-ization and, where necessary, some strengthening of the

84

decision-making structure, including existing policies,planning and management procedures and methods thatcan assist in putting in place an integrated approach toland resources. It does not deal with the operationalaspects of planning and management, which are nlore

appropriately dealt with under the relevant sectoral pro-

grammes. Since the programme deals with an importantcross-sectoral aspect of decision-making for sustainable

development, it is closely related to a number of otherprogrammes that deal with that issue directly.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

A) TNTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE PLANNINGAND MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES

BASIS FOR ACTION

10.3 Land resources are used for a variety of purposeswhich interact and may compete with one another;there-fore. it is desirable to plan and manage all uses in anintegrated manner. Integration should take place at twolevels, considering, on the one hand, all environmental,social and economic factors (including, for example,impacts of the various economic and social sectors on theenvironment and natural resources) and, on the other, allenvironmental and resource components together (i.e..

air, water, biota, land and geological and natural re-

source s). Integrated consideration fac il itates appropriatechoices and trade-offs, thus maximizing sustainableproductivity and use. Opportunities to aliocate land todifferent uses arise in the course of major settlement or

development projects or in a sequential fashion as lands

become available on the market. This in turn provides

opportunities to support traditional patterns of sustain-

able land management or to assign protected status forconservation of biological di versity or crit ical ecol ogicalservices.10.4 A number of techniques, franteworks and pro-cesses can be combined to facil i tate an integrated ap-proach. They are the indispensable support for the plan-ning and management process, at the national and locallevels and ecosystem or area levels, and for the develop-ment of specific plans of action. Many of its elements arealready in place but need to be more widely applied,further developed and strengthened. This programmearea is concerned primarily with providing a fratneworkthat wil l coordinate decision-making; the content andoperational functions are therefore not included here butare dealt with in the relevant sectoral programmes ofAeenda 21 .

OBJECTIVES

10.5 The broad objective is to facil i tate allocation ofland to the uses that provide the greatest sustainablebenefits and to promote the transition to a sustainable andintegrated management of land resources. In doing so,environmental, social and economic issues should betaken into considerat ion. Protected areas, pr ivateproperty rights, the rights of indigenous people and theircommunities and other local communities and the eco-nomic role of women in agriculture and rural develclp-ment, among other issues, shoulcl be taken into account.In more specific terms, the objectives are as follows:(a) To review and develop policies to support the bestpossible use of land and the sustainable management of'land resources, by not later than 19961(b) To improve and strengthen planning. managementand evaluation systems for land and land resources, bynot later than 2000;(c) To strengthen institutions and soordinating n'rech-anisms forland and land resources, by not laterthan 1998;(d) To create mechanisms to facil i tate the active in-volvement and participation of all concerned, parti-cularly communities and people at the local level, indecision-making on land use and management, by notlater than 1996.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACT IV IT IES

> Developing supportive policies ond policy instruments

10.6 Governments at the appropriate level. with thesupport of regional and international organizations.

should ensure that policies and policy instruments sup-port the best possible land use and sustainable manage-ment of land resources. Particular attention should begiven to the role of agricultural land. To do this, theyshould:(a) Develop integrated goal-setting and policy formu-lation at the national, regional and local levels that takesinto account environmental, social, demographic andeconomic issues;(b) Develop policies that encourage sustainable landuse and management of land resources and take the landresource base, demographic issues and the interests ofthe local population into account:(c) Review the regulatory framework, including laws,regulations and enforcement procedures, in order toidentify improvements needed to support sustainableland use and management of land resources and restrictthe transfer of productive arable land to other uses;(d) Apply economic instruments and develop institu-tional mechanisms and incentives to encourage the bestpossible land use and sustainable management of landresources;(e) Encourage the principle of delegating policy-mak-ing to the lowest level of public authority consistent witheffective action and a locally driven approach.

> Sfrengfhening planning ond monogemenl sysfems

10.7 Governments at the appropnate level, with thesupport of regional and international organizations,should review and, if appropriate, revise planning andmanagement systems to facilitate an integrated approach.To do this, they should:(a) Adopt planning and management systems thatfacilitate the integration of environmental componentssuch as air, water, land and other natural resources, usinglandscape ecological planning (LANDEP) or other ap-proaches that focus on, for example, an ecosystem or awatershed;(b) Adopt strategic frameworks that allow the integra-tion of both developmental and environmental goals;examples of these frameworks include sustainablel ivel ihood systems, rural development, the WorldConservation Strategy/Caring for the Earth, primaryenvironmental care (PEC) and others;(c) Establish a general fiamework for land-use andphysical planning within which specialized and moredetailed sectoral plans (e.g., for protected areas, agricul-ture, forests, human settlements, rural development) canbe developed; establish intersectoral consultative bodigsto streamline project planning and implementation;(d) Strengthen management systems for land andnatural resources by including appropriate traditional and

85

indigenous methods; examples of these practices includepastoralism, Hema reserves (traditional Islamic landreserves) and terraced agriculture;(e) Examine and, if necessary, establish innovative andflexible approaches to programme funding;(f) Compile detailed land capabil ity inventories toguide sustainable land resources allocation, managementand use at the national and local levels.

> Promoting opplicotion of oppropriote tools for plonningond monogement

10.8 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of national and international organizations,should promote the improvement, further developmentand widespread application of planning and managementtools that facilitate an integrated and sustainable ap-proach to land and resources. To do this, they should:(a) Adopt improved systems for the interpretation andintegrated analysis of data on land use and land resources;(b) Systematically apply techniques and procedures forassessing the environmental, social and economic im-pacts, risks, costs and benefits of specific actions;(c) Analyse and test methods to include land andecosystem functions and land resources values in nationalaccounts.

> Roising oworeness

10.9 Governments at the appropriate level, in collabora-tion with national institutions and interest groups andwith the support of regional and international organiza-tions, should launch awareness-raising campaigns toalert and educate people concerning the importance ofintegrated land and land resources management and therole that individuals and social groups can play in it. Thisshould be accompanied by provision of the means toadopt improved practices for land use and sustainablemanagement.

> Promoting public porticipotion

10.10 Governments at the appropriate level, in collabora-tion with national organizations and with the support ofregional and intemational organizations, should establishinnovati ve procedure s. programmes, projects and service sthat facilitate and encourage the active participation of thoseaffected in the decision-making and implementationprocess, especially of groups that have hitherto often beenexcluded, such as women, youth, indigenous people andtheir communities and other local communities.

Bl DATA AND 'NFORMAT/ON

> StrengfA ening informotion systems

10. I I Governments atthe appropriate level, in collabora-tion with national institutions and the private sector andwith the support of regional and international organizations,should strengthen the information systems necessauy fclrmaking decisions and evaluating future changes on land useandmanagement.The needsof both men andwomen shouldbe taken into account. To do this, they should:(a) Strengthen information, systematic observation andassessment systems for environmental, economic andsocial data related to land resources at the global,regional, national and local levels and for land capabilityand land-use and management patterns;(b) Strengthen coordination between existing sectoraidata systems on land and land resources and strengthennational capacity to gather and assess data;(c) Provide the appropriate technical informationnecessary for informed decision-making on land use andmanagement in an accessible form to all sectors of thepopulation, especially to local communities and women;(d) Support low-cost, community-managed systemsfor the collection of comparable information on the statusand processes of change of land resources, includingsoils, forest cover, wildlife, climate and other elements.

C) /NIERNAI/ONAI. AND REG/ONATCOORD/NATION AND COOPERAIION

> Estoblishing regionol mochinery

10.12 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of regional and international organizations,should strengthen regional cooperation and exchange ofinformation on land resources. To do this, they should:(a) Study and design regional policies to supportprograrnmes for land-use and physical planning;(b) Promote the development of land-use and physicalplans in the countries of the region;(c) Design information systems and promote training;(d) Exchange, through networks and other appropriatemeans, information on experiences with the process andresults of integrated and participatory planning and man-agement of land resources at the national and local levels.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FIN,ANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

10.13 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-

86

age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivit ies of this programme to be about $50 mill ion fiomthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and programmes Governments decideupon for implementation.

B) SC'ENI/F/C AND TECHNOIOGICAT MFANS

> Enhoncing scientific understonding of thelond resources syslem

10. l4 Governments at the appropriate level, in collabora-tion with thc'national and international scientif ic com-munity and with the support of appropriate national andinternational organizations, should promote and supportresearch, tailored to local environments, on the landresources system and the implications for sustainabledevelopment and management practices. Priority shouldbe given, as appropriate, to:(a) Assessment of land potential capabil ity and ecosys-tem functions;(b) Ecosystemic interactions and interactions betweenland resources and social. economic and environmentalsystems;(c) Developing indicators of sustainabil ity for landresources, taking into account environmental, economic,social, demographic, cultural and political factors.

> Testing resqrch findings through pilot proixts

10. l 5 Governments at the appropriate level, in collabora-tion with the national and international scientific com-munity and with the support of the relevant intemationalorganizations, should research and test, through pilotprojects, the applicability of improved approaches to theintegrated planning and management of land resources,including technical, social and institutional factors.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

> Enhoncing education ond troining

10.16 Govemments at the appropriate level, in collabora-tion with the appropriate local authorities. non-govemmen-tal orsanizations and international institutions. should

promote the development of the human resources that arerequired to plan and manage land and land resourcessustainably. This should be done by providing incentivesfbr local initiatives and by enhancing local managementcapacity, particularly of women, through:(a) Emphasizing interdisciplinary and integrative ap-proaches in the curricula of schools and technical, voca-tional and university training;(b) Training all relevant sectors concerned to deal withland resources in an integrated and sustainable mannerl(c) Training communities, relevant extension services,community-based groups and non-govemmental organ-izations on land management techniques and approachesapplied successfully elsewhere.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

> StrengtA eni ng technologicol copacity

10.17 Governments at the appropriate level, in cooper-ation with other Governments and with the support ofrelevant international organizations, should promotefocused and concerted efforts for education and trainingand the transfer of techniques and technologies thatsupport the various aspects of the sustainable planningand management process at the national, state/provincialand local levels.

> Strength eni ng in stituti ons

10.18 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of appropriate international organizations,should:(a) Review and, where appropriate, revise the mandatesof institutions that deal with land and natural resourcesto include explicitly the interdisciplinary integration ofenvironmental, social and economic issues;(b) Strengthen coordinating mechanisms between in-stitutions that deal with land-use and resources manage-ment to facilitate integration of sectoral concems andstrategies;(c) Strengthen local decision-making capacity and im-prove coordination with higher levels.

8'7

l l Comboti ng deforestotion

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) SUSTAINING THE MUITIPIE ROTES ANDFUNCTIONS OF AtL TYPES OF FORESTS,FOREST LANDS AND WOODLANDS

BASIS FOR ACTION

1l. l There are major weaknesses in the pol ic ies,methods and mechanisms adopted to support anddevelop the multiple ecological, economic, social andcultural roles of trees, forests and forest lands. Manydeveloped countries are confronted with the effects ofair pollution and fire damage on their forests. Moreeffective measures and approaches are often requiredat the national level to improve attd harmonize policy

formulation, planning and programming; legislativemeasures and instruments; development patterns: par-

ticipation of the general public, especially women andindigenous people; involvement of youth; roles of theprivate sector, local organizations, non-governmentalorganizations and cooperatives; development of tech-nical and multidisciplinary skil ls and quality of humanresources: forestry extension and public education; re-search capability and support; administrative structuresand mechanisms. including intersectcral coordination,decentralization and responsibil i ty and incentive sys-tems; and dissemination of information and public rela-tions. This is especially important to eitsure a rationaland holistic approach to the sustainable and environmen-tally sound development of forests. The need for secur-ing the multiple roles of forests and l'orest lands throughadequate and appropriate institutional strengthening hasbeen repeatedly emphasized in rrrany of the reports,decisions and recommendations of FAO,ITTO, UNEP theWorld Bank. IUCN and other orsanizations.

OBJECTIVES

11.2 The objectives of this programme area are as fol-lows:(a) To strengthen forest-related national institutions, toenhance the scope and effectiveness of activities relatedto the management, conservation and sustainable devel-opment of forests, and to effectively ensure the sustain-able utilization and production of forests' goods andservices in both the developed and the developingcountries; by the year 2000, to strengthen the capacitiesand capabilities of national institutions to enable them toacquire the necessary knowledge for the protection andconservation of forests, as well as to expand their scopeand, correspondingly, enhance the effectiveness ofprogrammes and activities related to the management anddevelopment of forests;(b) To strengthen and improve human, technical andprofessional skills, as well as expertise and capabilitiesto effectively formulate and implement policies, plans,programmes. research and projects on management, con-servation and sustainable development of all types offorests and forest-based resources, and forest lands in-clusive, as well as other areas from which forest benefitscan be derived.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI.REI ATED ACTIVITIES

I 1.3 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of regional, subregional and international organ-izations, should, where necessary, enhance institutionalcapability to promote the multiple roles and functions ofall types of forests and vegetation inclusive of otherrelated lands and forest-based resources in supportingsustainable development and environmental conserya-tion in all sectors. This should be done, whereverpossible

88

and necessary, by strengthening and/or modifying theexisting structures and arrangements, and by improvingcooperation and coordination of their respective roles.Some of the major activities in this regard are as follows:(a) Rationalizing and strengthening administrativestructures and mechanisms, including provis ion ofadequate levels of staff and allocation of responsibil-it ies, decentralization of decision-making, provisionof infrastructural facil i t ies and equipment, intersec-toral coordination and an effective system of com-municat ion;(b) Promoting participation of the private sector,labourunions, rural cooperatives, local communities, indigen-ous people, youth, women, user groups and non-govern-mental organizations in forest-related activities, and ac-cess to information and training prograrnmes within thenational context;(c) Reviewing and, if necessary, revising measures andprogrammes relevant to all types of forests and vegeta-tion, inclusive of other related lands and forest-basedresources, and relating them to other land uses and de-velopment policies and legislation; and promoting ade-quate legislation and other measures as a basis againstuncontrolled conversion to other types of land uses;(d) Developing and implementing plans and pro-grammes, including definition of national and, if neces-sary, regional and subregional goals, programmes andcriteria for their implementation and subsequent im-provement;(e) Establishing, developing and sustaining an effec-tive system of forest extension and public education toensure better awareness, appreciation and managementof forests with regard to the multiple roles and values oftrees. forests and forest lands;(0 Establishing and/or strengthening institutions forforest education and training, as well as forestry indus-tries, to develop an adequate cadre of trained and skilledstaff at the professional, technical and vocational levels,with emphasis on youth and women;(g) Establishing and strengthening capabilities for re-search related to the different aspects of forests and forestproducts, for example, on the sustainable management offorests, on biodiversity, on the effects of airborne pollu-tants, on traditional uses of forest resources by localpopulations and indigenous people, and on improvingmarket returns and other non-market values from themanagement of forests.

B) DATA AND 'NFORMAI'ON

ll.4 Governments at the appropriate level, with theassistance and cooperation of international, regional,

subregional and bilateral agencies, where relevant,should develop adequate databases and baseline infor-mation necessary for planning and programme evalu-ation. Some of the more specific activities include thefollowing:(a) Collecting, compiling and regularly updating anddistributing information on land classification and landuse, including data on forest cover, areas suitable forafforestation, endangered species, ecological values,traditional/indigenous land- use values, biomass and pro-ductivity, correlating demographic, socio-economic andforest resources information at the micro- and macro-levels, and undertaking periodic analyses of forestprograrnmes;(b) Establishing linkages with other data systems andsources relevant to supporting forest management, con-servation and development, while further developing orreinforcing existing systems such as geographic informa-tion systems, as appropriate;(c) Creating mechanisms to ensure public access to thisinformation.

cJ tNrERN,AilON,At AND REG'ONAI.COO PERAI'ON AND COORD'NAI'ON

I1.5 Governments at the appropriate level and institu-tions should cooperate in the provision of expertise andother support and the promotion of international researchefforts, in particular with a view to enhancing transfer oftechnology and specialized training and ensuring accessto experiences and research results. There is need forstrengthening coordination and improving the perform-ance of e xi sti n g forest-re lated i nternational organizationsin providing technical cooperation and support to inter-ested countries for the management, conservation andsustainable development of forests.

MEANS OF IMPTEMENTATION

A' F'NANC|AL AND COSI EVALUATTON

I L6 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $2.5 billion,including about $860 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific sftategies and pro-grammes Govemments decide upon for implementation.

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8' SC'FNilF'C AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

ll.7 The planning, research and training activities spec-ified will form the scientific and technological means forimplementing the programme, as well as its output. Thesystems, methodology and know-how generated by theprogramme will help improve efficiency. Some of thespecific steps involved should include:(a) Analysing achievements, constraints and social is-sues for supporting programme formulation and im-plementation;(b) Analysing research problems and research needs,research planning and implementation of specific re-search projects;(c) Assessing needs for human resources, skill devel-opment and training;(d) Developing, testing and applying appropriatemethodologies/approaches in implementing forestprogrammes and plans.

c) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

I1.8 The specific components of forest education andtraining will effectively contribute to human resourcedevelopment. These include:(a) Launching of graduate and post-graduate degree,specialization and research programmes;(b) Strengthening of pre-service, in-service and ex-tension service training programmes at the technicala n d v o c a t i o n a l l e v e l s , i n c l u d i n g t r a i n i n g o ft ra iners/ teachers, and developing curr iculum andteaching materials/methods;(c) Special training for staff of national forest-relatedorganizations in aspects such as project formulation,evaluation and periodical evaluations.

D) CAPACTTY-BUlLD'NG

ll.9 This prograffrme area is specifically concernedwith capacity-building in the forest sector and allprogranrme activities specified contribute to that end. Inbuilding new and strengthened capacities, full advantageshould be taken of the existing systems and experience.

Bl ENHANCING rHE PROTECnON, SUSTAINABLE,UIANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF AtLFORESTIS, AND THE GREENING OF DEGRADEDAREAS, THROUGH FOR,EST REHABITITATION,AFFORESTATION, REFORESTATION ANDOI}IER REHABIUTATIVE TEANS

BASIS FOR ACNON

I I .10 Forests worldwide have been and are being threat-ened by uncontrolled degradation and conversion to othertypesof land uses, influencedby increasing human needs;agricultural expansion; and environmentally harmfulmismanagement, including, for example, lack of ade-quate forest-fire control and anti-poaching measures,unsustainable commercial logging, overgrazing and un-regulated browsing, harmful effects of airborne pollu-tants, economic incentives and other measures taken byother sectors of the economy. The impacts of loss anddegradation of forests are in the form of soil erosion, lossof biological diversity, damage to wildlife habitats anddegradation of watershed areas, deterioration of the qualityof life and reduction of the options for development.I I .l I The present situation calls for urgent and consistentaction for conserving and sustaining forest resources.The greening of suitable areas, in all its componentactivities, is an effective way of increasing public aware-ness and participation in protecting and managing forestresources. It should include the consideration of land useand tenure patterns and local needs and should spell outand clarify the specific objectives of the different typesof greening activities.

OBJECTIVES

I l.l2 The objectives of this programme area are as fol-lows:(a) To maintain existing forests through conservationand management, and sustain and expand areas underforest and tree cover, in appropriate areas of both de-veloped and developing countries, through the conserya-tion of natural forests, protection, forest rehabilitation,re generation, afforestation, reforestation and tree plant-ing, with a view to maintaining or restoring the ecologicalbalance and expanding the contribution of forests tohuman needs and welfare;(b) To prepare and implement, as appropriate, nationalforestry action programmes and/or plans for the manage-ment, conservation and sustainable development offorests. These programmes and/or plans should beintegrated with other land uses. In th is centext ,country-driven national forestry action programmesand/or plans under the Tropical Forestry ActionProgramme are currently being implemented in more

90

than 80 countries, with the support of the intemationalcommunity;(c) To ensure sustainable management and, where ap-propriate, conservation of existing and future forestresources;(d) To maintain and increase the ecological, biological,climatic, socio-cultural and economic contributions offorest resources;(e) To facilitate and support the effective implementa-tion of the non-legally binding authoritative statementof principles for a global consensus on the management,conservation and sustainable development of all types offorests, adopted by the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development, and on the basis of theimplementation of these principles to consider the needfor and the feasibility of all kinds of appropriate intemation-ally agreed arrangements to promote international cooper-ation on forest management, conservation and sustainabledevelopment of all types of fbrests, including afforestation,reforestation and rehabi I itation.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-REIATED ACTIVITIES

1 1. 13 Governments should recognize the importance ofcategorizing torests, within the framework of long-termforest conservation and management policies, into dif-ferent forest types and setting up sustainable units inevery region/watershed with a view to securing the con-servation of forests. Governments, with the participationof the private sector, non-governrnental organizations,local community groups, indigenous people, women,local government units and the public at large, should actto maintain and expand the existing vegetative coverwherever ecologically, socially and economically feas-ible, through technical cooperation and other forms ofsupport. Major activities to be considered include:(a) Ensuring the sustainable management of all forestecosystems and woodlands, through improved properplanning. management and timely implementation ofsilvicultural operations, including inventory and relevantresearch, as well as rehabilitation of degraded naturalforests to restore productivity and environmental con-tributions, giving particular attention to human needs foreconomic and ecological services, wood-based energy,agroforestry, non-timber forest products and services,watershed and soil protection, wildlife management, andforest genetic resources,(b) Establishing, expanding and managing, as appro-priate to each national context, protected area systems,which include systems of conservation units for their

environmental, social and spiritual functions and values,including conservation of forests in representative eco-logical systems and landscapes, primary old-growthforests, conservation and management of wildlife, nomi-nation of World Heritage Sites under the World HeritageConvention, as appropriate, conservation of genetic resour-ces, involvrngin sint and ex situmeasures, and undertakingsupportive measures to ensure sustainable utilization ofbiological resources and conservation of biological diver-sity and the traditional forest habitats of indigenous people,forest dwellers and local communities;(c) Undertaking and promoting buffer and transitionzone management;(d) Carrying out revegetation in appropnate mountainareas, highlands, bare lands, degraded farm lands, aridand semi-arid lands and coastal areas for combatingdesertification and preventing erosion problems and forother protective functions and national programmes forrehabilitation of degraded lands, including communityforestry, social forestry, agroforestry and silvipasture,while also taking into account the role of forests asnational carbon reservoirs and sinks;(e) Developing industrial and non-industrial plantedforests in order to support and promote national ecologi-cally sound afforestaticln and reforestation/regenerationprogrammes in suitable sites, including upgrading ofexisting planted forests of both industrial and non-indus-trial and commercial purpose to increase their contribu-tion to human needs and to offset pressure on primaryold-growth forests. Measures should be taken to promoteand provide intermediate yields and to improve the rateof returns on investments in planted forests, throughinterplanting and underplanting valuable crops;(0 Developing/strengthening a national and/or masterplan for planted forests as a priority, indicatin g, inter alia,the location, scope and species, and specifying areas ofexisting planted forests requiring rehabilitation, takinginto account the economic aspect for future planted forestdevelopment, giving emphasis to native species;(g) Increasing the protection of forests from pollutants,fire, pests and diseases and other human-made interfer-ences such as forest poaching, mining, unmitigated shift-ing cultivation and the uncontrolled introduction ofexotic plant and animal species, as well as developingand accelerating research for a better understanding ofproblems relating to fhe management and regenerationof all types of forests; and strengthening and/or estab-lishing appropnate measures to assess and/or check inter-border movement of plants and related materials;(h) Stimulating developmenr of urban forestry for thegreening of urban, peri-urban and rural human settle:ments for amenity, recreation and production purposesand for protecting trees and groves;

9 l

(i) Launching or improving opportunities for participa-

tion of all people, including youth, women, indigenouspeople and local communities, in the formulation, devel-

opment and implementation of forest-related pro-

grarnmes and other activities, taking due account of the

local needs and cultural values;

0) Limiting and aiming to halt destructive shifting

cultivation by addressing the underlying social and

ecological causes.

B) DATA AND INFORMAIION

I l.l4 Management-related activities should involve col-

lection, compilation and analysis of data/information,including baseline surveys. Some of the specific activ-

ities include the following:(a) Carrying out surveys and developing and imple-

menting land-use plans for appropriate greening/plant-ing/afforestation/reforestation/forest rehabilitation ;(b) Consolidating and updating land-use and forest

inventory and management information for management

and land-use planning of wood and non-wood resources,

including data on shifting cultivation and other agents of

forest destruction;(c) Consolidating information on genetic resources and

related biotechnology, including surveys and studies, as

necessary;(d) Carrying out surveys and research on local/indige-nous knowledge of trees and forests and their uses to

improve the planning and implementation of sustainableforest management;(e) Compiling and analysing research data on species/siteinteraction of species used in planted forests and assessingthe potential impact on forests of climatic change, as well

as effects of forests on climate, and initiating in-depth

studies on the carbon cycle relating to different forest types

to provide scientific advice and technical support;(0 Establishing linkages with other data/informationsources that relate to sustainable management and use offorests and improving access to data and information;(g) Developing and intensifying research to improveknowledge and understanding of problems and naturalmechanisms related to the management and rehabilita-tion of forests, including research on fauna and its inter-relation with forests;(h) Consolidating information on forest conditions andsite-influencing immissions and emissions.

C/ /NIERNAI/ONAI. AND REG'ONAI.COOP ERAIION AND COORD'NAI'ON

I L l5 The greening of appropriate areas is ataskof global

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importance and impact. The international and regionalcommunity should provide technical cooperation and

other means for this progratnme area. Specific activitiesof an intemational nature, in support of national efforts,should include the following:(a) Increasing cooperative actions to reduce pollutants

and transboundary impacts affecting the health of treesand forests and conservation of representative ecosys-tems;(b) Coordinating regional and subregional research on

carbon sequestration, air pollution and other environ-

mental issues;(c) Documenting and exchanging information/experi-ence for the benefit of countries with similar problems

and prospects;(d) Strengthening the coordination and improving the

capacity and ability of intergovernmental organizationssuch as FAO, ITTO, UNEP and UNESCO to provide

technical support for the management, conservation andsustainable development of forests, including support forthe negotiation of the International Tropical TimberAgreement of 1983, due in 1992193.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A) FINANCIAT AND COSI EVALUATION

I 1.16 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $10 billion,including about $3.7 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and havenot been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs andfinancial terms, including any that are non-concessional,will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprograrnmes Governments decide upon for implementa-tion.

8/ SC/ENilFtC AND TECHNOT.OGtCAL MEANS

I l.l7 Data analysis, planning, research, transfer/devel-opment of technology and/or training activities form anintegral part of the programme activities, providing thescientific and technological means of implementation.National institutions should:(a) Develop feasibility studies and operational plan-

ning related to major forest activities;(b) Develop and apply environmentally sound tee hnol-ogy relevant to the various activities listed;(c) Increase action related to genetic improvement and

application of biotechnology for improving productivityand tolerance to environmental stress and including, forexample, tree breeding, seed technology, seed procure-ment networks, germ-plasm banks, in vitro techniques,and in situ and ex situ conservation.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

I l.l8 Essential means for effectively implementing theactivities include training and development of appropri-ate skills, working facilities and conditions, public moti-vation and awareness. Specific activities include:(a) Providing specialized training in planning, manage-ment, environmental conservation, biotechnology etc.;(b) Establishing demonstration areas to serve as modelsand training facilities;(c) Supporting local organizations, corrmunities, non-governmental organizations and private land owners, inparticular women, youth, farmers and indigenouspeople/shift ing cultivators, through extension andprovision of inputs and training.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

ll.l9 National Governments, the private sector, localorganizations/communities, indigenous people, labourunions and non-governmental organizations should de-velop capacities, duly supporled by relevant internationalorganrzatrons, to implement the prograrune activities.Such capacities should be developed and strengthened inharmony with the programme activit ies. Capacity-b u i l d i n g a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e p o l i c y a n d l e g a lf rameworks, nat ional inst i tut ion bui ld ing, humanresource development, development of research andtechnology, development of infrastructure, enhance-ment of public awareness etc.

c) PROMOnNG EFFTqENT UTITZATTON ANDASSESSMENT TO RECOVER THE FUtt VATUATION OFI}IE GOODS AND SERVICES PROVIDED BY FORESTS,FOREST TANDS AND WOODLANDS

BASIS FOR ACTION

11.20 The vast potential of forests and forest lands as amajor resource for development is not yet fully realized.The improved management of forests can increase theproduction of goods and services and, in particular, theyield of wood and non-wood forest products, thushelping to generate additional employment and income,additional value through processing and trade of forest

products, increased contribution to foreign exchangeearnings, and increased return on investment. Forestresources, being renewable, can be sustainably managedin a manner that is comphtible with environmentalconservation. The implications of the harvesting of forestresources for the other values of the forest should be takenfully into consideration in the development of forestpolicies. It is also possible to increase the value of foreststhrough non-damaging uses such as eco-tourism and themanaged supply of genetic materials. Concerted actionis needed in order to increase people's perception of thevalue of forests and of the benefits they provide. Thesurvival of forests and their continued contribution tohuman welfare depend to a great extent on succeeding inthis endeavour.

OBJECTIVES

11.21 The objectives of this prograrnme area are as fol-lows:(a) To improve recognition of the social, economic andecological values of trees, forests and forest lands. in-cluding the consequences of the damage caused by thelack of forests; to promote methodologies with a view toincorporating social, economic and ecological values oftrees, forests and forest lands into the national economicaccounting systems; and to ensure their sustainablemanagement in a way that is consistent with land use,environmental considerations and development needs;(b) To promote efficient, rational and sustainableuti l ization of all types of forests and vegetation in-clusive of other related lands and forest-based resour-ces, through the development of efficient forest-basedprocessing industries, value-adding secondary pro-cessing and trade in forest products, based on sustain-ably managed forest resources and in accordance withplans that integrate all wood and non-wood values offorests;(c) To promote more efficient and sustainable use offorests and trees for fuelwood and energy supplies;(d) To promote more comprehensive use and econ-omic contributions of forest areas by incorporatingeco-tourism into forest management and planning.

ACTIVITIES

A) MAN AGEMENI-R ELAT ED ACTIV ITI ES

11.22 Governments, with the support of the private sector,scientific institutions, indigenous people, non-gove{n-mental organizations, cooperatives and entrepreneurs,where appropriate, should undertake the following activ-ities, properly coordinated at the national level, with

93

f inancial and techtrical cooperatioll from itttetrtationalorganizitt ions:(a) Canying out detailed investruc-nt studies. supply-dernand harnron iza t ion and e t tv i t 'onn ten ta l in rpac t

analysis to rationalize and intprove trees attd ti lrest uti l i-zation and to develop and establish appropriate incentiveschemes and regulatory nleasures. including tenurial ar-rangements. to provide a favourable itrvesttnent clirnateand promote better ltlanageluent;(b) Fonrrulating scientit ically sound criteria and guide-

lines for the tnanagenlent. conservation and sustainabledeveloprnent of all types of forests:(c) Improving envit 'onntentally sound methods andpractices of fbrest harvesting. which are ecologicallysound and economical ly v iable, rncluding planning andmanagement and improved use of equipment, storage andtransportation to reduce, and, if possible, maximize theuse of, waste and improve the value of both wood andnon-wood fbrest products:(d) Promoting the better use and development of natu-ral forests and woodlands, including planted fbrests,wherever possible, through appropriate and environmen-tally sound and economically viable activit ies, includingsilvicultural practices and management of other plant andanimal species;(e) Promoting and supporting the downstream process-ing of forest products to increase retained value and otherbenefits:(0 Promoting/popularizing non-wood forest productsand other forms of forest resources, apart from fuelwood(e.g., medicinal plants. dyes, fibres, gums. resins, fodder,cultural products, rattan, bamboo) through programmes andsocial forestry/participatory forest activities, including re-search on their processing and uses;(g) Developing, expanding and/or improving the effec-tiveness and efficiency of forest-based processing indust-ries, both wood and non-wood based. involving suchaspects as efficient conversion technology and improvedsustainable uti l ization of harvesting and process residues:promot ing underut i l ized species in natural foreststhrou gh re search, demonstration and commerci al izat ion ;promoting value-adding secondary processing for im-proved employment, income and retained value; andpromoting/improving rnarkets for, and trade in, forestproducts through relevant inst i tut ions, pol ic ies andfacil it ies;(h) Promoting and supporting the management ofwi ld l i fe, as wel l as eco-tour ism. including farming,and encouraging and supporting the husbandry and cul-tivation of wild species, for improved rural income andemployment, ensuring economic and social benefitswithout harmful ecological impacts;(i) Promoting appropriate small-scale forest-based

enterprises lor suppo(ing rural developttrcnt and lt lcalentrepreneurship;

0l Itttproving and prottroting rtrethodtllt lgies lor a cotn-prehensive assessment that wil l capture the l 'ull value o1'forests, wi th a v iew to including that value in the tnarkel-based pricing structure of wood and non-wood basedproducts;(k) Harmonizing sustainable development of forestswith national developnrent needs and trade policies thatare compatible with the ecologically sound use of forestresources, using, fbr example, the ITTO Guidelines forSustainable Management of Tropical Forests;(l) Developing, adopting and strengthening nationalaccounting programmes for assessing the economic andnon-economic value of forests.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

l 1.23 The objectives and management-related activitiespresuppose data and information analysis, feasibil i tystudies, market surveys and review of technological infor-mation. Some of the relevant activities include:(a) Undertaking analysis of supply and demand forforest products and services, to ensure efficiency in theiruti l ization, wherever necessary;(b) Carrying out investment analysis and feasibil i tystudies, including environmental impacI assessment, forestabli shing fbrest-based proce ssing enterpri ses ;(c) Conducting research on the properties of currentlyunderutilized species for their promotion and commer-cialization;(d) Supporting market surveys of forest products fortrade promotion and intelligence;(e) Facilitating the provision of adequate technologicalinformation as a measure to promote better utilization offorest resources.

c) /NTERNAT/ONAL AND REG/ONAICOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAIION

11.24 Cooperation and assistance of international organ-izations and the international community in technologytransfer, specialization and promotion of fair terms oftrade, without resorting to unilateral restrictions and/orbans on forest products contrary to GATT and othermultilateral trade agreements, and the application ofappropriate market mechanisms and incentives will helpin addressing global environmental concerns. Strength-ening the coordination and performance of existing in-ternational organizations, in particular FAO, UNIDO,UNESCO, UNEP, ITC/UNCTAD/GATT, ITTO and ILO,

94

fbr providing technical assistance and guidance in th isprogramme area is anclther specific activity.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/AI. AND COST EVALUATION

11.25 The Conference secretar iat has est imated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activit ies of this programme to be about $ l8 bil l ion,including about $880 mill ion from the internationalcom-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Govemments. Actualcosts and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, wil ldepend upon, inter al ia, the speci f ic strategies andp r o g r a m m e s G o v e r n m e n t s d e c i d e u p o n f o r i m -p lementa t ion .

8/ sC/ENIIFIC AND IECHNOI.OGICAL MEANS

11.26 The programme act iv i t ies presuppose major re-search efforts and studies, as well as improvement oftechnology. This should be coordinated by nat ionalGovernments, in col laborat ion wi th and supported byrelevant internat ional organizat ions and inst i tut ions.Some of the specific components include:(a) Research on properties of wood and non-woodproducts and their uses, to promote improved utilization;(b) Development and application of environmentallysound and less-poll uti ng technology for forest util ization ;(c) Models and techniques of outlook analysis anddevelopment planning;(d) Scientific investigations on the development andutilization of non-timber forest products;(e) Appropriate methodologies to assess the value offorests in a comprehensive manner.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

11.27 The success and effectiveness of the programmearea depend on the availability of skilled personnel.Specialized training is an important factor in this regard.New emphasis should be given to the incorporation ofwomen. Human resource development for prografflmeimplementation, in quantitative and qualitative terms,should include:(a) Developing required specialized skil ls to imple-ment the programme, including establishing specialtraining facilities at all levels;(b ) In t roduc ing /s t rengthen ing re f resher t ra in ing

cou rses, including fel lowsh ips and study tours, to updatesk i l l s andtechno log ica l know-how and improve produc-t i v i t y ;(c) Strengthening capabil ity for research, planning,economic analysis, periodical evaluations and evalu-ation, relevant to improved uti l ization of forest resources;(d) Promoting efficiency and capabil ity of private andcooperative sectors through provision of facil i t ies andincent ives.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

I l .2 t l Capac i ty -bu i ld ing , inc lud ing s t rengthen ing o fexisting capacity, is implicit in the programme activit ies.Improving administrat ion, pol icy and plans, nat ionalinst i tut ions, human resources, research and scient i f iccapabil it ies, technology development, and penodicalevaluations and evaluation are important components ofcapacity-building,

Dl ESTABUSHTNG AND/OR STRENGTHENTNGCAPACITIES FOR THE PIANNING, ASSESSMENTAND SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONS OF FORESTSAND RETATED PROGRAA/IftIES, PROJECTS ANDACTIVITIES, INCLUDING COMMERCIAT TRADEAND PROCESSES

BASIS FOR ACTION

l l .29 Assessment and systematic observations are essen-tial components of long-term planning, for evaluatingeffects, quantitatively and qualitatively, and for rectifyinginadequacies. This mechanism, however, is one of theoften neglected aspects of forest resources, management,conservation and development. In many cases, even thebasic information related to the area and type of forests,exist ing potent ia l and volume of harvest is lacking. Inmany developing countries, there is a lack of structuresand mechanisms to carry out these functions. There isan urgent need to rectify this situation for a betterunderstanding of the role and importance of forests andto realistically plan for their effective conservation,management, regenerat ion, and sustainable devel-opment.

OBJECTIVES

I L30 The objectives of this programme area are as fol-lows:(a) To strengthen or establish systems for the assess-ment and systematic observations of forests and forest

95

lands with a view to assessing the impacts of pro-grarunes, projects and activities on the quality and extentof forest resources, land available for afforestation, andland tenure, and to integrate the systems in a continuingprocess of research and in-depth analysis, while ensuringnecessary modifications and improvements for planning

and decision-making. Specific emphasis should be given

to the participation of rural people in these processes;(b) To provide economists, planners, decision makers

and local communities with sound and adequate updatedinformation on forests and forest land resources.

ACTIVITIESA) MANAGEMFNT-R ELATED ACT|V|T tES

I l.3l Governments and institutions, in collaboration,where necessary, with appropriate international agenciesand organizations, universities and non-govemmentalorganizations, should undertake assessments and sys-

tematic observations of forests and related programmes

and processes with a view to theircontinuous improvement.This should be linked to related activities of research andmanagement and, wherever possible, be built upon existing

systems. Major activities to be considered are:(a) Assessing and carrying out systematic observationsof the quantitative and qualitative situation and changesof forest cover and forest resources endowments, includ-ing land classification. land use and updates of its status,at the appropriate national level, and linking this activity,as appropriate, with planning as a basis for policy andprogramme formulation;(b) Establishing national assessment and systematic ob-servation systems and evaluation of programmes andprocesses, including establishment of defrnitions, standards,norrns and intercalibration methods, and the capability forinitiating corrective actions as well as improving the formu-

lation and implementation of programmes and projects;(c) Making estimates of impacts of activities affectingforestry developments and conservation proposals, in

terms of key variables such as developmental goals,

benefits and costs, contributions of forests to other sec-

tors, community welfare, environmental conditions and

biological diversity and their impacts at the local, re-gional and global levels, where appropriate, to assess the

changing technological and financial needs of countries;(d) Developing national systems of forest resource as-

sessment and valuation, including necessary research and

data analysis, which account for, where possible, the full

range of wood and non-wood forest products and ser-vices, and incorporating results in plans and strategies

and. where feasible, in national systems of accounts andplanning;

( e ) E s t a b l i s h i n g n e c e s s a r y i n t e r s e c t o r a l a n dprogramme linkages, including improved access toinformation, in order to support a holistic approach toplanning and programming.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

11.32 Reliable data and information are vital to thisprogramme area. National Governments, in collabora-tion, where necessary. with relevant international organ-izations, should, as appropriate, undertake to improvedata and information continuously and to ensure its ex-change. Major activities to be considered are as follows:(a) Collecting, consolidating and exchanging existinginformation and establishing baseline information onaspects relevant to this programme area;(b) Harmonizing the methodologies for programmesinvolving data and information activities to ensure accu-racy and consistency;(c) Undertaking special surveys on, for example, landcapability and suitability for afforestation action;(d) Enhancing research support and improving accessto and exchange of research results.

c/ TNIERNAT/ONAI AND REG/ONAICOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

11.33 The international community should extend to theGovernments concerned necessary technical and finan-cial support for implementing this programme area, includ-ing consideration of the following activities:(a) Establishing a conceptual framework and formulatingacceptable criteria, norrns and definitions for systematicobservations and assessment of forest resources;(b) Establishing and strengthening national institu-tional coordination mechanisms for forest assessmentand systematic observation activities;(c) Strengthening existing regional and global net-works for the exchange of relevant information;(d) Strengthening the capacity and ability and improv-ing the performance of existing international organiza-tions, such as the Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research (CGIAR), FAO, ITTO, UNEP,UNESCO and UNIDO, to provide technical support andguidance in this programme area.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FINAN CIAL AND COSI EVALUATION

I 1 .34 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-

96

age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $750 million,including about $230 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-gfturrmes Governments decide upon for implementation.I1.35 Accelerating development consists of implement-ing the management-related and data/information ac-tivities cited above. Activities related to global environ-mental issues are those that will contribute to globalinformation for assessing/evaluating/addressing envi-ronmental issues on a world-wide basis. Strengtheningthe capacity of international institutions consists of en-hancing the technical staff and the executing capacity ofseveral international organizations in order to meet therequirements of countries.

8/ SC/ENI/F/C AND TECHNOT.OG\CAL MEANS

11.36 Assessment and systematic observation activit iesinvolve major research efforts, statistical modelling andtechnological innovation. These have been internalizedinto the management-related activities. The activities intum will improve the technological and scientific contentof assessment and periodical evaluations. Some of thespecific scientific and technological components includedunder these activities are:(a) Developing technical, ecological and economicmethods and models related to periodical evaluations andevaluation;(b) Developing data systems, data processing and sta-tistical modelling;(c) Remote sensing and ground surveys;(d) Developing geographic information systems;(e) Assessing and improving technology.I 1.37 These are to be linked and harmonized with similaractivities and components in the other programme areas.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

11.38 The programme activities foresee the need andinclude provision for human resource development interms of specialization (e.g., the use of remote-sensing,mapping and statistical modelling), training, technologytransfer, fellowships and field demonstrations.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

11.39 National Governments, in collaboration with ap-propriate international organizations and institutions,should develop the necessary capacity for implementingthis prograrune area. This should be harmonized withcapacity-building for other programme areas. Capacity-building should cover such aspects as policies, publicadministrat ion, nat ional- level inst i tut ions, humanresource and skill development, research capability, tech-nology development, information systems, programmeevaluation. intersectoral coordination and internationalcooperation.

E/ FUND/NG OF /NTERNAnONAI ANDREG/ONA L COOPERAIION

I I .40 The secretariat of the Conference has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $750 million,including about $530 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

97

' lt) Monoging frogile ecosystems:I z- Comboting desertificotion ond drought

I N T R O D U C T I O N

l2.l Fragile ecosystems are important ecosystems,with unique features and resources. Fragile ecosystemsinclude desefts, semi-arid lands, mountains, wetlands,small islands and certain coastal areas. Most of theseecosystems are regional in scope, as they transcend na-tional boundaries. This chapter addresses land resourceissues in deserts, as well as arid, semi-arid and drysub-humid areas. Sustainable mountain development isaddressed in chapter l3; small islands and coastal areasare discussed in chapter 17.12.2 Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from variousfactors, including climatic variations and human ac-tivities. Desertification affects about one sixth of theworld's population, 70 per cent of all drylands, amount-ing to 3.6 billion hectares, and one quarter of the totalland area of the world. The most obvious impact ofdesertification, in addition to widespread poverty, is thedegradation of 3.3 billion hectares of the total area ofrangeland, constituting 73 per cent of the rangeland witha low potential for human and animal carrying capacity;decline in soil fertility and soil structure on about 47 per

cent of the dryland areas constituting marginal rainfedcropland; and the degradation of inigated cropland,amounting to 30 per cent of the dryland areas with a highpopulation density and agricultural potential.12.3 The priority in combating desertification should bethe implementation of preventive measures for lands thatare not yet degraded, or which are only slightly degraded.However, the severely degraded areas should not be neg-lected. In combating desertification and drought, the par-ticipation of local communities, rural organizations, na-tional Governments, non-governmental organizations andintemational and regional organizations is essential.

98

12.4 The following programlne areas are included inthis chapter:(a) Strengthening the knowledge base and developinginformation and monitoring systems for regions prone todesertification and drought, including the economic andsocial aspects of these ecosystems;(b) Combating land degradation through, inter alia,i ntensi fied soil con serv ation. affore station and refore sta-tion activities;(c) Developing and sfrengttrening integrated developmentprogrammes for the eradication of poverty and promotion ofaltemative livelihood systems in areas prone to desertification;(d) Developing comprehensive anti-desertif icationprogrammes and integrating them into national develop-ment plans and national environmental planning;(e) Developing comprehensive drought preparednessand droughrrelief schemes, including self-help affange-ments, for drought-prone areas and designing pro-grammes to cope with environmental refugees;(0 Encouraging and promoting popular participationand environmental education, focusing on desertificationcontrol and management of the effects of drought.

PROG RAMM E AREAS

Al STRENGTHENING THE KNOWTEDGE BASEAND DEVELOPING INFORMATION ANDMONITORING SYSTEMS FOR REGIONS PRONETO DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGH' INCTUDINGTHE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAT ASPECTS OFTHESE ECOSYSTETAS

BASIS FOR ACTION

12.5 The global assessments of the status and rate ofdesertification conducted by the United Nations Environ-

ment Programme (UNEP) rn 1977,1984 and 1991 have

revealed insufficient basic knowledge of desertificationprocesses. Adequate world-wide systematic observation

systems are helpful for the development and implemen-

tation of effecti ve anti -de sertification prograrnmes. The

capacity of existing international, regional and national

institutions, particularly in developing countries, to

generate and exchange relevant information is limited.

An integrated and coordinated information and sys-

tematic observation system based on appropriate tech-

nology and embracing global, regional, national and local

levels is essential for understanding the dynamics of

desertification and drought processes. It is also important

for developing adequate measures to deal with desertifi-

cation and drought and improving socio-economic con-

ditions.

OBJECTIVES

12.6 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To promote the establishment and/or strengthening

of national environmental information coordination

centres that will act as focal points within Governments

for sectoral ministries and provide the necessary stand-

ardization and back-up services; and also to ensure that

national environmental information systems on deserti-

fication and drought are linked together through a net-

work at subregional, regional and interregional levels;(b) To strengthen regional and global systematic obser-

vation networks linked to the development of national

systems for the observation of land degradation and

desertification caused both by climate fluctuations and

by human impact, and to identify priority areas for action;(c) To establish a permanent system at both national

and international levels for monitoring desertification

and land degradation with the aim of improving living

conditions in the affected areas.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGFMENI.R ELATED ACTIV IT IES

12.1 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations. should:(a) Establishand/orstrengthenenvironmental informa-

tion systems at the national level;(b) Strengthen national, state/provincial and local as-

sessment and ensure cooperation/networking between

existing environmental information and monitoring sys-

tems, such as Earthwatch and the Sahara and Sahel

Observatory;(c) Strengthen the capacity of national institutions to

analyse environmental data so that ecological change can

be monitored and environmental information obtained

on a continuing basis at the national level.

B) DATA AND TNFORMAnON

12.8 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations, should:(a) Review and study the means for measuring the

ecological, economic and social consequences of deser-

tification and land degradation and introduce the results

of these studies internationally into desertification and

land degradation assessment practices;(b) Review and study the interactions between the

socio-economic impacts of climate, drought and deserti-

fication and utilize the results of these studies to secure

concrete action.l2.g Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations, should:(a) Support the integrated data collection and research

work of programmes related to desertification and

drought problems;(b) Support national, regional and global programmes

for integrated data collection and research networks car-

rying out assessment of soil and land degradation;(c) Strengthen national and regional meteorological

and hydrological networks and monitoring systems to

ensure adequate collection of basic infbrmation andcom-

munication among national, regional and international

centres.

C) /NIERNATIONAL AND RFG/ONAICOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAT/ON

12.10 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations, should:(a) Strengthen regional programmes and international

cooperation, such as the Permanent Inter-State Commit-

tee on Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), the Inter-

governmental Authority for Drought and Development(IGADD), the Southern African Development Coordina-

tionConference (SADCC), the Arab Maghreb Union and

other regional organizations, as well as such organiza-

tions as the Sahara and Sahel Observatory;(b) Establish and/or develop a comprehensive deserti-

fication,land degradation and human condition database

component that incorporates both physical and socio-

economic parameters. This should be based on existing

99

and, where necessary, additional facilities, such as thoseof Earthwatch and other information systems of interna-tional, regional and national institutions strengthened forthis purpose;(c) Determine benchmarks and define indicators ofprogress that facilitate the work of local and regionalorganizations in tracking progress in the fight for anti-desertification. Particular attention should be paid toindicators of local participation.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A' F'NANCTNG AND COST EVALUATTON

12.11 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $350 million,including about $175 million fromthe international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprogrammes Governments decide upon for implemen-tation.

B/ SC'ENilFtC AND TECHNOLOG\CAL MEANS

12.12 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations working on the issue of desertification anddrought, should:(a) Undertake and update existing inventories ofnatural resources, such as energy, water, soil, mineralsand plant and animal access to food, as well as otherresources, such as housing, employment, health, edu-cation and demographic distribution in time and space;(b) Develop integrated information systems for envi-ronmental monitoring, accounting and impact assess-ment;(c) Cooperate with international bodies to facilitate theacquisition and development of appropriate technologyfor monitoring and combating drought and deserti-fication.

c) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

12.13 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations working on the issue of desertification anddrought, should develop the technical and professional

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skills of people engaged in monitoring and assessing theissue of desertification and drousht.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

12.14 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations working on the issue of desertification anddrought, should:(a) Strengthen national and local institutions by pro-viding adequate staff equipment and finance forassessinsdesertification;(b) Promote the involvement of the local population,panicularly women and youth, in the collection andutilization of environmental information throueh educa-tion and awareness-buildine.

B) COTVIBAT|NG LAND DEGRADATTON THROUGH,,NTER ALTA, INTENSIFIED SOII CONSERVANON,AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION ACTIVITIES

BASIS FOR ACTION

12.15 Desertif ication affects about 3.6 bil l ion hec-tares, which is about 70 per cent of the total area of theworld's drylands or nearly one quarter of the globalland area. In combating desertif ication on rangeland,ra in fed c rop land and i r r iga ted land, p revent ivemeasures should be launched in areas which are not yetaffected or are only slightly affected by desertification;corrective measures should be implemented to sustainthe productivity of moderately desertified land; andrehabilitative measures should be taken to recoverseverely or very severely desertified drylands.12.16 An increasing vegetation cover would promoteand stabili zethe hydrological balance in the dryland areasand maintain land quality and land productivity. Protec-tion of not yet degraded land, application of correctivemeasures and rehabilitation of moderate and severelydegraded drylands, including areas affected by sand dunemovements, through the introduction of environmentallysound, social ly acceptable, fa i r and economical lyfeasible land-use systems will enhance the land-carryingcapacity and maintenance of biotic resources in fragileecosystems.

OBJECTIVES

12.17 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) As regards areas not yet affected or only slightlyaffected by desertif ication, to ensure appropriatemanagement of existing natural formations (including

forests) for the conservation of biodiversity, watershedprotection, sustainability of their production and agricul-tural development, and other purposes, with the fullparticipation of indigenous people;(b) To rehabilitate moderately to severely desertifieddrylands for productive utilization and sustain theirproductivity for agropastoraVagroforestry developmentthrough, inter alia, soil and water conservation;(c) To increase the vegetation cover and support man-agement of biotic resources in regions affected or proneto desertification and drought, notably through such ac-tivities as affore station/refore station, agrofore stry, com-munity forestry and vegetation retention schemes;(d) To improve management of forest resources, in-cluding woodfuel, and to reduce woodfuel consumptionthrough more efficient utilization, conseryation and en-hancement, development and use of other sources ofenergy, including alternative sources of energy.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACT IVIT IES

12.18 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Implement urgent direct preventive measures indrylands that are vulnerable but not yet affected, or onlyslightly desertified drylands, by introducing (i) improvedland-use policies and practices for more sustainable landproductivity; (ii) appropriate, environmentally sound andeconomically feasible agricultural and pastoral techno-logies; and (iii) improved management of soil and waterresources;(b) Carry out accelerated afforestation and reforesta-tion programmes, using drought-resistant, fast-growingspecies, in particular native ones, including legumes andother species, combined with community-based agro-forestry schemes. In this regard, creation of large-scalereforestation and afforestation schemes, particularlythrough the establishment of green belts, should be con-sidered, bearing in mind the multiple benefits of suchmeasures;(c) Implement urgently direct corrective measures inmoderately to severely desertified drylands, in additionto the measures listed in paragraph l8 (a) above, with aview to restoring and sustaining their productivity;(d) Promote improved land/water/crop-managementsystems, making it possible to combat salinization inexisting irrigated croplands; and stabilize rainfed crop-lands and introduce improved soiVcrop-managementsystems into land-use practice:(e) Promote participatory management of natural

resources, including rangeland, to meet both the needs ofrural populations and conservation purposes, based oninnovative or adapted indigenous technologies;(0 Promote in situ protection and conservation of spe-cial ecological areas through legislation and other meansfor the purpose of combating desertification while ensur-ing the protection of biodiversity;(g) Promote and encourage investment in forestrydevelopment in drylands through various incentives, in-cluding legislative measures;(h) Promote the development and use of sources ofenergy which will lessen pressure on ligneous resources,including alternative sources of energy and improvedstoves.

B) DATA AND TNFORMAT/ON

12.19 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop land-use models based on local practicesfor the improvement of such practices, with a focus onpreventing land degradation. The models should give abetter understanding of the variety of natural and human-induced factors that may contribute to desertification.Models should incorporate the interaction of both new andtraditional practices to prevent land degradation and reflectthe resilience of the whole ecological and social system;(b) Develop, test and introduce, with due regard toenvironmental security considerations, drought-resistant,fast-growing and productive plant species appropriate tothe environment of the resions concerned.

ci /NIERNAT/ONAL AND REG/ONAICOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAIION

12.20 The appropriate United Nations agencies, intema-tional and regional organizations, non-governmentalorganizations and bilateral agencies should:(a) Coordinate their roles in combating land degrada-tion and promoting reforestation, agroforestry and land-management systems in affected countries;(b) Support regional and subregional activities in tech-nology development and dissemination, training and pro-gramme implementation to arrest dryland degradation.12.21 The national Governments concerned, the appro-priate United Nations agencies and bilateral agenciesshould strengthen the coordinating role in dryland deg-radation of subregional intergovemmental organizationsset up to cover these activities, such as CILSS, IGADD,SADCC and the Arab Maehreb Union.

l 0 l

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATIONA/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

12.22 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $6 billion,including about $3 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SC/ENI|FtC AND TECHNOTOG\CAL MEANS

12.23 Governments at the appropriate level and localcommunities, with the support of the relevant interna-tional and regional organizations, should:(a) Integrate indigenous knowledge related to forests,forest lands. rangeland and natural vegetation into re-search activities on desertification and drought;(b) Promote integrated research programmes on theprotection, restoration and conservation of water and landresources and land-use management based on traditionalapproaches, where feasible.

C) HUMAN RESOURCF DEVELOPMENT

12.24 Governments at the appropriate level and localcommunities, with the support of the relevant interna-tional and regional orgamzations, should:(a) Establish mechanisms to ensure that land users,particularly women, are the main actors in implementingimproved land use, including agroforestry systems, incombating land degradation;(b) Promote efficient extension-service facil i t ies inareas prone to desertification and drought, particularlyfor training farmers and pastoralists in the improvedmanagement of land and water resources in drvlands.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

12.25 Governments at the appropriate level and localcommunities, with the support of the relevant interna-tional and regional organizations, should:(a) Develop and adopt, through appropriate nationallegislation, and introduce institutionally, new and envi-ronmental ly sound development-or iented land-usepol ic ies:

102

(b) Support community-based people's organizations,especially farmers and pastoralists.

c) DEVETOPTNG AND STRENGTHENTNGINTEGRATED DEVEIOPMENT PROGRAMMES FORTHE ERADICATION OF POVERW AND PROMOTIONOF ATTERNATIVE LIVETIHOOD SYSTEMS IN AREASPRONE TO DESERTIFICATION

BASIS FOR ACTION

12.26 In areas prone to desertification and drought, cur-rent livelihood and resource-use systems are not able tomaintain living standards. In most of the arid and semi-arid areas, the traditional livelihood systems based onagropastoral systems are often inadequate and unsustain-able, particularly in view of the effects of drought andincreasing demographic pressure. Poverty is a majorfactor in accelerating the rate of degradation and deser-tification. Action is therefore needed to rehabilitate andimprove the agropastoral systems for sustainablemanagement of rangelands, as well as alternativelivelihood systems.

OBJECTIVES

12.27 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To create the capacity of village communities andpastoral groups to take charge of their development andthe management of their land resources on a sociallyequitable and ecologically sound basis;(b) To improve product ion systems in order toa c h i e v e g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y w i t h i n a p p r o v e dprogrammes for conservation of national resources andin the framework of an integrated approach to ruraldevelopment;(c) To provide opportunities for alternative livelihoodsas a basis for reducing pressure on land resources whileat the same time providing additional sources of income,particularly for rural populations, thereby improvingtheir standard of livins.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELAT ED ACT IV ITI ES

12.28 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesuppoft of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Adopt policies at the national level regarding adecentralized approach to land-resource management,delegating responsibility to rural organizations;

(b) Create or strengthen rural organizatrons in chargeof village and pastoral land management;(c) Establish and develop local, national and intersec-toral mechanisms to handle environmental and develop-mental consequences of land tenure expressed in termsof land use and land ownership. Particular attention shouldbe given to protecting the property righs of women andpastoral and nomadic groups living in rural arezn;(d) Create or strengthen village associations focused oneconomic activities of common pastoral interest (marketgardening, transformation of agricultural products, live-stock, herding etc.);(e) Promote rural credit and mobilization of ruralsavings through the establishment of rural bankinosystems;(l) Develop infrastructure, as well as local productionand marketing capacity, by involving the local peopleto promote alternative l ivelihood systems and alleviatepoverty;(g) Establish a revolving fund for credit to rural entre-preneurs and local groups to facilitate the establishmentof cottage industries/business ventures and credit forinput to agropastoral activities.

B) DATA AND INFORMAT/ON

12.29 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Conduct socio-economic baseline studies in orderto have a good understanding of the situation in theprogramme area regarding, particularly, resource andland tenure issues, traditional land-management prac-tices and characteristics of production systems;(b) Conduct inventories of natural resources (soil,

water and vegetation) and their state of degradation,based primarily on the knowledge of the local population(e.9., rapid rural appraisal);(c) Disseminate information on technical packagesadapted to the social, economic and ecological conditionsof each;(d) Promote exchange and sharing of information con-cerning the development of alternative livelihoods withother agro-ecological regions.

C/ /NIFRNATIONAL AND REG/ONAI.COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAIION

12.30 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:

(a) Promote cooperation and exchange of informationamong the arid and semi-arid land research institutionsconcerning techniques and technologies to improve landand labour productivity, as well as viable productionsystems;(b) Coordinate and harmonize the implementation ofprogrammes and projects funded by the internationalorganization corrununities and non-governmental organ-izations that are directed towards the alleviation of pov-erty and promotion of an alternative livelihood system.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

12.31 The Conference secretariat has estimated the costsfor this programme area in chapter 3 (Combating poverty)and chapter 14 (Promoting sustainable agriculture andrural development).

8/ SC/ENI FtC AND TECHNOI O G|CAL MEANS

12.32 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Undertake applied research in land use with thesupport of local research institutions;(b) Facilitate regular national, regional and interregionalcommunication on and exchange of information and experi-ence between extension officers and researchers;(c) Support and encourage the introduction and use oftechnologies for the generation of alternative sources ofincomes.

C) HUMAN RFSOURCE DEVELOPMENT

12.33 Governments at the appropnate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Train members of rural orgamzations in manage-ment skills and train agropastoralists in such specialtechniques as soil and water conservation, water harvest-ing, agroforestry and small-scale irrigation;(b) Train extension agents and officers in the participa-tory approach to integrated land management.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

12.34 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

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support of the relevant international and regional organiza-tions, should establish and maintain mechanisms to ensurethe integration into sectoral and national developmentplansandprogrammes of strategies forpoverty alleviation amongthe inhabitants of lands prone to desertification.

D) DEVETOPTNG COMPREHENSTVEANN-DESERTIFICATION PROGRA'YTMESAND INTEGRATING THEM INTO NATIONATDEVETOPftTENT P1ANS AND NATIONATENVIRON'VIE NTAI PIANNING

BASIS FOR ACTION

12.35 In a number of developing countries affected bydesertification, the natural resource base is the mainresource upon which the development process must rely.The social systems interacting with land resources makethe problem much more complex, requiring an integratedapproach to the planning and management of land re-sources. Action plans to combat desertification anddrought should include management aspects of environ-ment and development, thus conforming with the ap-proach of integrating national development plans andnational environmental action plans.

OBJECTIVES

12.36 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To strengthen national institutional capabilities todevelop appropriate anti-desertification programmesand to integrate them into national development plan-ning;(b) To develop strategic planning frameworks for thedevelopment, protection and management of natural re-sources in dryland areas and integrate them into nationaldevelopment plans, including national plans to combatdesertif ication, and environmental action plans incountries most prone to desertification;(c) To initiate a long-term process for implementingand monitoring strategies related to natural resourcesmanagement;(d) To strengthen regional and international coopera-tion for combating desertification through, inter alia,theadoption of legal and other instruments.

ACTIVITIESA) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

12.37 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:

(a) Establish, or strengthen, national and local anti-desertification authorities within government and localexecutive bodies, as well as local committees/associ-ations of land users, in all rural communities affected,with a view to organizing working cooperation betweenall actors concerned, from the grass-roots level (farmersand pastoralists) to the higher levels of government;(b) Develop national plans of action to combat deser-tification and, as appropriate, make them integral partsof national development plans and national environmen-tal action plans;(c) Implement policies directed towards improvingland use, managing common lands appropriately, provid-ing incentives to small farmers and pastoralists, involvingwomen and encouraging private investment in thedevelopment of drylands;(d) Ensure coordination among ministries and institu-tions working on anti-desertification programmes at na-tional and local levels.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

12.38 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should promote information exchange andcooperation with respect to national planning andpro grammi n g amo n g affec te d cou ntrie s, inte r alin, tlvoughnetworking.

C/ /NIERNAI'ONAI. AND REG/ONAI.COOPERATION AND COORD/NAI/ON

12.39 The relevant international organizations, multi-I ateral financ ial i n stituti on s, n on - governmental organ-izations and bilateral agencies should strengthen theircooperation in assisting with the preparation of deserti-fication control programmes and their integration intonational planning strategies, with the establishment ofnat ional coordinat ing and systemat ic observat ionmechanisms and with the regional and global networkingof these plans and mechanisms.12.40 The General Assembly, at its forty-seventh session,should be requested to establish, under the aegis of theGeneral Assembly, an intergovernmental negotiatingcommittee forthe elaboration of an international conven-tion to combat desertification in those countries experi-encing serious drought and/or desertification, particular-ly in Africa, with a view to finalizing such a conventionby June 1994.

104

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

12.41 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this prograrnme to be about $ 180 million,including about $90 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-gftunmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

B/ sC/ENTIFIC AND IECHNOTOGICAL MEANS

12.42 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop and introduce appropriate improvedsustainable agricultural and pastoral technologies that aresocially and environmentally acceptable and economi-cally feasible;(b) Undertake applied study on the integration of envi-ronmental and developmental activities into nationaldevelopment plans.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

12.43 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should undertake nationwide major anti-deser-tification awareness/training campaigns within countriesaffected through existing national mass media facilities,educational networks and newly created or strengthenedextension services. This should ensure people's access toknowledge of deserlification and drought and to nationalplans of action to combat desertification.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

12.44 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should establish and maintain mechanisms toensure coordination of sectoral ministries and institu-tions, including local-level institutions and appropriatenon-governmental organizations, in integrating anti-desertifrcation prograrrunes into national developmentplans and national environmental action plans.

El DEVETOPTNG COTVIPREHENSIVE DROUGHTPREPAREDNESS AND DROUGHT-REUEFSCHE'YTES, INCLUDING SELF.HEIPARRANGETIENTS, FOR DROUGHT-PRONEAREAS AND DESIGNING PROGRAM'YIES TOCOPE WIIH ENVIRONMENTAT REFUGEES

BASIS FOR ACTION

12.45 Drought, in differing degrees of frequency andseverity, is a recurring phenomenon throughout much ofthe developing world, especially Africa. Apart from thehuman toll - an estimated 3 million people died in themid-1980s because of drought in sub-Saharan Africa -

the economic costs of drought-related disasters are alsohigh in terms of lost production, misused inputs anddiversion of development resources.12.46 Early-warning systems to forecast drought will makepossible the implementation of drought-preparednessschemes. Integrated packages at the farm and watershedlevel, such as alternative cropping strategies, soil and waterconservation and promotion of water harvesting techniques,could enhance the capacity of land to cope with drought andprovide basic necessities, thereby minimizing the numberof environmental refugees and the need for emergencydrought relief. At the same time, contingency arrangementsfor relief are needed for periods of acute scarcity.

OBJECTIVES

12.47 The objectives of this prograrnme area are:(a) To develop national strategies fordroughtprepared-ness in both the short and long term, aimed at reducingthe vulnerability of production systems to drought;(b) To strengthen the flow of early-waming informa-tion to decision makers and land users to enable nationsto implement strategies for drought intervention;(c) To develop drought-relief schemes and means ofcoping with environmental refugees and integrate theminto national and regional development planning.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGFMENI-R ELATED ACT IVITI ES

12.48 In drought-prone areas, Governments at the appro-priate level, with the support of the relevant internationaland regional organizations, should:(a) Design strategies to deal with national fooddeficiencies in periods of production shortfall. Thesestrategies should deal with issues of storage and stocks,imports, port facilities, food storage, transport and dis-tribution;

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(b) Improve national and regional capacity for agro-

meteorology and contingency crop planning. Agrome-

teorology l inks the frequency, content and regional

coverage of weather forecasts with the requirements of

crop planning and agricultural extension;(c) Prepare rural projects for providing short-term rural

employment to drought-affected households. The loss of

income and entitlement to food is a common source of

distress in times of drought. Rural works help to generate

the income required to buy food for poor households;(d) Establish contingency arrangements, where neces-

sary, for food and fodder distribution and water supply;(e) Establish budgetary mechanisms for providing, at

short notice, resources for drought relief;(f) Establish safety nets for the most vulnerable

households.

B) DATA AND INFORMAI/ON

12.49 Governments of affected countries, at the appro-priate level, with the support of the relevant international

and regional organizations, should:(a) Implement research on seasonal forecasts to im-

prove contingency planning and relief operations and

allow preventive measures to be taken at the farm level,

such as the selection of appropriate varieties and farminspractices, in times of drought;(b) Support applied research on ways of reducing water

loss from soils, on ways of increasing the water absorp-

tion capacities of soils and on water harvesting tech-niques in drought-prone areas:(c) Strengthen national early-warning systems, withparticular emphasis on the area of risk-mapping, remote-

sensing, agrometeorological model l ing, integrated

multidisciplinary crop-forecasting techniques and com-puteri zed food supply/demand analysis.

c/ /NTERNAT/ONAL AND REG/ONAI.COOP ERAI/ON AND COORD/NAI'ON

12.50 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Establish a system of stand-by capacities in terms

of foodstock, logistical support, personnel and financefor a speedy international response to drought-relatedemergencies;(b) Support programmes of the World MeteorologicalOrganization (WMO) on agrohydrology and agro-meteorology, the Programme of the Regional TrainingCentre for Agrometeorology and Operational Hydrology

a n d t h e i r A p p l i c a t i o n s ( A G R H Y M E T ) , d r o u g h t -m o n i t o r i n g c e n t r e s a n d t h e A f r i c a n C e n t r e o fM e t e o r o l o g i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s f o r D e v e l o p m e n t(ACMAD), as well as the efforts of the Permanent Inter-

State Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel(CILSS) and the Intergovernmental Author i ty forDrought and Development (IGADD);(c) Support FAO programmes and other programmesfor the development of national early-warning systemsand food security assistance schemes;(d) Strengthen and expand the scope of exist ingregional programmes and the activit ies of appropriateUnited Nations organs and organizations, such as theWorld Food Programme (WFP), the Office of theUnited Nat ions Disaster Rel ief Coordinator (UNDRO)

and the United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office as wellas o f non-governmenta l o rgan iza t ions , a imed a tmitigating the effects of drought and emergencies.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FINANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

12.51 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $1.2 billion,including about $ l. I billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will

depend upon, inter clia, the specific strategies and pro-gruunmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENr/F/C AND TECHNOLOG\CAL MEANS

12.52 Governments atthe appropriate level and drought-prone communities, with the support of the relevantintemational and regional organizations, should:(a) Use traditional mechanisms to cope with hunger asa means of channelling relief and development assist-ance;(b) Strengthen and develop national, regional and localinterdisciplinary research and training capabilities fordroughrprevention strate gies.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

12.53 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:

1 0 6

(a) Promote the training of decision makers and landusers in the effective utilization of information fromearly-warning systems ;( b ) S t r e n g t h e n r e s e a r c h a n d n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n gcapabilities to assess the impact of drought and to developmethodologies to forecast drought.

D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG

12.54 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Improve and maintain mechanisms with adequatestaff, equipment and finances for monitoring droughtparameters to take preventive measures at regional, na-tional and local levels;(b) Establishinterministerial linkages andcoordinatingunits for drought monitoring, impact assessment andmanagement of drought-relief schemes.

F) ENCOURAGTNG AND PROTVTOTING POPU1ARPARTICIPATION AND ENVIRON'YIENTAIEDUCATION, FOCUSING ON DESERTIFICATIONCONTROL AND MANAGE}IENT OF THE EFFECTSOF DROUGHT

BASIS FOR ACTION

12.55 The experience to date on the successes andfailures of programmes and projects points to the needfor popular support to sustain activities related to deserti-fication and drought control. But it is necessary to gobeyond the theoretical ideal of popular participation andto focus on obtaining actual active popular involvement,rooted in the concept of partnership. This implies thesharing of responsibilities and the mutual involvement ofall parties. In this context, this programme area shouldbe considered an essential supporting component of alldesertification-control and droueht-related activities.

OBJECTIVES

12.-56 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To develop and increase public awareness andknowledge concerning desertification and drought, in-cluding the integration of environmental education in thecurriculum of primary and secondary schools;(b) To establish and promote true partnership betweengovernment authorities, at both the national and locallevels, other executing agencies, non-governmentalorgamzatrons and land users stricken by drought anddesertification, giving land users a responsible role in the

planning and execution processes in order to benefit fullyfrom development projects;(c) To ensure that the partners understand one another'sneeds, objectives and points of view by providing avariety of means such as training, public awareness andopen dialogue;(d) To support local communities in their own efforts incombating desertification, and to draw on the knowledgeand experience of ttre populations concemed, ensuring thefull participation of women and indigenous populations.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT-R ELAT ED ACT tvtTt ES

12.57 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Adopt policies and establish administrative struc-tures for more decentralized decision-making and im-plementation;( b ) E s t a b l i s h a n d u t i l i z e m e c h a n i s m s f o r t h econsul tat ion and involvement of land users and forenhancing capabil ity at the grass-roots level to identifyand/or contr ibute to the ident i f icat ion and planningof act ion;(c) Define specific programme/project objectives incooperation with local communities; and design localmanagement plans to include such measures of progress,thereby providing a means of altering project design orchanging management practices, as appropriate;(d) Introduce legislative, institutionaVorganizationaland financial measures to secure user involvement andaccess to land resources;(e) Establish and/or expand favourable conditions forthe provision of services, such as credit facilities andmarketing outlets for rural populations;(0 Develop training programmes to increase the levelof education and participation of people, particularlywomen and indigenous groups, through, inter alia, bt-eracy and the development of technical skills;(g) Create rural banking systems to facilitate access tocredit for rural populations, particularly women and in-digenous groups, and to promote rural savings;(h) Adopt appropriate policies to stimulate private andpublic investment.

B) DATA AND 'NFORMAI/ON

12.58 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:

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(a) Review, develop and disseminate gender-disaggre-gated information, skills and know-how at all levels onways of organizing and promoting popular participation;(b) Accelerate the development of technological know-how, focusing on appropriate and intermediate technol-o8y;(c) Disseminate knowledge about applied researchresults on soil and water issues, appropriate species,agricultural techniques and technological know-how.

C/ INIERNAI/ONAI. AND REG'ONATCOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

12.59 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop programmes of support to regional organ-izations such as CILSS. IGADD. SADCC and the ArabMaghreb Union and other intergovernmental organiza-tions in Africa and other parts of the world, to strengthenoutreach programmes and increase the participation ofnon-governmental organizations together with ruralpopulations;(b) Develop mechanisms forfacilitating cooperation intechnology and promote such cooperation as an elementof all external assistance and activities related to technicalassistance projects in the public or private sector;(c) Promote collaboration among different actors inenvironment and development programmes;(d) Encourage the emergence of representative organ-izational structures to foster and sustain interorganrza-tional cooperation.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

AI FINANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

12.60 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing the

activities of this prograrnme to be about $1 billion,including about $500 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and havenot been reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs andfinancial ferms, including any that are non-concessional,will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprograrnmes Governments decide upon for implementa-tion.

8/ SC'ENilFtC AND TECHNOTOG\CAL MEANS

12.61 Governments atthe appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should promote the development of indigenousknow-how and technology transfer.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

12.62 Governments, at the appropriate level, and withthe support of the relevant international and regionalorganizations, should:(a) Support and/or strengthen institutions involved inpublic education, including the local media, schools andcommunity goups;(b) Increase the level of public education.

D) CAPACTTY-BUILD|NG

12.63 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should promote members of local rural organ-izations and train and appoint more extension officersworking at the local level.

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1 ? Monoging frogile ecosystems:I vt Sustoinoble mountoin development

I N T R O D U C T I O N

13.1 Mountains are an important source of water,energy and biological diversity. Furthermore, they area source of such key resources as minerals, forestproducts and agricultural products and of recreation.As a major ecosystem representing the complex andinterrelated ecology of our planet, mountain environ-ments are essential to the survival of the global eco-system. Mountain ecosystems are, however, rapidlychanging. They are susceptible to accelerated soilerosion, landslides and rapid loss of habitat and geneticdiversity. On the human side, there is widespreadpoverty among mountain inhabitants and loss ofindigenous knowledge. As a resul t , most globalmountain areas are experiencing environmental deg-radation. Hence, the proper management of mountainresources and socio-economic development of thepeople deserves immediate action.13.2 About 10 per cent of the world's populationdepends directly on mountain resources. A much largerpercentage draws on mountain resources, including andespecially water. Mountains are a storehouse of biologi-cal diversity and endangered species.13.3 Two programme areas are included in this chap-ter to further elaborate the problem of fragile eco-systems with regard to all mountains of the world.These are:(a) Generating and strengthening knowledge about theecology and sustainable development of mountainecosystems;(b) Promoting integrated watershed development andalternative livelihood opportunities.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) GENERATING AND STRENGTHENINGKNOWTEDGE ABOUT THE ECOTOGY ANDSUSTAINABLE DEVETOPftTENT OF }TOUNTAINECOSYSTEMS

BASIS FOR ACTION

13.4 Mountains are highly vulnerable to human andnatural ecological imbalance. Mountains are the areasmost sensitive to all climatic changes in the atmosphere.Specific information on ecology, natural resourcepotential and socio-economic activit ies is essential.Mountain and hillside areas hold a rich variety ofecological systems. Because of their vertical dimen-sions, mountains create gradients of temperature,precipitation and insolation. A given mountain slopemay include several climatic systems - such as tropi-cal, subtropical, temperate and alpine - each of whichrepresents a microcosm of a larger habitat diversity.There is, however, a lack of knowledge of mountainecosys tems. The c rea t ion o f a g loba l mounta indatabase is therefore vital for launching programmesthat contribute to the sustainable development ofmountain ecosystems.

OBJECTIVES

13.5 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To undertake a survey of the different forms of soils,forest, water use, crop, plant and animal resources ofmountain ecosystems, taking into account the work ofexisting international and regional organizations;(b) To maintain and generate database and informationsystems to facilitate the integrated management and envi-ronmental assessment of mountain ecosystems, taking

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into account the work of existing international andregional organizations ;(c) To improve and build the existing land/water ecologi-cal knowledge base regarding technologies and agriculturaland conservation practices in the mountain regions of theworld, with the participation of local communities;(d) To create and strengthen the communications net-work and information clearing-house for existing organ-izations concerned with mountain issues;(e) To improve coordination of regional efforts toprotect fragile mountain ecosystems through the con-sideration of appropriate mechanisms, including regionallegal and other instruments;(0 To generate information to establish databases andinformation systems to facilitate an evaluation of environ-mental risks and natural disasters in mountain ecosystems.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

13.6 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Strengthen existing institutions or establish newones at local, national and regional levels to generate amultidisciplinary land/water ecological knowledge baseon mountain ecosystems;(b) Promote national policies that would provide incen-tives to local people for the use and transfer of environ-ment-friendly technologies and farming and conserva-tion practices;(c) Build up the knowledge base and understanding bycreating mechanisms for cooperation and informationexchange among national and regional institutions work-ing on fragile ecosystems;(d) Encourage policies that would provide incentivesto farmers and local people to undertake conservationand regenerative measures;(e) Diversify mountain economies, inter alia,by creat-ing and/or strengthening tourism, in accordance withintegrated management of mountain areas;(0 Integrate all forest, rangeland and wildlife activities insuch away that specific mountain ecosystems are maintained;(g) Establish appropriate natural reserves in repre-sentative species-rich sites and areas.

B) DATA AND /NFORMATTON

13.7 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:

i 1 0

(a) Maintain and establish meteorological, hydrologr-cal and physical monitoring analysis and capabilities thatwould encompass the climatic diversity as well as waterdistribution of various mountain regions of the world;(b) Build an inventory of different forms of soils,forests, water use, and crop, plant and animal geneticresources, giving priority to those under threat of extinc-tion. . Genetic resources should be protected in situ bymaintaining and establishing protected areas and improv-ing traditional farming and animal husbandry activitiesand establishing programmes forevaluating the potentialvalue of the resources;(c) Identify hazardous areas that are most vulnerable toerosion, f loods, landslides, earthquakes, snow ava-lanches and other natural hazards;(d) Identify mountain areas threatened by air pollutionfrom neighbouring industrial and urban areas.

c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL AND REGIONAI COOPERAnON

13.8 National Governments and intersovernmentalorganizations should:(a) Coordinate regional and international cooperationand facilitate an exchange of information and experienceamong the specialized agencies, the World Bank, IFADand other international and regional orgamzations, na-tional Governments, research institutions and non-gov-ernmental organizations working on mountain develop-ment;(b) Encourage regional, national and international net-working of people's initiatives and the activities of inter-national, regional and local non-governmental organiza-tions working on mountain development, such as theUnited Nations University (UNU), the WoodlandMoun-tain Institutes (WMI), the International Center for Inte-grated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the Interna-tional Mountain Society (IMS), the African MountainAssociation and the Andean Mountain Association,besides supporting those organrzatrons in the exchangeof information and experience;(c) Protect fragile mountain ecosystems through theconsideration of appropriate mechanisms includingregional legal and other instruments.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

13.9 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implemeniing theactivities of this programme to be about $50 million fromthe international community on grant or concessional

terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estr-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and prograffrmes Governments decideupon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENIIF/C AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

13.10 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should strengthen scientific research and tech-nological devel opment programmes, including diffusionthrough national and regional institutions, particularly inmeteorology, hydrology, forestry, soil sciences and plantsciences.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

1 3.1 1 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Launch training and extension prograffunes in envi-ronmentally appropriate technologies and practices thatwould be suitable to mountain ecosystems;(b) Support higher education through fellowships andresearch grants for environmental studies in mountainsand hill areas, particularly for candidates from indige-nous mountain populations;(c) Undertake environmental education for farmers, inparticular for women, to help the rural population betterunderstand the ecological issues regarding the sustain-able development of mountain ecosystems.

D) CAPACITY-BUtLDtNG

13.12 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should build up national and regional institu-tional bases that could carry out research, training anddissemination of information on the sustainable develop-ment of the economies of frasile ecosvstems.

B) PROwIOTTNG TNTEGRATED WATERSHEDDEVETOPMENT AND ATTERNATIVETIVETIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES

BASIS FOR ACTION

I 3.l3 Nearly half of the world's population is affected in

various ways by mountain ecology and the degradationof watershed areas. About 10 per cent of the Earth'spopulation lives in mountain areas with higher slopes,while about 40 per cent occupies the adjacent medium-and lower-watershed areas. There are serious problemsof ecological deterioration in these watershed areas. Forexample, in the hillside areas of the Andean countries ofSouth America a large portion of the farming populationis now faced with a rapid deterioration of land resources.Similarly, the mountain and upland areas of the Himalayas,South-East Asia and East and Central Africa, which makevital contributions to agricultural production, are threatenedby cultivation of marginal lands due to expanding popula-tion. In many areas this is accompanied by excessivelivestock grazing, deforestation and loss of biomass cover.13.14 Soil erosion can have a devastating impact on thevast numbers of rural people who depend on rainfedagriculture in the mountain and hillside areas. Poverty,unemployment, poor health and bad sanitation arewidespread. Promoting integrated watershed develop-ment progranilnes through effective participation of localpeople is a key to preventing further ecological imbal-ance. An integrated approach is needed for conserving,upgrading and using the natural resource base of land,water, plant, animal and human resources. In addition,promoting alternative livelihood opportunities, particu-larly through development of employment schemes thatincrease the productive base, will have a significant rolein improving the standard of living among the large ruralpopulation living in mountain ecosystems.

OBJECTIVES

13.15 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) By the year 2000, to develop appropriate land-use plan-ning and management for both arable and non-arable land inmountain-fed watenhed areas to prevent soil erosion, increasebiomass production and maintain the ecological balance;(b) To promote income-generating activities, such assustainable tourism, fisheries and environmentally soundmining, and to improve infrastructure and social services,in particular to protect the livelihoods of local com-munities and indigenous people;(c) To develop technical andinstitutional arrangements foraffected counries to mitigate the effects of nanral disastersthrough hazard-prevention measures, risk zoning, early-waming systems, evacuation plans and emergency supplies.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

13.16 Governments a t the appropr ia te leve l , w i th the

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support of the relevant international and regional or-ganizations, should:(a) Undertake measures to prevent soil erosion andpromote erosion-control activities in all sectors;(b) Establish task forces or watershed developmentcommittees, complementing existing institutions, tocoordinate integrated services to support local initiativesin animal husbandry, forestry, horticulture and ruraldevelopment at all administrative levels;(c) Enhance popular participation in the managementof local resources through appropriate legislation;(d) Support non-governmental organizations and otherprivate groups assisting local organizations and com-munities in the preparation of projects that would enhanceparticipatory development of local people;(e) Provide mechanisms to preserve threatened areasthat could protect wildlife, conserve biological diversityor serve as national parks;(0 Develop national policies that would provide incen-tives to farmers and local people to undertake conservationmeasures and to use environment-friendly technologies;(g) Undertake income-generating activities in cottageand agro-processing industries, such as the cultivationand processing of medicinal and aromatic plants;(h) Undertake the above activities, taking into account theneed for full participation of women, including indigenouspeople and local communities, in development.

BJ DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

13.17 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Maintain and establish systematic observation andevaluation capacities at the national, state or provincial levelto generate information for daily operations and to assessthe environmental and socio-economic impacts of projects;(b) Generate data on alternative livelihoods and diver-sified production systems at the village level on annualand tree crops, livestock, poultry, beekeeping, fisheries,vil lage industrie s, markets, transport and income-earningopportunities, taking fully into account the role of womenand integrating them into the planning and implementa-tion process.

c/ /NTERNATTONAL AND REG/ONAI. COOPERAIION

13.18 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Strengthen the role of appropriate international re-

1 1 2

search and training institutes such as the ConsultativeGroup on International Agricultural Research Centers(CGIAR) and the International Board for Soil Researchand Management (IBSRAM), as well as regional re-search centres, such as the Woodland Mountain Institutesand the Intemational Center for Integrated MountainDevelopment, in undertaking applied research relevantto watershed development;(b) Promote regional cooperation and exchange of dataand information among countries sharing the same moun-tain ranges and river basins, particularly those affectedby mountain disasters and floods;(c) Maintain and establish partnerships with non-gov-ernmental organizations and other private groups work-ing in watershed development.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC|AL AND COSI EVALUATTON

13.19 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $13 billion,including about $ 1.9 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.13.20 Financing for the promot ion of a l ternat ivelivelihoods in mountain ecosystems should be viewed aspart of a country's anti-poverty or alternative livelihoodsprogramme, which is also discussed in chapter 3 (Com-bating poverty) and chapter 14 (Promoting sustainableagriculture and rural development) of Agenda 21.

B/ SC/ENI/F/C AND TECHNICAI. MEANS

13.21 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Consider undertaking pilot projects that combineenvironmental protection and development functionswith particular emphasis on some of the traditional envi-ronmental management practices or systems that have agood impact on the environment;(b) Generate technologies for specific watershed andfarm conditions through a participatory approach involv-ing local men and women, researchers and extensionagents who will carry out experiments and trials on farmconditions;

(c) Promote technologies of vegetative conservationmeasures for erosion prevention, in .ritu moisturemanagement, improved cropping technology, fodderproduction and agroforestry that are low-cost, simple andeasily adopted by local people.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

13.22 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Promote a multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral ap-proach in training and the dissemination of knowledgeto local people on a wide range of issues, such as house-hold production systems, conservation and utilization ofarable and non-arable land, treatment of drainage linesand recharging of groundwater, livestock management,fisheries, agroforestry and horticulture;(b) Develop human resources by providing access toeducation, health, energy and infrastructure;

(c) Promote local awareness and preparedness for dis-asterprevention and mitigation, combined with the latestavailable technology for early waming and forecasting.

D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG

13.23 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional orgwiza-tions, should develop and strengthen national centres forwatershed management to encourage a comprehensive ap-proach to ttre environmental, socio-economic, technologi -

cal, legislative, financial and administrative aspects andprovide support to policy makers, administrators, fieldstaff and farmers for watershed development.13.24 The private sector and local communities, incooperation with national Governments, should promotelocal infrastructure development, including communica-tion networks, mini- or micro-hydro development tosupport cottage industries, and access to markets.

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14

I N T R O D U C T I O N

l4.l By the year 2025. 83 per cent of the expectedg loba l popu la t ion o f 8 .5 b i l l i on w i l l be l i v ing indeveloping countries. Yet the capacity of availableresources and technologies to satisfy the demands ofthis growing population for food and other agriculturalcommodities remains uncertain. Agriculture has tomeet th is chal lenge, mainly by increasing product ionon land a l ready in use and by avo id ing fu r therencroachment on land that is onlv mareinallv suitablefor cultivation.14.2 Major adjustrnents are needed in agricultural,environmental and macroeconomic policy, at both na-tional and international levels, in developed as well asdeveloping countr ies, to create the condi t ions fors u s t a i n a b l e a g r i c u l t u r e a n d r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t(SARD). The major objective of SARD is to increasefood production in a sustainable way and enhance foodsecur i ty . Th is w i l l invo lve educat ion in i t ia t i ves ,uti l ization of economic incentives and the develop-ment of appropriate and new technologies. thus ensuringstable suppl ies of nutr i t ional ly adequate food, accessto those supplies by vulnerable groups, and productionfor markets; employment and income generation toalleviate poverty; and natural resource managementand environmental protection.1-1.3 The priority must be on maintaining and improv-ing the capacity of the higher potential agriculturallands to support an expanding population. However,conserving and rehabi l i tat ing the natural resources onlower potent ia l lands in order to maintain sustainableman/ land rat ios is also necessary. The main tools ofSARD are policy and agrarian reform, participation,income diversi f icat ion, land conservat ion and im-proved management of inputs. The success of SARD

1 1 4

Promoti ng sustoinoble ogricultureond rurol development

will depend largely on the support and participation ofrural people, national Governments, the private sectorand international cooperation, including technical andscientifi c cooperation.14.4 The following programme areas are included inthis chapter:(a) Agricultural policy review, planning and integratedprogramming in the light of the multifunctional aspect ofagriculture, particularly with regard to food security andsustainable development;(b) Ensuring people's participation and promotinghuman resource development for sustainable agricul-ture;(c) Improving farm production and farming systemsthrough diversification of farm and non-farm employ-ment and infrastructure development;(d) Land-resource planning information and educationfor agriculture;(e) Land conservation and rehabilitation;(0 Water for sustainable food production and sustain-able rural development;(g ) Conserva t ion and sus ta inab le u t i l i za t ion o fplant genet ic resources for food and sustainableagr icul ture;(h) Conservation and sustainable utilization of animalgenetic resources for sustainable agriculture,(i) Integrated pest management and control in agricul-ture;

0) Sustainable plant nutrition to increase food produc-tion;(k) Rural energy transition to enhance productivity;(l) Evaluation of the effects of ultraviolet radiation onplants and animals caused by the depletion of the strato-spheric ozone layer.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) AGRTCULTURAT POUCY REVTEW PTANNTNG ANDINTEGRAIED PROGRATYIMES IN IHE UGHT OF IHEMUTTIFUNCTIONAT ASPECT OF AGRICULruRE,PARTICUTARTY WITH R,EGARD TO FOOD SECURITYAND SUSTAINABI.E DEVETOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.5 There is a need to integrate sustainable develop-ment considerations with agricultural policy analysis andplanning in all countries, particularly in developingcountries. Recommendations should contribute directlyto development of realistic and operational medium- tolong-term plans and programmes, and thus to concreteactions. Support to and monitoring of implementationshould follow.14.6 The absence of a coherent national policy frame-work for sustainable agriculture and rural development(SARD) is widespread and is not limited to the develop-ing countries. In particular the economies in transitionfrom planned to market-oriented systems need such aframework to incorporate environmental considerationsinto economic activit ies, including agriculture. Allcountries need to assess comprehensively the impactso f such po l i c ies on food and agr icu l tu re sec torperformance, food security, rural welfare and interna-tional trading relations as a means for identifyingappropriate offsetting measures. The major thrust offood security in this case is to bring about a significantincrease in agricultural production in a sustainable wayand to achieve a substantial improvement in people'sentit lement to adequate food and culturally appropriatefood supplies.11.1 Sound policy decisions pertaining to internationaltrade and capital flows also necessitate action to over-come: (a) a lack of awareness of the environmental costsincurred by sectoral and macroeconomic policies andhence their threat to sustainability; (b) insufficient skillsand experience in incorporating issues of sustainabilityinto policies and programmes; and (c) inadequacy oftools of analysis and monitoring.'

OBJECTIVES

14.8 The objectives of this Programme area are:(a) By 1995, to review and, where appropriate, estab-lish a programme to integrate environmental and sustain-able development with policy analysis for the food andagriculture sector and relevant macroeconomic policyanalysis, formulation and implementation;

(b) To maintain and develop, as appropriate, oper-ational multisectoral plans, programmes and policymeasures, including programmes and measures to en-hance sustainable food production and food securitywithin the framework of sustainable development, notlater than 1998;(c) To maintain and enhance the ability of developingcountries, particularly the least developed ones. to them-selves manage policy, programming and planning activ-ities, not later than 2005.

ACTIVITIESA) MANAGEMENI-R ELAT ED ACTIVITI ES

14.9 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Carry out national policy reviews related to foodsecurity, including adequate levels and stability of foodsupply and access to food by all households;(b) Review national and regional agricultural policy inrelation, inter alia, to foreign trade, price policy, ex-change rate policies, agricultural subsidies and taxes, aswell as organization for regional economic integration:(c) Implement policies to influence land tenure andproperty rights positively with due recognition of theminimum size of land-holding required to maintainproduction and check further fragmentation;(d) Consider demographic trends and populationmovements and identify critical areas for asriculturalproduction;(e) Formulate, introduce and monitor policies,laws andregulations and incentives leading to sustainable agricul-tural and rural development and irnproved food securityand to the development and transfer of appropriate farmtechnologies, including, where appropriate, low-inputsustainable agricultural (LISA) systems;(0 Support national and regional early waming sys-tems through food-security assistance schemes thatmonitor food supply and demand and factors af-fbctinshousehold access to food;(g) Review policies with respect to improving harvest-ing, storage, processing, distribution and marketing ofproducts at the local, national and regional levels;(h) Formulate and implement integrated agriculturalprojects that include other natural resource activities,such as management of rangelands, forests, and wildlife,as appropriate;(i) Promote social and economic research and policiesthat encourage sustainable agriculture development,particularly in fragile ecosystems and densely populatedareas;

l l 5

C) Identify storage and distribution problems affectingfood availability; support research, where necessary, toovercome these problems and cooperate with producersand distributors to implement improved practices andsystems.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

14.10 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Cooperate actively to expand and improve the in-formation on early waming systems on food and agricul-ture at both regional and national levels;(b) Examine and undertake surveys and research toestablish baseline information on the status of naturalresources relating to food and agricultural production andplanning in order to assess the impacts of various uses onthese resources, and develop methodologies and tools ofanalysis, such as environmental accounting.

c/ ,NTERNAT/ONAr. AND REG'ONALCOOPERAI'ON AND COORD/NAIION

14.11 United Nations agencies, such as FAO, the WorldBank, IFAD and GATT, and regional organizations,bilateral donor agencies and other bodies should, with-in their respective mandates, assume a role in workingwith national Governments in the following activit ies:(a) Inrplement integrated and sustainable agriculturaldevelopment and food security strategies at the sub-regional level that use regional production and tradepotentials, including organizations for regional economicintegration, to promote food security;(b) Encourage, in the context of achieving sustain-able agricultural development and consistent withrelevant internationally agreed principles on trade andenvironment, a more open and non-discriminatorytrading system and the avoidance of unjustif iable tradebar r ie rs wh ich together w i th o ther po l i c ies w i l lfacilitate the further integration of agricultural andenvironmental policies so as to make them mutuallysupportive;(c) Strengthen and establish national, regional and in-ternational systems and networks to increase the under-standing of the interaction between agriculture and thestate of the environment, identify ecologically soundtechnologies and facilitate the exchange of informationon data sources, policies, and techniques and tools ofanalysis.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATION

14.12 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) on implementingthe activities of this prograrrme to be about $3 billion,including about $450 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any that are non-concessional, will dependulnn, inter alin, the specific stategies and progfttrnmesGovernments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC'ENnF'C AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANS

14.13 Governments at the appropriate level and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations should assist farming households and com-munities to apply technologies related to improved foodproduction and security, including storage, monitoring ofproduction and distribution.

c) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

14.14 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Involve and train local economists, planners andanalysts to initiate national and intemational policy reviewsand develop frameworks for sustainable agriculture;(b) Establish legal measures to promote access ofwomen to land and remove biases in their involvementin rural development.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

14.15 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should strengthen ministries for agriculture,natural resources and planning.

Bl ENSURTNG PEOPIE',S PART|C|PAnONAND PROMOTING HU'YIAN RESOURCEDEVETOPIIENT FOR SUSTAINABTE AGRICUTruRE

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.16 This component bridges policy and integrated

I 1 6

resource management. The greater the degree of com-munity control over the resources on which it relies, thegreater will be the incentive for economic and humanresources development. At the same time, policy instru-ments to reconcile long-run and short-run requirementsmust be set by national Governments. The approachesfocus on fostering self-reliance and cooperation, provid-ing information and supporting user-based organizations.Emphasis should be on management practices, buildingagreements for changes in resource utilization, the rightsand duties associated with use of land, water and fbrests,the functioning of markets, prices, and the access toinformation, capital and inputs. This would require train-ing and capacity-building to assume greater responsi-bilities in sustainable development efforts.'

OBJECTIVES

14.17 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To promote greater public awareness of the role ofpeople's participation and people's organizations, espe-cially women's groups, youth, indigenous people, localcommunities and small farmers, in sustainable agricul-ture and rural development;(b) To ensure equitable access of rural people, particu-larly women, small farmers, landless and indigenouspeople, to land, water and forest resources and to tech-nologies, financing, marketing, processing and distribu-tion;(c) To strengthen and develop the management and theinternal capacities of rural people's organizations andextension services and to decentralize decision-makineto the lowest community level.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT-R ELATED ACT tV tT tES

14.18 Governments at the apprclpriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop and improve integrated agricultural exten-sion services and facilities and rural organizatrons andundertake natural resource management and foodsecurity activities, taking into account the different needsof subsistence agriculture as well as market-orientedcrops;(b) Review and refocus existing measures to achievewider access to land, water and forest resources andensure equal rights of women and other disadvantagedgroups, with particular emphasis on rural populations,indigenous people and local communities;(c) Assign clear titles, rights and responsibilities for

land and for individuals or conununities to encourageinvestment in land resources,(d) Develop guidelines fordecentralization policies forrural development through reorganization and strength-ening of rural institutions;(e) Develop policies in extension, training, pricing,input distribution, credit and taxation to ensure necessaryincentives and equitable access by the poor to produc-tion-support services;(0 Provide support services and training, recognizingthe variation in agricultural circumstances and practicesby location; the optimal use of on-farm inputs and theminimal use of external inputs; optimal use of localnatural resources and management of renewable energysources; and the establishment of networks that deal withthe exchange of information on alternative forms ofagriculture.

B) DATA AND 'NFORMAT/ON

14.19 Governments at the appropriate level, and with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should collect, analyse, and disseminate infor-mation on human resources, the role of Governments,local communitie s and non- govemmen tal or ganizati onsin social innovation and strategies for rural development.

C/ /NIERNATIONAL AND REG/ONAI COOPERAIIONAND COORD'NAIION

14.20 Appropriate international and regional agenciesshould:(a) Reinforce their work with non-governmentalorganizations in collecting and disseminating informa-tion on people's participation and people's organizations,testing participatory development methods, training andeducat ion fo r human resource deve lopment andstrengthening the management structures of rural organ-izations;(b) Help develop information available through non-governmental organizations and promote an interna-tional ecological agricultural network to accelerate thedevelopment and implementation of ecological agricul-ture practices.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

AI FINANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

14.21 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing

1 1 7

the activities of this prograrnme to be about $4.4 billion,including about $650 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies and progftlrnmesGovemments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SCTENTFtC AND TECHNOT.OG|CAL MEANS

14.22 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Encourage people's participation on farm technol-ogy development and transfer, incorporating indigenousecological knowledge and practices;(b ) Launch app l ied research on par t i c ipa torymethodologies, management strategies and local organ-izations.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

14.23 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regionalorganizations, should provide management and tech-nical training to government administrators and mem-bers of resource-user groups in the principles, practiceand benefits of people's participation in rural develop-ment.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

14.24 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should introduce management strategies andmechanisms, such as accounting and audit services forrural people's organizations and institutions for humanresource development, and delegate administrative andfinancial responsibil i t ies to local levels for decision-making, revenue-raising and expenditure.

cl rfripRovrNc FARr/l pRoDUcfloN ANDFARftIING SYSTEMS THROUGH DIVERSIFICATIONOF FARM AND NON.FAR'YI EMPTOY'VIENT ANDINFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.25 Agriculture needs to be intensified to meet future

i l 8

demands for commodities and to avoid further expansionon to marginal lands and encroachment on fragile eco-systems. Increased use of external inputs and develop-ment of specialized production and farming systems tendto increase vulnerability to environmental stresses andmarket fluctuations. There is, therefore, a need to inten-sify agriculture by diversifying the production systemsfor maximum efficiency in the utilization of local re-sources, while minimizing environmental and economicrisks. Where intensification of farming systems is notpossible, other on-farm and off-farm employment oppor-tunities should be identified and developed, such ascottage industries, wildlife utilization, aquaculture andfisheries, non-farm activities, such as light village-basedmanufacturing, farm commodity processing, agri-business, recreation and tourism, etc.

OBJEC-TVES

14.26 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To improve farm productivity in a sustainable man-ner, as well as to increase diversification, efficiency, foodsecurity and rural incomes, while ensuring that risks tothe ecosystem are minimized;(b) To enhance the self-reliance of farmers in develop-ing and improving rural infrastructure, and to facilitatethe transfer of environmentally sound technologies forintegrated production and farming systems. includingindigenous technologies and the sustainable use of bio-logical and ecological processes, including agroforestry,sustainable wildlife conservation and management,aquaculture, inland fisheries and animal husbandry;(c) To create farm and non-farm employment oppor-tunities, particularly among the poor and those living inmarginal areas, taking into account the alternativelivelihood proposal inter alia in dryland areas.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIV ITI ES

14.27 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop and disseminate to farming householdsintegrated farm management technologies, such as croprotation, organic manuring and other techniques involvingreduced use of agriculnrral chemicals, multiple techniquesfor sources of nutrients and the efficient utilization ofextemal inputs, while enhancing techniques for waste andby-product utilization and prevention of pre- and post-harvest losses, taking particular note of the role of women;

(b) Create non-farm employment opportuni t iesthrough private small-scale agro-processing units, ruralservice centre s and related i nfrastructural i mprovements ;(c) Promote and improve rural financial networks thatutilize investment capital resources raised locally;(d) Provide the essential rural infrastructure for accessto agricultural inputs and services, as well as to nationaland local markets, and reduce food losses;(e) Initiate and maintain farm surveys. on-farm testingof appropriate technologies and dialogue with rural com-munities to identify constraints and bottlenecks and findsolutions;(0 Analyse and identify possibilities foreconomic inte-gration of agricultural and forestry activities, as well aswater and fisheries. and to take effective measures toencourage forest management and growing of trees byfarmers (farm forestry) as an option forresource develop-ment.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAnON

14.28 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Analyse the effects of technical innovations andincentives on farm-household income and well-being;(b) In i t iate and maintain on-farm and of f - farmprogrammes to collect and record indigenous knowledge.

c/ /NTFRNATIONAL AND REG'ONAI.COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

14.29 Intemational institutions, such as FAO and IFAD,international agricultural research centres, such asCGIAR, and regional centres should diagnose the world'smajor agro-ecosystems, their extension, ecological andsocio-economic characteristics, their susceptibility todeterioration and their productive potential. This couldform the basis for technology development and exchangeand for regional research collaboration.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

14.30 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2W0) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $10 billion,including about $1.5 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not

been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprogrammes Governments decide upon for implemen-tation.

8/ SCTENilFtC AND TECHNOIOG\CAL MEANS

14.31 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should strengthen research on agricultural pro-duction systems in areas with different endowments andagro-ecological zones, including comparative analysis ofthe intensification, diversification and different levels ofextemal and internal inputs.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

14.32 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Promote educational and vocational training forfarmers and rural communities through formal and non-formal education;(b) Launch awareness and training programmes forentrepreneurs, managers, bankers and traders in ruralservicing and small-scale agro-processing techniques.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

14.33 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Improve their organizational capacity to deal withissues related to off-farm activities and rural industrydevelopment;(b) Expand credit facilities and rural infrastructure re-lated to processing, transportation and marketing.

Dl IAND-RESOURCE ptANNtNc, |NFORftIAT|ONAND EDUCATION FOR AGRICUTTURE

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.34 Inappropriate and uncontrolled land uses are amajor cause of degradation and depletion of land re-sources. Present land use often disregards the actualpotentials, carrying capacities and limitations of landresources, as well as their diversity in space. It is esti-

i l 9

mated that the world's population, now at5.4 billion, will

be 6.25 billion by the tum of the century. The need toincrease food production to meet the expanding needs ofthe population will put enormous pressure on all naturalresources, including land.14.35 Poverty and malnutrition are already endemic inmany regions. The destruction and degradation ofagricultural and environmental resource s i s a maj or i s sue.

Techniques for increasing production and conserving soil

and water resources are already available but are notwidely or systematically applied. A systematic approachis needed for identifying land uses and production sys-

tems that are sustainable in each land and climate zone,including the economic, social and institutional mecha-

nisms necessary for their implementation.3

OBJECTIVES

14.36 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To harmonize planning procedures, involve farmersin the planning process, collect land-resource data, designand establish databases, define land areas of similarcapability, identify resource problems and values thatneed to be taken into account to establish mechanisms to

encourage efficient and environtnentally sound use ofresources:(b) To establish agricultural planning bodies at national

and local levels to decide priorities, channel resourcesand irnplement programmes.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACT IVIT IE 5

14.37 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Establish and strengthen agricultural land-use andland-resource planning, management, education and in-formation at national and local levels;(b) Initiate and maintain district and village agriculturalland-resource planning, management and conservationgroups to assist in problem identification, developmentof technical and management solutions, and project im-plementation.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

14.38 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations, should:(a) Collect, continuously monitor, update and dissemi-

1 2 0

nate information, whenever possible, on the utilizationof natural resources and living conditions, climate, waterand soil factors, and on land use, distribution of vegeta-tion cover and animal species, utilization of wild plants,production systems and yields, costs and prices, andsocial and cultural considerations that affect agriculturaland adjacent land use;(b) Establish programmes to provide information,promote discussion and encourage the formation ofmanagement groups.

C/ INIERNAI'ONAI. AND REGION,AI.COO PERAI'ON AND COORD/NAIION

14.39 The appropriate United Nations agencies andregional organizations should:(a) Strengthen or establish international, regional andsubregional technical working groups with specific termsof reference and budgets to promote the integrated use ofland resources for agriculture, planning, data collectionand diffusion of simulation models of production andinformation di s semination :(b) Develop internationally acceptable methodologiesfor the establishment of databases, description of landuses and multiple goal optimization.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

14.40 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $ 1.7 billion,including about $250 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

BJ SC/ENI/F'C AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

14.41 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop databases and geographical informationsystems to store and display physical, social and eco-nomic information pertaining to agriculture, and thedefinition of ecological zones and development areas;(b) Select combinations of land uses and production

systems appropriate to land units through multiple goaloptimization procedures, and strengthen delivery sys-tems and local community participation;(c) Encourage integrated planning at the watershed andlandscape level to reduce soil loss and protect surface andgroundwater resources from chemical pollution.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

14.42 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Train professionals and planning groups at national,district and village levels through formal and informalinstructional courses, travel and interaction;(b) Generate discussion at all levels on policy, develop-ment and environmental issues related to agriculturalland use and management, through media programmes,conferences and seminars.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

14.43 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Establish land-resource mapping andplanning unitsat national, district and village levels to act as focal pointsand links between institutions and disciplines, and be-tween Govemments and people;(b) Establish or strengthen Govemments and interna-tional institutions with responsibility for agriculturalresource survey, management and development; ration-alize and strengthen legal frameworks; and provideequipment and technical assistance.

E) rAND CONSERVATTON AND REHABIL|TAT|ON

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.44 Land degradation is the most important environ-mental problem affecting extensive areas of land in bothdeveloped and developing countries. The problem of soilerosion is particularly acute in developing countries,while problems of salinization, waterlogging, soil pollu-tion and loss of soil fertility are increasing in all countries.Land degradation is serious because the productivity ofhuge areas of land is declining just when populations areincreasing rapidly and the demand on the land is growingto produce more food, fibre and fuel. Efforts to controlland degradation, particularly in developing countries,

have had limited success to date. Well planned, long-termnational and regional land conservation and rehabilita-tion programmes, with strong political support and ade-quate funding, are now needed. While land-use planningand land zoning, combined with betterland management,should provide long-term solutions, it is urgent to arrestland degradation and launch conservation and rehabili-tation programmes in the most critically affected andvulnerable areas.

OBJECTIVES

14.45 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) By the year 2000, to review and initiate, as appro-priate, national land-resource surveys, detailing the loca-tion, extent and severity of land degradation;(b) To prepare and implement comprehensive policiesand prograrrunes leading to the reclamation of degradedlands and the conservation of areas at risk, as well asimprove the general planning, managelnent and utiliza-tion of land resources and preserve soil fertility forsustainable agricultural development.

ACTIVITIES

A) MA,NAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTtVtTt ES

14.46 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Developandimplementprogrammestoremoveandresolve the physical, social and economic causes of landdegradation, such as land tenure, appropriate tradingsystems and agricultural pricing structures, which leadto inappropriate land-use management;(b) Provide incentives and, where appropriate andpossible, resources for the participation of local com-munities in the planning, implementation and maintenanceof their own conservation and reclamation programmes;(c) Develop and implement programmes for the reha-bilitation of land degradedby water-logging and salinity;(d) Develop and implement programmes for theprogressive use of non-cultivated land with agriculturalpotential in a sustainable way.

B) DATA AND /NFORMATTON

14.47 Governments, at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Conduct periodic surveys to assess the extent andstate of its land resources:

121

(b) Strengthen and establish national land-resourcedata banks, including identification of the location, extent

and severity of existing land degradation, as well as areasat risk, and evaluate the progress of the conservation andrehabilitation progralrunes launched in this regard;(c) Collect and record information on indigenous con-servation and rehabilitation practices and farming sys-tems as a basis for research and extension programmes.

C,| INIERN,AIIONAI. AND REG/ONAI.COOPERAI'ON AND COORD'NAIION

14.48 The appropriate United Nations agencies, regional

organizations and non-governmental organizationsshould:(a) Develop priority conservation and rehabilitationprogrammes with advisory services to Governments andregional organizations ;(b) Establish regional and subregional networks for

scientists and technicians to exchange experiences,develop joint programmes and spread successful technol-ogies on land conservation and rehabilitation.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

14.49 The Conference secretariat has estimated the

average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $5 billion,including about $800 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not

been reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and finan-

cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will

depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprogrammes Governments decide upon for implementa-tion.

8/ SC/ENI,FtC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

14.50 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should help farming household communities to

investigate and promote site-specific technologies andfarming systems that conserve and rehabilitate land,

while increasing agricultural production, including con-servation tillage agroforestry, terracing and mixed crop-ping.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

14.51 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should train field staff and land users in in-digenous and modern techniques of conservation andrehabi l i tat ion and should establ ish t ra in ing faci l i t iesfor extension staff and land users.

D] CAPACITY.BUILDING

14.52 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop and strengthen national research institu-

tional capacity to identify and implement effective con-servation and rehabilitation practices that are appropriateto the existing socio-economic physical conditions of theland users;(b) Coordinate all land conservation and rehabilitationpolicies, strategies and progralnmes with related ongoingprograrnmes, such as national environment action plans,

the Tropical Forestry Action Plan and national develop-ment prograrnmes.

F) WATER FOR SUSTAINABLE FOOD PRODUCTIONAND SUSTAINABTE RURAT DEVELOP}IENT

14.53 This programme area is included in chapter 18(Protection of the quality and supply of freshwaterresour-ces). prograffune area F.

c) coNsERvATloN AND SUSTAINABII t TltlZATloNOF PIANT C#NETrc RESOI.|RCES FOR FOOD ANDSUSTANABTE AGR,rcUtruRE

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.54 Plant genetic resources for agriculture (PGRFA)

are an essential resource to meet future needs for food.Threats to the security of these resources are growing,and efforts to conserve, develop and use genetic diversityare underfunded and understaffed. Many existing gene

banks provide inadequate security and, in some instances,

the loss of plant genetic diversity in gene banks is as great

as it is in the field.14.55 The primary objective is to safeguard the world'sgenetic resources while preserving them to use sustain-ably. This includes the development of measures tofacilitate the conservation and use of plant genetic re-

122

sources, networks of in situ conservation areas and useof tools such as ex situ collecticlns and germ plasmabanks. Special emphasis could be placed on the buildingof endogenous capacity for characterization, evaluationand utilization of PGRFA, particularly for the minorcrops and other underuti l ized or non-uti l ized speciesof food and agriculture, including tree species foragro-forestry. Subsequent action could be aimed atconsolidation and efficient management of networksof in situ conservation areas and use of tools such asex situ collections and germ plasma banks.14.56 Major gaps and weaknesses exist in the capacityof existing national and international mechanisms toassess, study, monitor and use plant genetic resources toincrease food production. Existing institutional capacity,structures and programmes are generally inadequate andlargely underfunded. There is genetic erosion of inval-uable crop species. Existing diversity in crop species isnot used to the extent possible for increased food produc-tion in a sustainable wav"*

OBJECTIVES

14.57 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To complete the first regeneration and safe duplica-tion of existing ex situ collections on a world-wide basisas soon as possible;(b) To collect and study plants useful for increasingfood production through joint activities, including train-ing, within the framework of networks of collaboratinsinstitutions;(c) Not later than the year 2000, to adopt policies andstrengthen or establish programmes for in situ on-farmand e.r silr.r conservation and sustainable use of plantgenetic resources for food and agriculture, integrated intostrategies and programrnes for sustainable agriculture;(d) To take appropriate measures for the fair and equi-table sharing of benefits and results of research anddevelopment in plant breeding between the sources andusers of plant genetic resources.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIV IT IE S

14.58 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Develop and strengthen institutional capacity,structures and progranunes for conservation and use ofPGRFA:(b) Strengthen and establish research in the publicdomain on PGRFA evaluation and utilization. with the

objectives of sustainable agriculture and rural develop-ment in view;(c) Develop multiplication/propagation, exchangeand dissemination facil i t ies for PGRFAs (seeds andp l a n t i n g m a t e r i a l s ) , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e v e l o p i n gcountries and monitor, control and evaluate plant intro-duct ions;(d) Prepare plans or programmes of priority action onconservation and sustainable use of PGRFA, based, asappropriate, on country studies of PGRFA;(e) Promote crop diversification in agricultural systemswhere appropriate, including new plants with potentialvalue as food crops;(f) Promote utilization as well as research on poorlyknown, but potentially useful, plants and crops, whereappropriate;(g) Strengthen national capabilities for utilization ofPGRFA, plant breeding and seed production capabilities,both by specialized institutions and farming communities.

B) DATA AND /NFORMATION

14.59 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop strategies for networks of in situ conser-vation areas and use of tools such as on-f'arm ex situcollections, germplasm banks and related technologies;(b) Establish ex situ base collection networks;(c) Review periodically and report on the situation onPGRFA, using existing systems and procedures;(d) Characterrze and evaluate PGRFA material col-lected, disseminate information to tacilitate the use ofPGRFA collections and assess eenetic variation in col-lections.

c/ /NTFRNAT/ONAI. AND REGIONAICOO PERAI/ON AND COCRDINAI/ON

14.60 The appropriate United Nations agencies andregional organizations should:(a) Strengthen the Global System on the Conserva-tion and Sustainable Use of PGRFA by, inter alia,accelerating the development of the Global Informa-tion and Early Warning System to facilitate the exchangeof information; developing ways to promote the transferof environmentally sound technologies, in particular todeveloping countries; and taking further steps to realizefarmers'r ights:(b) Develop subregional, regional and global networksof PGRFA in situ in protected areas:

123

(c) Prepare periodic state of the world reports on

PGRFA;(d) Prepare a rolling global cooperative plan of action

on PGRFA:(e) Promote, for l994,the Fourth International Techni-

cal Conference on the Conservation and Sustainable Use

of PGRFA, which is to adopt the first state of the world

report and the first global plan of action on the conserva-

tion and sustainable use of PGRFA;(0 Adjust the Global System for the Conservation and

Sustainable Use of PGRFA in line with the outcome of

the negotiations of a convention on biological diversity'

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATTON

14.61 The Conference secretariat has estimated the

average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing

the activities of this programme to be about $600 million,

including about $300 million from the international com-

munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-

ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not

been reviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financial

terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend

upofl, inter ali.a, ttre specific sfategies and programmes

Govemments decide upon for implementation.

8' SC'ENTIFIC AND TECHNOI.OGICAL MEANS

14.62 Governments, at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations, should:(a) Develop basic science research in such areas as

plant taxonomy and phytogeography, utilizing recent

developments, such as computer sciences, moleculargenetics and in vitro cryopreservation;(b) Develop major collaborative projects between re-

search programmes in developed and developing

countries, particularly for the enhancement of poorly

known or neglected crops;(c) Promote cost-effective technologies for keeping

duplicate sets of ex situ collections (which can also be

used by local communities);(d) Develop further conservation sciences in relation to

in situ conservation and technical means to link it with

ex situ conservation efforts.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

14.63 Governments at the appropriate level and with the

124

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations should:(a) Promote training programmes at both undergrad-uate and post-graduate levels in conservation sciences for

running PGRFA facilities and for the design and im-

plementation of national programmes in PGRFA;(b) Raise the awareness of agricultural extension ser-

vices in order to link PGRFA activities with user com-

munities;(c) Develop training materials to promote conservation

and utilization of PGRFA at the local level.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

14.64 Governments at the appropriate level, with the sup-

port of the relevant international and region al organizations,should establish national policies to provide legal status for

and strengthen legalaspects of PGRFA, including long-termfinancial commitments fbr germplasm collections and im-plementation of activities in PGRFA.

H) CONSERVATION AND zuSTAINABU UnUZATIONOF ANIMAT GENETIC RESOURCES FORSUSTAINABLE AGRICUTTURE

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.65 The need for increased quantity and quality of

animal products and for draught animals calls for conser-vation of the existing diversity of animal breeds to meet

future requirements, including those for use in biotech-nology. Some local animal breeds, in addition to their

socio-cultural value, have unique attributes for adapta-tion, disease resistance and specific uses and should bepreserved. These local breeds are threatened by extinc-

tion as a result of the introduction of exotic breeds and

of changes in livestock production systems.

OBJECTIVES

14.66 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To enumerate and describe all breeds of livestockused in animal agriculture in as broad a way as possible

and begin a 1O-year programme of action;(b) To establish and implement action programmes to

identify breeds at risk, together with the nature of the risk

and appropriate preservation measures ;(c) To establish and implement development pro-grammes for indigenous breeds in order to guarantee their

survival, avoiding the risk of their being replaced bybreed substitution or cross-breeding prograrnmes.

ACTMTES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

14.67 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Draw up breed preservation plans, for endangeredpopulations, including semen/embryo collection andstorage, farm-based conservation of indigenous stock orin situ preservation;(b) Plan and initiate breed development strategies;(c) Select indigenous populations on the basis ofregional importance and genetic uniqueness, for a 1O-yearprogramme, followed by selection of an additional cohortof indigenous breeds for development.

B) DATA AND 'NFORMATTON

14.68 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should prepare and complete national inven-tories of available animal genetic resources. Cryogenicstorage could be given priority over characterization andevaluation. Training of nationals in conservation andassessment techniques would be given special attention.

C) 'NIERN,AI/ON,AI. AND REG/ONAI.COOP ERAI'ON AND COORD'NAIION

14.69 The appropriate United Nations and other interna-tional and regional agencies should:(a) Promote the establishment of regional gene banksto the extent that they are justified, based on principlesof technical cooperation among developing countries;(b) Process, store and analyse animal genetic data atthe global level, including the establishment of a worldwatch list and an early warning system for endangeredbreeds; global assessment of scientific and intergovern-mental guidance of the programme and review ofregional and nat ional act iv i t ies; development ofmethodologies, norms and standards (including interna-tional agreements); monitoring of their implementation;and related technical and financial assistance;(c) Prepare and publish a comprehensive database ofanimal genetic resources, describing each breed, itsderivation, its relationship with other breeds, effectivepopulation size and a concise set of biological andproduction characteristics ;(d) Prepare and publish a world watch list on farmanimal species at risk to enable national Governments to

take action to preserve endangered breeds and to seektechnical assistance, where necessary.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

14.70 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this prograrnme to be about $200million,including about $100 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indicativeand order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any that arenon-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia, the specific sftategies and programmesGovemments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SC/ENilFrC AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANS

14J1 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Use computer-based data banks and questionnairesto prepare a global inventory/world watch list;(b) Using cryogenic storage of germplasm, preservebreeds at serious risk and othermaterial from which senescan be reconstructed.

C) HUMAN RFSOURCE DEVELOPMENI

14.72 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Sponsor training courses for nationals to obtain thenecessary expertise for data collection and handling andfor the sampling of genetic material;(b) Enable scientists and managers to establish an in-formation base for indigenous livestock breeds andpromote programmes to develop and conserve essentiallivestock genetic material.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

14,73 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Establish in-country facilities for artificial insemi-nation centres and in situbreeding farms;

125

(b) Promote in-country programmes and related physt-

cal infrastructure for animal livestock conservation and

breed development, as well as for strengthening national

capacities to take preventive action when breeds are

endangered.

rl TNTEGRATED PEST ftTANAGEfrlENTAND CONTROL IN AGRICUTTURE

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.14 World food demand projections indicate an in-

crease of 50 per cent by the year 2000 which will more

than double again by 2050. Conservative estimates putpre-harvest and post-harvest losses caused by pests

between 25 and 50 per cent. Pests affecting animalhealth also cause heavy losses and in many areasprevent l ivestock development. Chemical control of

agricultural pests has dominated the scene, but its

overuse has adverse effects on farm budgets, humanhealth and the environment, as well as on internationaltrade. New pest problems continue to develop. Inte-grated pest management, which combines biologicalcontrol, host plant resistance and appropriate farmingpractices and minimizes the use of pesticides, is the

best option for the future, as it guarantees yields,

reduces costs, is environmentally friendly and con-tributes to the sustainabil ity of agriculture. Integratedpest management should go hand in hand with appro-priate pesticide management to allow for pesticide

regulation and control, including trade, and for the safe

handling and disposal of pesticides, particularly thosethat are toxic and persistent.

OBJECTIVES

14.75 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) Not later than the year 2000, to improve andimplement plant protection and animal health services,including mechanisms to control the distribution and

use of pesticides, and to implement the InternationalCode of Conduct on the Distr ibut ion and Use ofPest ic ides:(b) To improve and implement programmes to put

integrated pest-management practices within the reachof farmers through farmer networks, extension servicesand research institutions;(c) Not later than the year 1998, to establish operationaland interactive networks among farmers, researchers andextension services to promote and develop integrated pest

management.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGFMENI-R ELATED ACT IV ITI ES

14.76 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Review and reform national policies and themechanisms that would ensure the safe and appropriateuse of pesticides - for example, pesticide pricing, pest

control brigades, price-structure of inputs and outputs andintegrated pest-management policies and action plans;(b) Develop and adopt efficient management systemsto control and monitor the incidence of pests and diseasein agriculture and the distribution and use of pesticides

at the country level;(q) Encourage research and development into pest-

icides that are target-specific and readily degrade intoharmless constituent parts after use;(d) Ensure that pesticide labels provide farmers with

understandable information about safe handling, appli-cation and disposal.

B) DATA AND TNFORMAT/ON

14J7 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Consolidate and harmonize existing informationand programmes on the use of pesticides that have beenbanned or severely restricted in different countries;(b) Consolidate, document and disseminate informa-tion on biological control agents and organic pesticides,

as well as on traditional and other relevant knowledge

and skills regarding alternative non-chemical ways ofcontrolling pests;(c) Undertake national surveys to establish baselineinformation on the use of pesticides in each country andthe side-effects on human health and environment, andalso undertake appropriate education.

c/ ,NTERNAilONAT. AND REG/ONALCOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

14.78 Appropriate United Nations agencies and regionalorganizations should:(a) Establish a system for collecting, analysing anddisseminating data on the quantity and quality of pest-icides used every year and their impact on humair healthand the environment;(b) Strengthen regional interdisciplinary projects and

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establish integrated pest management (IPM) networks todemonstrate the social, economic and environmentalbenefits of IPM for food and cash crops in agriculture;(c) Develop proper IPM, comprising the selection ofthe variety of biological, physical and cultural controls,as well as chemical controls, taking into account specificregional conditions.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATTON

14.79 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $ 1.9 billion,including about $285 million from the international qom-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC'ENilFrC AND TECHNOTOG\CAL MEANS

14.80 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should launch on-farm research in the develop-ment of non-chemical alternative pest management tech-nologies.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

14.81 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Prepare and conduct training programmes on ap-proaches and techniques for integrated pest managementand control of pesticide use, to inform policy makers,re se archers, non- govemmental organization s and farmers ;(b) Train extension agents and involve farmers andwomen's groups in crop health and altemative non-chemical ways of controlling pests in agriculture.

D) CAPACITY.BUILDING

14.82 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should strengthen national public administra-

tions and regulatory bodies in the control of pesticidesand the transfer of technology for integrated pest man-agement.

J) SUSTATNABTE PrANT NUTRTTTON TOINCREASE FOOD PRODUCTION

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.83 Plant nutr ient deplet ion is a ser ious problemresu l t ing in loss o f so i l fe r t i l i t y , par t i cu la r ly indeveloping countr ies. To maintain soi l product iv i ty,the FAO sus ta inab le p lan t nu t r i t ion programmescould be helpful . In sub-Saharan Afr ica, nutr ientoutput f rom al l sources current ly exceeds inputs bya factor of three or four, the net loss being estimatedat some l0 mi l l ion met r ic tons per year . As a resu l t ,more marginal lands and fragi le natural ecosystemsare put under agr icul tural use, thus creat ing fur therland degradat ion and other environmental problems.The integrated plant nutr i t ion approach aims at en-sur ing a sustainable supply of p lant nutr ients toincrease future y ie lds wi thout harming the environ-ment and soi l product iv i ty.14.84 In many developing countries, population growthrates exceed 3 per cent a year, and national agriculturalproduction has fallen behind food demand. ln thesecountries the goal should be to increase agriculturalproduction by at least 4 per cent a year, without destroyingthe soil fertility. This will require increasing agriculturalproduction in high-potential areas through efficiency inthe use of inputs. Trained labour, energy supply, adaptedtools and technologies, plant nutrients and soil enrich-ment wil l all be essential.

OBJECTIVES

14.85 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) Not later than the year 2000, to develop and main-tain in all countries the integrated plant nutrition ap-proach, and to optimize availability of fertilizer and otherplant nutrient sources;(b) Not later than the year 2000, to establ ish andmaintain inst i tut ional and human infrastructure toenhance ef fect ive decis ion-making on soi l produc-t i v i t y ;(c) To develop and make available national and intema-tional know-how to farmers, extension agents, plannersand policy makers cln envirclnmentally sound new andexisting technologies and soil-ferti l i ty managementstrategies for appl icat ion in promot ing sustainableagriculture.

1 2 7

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT-R ELATED ACTIVIT IE S

14.86 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Formulate and apply strategies that will enhancesoil fertility maintenance to meet sustainable agriculturalproduction and adjust the relevant agricultural policyinstruments accordingly;(b) Integrate organic and inorganic sources of plantnutrients in a system to sustain soil fertility and determinemineral fertilizer needs;(c) Determine plant nutrient requirements and supplystrategies and optimize the use of both organic andinorganic sources, as appropriate, to increase farmingeffi ciency and production;(d) Develop and encourage processes for the recycling oforganic and inorganic waste into the soil structure, withoutharming the environment, plant growth and human health.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

14.87 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Assess "national accounts" for plant nutrients, in-cluding supplies (inputs) and losses (outputs) and preparebalance sheets and projections by cropping systems;(b) Review technical and economic potentials of plantnutrient sources, including national deposits, improved or-ganic supplies, recycling, wastes, topsoil produced fromdiscarded organic matter and biological nitrogen fixation.

C/ /NTERNAI'ONAT AND REGIONAI.C OO P ERAI/ON,AND COORD/NAI/ON

14.88 The appropriate United Nations agencies, such asFAO, the international agricultural research institutes, andnon-governmental organizations should collaborate in car-

rying out information and publicity campaigns about theintegrated plant nutrients approach, efficiency of soilproductivity and their relationship to the environment.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A) F'NANCING AND COSI EVALUATTON

14.89 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing

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the activities of this programme to be about $3.2 billion,including about $475 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only andhave notbeen reviewed by Gclvernments. Actual costs and fi-nancial terms, including any that are non-concessional,wil l depend upon, inter alia,the specific strategies andprogrammes Governments decide upon for implemen-tation.

B/ SC/EN|FIC AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANS

14.90 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Develop site-specific technologies at benchmarksites and farmers' fields that fit prevailing socio-econ-omic and ecological conditions through research thatinvolves the full collaboration of local populations;(b) Reinforce interdisciplinary international researchand transfer of technology in cropping and farming sys-tems research, improved in sira biomass production tech-niques, organic residue management and agroforestrytechnologies.

c) HUTAAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

14.91 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Train extension officers and researchers in plantnutrient management, cropping systems and farming sys-tems, and in economic evaluation of plant nutrient im-pact;(b) Train farmers and women's groups in plant nutritionmanagement, with special emphasis on topsoil conserva-tion and production.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

14.92 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Develop suitable institutional mechanisms forpolicy formulation to monitor and guide the implementa-tion of integrated plant nutrition programmes through aninteractive process involving farmers, research, .exten-

sion services and other sectors of society;(b) Where appropriate, strengthen existing advisoryservices andtrain staff, develop andtest new technologies

and facilitate the adoption of practices to upgrade andmaintain full productivity of the land.

K) RURAr ENERGY TRANSTTTON TOENHANCE PRODUCTIVITY

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.93 Energy supplies in many countries are not com-mensurate with their development needs and are highlypriced and unstable. In rural areas of the developingcountries, the chief sources of energy are fuelwood, cropresidues and manure, together with animal and humanenergy. More intensive energy inputs are required forincreased productivity of human labour and for income-generation. To this end, rural energy policies and technol-ogies should promote a mix of cost-effective fossil andrenewable energy sources that is itself sustainable andensures sustainable agricultural development. Ruralareas provide energy supplies in the form of wood. Thefull potential of agriculture and agroforestry, as well ascommon property resources, as sources of renewableenergy, is far from being realized. The attainment ofsustainable rural development is intimately linked withenergy demand and supply patterns.)

OBJECTIVES

14.94 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) Not later than the year 2000, to initiate and encouragea process of environmentally sound energy transition in ruralcommunities, from unsustainable energy sources, to struc-tured and diversified energy sources by making availablealternative new and renewable sources of energy;(b) To increase the energy inputs available for ruralhousehold and agro-industrial needs through planningand appropriate technology transfer and development;(c) To implement self-reliantrural programmes favouringsustainable development of renewable energy sources andimproved energy efficiency.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACT IV IT IE S

14.95 Governments at the appropriate level. with thesupport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Promote pilot plans and projects consisting of elec-trical, mechanical and thermal power (gasifiers, biomass,solar driers. wind-pumps and combustion systems) that

are appropriate and likely to be adequately maintained;

(b) Initiate and promote rural energy programmes sup-ported by technical training, banking and related infra-structure;(c) Intensify research and the development, diversifica-tion and conservation of energy, taking into accountthe needfor efficient use and environmentally sound technology.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

14.96 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:(a) Collect and disseminate data on rural energy supplyand demand patterns related to energy needs forhouseholds, agriculture and agro-industry;(b) Analyse sectoral energy and production data inorder to identify rural energy requirements.

c/ /NTERNAT/ONAI AND REG'ONALCOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

14.97 The appropriate United Nations agencies andregional organizations should, drawing on the experienceand available information of non-governmental organ-izations in this field. exchange country and regionalexperience on rural energy planning methodologies inorder to promote efficient planning and select cost-effec-tive technologies.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANCING AND COST EVALUATION

14.98 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $ 1.8 billion,including about $265 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alict, the specific sfrategies and pro-grafflmes Govemments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENr/F'C AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANs

14.99 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of the relevant international and regional organ-izations, should:

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(a) Intensify public and private sector research in

developing and industrialized countries on renewable

sources of energy for agriculture;(b) Undertake research and transfer of energy technol-

ogies in biomass and solarenergy to agricultural produc-

tion and post-harvest activities.

c) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

14.100 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations, should enhance public awareness of rural energyproblems, stressing the economic and environmental ad-vantages of renewable energy sources.

D) CAPACITY-BUtLD\NG

l4.l0l Governments at the appropriate level, with the

support of the relevant international and regional organ-

izations, should:(a) Establish national institutional mechanisms for

rural energy planning and management that would im-prove efficiency in agricultural productivity and reach

the village and household level;(b) Strengthen extension services and local organ-

izations to implementplans andprogrammes fornew andrenewable sources of energy at the village level.

tl EvAruATloN oF rHE EFFECTS OF UITRAVIOLETRADIATION ON PtANNi AND ANIMATS CAUSEDBY THE DEPTETION OF ITIE STRATOSPHERICOZONE IAYER

BASIS FOR ACTION

14.102 The increase of ultraviolet radiation as a conse-quence of the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layeris a phenomenon that has been recorded in differentregions of the world, particularly in the southern hemi-sphere. Consequently, it is important to evaluate its ef-fects on plant and animal life, as well as on sustainableagricultural development.

OBJECTIVE

14.103 The objective of this programme area is to under-take research to determine the effects of increasedultraviolet radiation resulting from stratospheric ozonelayer depletion on the Earth's surface, and on plant and

animal life in affected regions, as well as its impact onagriculture, and to develop, as appropriate, strategiesaimed at mitigating its adverse effects.

ACTIVITIES

MAN AG EM ENI- RET AT E D ACT IV IT I E S

14.104 In affected regions, Govemments at the appropri-ate level, with the support of the relevant internationaland regional organizations, should take the necessarymeasures, through institutional cooperation, to facilitatethe implementation of research and evaluation regardingthe effects of enhanced ultraviolet radiation on plant andanimal life, as well as on agricultural activities, and

consider taking appropriate remedial me asures.

1'Some of the issues in this progromme oreo ore presented inchopter 3 (Comboting poverty).

2sor" of the issues in this progromme oreo ore discussed in chopter 8(lntegroting environmeni ond development in decision-moking) ond inchopter 32 (Notionol mechonisms ond internoiionol cooperotion forcopocity$uilding in developing countries).

3sor" of the issues ore presented in chopter lO (lntegrotedopprooch to lhe plonning ond monogement of lond resources).

4The octivities of this progromme oreo ore reloted to some of theoctivities in chopter 15 (Conservotion of biologicol diversity).

5The octivities of this progromme oreo ore reloied to some of theociivities in chopter 9 (Protection of the otmosphere).

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t5 Conservotion of biologicol diversity

I N T R O D U C T I O N

15.1 The objectives and activities in this chapter ofAgenda 2l are intended to improve the conservation ofbiological diversity and the sustainable use of biologicalresources, as well as to support the Convention on Bio-logical Diversity.15.2 Our planet's essential goods and services dependon the variety and variability of genes, species, popula-tions and ecosystems. Biological resources feed andclothe us and provide housing, medicines and spiritualnourishment. The natural ecosystems of forests, savan-nahs, pastures and rangelands, deserts, tundras, rivers,lakes and seas contain most of the Earth's biodiversity.Farmers' fields and gardens are also of great importanceas repositories, while gene banks, botanical gardens, zoosand other germplasm repositories make a small but sig-nificant contribution. The current decline in biodiversityis largely the result of human activity and represents aserious threat to human development.

P R C G R A M M E A R E A

CONSERVATION OF BIOTOGICAL D]VERSITY

BASIS FOR ACTION

15.3 Despite mounting efforts over the past 20 years,the loss of the world's biological diversity, mainly fromhabitat destruction, over-harvesting, pollution and theinappropriate introduction of foreign plants and animals,has continued. Biological resources constitute a capitalasset with great potential for yielding sustainable

benefits. Urgent and decisive action is needed to conserveand maintain genes, species and ecosystems, with a viewto the sustainable management and use of biologicalresources. Capacities forthe assessment, study and syste-matic observation and evaluation of biodiversity need tobe reinforced at national and international levels. Effec-tive national action and international cooperation is re-quired for the in situ protection of ecosystems, for the exsitu conservation of biological and genetic resources andfor the enhancement of ecosystem functions. The partici-pation and support of local communities are elementsessential to the success of such an approach. Recentadvances in biotechnology have pointed up the likelypotential for agriculture, health and welfare and for theenvironmental purposes of the genetic material containedin plants, animals and micro-organisms. At the same time,it is particularly important in this context to stress thatStates have the sovereign right to exploit their ownbiological resources pursuant to their environmentalpolicies. as well as the responsibility to conserve theirbiodiversity and use their biological resources sustain-ably, and to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction

or control do not cause damage to the biological diversityof other States or of areas beyond the limits of nationaljurisdiction.

OBJECTIVES

15.4 Governments at the appropriate level, with thecooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies andregional, intergovernmental and non-governmentalorganizations, the private sector and financial institu-tions, and taking into consideration indigenous peopleand their communities, as well as social and economicfactors, should:(a) Press forthe early entry into force of the Conventionon Biological Diversity, with the widest possible partici-pation;

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(b) Develop national strategies for the conservation ofbiological diversity and the sustainable use of biologicalresources;(c) Integrate strategies for the conservation of biologi-cal diversity and the sustainable use of biological re-sources into national development strategies and/orplans;(d) Take appropriate measures for the fair and equitablesharing of benefits derived from research and develop-ment and use of biological and genetic resources, includ-ing biotechnology, between the sources of those re-sources and those who use them;(e) Carry out country studies, as appropriate, on theconservation of biological diversity and the sustainableuse of biological resources, including analyses of relevantcosts and benefits, with particular reference to socio-economic aspects;(0 Produce regular ly updated world reports onbiodiversity based upon national assessments;(g) Recognize and foster the traditional methods andthe knowledge of indigenous people and their com-munities, emphasizing the particular role of women,relevant to the conservation of biological diversity andthe sustainable use of biological resources, and ensurethe opportunity for the participation of those groups inthe economic and commercial benefits derived from theuse of such traditional methods and knowledgell(h) Implement mechanisms for the improvement,generation, development and sustainable use of biotech-nology and its safe transfer, particularly to developingcountries, taking account the potential contribution ofbiotechnology to the conservation of biological diversityand the sustainable use of biological resources;2(i) Promote broader international and regional cooper-ation in furthering scientific and economic understandingof the importance of biodiversity and its functions inecosystems;() Develop measures and arrangements to implementthe rights of countries of origin of genetic resources orcountries providing genetic resources, as defined in theConvent ion on B io log ica l D ivers i ty , par t i cu la r lydeveloping countries, to benefit from the biotechnologi-cal development and the commercial uti l ization ofproducts derived from such resources.2'3

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGFMENT-R ELATED ACTtVtTtE S

15.5 Governments at the appropriate levels. consistentwith national policies and practices, with the cooperationof the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,intergovernmental organizations and, with the support of

132

indigenous people and their communities, non-govern-mental organizations and other groups, including thebusiness and scientific communities, and consistent withthe requirements clf international law, should, as appro-priate:(a) Develop new or strengthen existing strategies, plansor programmes of action for the conservation of biologi-cal diversity and the sustainable use of biological re-sources, taking account of education and training needs;a(b) Integrate strategies for the conservation of biologi-cal diversity and the sustainable use of biological andgenetic resources into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoralplan s, programmes and policies, with particular referenceto the special importance of terrestrial and aquatic bio-logical and genetic resources for food and agriculture;s(c) Undertake country studies or use other methods toidentify components of biological diversity important forits conservation and for the sustainable use of biological.resources, ascribe values to biological and genetic re-sources, identify processes and activities with significantimpacts upon biological diversity, evaluate the potentialeconomic implications of the conservation of biologicaldiversity and the sustainable use of biological and geneticresources, and suggest priority action;(d) Take effective economic, social and other appropri-ate incentive measures to encourage the conservation ofbiological diversity and the sustainable use of biologicalresources, including the promotion of sustainable pro-duction systems, such as traditional methods of agricul-ture, agroforestry, forestry, range and wildlife manage-ment, which use, maintain or increase biodiversity;s(e) Subject to national legislation, take action torespect, record, protect and promote the widerapplicationof the knowledge, innovations and practices of indige-nous and local communities embodying traditional life-styles for the conservation of biological diversity and thesustainable use of biological resources, with a view to thefair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising, andpromote mechanisms to involve those communities, in-cluding women, in the conservation and management ofecosystems; '

(0 Undertake long-term research into the importanceof biodiversity for the functioning of ecosystems and therole of ecosystems in producing goods, environmentalservices and other values suppofting sustainable develop-ment, with particular reference to the biology andreproductive capacities of key terrestrial and aquaticspecies, including native, cultivated and cultured species;new observation and inventory techniques; ecologicalconditions necessary for biodiversity conservation andcontinued evolution; and social behaviour and nutritionhabits dependent on natural ecosystems, where womenplay key roles. The work should be undertaken with the

widest possible participation, especially of indigenouspeople and their communities, including women;l(g) Take action where necessary for the conservationof biological diversity through the in silu conservation ofecosystems and natural habitats, as well as primitivecultivars and their wild relatives, and the maintenanceand recovery of viable populations of species in theirnatural surroundings, and implement ex situ measures,preferably in the source country. In situ measures shouldinclude the reinforcement of terrestrial, marine and aquaticprotected area systems and embrace, inter alia, vulnerablefreshwater and other wetlands and coastal ecosystems, suchas estuaries, coral reefs and mangroves;o(h) Promote the rehabil itation and restoration ofdamaged ecosystems and the recovery of threatened andendangered species;(i) Develop policies to encourage the conservation ofbiodiversity and the sustainable use of biological andgenetic resources on private lands;

0) Promote environmentally sound attd sustainabledevelopment in areas adjacent to protected areas with aview to furthering protection of these areas;(k) Introduce appropr iate environmental impactassessment procedures fbr proposed projects likely tohave significant impacts upon biological diversity,providing fbr suitable information to be made widelyavail able and for publ i c participation, where appropriate,and encourage the assessment of the impacts of relevantpolicies and programmes on biological diversity;(l) Promote, where appropriate, the establishment andstrengthening of national inventory, regulation ormanagement and control systems related to biologicalresources, at the appropnate level;(m) Take measures to encourage a greater under-standing and appreciation of the value of biologicaldiversity, as manifested both in its component parts andin the ecosystem services provided.

B) DATA AND INFORMAI/ON

15.6 Governments at the appropriate level, consistentwith national policies and practices, with the cooperationof the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate,intergovernmental organizations, and with the support ofindigenous people and their cclmmunities, non-govern-mental organrzatrons and other groups, including thebusiness and scientific communities, and consistent withthe requirements of international law, should, as appro-priate:7(a) Regularly'collate, evaluate and exchange informa-tion on the conserl'ation of bioiogical diversity and thesustainable use of bioloeical resources:

(b) Develop methodologies with a view to undertakingsystematic sampling and evaluation on a national basisof the components of biological diversity identified bymeans of country studies;(c) Initiate or further develop methodologies and beginor continue work on surveys at the appropriate level onthe status of ecosystems and establish baseline informa-tion on biological and genetic resources, including thosein terrestrial, aquatic, coastal and marine ecosystems, aswell as inventories undertaken with the participation oflocal and indigenous people and their communities;(d) Identify and evaluate the potential economic andsocial implications and benefits of the conservation andsustainable use of terrestrial and aquatic species in eachcountry, building upon the results of country studies;(e) Undertake the updating, analysis and interpretationof data derived from the identification, sampling andevaluation activities described above;(0 Collect, assess and make available relevant andreliable information in a timely manner and in a formsuitable for decision-making at all levels, with the fullsuppoft and participation of local and indigenous peopleand their communities.

CI /NIERNAIIONAI. AND REG'ONAI.COO P E RAI'ON A ND COORDINAIION

15.7 Governments at the appropriate level, with thecooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and,as appropriate, intergovemmental organizations, and,with the suppofi of indigenous people and their com-munities, non-governmental organizations and othergroups, including the business and scientif ic com-munities, and consistent with the requirements of inter-national law, should, as appropriate:(a) Consider the establishment or strengthening of na-tional or international capabilities and networks for theexchange of data and information of relevance to theconservation of biological diversity and the sustainableuse of biological and genetic resources;7(b) Produce regularly updated world reports on biodiver-sity based upon national assessments in all counties;(c) Promote technical and scientific cooperation in thefield of conservation of biological diversity and thesustainable use of biological and genetic resources.Special attention should be given to the development andstrengthening of national capabilities by means of humanresource development and institution-building, includingthe transfer of technology and/or development of re-search and management facilities, such as herbaria,museums, gene banks, and laboratories, related to theconservation of biodiversitv:8

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(d) Without prejudice to the relevant provisions of theConvention on Biological Diversity, facilitate for thischapter the transfer of technologies relevant to the con-servation of biological diversity and the sustainable useof biological resources or technologies that make use ofgenetic resources and cause no significant damage to theenvironment, in conformity with chapter 34, and recog-nizing that technology includes biotechnology,2' 8

(e) Promote cooperation between the parties to relevantinternational conventions and action plans rn'ith the aimof strengthening and coordinating efforts to conservebiological diversity and the sustainable use of biologicalresources:(0 Strengthen support for international and regionalinstruments, programmes and action plans concernedwith the conservation of biological diversity and'thesustainable use of biological resources;(g) Promote irnproved international coordination ofmeasures fclr the effective conservation and managementof endangered/non-pest migratory species, includingappropriate levels of support for the establishment andmanagement of protected areas in transboundary loca-t ions:(h) Promote national efforts with respect to surveys,data collection, sampling and evaluation, and the main-tenance of gene banks.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

15.8 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this chapter to be about $3.5 billion, includ-ing about S1.75 billion from the international communityon grant or concessional terms. These are indicative andorder-of-rnagnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any that are non-concessional, wil ldepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC'FNIFtC AND TECHNOT.OG\CAL MFANS

l-5.9 Specific aspects to be addressed include the needto develop:(a) Efficient methodologies for baseline surveys andinventories, as well as for the systematic sampling andevaluation of biological resources;(b) Methods and technologies for the conservation ofbiological diversity and the sustainable use of biologicalresources:

1 3 4

(c) Improved and diversified methods for ex situ con-servation with a view to the long-term conservation ofgenetic resources of importance for research anddevelopment.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

15.10 There is a need, where appropriate, to:(a) Increase the numberand/ormake more efficient useof trained personnel in scientific and technological fieldsrelevant to the conservation of biological diversity andthe sustainable use of biological resources;(b) Maintain or establish programmes for scientific andtechnical education and training of managers and profes-sionals, especially in developing countries, on measuresfor the identifi cation, conservation of biological di versityand the sustainable use of biological resources;(c) Promote and encourage understanding of the im-portance of the measures required for the conservationof biological diversity and the sustainable use of biologi-cal resources at all policy-making and decision-makinglevels in Governments, business ente{prises and lendinginstitutions, and promote and encourage the inclusion ofthese topics in educational programmes.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

15.11 There is a need, where appropriate, to:(a) Strengthen existing institutions and/or establishnew ones responsible for the conservation of biologicaldiversity and to considerthe development of mechanismssuch as national biodiversity institutes or centres;(b) Continue to build capacity for the conservation ofbiological diversity and the sustainable use of biologicalresources in all relevant sectors;(c) Build capacity, especially within Governments,business enterprises and bilateral and multi lateraldevelopment agencies, for integrating biodiversity con-cerns, potential benefits and opportunity cost calculationsinto project design, implementation and evaluationprocessesr as well as for evaluating the impact on biologi-cal diversity of proposed development projects;(d) Enhance the capacity of governmental and privateinstitutions, at the appropriate level, responsible forprotected area planning and management to undertakeintersectoral coordination and planning with othergovernmental institutions, non-governmental organ-izations and, where appropriate, indigenous people andtheir communities.

rsee chopter 26 (Recognizing ond strengthening the role ofindigenous people ond their communit ies) ond chopter 24 (Globoloction for women towords sustoinoble ond equiloble development).

2See choptrr 16 {Environmentol ly sound monogement of biotech-nology).

3Arti.l" 2 (Use of terms) of the Convention on Biologicol Diversityincludes the fol lowing definit ions:"Country of origin of genetic resources" meons the country whichpossesses those genetic resources in in situ conditions."Country providing genetic resources" meons the country supply-ing geneiic resources collected from in sifu sources, includingpopulotions of both wild ond domesticoted species, or token fromex situ sources, which moy or moy not hove originoted in thotcountry.

4See chopter 36 {Promoting educotion, publ ic oworeness ondt ro in ing) .

5See chopter 14 (Promoting sustoinoble ogriculture ond ruroldevelopment) ond chopter 1 I (Comboting deforestotion).

6See chopter 17 {Protection of the oceons, ol l kinds of seos,including enclosed ond semi-enclosed seos, ond coostol oreosond the protection, rot ionol use ond development of their l iv ingresources).

ZSee chopter 40 ( lnformotion for decision-moking).

SSee choprer 34 (Tronsfer of environmentolly sound technology,cooperotion ond copocity-bui lding).

i 3 5

1 A Environmentolly sound monogementI \,, of biotechnology

I N T R O D U C T I O N

l6.l Biotechnology is the integration of the new tech-niques emerging from modern biotechnology with thewell-established approaches of traditional biotechnol-ogy. Biotechnology, an emerging knowledge-intensivefield, is a set of enabling techniques for bringing aboutspecific man-made changes in deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA), or genetic material, in plants, animals andmicrobial systems, leading to useful products and tech-nologies. By itself, biotechnology cannot resolve allthe fundamenta l p rob lems o f env i ronment anddevelopment, so expectations need to be tempered byrealism. Nevertheless, it promises to make a significantcontribution in enabling the development of, forexample, better health care, enhanced food securitythrough sustainable agricultural practices, improvedsupplies of potable water, more efficient industriald e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s e s f o r t r a n s f o r m i n g r a wmaterials, support for sustainable methods of afforesta-tion and reforestation, and detoxification of hazardouswastes. Biotechnology also offers new opportunitiesfo r g loba l par tnersh ips , espec ia l l y be tween thecountries rich in biological resources (which includegenetic resources) but lacking the expertise and invest-ments needed to apply such resources through biotech-nology and the countries that have developed the tech-nological expertise to transform biological resourcesso that they serve the needs of sustainable development.lBiotechnology can assist in the conservation of thoseresources through, for example, ex sitr.r techniques. Theprogramme areas set out below seek to foster internation-ally agreed principles to be applied to ensure the envi-ronmentally sound management of biotechnology, toengender public trust and confidence, to promote thedevelopment of sustainable applications of biotechnol-

r 3 6

ogy and to establish appropriate enabling mechanisms,especially within developing countries, through the fol-lowing activities:(a) Increasing the availability of food, feed and renew-able raw materials:(b) Improving human health;(c) Enhancing protection of the environment;(d) Enhancing safety and developing internationalmechanisms for cooperation;(e) Establishing enabling mechanisms for the develop-ment and the environmentally sound application ofbiotechnology.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

Al TNGREASTNG THE AVAttABtUW OF FOOD,FEED AND RENEWABTE RAW }IATERIALIi

BASIS FOR ACTION

16.2 To meet the growing consumption needs of theglobal population, the challenge is not only to increasefood supply, but also to improve food distribution signi-ficantly while simultaneously developing more sustaina-ble agricultural systems. Much of this increased produc-tivity will need to take place in developing countries. Itwill require the successful and environmentally safeapplication of biotechnology in agriculture, in the envi-ronment and inhumanhealth care. Mostof theinvestmentin modern biotechnology has been in the industrializedworld. Significant new investments and human resourcedevelopment will be required in biotechnology, espe-cially in the developing world.

OBJECTIVES

16.3 The following objectives are proposed, keeping inmind the need to promote the use of appropriate safetymeasures based on programme area D:(a) To increase to the optimum possible extent the yield

of major crops, livestock, and aquaculture species, byusing the combined resources of modern biotechnologyand conventional plant/animal/micro-organism im-provement, including the more diverse use of genetic

material resources, both hybrid and original.' Forestproduct yields should similarly be increased, to ensurethe sustainable use of forests;'(b) To reduce the need for volume increases of food,feed and raw materials by improving the nutritionalvalue (composition) of the source crops, animals andmicro-organisms, and to reduce post-harvest losses ofplant and animal products;(c) To increase the use of integrated pest, disease andcrop management techniques to eliminate overdepen-dence on agrochemicals, thereby encouraging environ-mentaily sustainable agricultural practices;(d) To evaluate the agricultural potential of marginallands in comparison with other potential uses and todevelop, where appropriate, systems allowing forsustainable productivity increases;(e) To expand the applications of biotechnology inforestry, both for increasing yields and more efficientutilization of forest products and for improving afforesta-tion and reforestation techniques. Efforts should be con-centrated on species and products that are grown in andare of value particularly for developing countries;(0 To increase the efficiency of nitrogen fixation andmineral absorption by the symbiosis of higherplants withmicro-organisms;(g) To improve capabilities in basic and applied sci-ences and in the management of complex interdiscipli-nary research projects.

ACNVMES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACT IVIT IES

16.4 Governments atthe appropriate level, with the assis-tance of international and regional organizations and withthe support of non-govemmental organizations, the privatesector and academic and scientific institutions, should im-prove both plant and animal breeding and micro-organismsthrough the use of traditional and modern biotechnologies,to enhance sustainable agricultural output to achieve foodsecuriry, particularly in developing countries, with dueregard to the prior identification of desired characteristicsbefore modification, taking into account the needs offarmers. the socio-economic. cultural and environmental

impacts of modifications andthe needto promote sustain-able social and economic development, paying particularattention to how the use of biotechnology will impact onthe maintenance of environmental integrity.16.5 More specifically, these entities should:(a) Improve productivity, nutritional quality and shelf-life of food and animal feed products, with efforts includ-ing work on pre- and post-harvest losses;(b) Further develop resistance to diseases and pests;(c) Develop plant cultivars tolerant and/or resistant tostress from factors such as pests and diseases and fromabiotic causes;(d) Promote the use of underutilized crops of possiblefuture importance for human nutrition and industrialsupply of raw materials;(e) Increase the efficiency of symbiotic processes thatassist sustainable agricultural production;(0 Facilitate the conservation and safe exchange ofplant, animal and microbial germ plasm by applying riskassessment and management procedures, including im-proved diagnostic techniques for detection of pests anddiseases by better methods of rapid propagation;(g) Develop improved diagnostic techniques and vac-cines for the prevention and spread of diseases and forrapid assessment of toxins or infectious organisms inproducts for human use or livestock feed;(h) Identify more productive strains of fast-growingtrees, especially for fuel wood, and develop rapid propa-gation methods to aid their wider dissemination and use;(i) Evaluate the use of various biotechnology tech-niques to improve the yields of fish, algal and otheraquatic species;

0 ) Promote sustainable agricultural output by sfengtheningand broadening the capacity and scope of existing researchcentres to achieve the necessary critical mass through encour-agement and monitoring of research into the developmentofbiological products and processes of productive and environ-mental value ttrat are economically and socially feasible, whiletaking safety considerations into account;(k) Promote the integration of appropriate and tradi-tional biotechnologies for the purposes of cultivatinggenetically modified plants, rearing healthy animals andprotecting forest genetic resources;(l) Develop processes to increase the availability ofmaterials derived from biotechnology for use in food,feed and renewable raw materials production.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

16.6 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Consideration of comparative assessments of thepotential of the different technologies for food produc-

137

tion, together with a system for assessing the possibleeffects of biotechnologies on international trade inagricultural products ;(b) Examination of the implications of the withdrawalof subsidies and the possible use of other economicinstruments to reflect the environmental costs associatedwith the unsustainable use of agrochemicals;(c) Maintenance and development of data banks ofinformation on environmental and health impacts oforganisms to facilitate risk assessment;(d) Acceleration of technology acquisition, transferand adaptation by developing countries to support na-tional activities fhat promote food security.

c/ TNTERNAT/ONAr. AND REGTONAT.COOPERATION AND COORDINAI/ON

16.7 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of relevant international and regional organ-izations, should promote the following activities inconformity with international agreements or illrange-ments on biological diversity, as appropriate:(a) Cooperation on issues related to conservation of,access to and exchange of germ plasm; rights associatedwith intellectual property and informal innovations, in-cluding farmers' and breeders' rights; access to thebenefits of biotechnology; and bio-safety;(b) Promotion of collaborative research programmes,especially in developing countries, to support activitiesoutlined in this programme area, with particular referenceto cooperation with local and indigenous people and theircommunities in the conservation of biological diversityand sustainable use of biological resources, as well as thefostering of traditional methods and knowledge of suchgroups in connection with these activities;(c) Acceleration of technology acquisition, transfer andadaptation by developing countries to support nationalactivit ies that promote food security, through thedevelopment of systems for substantial and sustainableproductivity increases that do not damage or endangerlocal ccosystems: a

(d) Development of appropriate safety proceduresbased on programme area D, taking account of ethicalconsiderations.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FTNANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

16.8 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $5 billion,

1 3 8

including about $50 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Govemments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SC/ENI/F/C AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS'

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

16.9 Training of competent professionals in the basicand applied sciences at all levels (including scientificpersonnel, technical staff and extension workers) is oneof the most essential components of any programme ofthis kind. Creating awareness of the benefits and risks ofbiotechnology is essential. Given the importance of goodmanagement of research resources for the successfulcompletion of large multidisciplinary projects, contin-uing programmes of formal training for scientists shouldinclude managerial training. Training programmesshould also be developed, within the context of specificprojects, to meet regional or national needs for compre-hensively trained personnel capable of using advancedtechnology to reduce the "brain drain" trom developingto developed countries. Emphasis should be given toencouraging collaboration between and training of scien-tists, extension workers and users to produce integratedsystems. Additionally" special consideration should begiven to the execution of programmes for training andexchange of knowledge on traditional biotechnologiesand for training on safety procedures.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

16.10 Inst i tut ional upgrading or other appropr iatemeasures will be needed to build up technical, manage-rial. planning and administrative capacities at the nationallevel to support the activities in this programme area.Such measures should be backed up by intemational,scientific, technical and t'inancial assistance adequate tofacilitate technical cooperation and raise the capacitiesof the developing countries. Programme area E containsfurther details.

*See porogrophs 1 6 .6 ond 16.7.

B) tfrIPROVrNG HUMAN HEALTH

BASIS FOR ACTION

16.ll The improvement of human health is one of the

most important objectives of development. The deterio-

ration of environmental quality, notably air, water and

soil pollution owing to toxic chemicals, hazardous was-

tes, radiation and other sources, is a matter of growing

concern. This degradation of the environment resultingfrom inadequate or inappropriate development has a

direct negative effect on human health. Malnutrition,poverty, poor human settlements, lack of good-qualitypotable water and inadequate sanitation facilities add to

the problems of communicable and non-communicablediseases. As a consequence, the health and well-being

of people are exposed to increasing pressures.

OBJECTIVES

16.12 The main objective of this programme area is to

contribute, through the environmentally sound applic_ationof biotechnology to an overall health programme, to:)(a) Reinforce or inaugurate (as a matter of urgency)programmes to help combat majorcommunicable diseases;(b) Promote goodgeneralhealthamongpeople of all ages;(c) Develop and improve programmes to assist in

spec i fic treatment of and protection from major non-com-

municable diseases;(d) Develop and strengthen appropriate safety proce-

dures based on programme area D, taking into account

ethical considerations ;(e) Create enhanced capabilities for carrying out basicand applied research and for managing interdisciplinaryresearch.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVIT IES

16.13 Governments at the appropriate level, with the

assistance of intemational and regional organizations,academic and scientific institutions, and the pharmaceu-

tical industry, should, taking into account appropriatesafety and ethical considerations:(a) Develop national and international programmes for

identifying and targeting those populations of the world

most in need of improvement in general health andprotection from diseases;(b) Develop criteria for evaluating the effectivenessand the benefits and risks of the proposed activities;(c) Establish and enforce screening, systematic sampling

and evaluation procedures for drugs and medical technol-

ogies, with a view to baning the use of those that areunsafe for the purposes of experimentation; ensure thatdrugs and technologies relating to reproductive health aresafe and effective and take account of ethical consider-ations;(d) Improve, systematically sample and evaluatedrinking-water quality by introducing appropriatespecific measures, including diagnosis of water-bornepathogens and pollutants;(e) Develop and make widely available new and im-proved vaccines against major communicable diseasesthat are efficient and safe and offer protection with aminimum number of doses, including intensifying effortsdirected at the vaccines needed to combat common dis-eases of children;(0 Develop biodegradable delivery systems for vac-

cines that eliminate the need for present multiple-doseschedules, facilitate better coverage of the population andreduce the costs of immunization;(g) Develop effective biological control agents againstdisease-transmitting vectors, such as mosquitoes andresistant variants, taking account of environmentalprotection considerations ;(h) Using the tools provided by modem biotechnology,develop, inter alia,improved diagnostics, new drugs andimproved treatments and delivery systems;(i) Develop the improvement and more effectiveutilization of medicinal plants and other related sources;

0) Develop processes to increase the availability ofmaterials derived from biotechnology, for use in improv-ing human health.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

16.14 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Research to assess the comparative social, environ-mental and financial costs and benefits of different tech-nologies for basic and reproductive health care within aframework of universal safety and ethical considerations;(b) Development of public education programmes

directed at decision makers and the general public toencourage awareness and understanding of the relativebenefits and risks of modern biotechnology, according toethical and cultural considerations.

cl ,NTERNAT/ONAI AND REGTONAICOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

1 6. l 5 Governments at the appropriate levels, with the supportof relevant international and regional organizations, should:(a) Develop and strengthen appropriate safety proce-

r 3 9

dures based on programme area D, taking into accountethical considerations ;(b) Support the development of national programmes,particularly in developing countries, for improvementsin general health, especially protection from major com-municable diseases, common diseases of children anddisease -tran smi ttins factors.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

16.16 To achieve the above goals, the activities need tobe implemented with urgency if progress towards thecontrol of majorcommunicablediseases is to be achievedby the beginning of the next century. The spread of somediseases to all regions of the world calls for globalmeasures. For more localized diseases, regional or na-tional policies will be more appropriate. The achievementof goals calls for:(a) Continuous international commitment;(b) National priorities with a defined time-frame;(c) Scientific and financial input at global and nationallevels.

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

l6.l l The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activit ies of this programme to be about $ 1 4 bil l ion,including about $130 mill ion from the internationalcommunity on grant or concessional terms. These areindicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only andhave not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costsand financial terms, including any that are non-conces-sional , wi l l depend upon, inter al ia, the speci f icstrategies and programmes Governments decide uponfor implementation.

B/ SC/ENilFtC AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANS

16.18 Wel l -coord ina ted mul t id isc ip l inary e f fo r tsinvolving cooperation between scientists, f inancial in-stitutions and industries wil l be required. At the globallevel. this may mean collaboration between researchinstitutions in different countries, with funding at theintergovernmental level, possibly supported by similarcol laborat ion at the nat ional level . Research anddevelopment support wil l also need to be strengthened.together with the mechanisms for providing the trans-fer of relevant technology.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

16.19 Training and technology transfer is needed at theglobal level, with regions and countries having access to,and participation in exchange of, information and exper-tise, particularly indigenous or traditional knowledge andrelated biotechnology. It is essential to create or enhanceendogenous capabil it ies in developing countries toenable them to participate actively in the processes ofbiotechnology production. The training of personnelcould be undertaken at three levels:(a) That of scientists required for basic and product-oriented research;(b) That of health personnel (to be trained in the safeuse of new products) and of science managers requiredfor complex intermultidisciplinary research;(c) That of tertiary-leveltechnical workers required fordelivery in the field.

D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG',

cl ENHANCTNG PROTECnON OF rHE ENURONMEM

BASIS FOR ACTION

16.20 Environmental protection is an integral componentof sustainable development. The environment isthreatened in all its biotic and abiotic components:animals, plants, microbes and ecosystems comprisingbiological diversity; water, soil and air, which form thephysical components of habitats and ecosystems; and allthe interactions between the components of biodiversityand their sustaining habitats and ecosystems. With thecontinued increase in the use of chemicals, energy andnoffenewable resources by an expanding global popula-tion, associated environmental problems will also in-crease. Despite increasing efforts to prevent wasteaccumulation and to promote recycling, the amount ofenvironmental damage caused by overconsumption, thequantities of waste generated and the degree of unsustain-able land use appear likely to continue growing.16.21 The need for a diverse genetic pool of plant, animaland microbial germ plasm for sustainable developmentis well established. Biotechnology is one of many toolsthat can play an important role in supporting the rehabili-tation of degraded ecosystems and landscapes. This maybe done through the development of new techniques forreforestat ion an d affores t ation, germ plasm c on serv ati on,and cultivation of new plant varieties. Biotechnol,ogy can

140

*See progromme oreo E

also contribute to the study of the effects exerted on theremaining organisms and on other organisms by organ-isms introduced into ecosvstems.

OBJECTIVES

16.22 The aim of this programme is to prevent, halt andreverse environmental degradation through the appropri-ate use of biotechnology in conjunction with other tech-nologies, while supporting safety procedures as an inte-gral component of the programme. Specific objectivesinclude the inauguration as soon as possible of specificprogrammes with specific targets:(a) To adopt production processes making optimal useof natural resources, by recycling biomass, recoveringenergy and minimizingwaste generation;6(b) To promote the use of biotechnologies, with em-phasis on bio-remediation of land and water, waste treat-ment, soil conservation, reforestation, afforestation andland rehabilitation;7' 8

(c) To apply biotechnologies and their products toprotect environmental integrity with a view to long-termecological security.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT.R ELATED ACT IVIT IES

16.23 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of relevant international and regional organ-izations, the private sector, non-governmental organ-izations and academic and scientific institutions, should:(a) Develop environmentally sound alternatives andi mprovements for environmentally damagin g producti onprocesses;(b) Develop applications to minimizetherequirement forunsustainable synthetic chemical input and to maximize ttreuse of environmentally appropriate products, includingnatural products (see prografirme area A);(c) Develop processes to reduce waste generation, treatwaste before disposal and make use of biodegradablematerials;(d) Develop processes to recover energy and providerenewable energy sources, animal feed and raw materialsfrom recycling organic waste and biomass;(e) Develop processes to remove pollutants from theenvironment, including accidental oil spills, rvhere con-ventional techniques are not available or are expensive,inefficient or inadequate;(0 Develop processes to increase the availability ofplanting materjals, particularly indigenous varieties, foruse in affcrrestation and reforestation and to improvesustainable yields from forests;

(g) Develop applications to increase the availability ofstress-tolerant planting material for land rehabilitationand soil conservation;(h) Promote the use of integrated pest managementbased on the judicious use of bio-control agents;(i) Promote the appropriate use of bio-fertilizers withinnational feftrlizer programmes ;0) Promote the use of biotechnologies relevant to theconservation and scientific study of biological diversityand the sustainable use of biological resources;(k) Develop easily applicable technologies for thetreatment of sewage and organic waste;(l) Develop new technologies for rapid screening oforganisms for useful biological properties;(m) Promote new biotechnologies for tapping rnineralresources in an environmentallv sustainable manner.

B) DATA AND INFORMAI/ON

16.24 Steps should be taken to increase access both toexisting information about biotechnology and to facilitiesbased on global databases.

c/ /NIERNAilONAT AND REG/ONAICOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAIION

16.25 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of relevant international and regional organ-izations. should:(a) Strengthen research, training and developmentcapabil it ies, particularly in developing countries, tosuppoft the activities outlined in this programme area;(b) Develop mechanisms for scaling up and dissemi-nating environmentally sound biotechnologies of highenvironmental importance, especially in the short term,even though those biotechnologies may have limitedcommercial potential;(c) Enhance cooperation, including transferof biotech-nology, between participating countries for capacity-building;(d) Develop appropriate safety procedures based onprogramme area D, taking account of ethical consider-ations.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATION

16.26 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $ I billion,

141

including about $10 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grarnmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENIIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS'

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

16.21 The activities for this programme area will in-crease the demand for trained personnel. Support forexisting training programmes needs to be increased, forexample, at the university and technical institute level,as well as the exchange of trained personnel betweencountries and regions. New and additional trainingprogrammes also need to be developed, for example, fortechnical and supportpersonnel. There is also an urgentneedto improve the level of understanding of biological princi-ples and their policy implications among decision makersin Governmenls, and financial and other instin:tions.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

16.28 Relevant institutions will need to have the respon-sibility for undertaking, and the capacity (political, finan-cial and workforce) to undertake, the above-mentionedactivities and to be dynamic in response to new biotech-nological developments (see programme area E).

Dl ENHANCTNG SAFETY AND DEVELOPTNGINTERNATIONAT'VIECHANISMS FOR COOPERATION

BASIS FOR ACTION

16.29 There is a need for further development of inter-nationally agreed principles on risk assessment and man-agement of all aspects of biotechnology, which shouldbuild upon those developed at the national level. Onlywhen adequate and transparent saf-ety and border-controlprocedures are in place will the community at large beable to derive maximum benefit from. and be in a muchbetter position to, accept the potential beneflts and risksof biotechnology. Several fundamental principles couldunderlie many of these safety procedures, including

*See porogrophs 16.23 ond 16.25 obove

t42

primary consideration of the organism, building on theprinciple of familiarity, applied in a flexible framework,taking into account national requirements and recogniz-ing that the logical progression is to start with a step-by-step and case-by-case approach, but also recognizing thatexperience has shown that in many instances a morecomprehensive approach should be used, based on theexperiences of the first period, leading, inter alia, tostreamlining and categorizing; complementary consider-ation of risk assessment and risk management; and classi-fication into contained use or release to the environment.

OBJECTIVES

16.30 The aim of this programme area is to ensure safetyin biotechnology development, application, exchangeand transfer through intemational agreement on princi-ples to be applied on risk assessment and management,with particular reference to health and environmentalconsiderations, including the widest possible public par-ticipation and taking account of ethical considerations.

ACTIVITIES

16.31 The proposed activities for this programme areacall for close international cooperation. They shouldbuild upon planned or existing activities to accelerate theenvironmentally sound application of biotechnology,especially in developing countries.*"

A) MANAGEMENT-R ELAT ED ACT tV tTl ES

16.32 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of relevant international and regional organ-izations, the private sector, non-governmental organ-izations and academic and scientific institutions, should:(a) Make the existing safety procedures widely avail-able by collecting the existing information and adaptingit to the specific needs of different countries and regions;(b) Further develop, as necessary, the existing safetyprocedures to promote scient i f ic development andcategor izat ion in the areas of r isk assessment andr i s k m a n a g e m e n t ( i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s ;

See reseorch poper No. 55, enti t led "Environmentol ly soundmonogement of biotechnology: sofety in biotechnology---cssess-ment ond monogement of r isk" (Februory 19921, prepored by theUnited Notions Conference on Environment ond Developmentsecretoriot to toke occount of comments mode ot the third sessionof the Preporotory Committee for the United Notions Conferenceon Env i ronment ond Develooment on oor t l l o f documentA/CONF.151 /PC/67, which incorporoted the f indings of the odhoc workshop of Senior-level Experts on Assessing ond MonogingBiotechnology Risks, held in London in June l99l .

databases; procedures for assessing ri sks and conditionso fre le as e ;e st abl i s hmen tofsa fetyc on di t ion s ;mo ni tori ngand inspections, taking account of ongoing national,regional and international init iatives and avoidingduplication wherever possible);(c) Compile, update and develop compatible safetyprocedures into a framework of internationally agreedprinciples as a basis for guidelines to be applied on safetyin biotechnology, including consideration of the need forand feasibil i ty of an international agreement, andpromote information exchange as a basis for furtherdevelopment, drawing on the work already undertakenby international or other expert bodies;(d) Undertake training prograrnmes at the national andregional levels on the application of the proposed tech-nical guidelines;(e) Assist in exchanging information about the proce-dures required for saf'e handling and risk managementand about the conditions of release of the products ofbiotechnology, and cooperate in providing immediateassistance in cases of emergencies that may arise inconjunction with the use of biotechnology products.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAilON'

c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL AND REG/ONAICOOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

16.33 Governments at the appropriate level, with theslrpport of the relevant intemational and regional organ-izations, should raise awareness of the relative benefitsand risks of biotechnology.16.34 Further activities should include the following (seealso para. 16.32):(a) Organizing one or more regional meetings betweencountries to identify further practical steps to facilitateinternational cooperation in bio-safety;(b) Establishing an international network incorpora-ting national. regional and global contact points;(c) Providing direct assistance upon request throughthe international network, using information networks,databases and information procedures;(d) Considering the need for and feasibility of interna-tionally agreed guidelines on safety in biotechnologyreleases, including risk assessment and risk management,and considering studying the feasibility of guidelineswhich could facil i tate national lesislation on l iabil i tv andcompensat ion.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANCING AND COST EVALUATTON

16.35 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this prograrnmes to be about $2 million fromthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and programmes Govemments decideupon for implementation.

8/ SCtENn Frc AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANS

C) HUMAN RESOURC E DEVELOPMFNI

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

16.36 Adequate international technical and financialassistance should be provided and technical cooper-ation to developing countries facil i tated in order tobuild up technical, managerial, planning and adminis-trative capacities at the national level to support theactivit ies in this programme area (see also programmearea E).

El ESTABLTSHTNG ENABUNG MECHAN|STVIS FORTHE DEVETOP'VIENT AND THE ENVIRON}IENTALIYSOUND APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

BASIS FOR ACTION

16.37 The accelerated development and application ofbiotechnologies, particularly in developing countries,will require a major effort to build up institutional ca-pacities at the national and regional levels. In developingcountries, enabling factors such as training capacity,know-how, research and development facilities andfunds, industrial building capacity, capital (includingventure capital) protection of intellectual property rights,and expertise in areas including marketing research,technology assessment, socio-economic assessment andsafety assessment are frequently inadequate. Efforts will

1 4 3

See po rog rophs 16 .32 ond I 6 .33 . See porogroph 16.32.

therefore need to be made to build up capacities in theseand other areas andto match such efforts with appropriatelevels of financial support. There is therefore a need tostrengthen the endogenous capacities of developingcountries by means of new international initiatives tosupport reseerch in order to speed up the developrnentand application of both new and conventional biotechno-logies to serve the needs of sustainable development atthe local , nat ional and regional levels. Nat ionalmechanisms to allow forinformedcommentby the publicwith regard to biotechnology research and applicationshould be part of the process.16.38 Some activities at the national, regional and globallevels already address the issues outlined in programmeareas A, B, C and D, as well as the provision of advice toindividuai countries on the development of nationalguidelines and systems for the implementation of thoseguidelines. These activities are generally uncoordinated,however, involv ing many di f ferent organizat ions,priorities. constituencies, time-scales, funding sourcesand resource constraints. There is a need for a much morecohesive and coordinated approach to harness availableresources in the most effective manner. As with mostnew technologies. research in biotechnology and theapplication of its findings could have significant positiveand negative socio-economic as well as cultural impacts.These impacts should be carefully identified in the earl-iest phases of the development of biotechnology in orderto enable appropriate management of the consequencesof transferring biotechnology.

OBJECTIVES

16.39 The objectives are as follows:(a) To promote the development and application ofbiotechnologies, with special emphasis on developingcountries, by:(i) Enhancing existing efforts at the national, regionaland global levels;(ii) Providing the necessary support for biotechnology,particularly research and product development, at thenational. regional and international levels;(iii) Raising public awareness regarding the relativebeneficial aspects of and risks related to biotechnology,to contribute to sustainable development;(iv) Helping to create a favourable climate for invest-ments , indus t r ia l capac i ty -bu i ld ing and d is t r ibu-tion/marketing;(v) Encouraging the exchange of scientists among allcountries and discouraging the "brain drain";(vi) Recognizing and fostering the traditional methodsand know'leclge of indigenous peoples and their com-munities and ensuring the opportunity for their partici-

pation in the economic and commercial benefits arisinefrom developments in biotechnology;n(b) To identify ways and means of enhancing currentefforts, building wherever possible on existing enablingmechanisms, particularly regional, to determine theprecise nature of the needs for additional initiatives,particularly in respect of developing countries, and todevelop appropriate response strategies, includingproposals for any new international mechanisms;(c) To establish or adapt appropriate mechanisms forsafety appraisal and risk assessment at the local, regionaland international levels, as appropriate.

ACTIVITIES

Al MAN AGEA4ENT-R ELATED ACTtVtTt ES

16.40 Governments at the appropriate level, with thesupport of international and regional organizations, theprivate sector, non-governmental organizations andacademic and scientific institutions, should:(a) Develop policies and mobilize additional resourcesto facilitate greater access to the new biotechnologies,particularly by and among developing countries;(b) Implement programmes to create greater awarenessof the potential and relative benefits and risks of theenvironmentally sound application of biotechnologyamong the public and key decision makers;(c) Undertake an urgent review of existing enablingmechanisms, programmes and activities at the national,regional and global levels to identify strengths, weak-nesses and gaps, and to assess the priority needs ofdeveloping countries;(d) Undertake an urgent fo l low-up and cr i t icalreview to identify ways and means of strengtheningendogenous capacities within and among developingcountries for the environmentally sound application ofbiotechnology, including, as afirst step, ways to improveexisting mechanisms, particularly at the regional leveland, as a subsequent step, the consideration of possiblenew international mechanisms, such as regional biotech-nology centres,(e) Develop strategic plans for overcoming targetedconstraints by means of appropriate research, productdevelopment and marketing;(0 Establish additional quality-assurance standards forbiotechnology applications and products, where necessary.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

16.41 The following activities should be undertaken:facilitation of access to existine information dissemina-

144

tion systems, especially among developing countries;improvement of such access where appropriate; andconsideration of the development of a directory ofinformation.

C/ /NIERNATIONAL AND REGIONAI.COOPERAI'ON AND COORDINAI/ON

16.42 Governments at the appropriate level, with theassistance of intemational and regional organizations,should develop appropriate new initiatives to identifypriority areas for research based on specific problems andfacilitate access to new biotechnologies, particularly byand among developing countries, among relevant under-takings within those countries, in order to strengthenendogenous capacities and to support the building ofresearch and institutional capacity in those countries.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FTNANC'NG AND COST EVALUATION

16.43 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $5 million fromthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and programmes Governments decideupon for implementation.

B' SC/FNIIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

16.44 Workshops, symposia, seminars and other ex-changes among the scientific community at the regionaland global levels, on specific priority themes, will needto be organized, making full use of the existing scientificand technological manpower in each country for bringingabout such exchanges.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

16.45 Personnel development needs will need to beidentified and additional training prograrnmes developedat the national, regional and global levels, especially indeveloping countries. These should be supported byincreased training at all levels, graduate, postgraduate

and post-doctoral, as well as by the training of techniciansand support staff, with particular reference to the genera-tion of trained manpower in consultant services, design,engineering and marketing research. Training pro-grammes for lecturers training scientists and technolo-gists in advanced research institutions in differentcountries throughout the world will also need to bedeveloped, and systems giving appropriate rewards,incentives and recognition to scientists and technologistswill need to be instituted (see para. 16.44). Conditionsof service will also need to be improved at the nationallevel in developing countries to encourage and nurturetrained manpowerwith a view to retaining thatmanpowerlocally. Society should be informed of the social andcultural impact of the development and application ofbiotechnology.

D) CAPACITY-BUtLDtNG

16.46 Biotechnology research and development isundertaken both under highly sophisticated conditionsand at the practical level in many countries. Efforts willbe needed to ensure that the necessary infrastructurefacilities for research, extension and technology acti-vities are available on a decentralized basis. Global andregional collaboration for basic and applied research anddevelopment will also need to be further enhanced andevery effort should be made to ensure that existing na-tional and regional facilities are fully utilized. Suchinstitutions already exist in some countries and it shouldbe possible to make use of them for training purposes andjoint research projects. Strengthening of universities,technical schools and local research institutions for thedevelopment of biotechnologies and extension servicesfor their application will need to be developed, especiallyin developing countries.

I See chopter 15 (Conservotion of biologicol diversity).

2See chopter 14 (Promoting sustoinoble ogriculture ond ruroldevelopment).

3See chopter I i (Comboting deforestot ion).

4See chopter 34 (Tronsfer of environmentolly sound technology,cooperotion ond copocity-bui lding).

sSee chopter 6 (Protecting ond promoting humon heolth condi-t ions) .

6See chopter 21 {Environmentol ly sound monogement of sol idwostes ond sewoge+eloted issues!.

145

'See chopler l0 ( lntegroted opprooch to the plonning ondmonogement of lond resources).

SSee chopter I B (Protection of the quolity ond supply of freshwoterresources: opplicotion of integroted opprooches to the development, monogement ond use of woter resources) .

9See chopter 26 (Recognizing ond strengthening the role ofindigenous people ond their communit ies).

146

17 including enclosed ond semi-enclosed seos,Protection of the oceons, oll kinds of seos,

ond coostol oreos ond the protection, rotionoluse ond development of their living resources

I N T R O D U C T I O N

17.1 The marine environment - including the oceansand all seas and adjacent coastal areas - forms anintegrated whole that is an essential component of theglobal life-support system and a positive asset that pre-sents opportunities for sustainable development. Interna-tional law, as reflected in the provisions of the UnitedNations Convention on the Law of the Seal'2 referred toin this chapter of Agenda 21, sets forth rights and obli-gations of States and provides the international basisupon which to pursue the protection and sustainabledevelopment of the marine and coastal environment andits resources. This requires new approaches to marine andcoastal area management and development, at the na-tional, subregional, regional and global levels, ap-proaches that are integrated in content and are precau-tionary and anticipatory in ̂ ambit, as reflected in thefollowing programme areas:'(a) Integrated management and sustainable develop-ment of coastal areas, including exclusive economicZONCS;

(b) Marine environmental protection;(c) Sustainable use and conservation of marine livinsresources of the high seas;(d) Sustainable use and conservation of marine livingresources under national jurisdiction;(e) Addressing critical uncertainties for the manage-ment of the marine environment and climate change;(f) Strengthening international, including regional,cooperation and coordination;(g) Sustainable development of small islands.17.2 The implementation by developing countries ofthe activities set forth below shall be commensurate withtheir individual technological and financial capacitiesand priorities in allocating resources for development

PROGRAMME AREAS

A} INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABTEDEVETOPftIENT OF COASTAT AND MARINE AR.EAS,rNcruDrNG ExctustvE EcoNolilc zoNEs

BASIS FOR ACI-ION

17.3 The coastal area contains diverse and productivehabitats important for human settlements, developmentand local subsistence. More than half the world's popu-lation lives within 60 km of the shoreline, and this couldrise to three quarters by the year 2020. Many of theworld's poor are crowded in coastal areas. Coastal re-sources are vital for many local communities and in-digenous people. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) isalso an important marine area where the States managethe development and conservation of natural resourcesfor the benefit of their people. For small island States orcountries, these are the areas most available for develop-ment activities.17.4 Despite national, subregional, regional and globalefforts, current approaches to the management of marineand coastal resources have not always proved capable ofachieving sustainable development, and coastal re-sources and the coastal environment are being rapidlydegraded and eroded in many parts of the world.

OBJECNVES

17.5 Coastal States commit themselves to integrated

needs and ultimately depends onand financial resources requiredthem.

the technology transferand made available to

147

management and sustainable development of coastal

areas and the marine environment under their nationaljurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:(a) Provide for an integrated policy and decision-mak-ing process, including all involved sectors, to promote

compatibility and a balance of uses;(b) Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas

and their interactions;(c) Concentrate on well-defined issues concerninscoastal management;(d) Apply preventive and precautionary approaches inproject planning and implementation, including prior

assessment and systematic observation of the impacts of

major projects;(e) Promote the development and application of

methods, such as national resource and environmentalaccounting, that reflect changes in value resulting from

uses of coastal and marine areas, including pollution,marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction;(0 Provide access, as far as possible, fbr concernedindividuals. groups and organizations to relevant infor-

mation and opportunities for consultation and participa-

tion in planning and decision-making at appropriatelevels.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

l7 .6 Each coastal State should consider establishing, orwhere nece ssary strengthenin g, appropriate coordinatingmechanisms (such as a high-level policy planning body)for integrated management and sustainable developmentof coastal and marine areas and their resources, at both

the local and national levels. Such mechanisms shouldinclude consultation, as appropriate, with the academicand private sectors, non-governmental organizations,local communities, resource user groups, and indigenouspeople. Such national coordinating mechanisms couldprovide, inter alia, for:(a) Preparation and implementation of land and wateruse and sit ing policies;(b) Implementation of integrated coastal and marinemanagement and sustainable development plans andprogrammes at appropriate levels;(c) Preparation of coastal profiles identifying criticalareas, including eroded zones, physical processes,

development patterns, user conf l ic ts and speci f icpriorities for management,(d) Prior environmental impact assessment, systematicobservation and follow-up of major projec8, including thesystematic incorporation of results in decision-making;(e) Contingency plans for human induced and natural

1 4 8

disasters, including likely effects of potential climatechange and sea-level rise, as well as contingency plans

for degradation and pollution of antllopogenic origin,including spills of oil and other materials;(0 Improvement of coastal human settlements, espe-cially in housing, drinking water and treatment and dis-posal of sewage, solid wastes and industrial effluents;(g) Periodic assessment of the impacts of external fac-tors and phenomena to ensure that the objectives ofintegrated management and sustainable development ofcoastal areas and the marine environment are met;(h) Conservation and restoration of altered criticalhabitats;(i) Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainabledevelopment for settlements, agriculture, tourism, fish-ing, ports and industries affecting the coastal area;

0) Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employ-ment;(k) Human resource development and training;( l ) Publ ic educat ion, awareness and informat ionprogrammes;(m) Promoting environmentally sound technology andsu stainable practices ;(n) Development and simultaneous implementation ofenvironmental qual ity criteria.l7.7 Coastal States, with the support of internationalorganizations, upon request, should undertake measuresto maintain biological diversity and productivity ofmarine species and habitats under national jurisdiction.

Inter alia, these measures might include: surveys ofmarine biodiversity, inventories of endangered speciesand critical coastal and marine habitats; establishmentand management of protected areas; and support of scien-tific research and dissemination of its results.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

17.8 Coastal States, where necessary, should improvetheir capacity to collect, analyse, assess and use informa-tion for sustainable use of resources, including environ-mental impacts of activities affecting the coastal andmarine areas. Information for management purposesshould receive priority support in view of the intensityand magnitude of the changes occurring in the coastaland marine areas. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:(a) Develop and maintain databases for assessment andmanagement of coastal areas and all seas and their re-sources;(b) Develop socio-economic and environmental indi-cators;(c) Conduct regular environmental assessment of thestate of the environtnent of coastal and marine areas;

(d) Prepare and maintain profiles of coastal area re-sources, activities, uses, habitats and protected areasbased on the criteria of sustainable development;(e) Exchange information and data.17.9 Cooperation with developing countries, and,where applicable, subregional and regional mechanisms,should be strengthened to improve their capacities toachieve the above.

C' 'NTERNATIONAL AND REG'ONAI.COOP E RATION AND COORD/NAI/ON

17.10 The role of international cooperation and coordi-nation on a bilateral basis and, where applicable, withina subreg iona l , in te r reg iona l , reg iona l o r g loba lframework, is to support and supplement national effortsof coastal States to promote integrated management andsustainable development of coastal and marine areas.l7.ll States should cooperate, as appropriate, in thepreparation of national guidelines for integrated coastalzone management and development, drawing on existingexperience. Aglobal conference to exchange experiencein the field could be held before 1994.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATTON

17.12 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $6 billion includ-ing about $50 million from the international communityon grant or concessional terms. These are indicative andorder-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SC/ENIIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANs

17.13 States should cooperate in the development ofnecessary coastal systematic observation, research andinformation management systems. They should provideaccess to and transfer environmentally safe technologiesand methodologies for sustainable development of coast-al and marine areas to developing countries. They shouldalso develop technologies and endogenous scientific andtechnologic al capacities.17.14 International organizations, whether subregional,regional or global, as appropriate, should support coastal

States, upon request, in these efforts, as indicated above,devoting special attention to developing countries.

C) HUMA,N RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

17.15 Coastal States should promote and facilitate theorganization of education and training in integratedcoastal and marine management and sustainable devel-opment for scientists, technologists, managers (includingcommunity-based managers) and users, leaders, indige-nous peoples, fisherfolk, women and youth, among others.Management and development, as well as environmentalprotection concerns and local planning issues. should beincorporated in educational curricula and public aware-ness campaigns, with due regard to traditional ecologicalknowledge and socio-cultural values.17.16 International organizations, whether subregional,regional or global, as appropriate, should support coastalStates, upon request, in the areas indicated above, devot-ing special attention to developing countries.

D) CAPACITY.BUILDING

17.17 Full cooperation should be extended, upon request,to coastal States in their capacity-building efforts and,where appropriate, capacity-building should be includedin bilateral and multilateral development cooperation.Coastal States may consider, inter alia:(a) Ensuring capacity-building at the local level;(b) Consulting on coastal and marine issues with localadministrations, the business community, the academicsector, resource user groups and the general public;(c) Coordinating sectoral programmes while buildinscapacity;(d) Identifying existing and potential capabil it ies,facilities and needs for human resources developmentand scientific and technological infrastructure,(e) Developing scientific and technological means andresearch;(0 Promoting and facilitating human resource devei-opment and education;(g) Supporting "centres of excellence" in integratedcoastal and marine resource management;(h) Supporting pilot demonstration programmes andprojects in integrated coastal and marine management.

B) r anrnE ENV|RoNMENTAT PROTECTTON

BASIS FOR ACTION

17.18 Degradation of the marine environment can result

149

from a wide range of sources. Land-based sources con-tribute 70 per cent of marine pollution. while maritimetransport and dumping-at-sea act iv i t ies contr ibutel0 per cent each. The contaminants that pose the greatestthreat to the marine environment are, in variable order ofimportance apd depending on differing national orregional situations, sewage, nutrients, synthetic organiccompounds, sediments, l i t ter and plast ics, metals,radionuclides, oil/hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of the polluting substancesoriginating from land-based sources are of particularconcern to the marine environment since they exhibit atthe same time toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulationin the food chain. There is currently no global schemeto address marine pollution from land-based sources.17.19 Degradation of the marine environment can alsoresult from a wide range of activities on land. Humansettlements, land use, construction of coastal infrastruc-ture, agriculture, forestry, urban development, tourismand industry can affect the marine environment. Coastalerosion and siltation are of particular concern.11.20 Marine pollution is also caused by shipping andsea-based activities. Approximately 600,000 tons of oilenter the oceans each year as a result of normal shippingoperations, accidents and illegal discharges. With respectto offshore oil and gas activities, currently machineryspace discharges are regulated internationally and sixregional conventions to control platform discharges havebeen under consideration. The nature and extent ofenvironmental impacts from offshore oil exploration andproduction activities generally account for a very smallproportion of marine pollution.17.21 A precautionary and anticipatory rather than areactive approach is necessary to prevent the degradationof the marine environment. This requires, inter alia,theadoption of precautionary measures, environmental im-pact assessments, clean production techniques, recy-cling, waste audits and minimization, construction and/orimprovement of sewage treatment facil i t ies, qualitymanagement criteria for the proper handling of hazardoussubstances, and a comprehensive approach to damagingimpacts from air. land and water. Any managementframework must include the improvement of coastalhuman settlements and the integrated management anddevelopment of coastal areas.

OBJECTIVES

17.22 States, in accordance with the provisions of theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea onprotection and preservation of the marine environment,commit themselves, in accordance with their policies,priorities and resources, to prevent, reduce and control

degradation of the marine environment so as to maintainand improve its life-support and productive capacities.To this end, it is necessary to:(a) Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatoryapproaches so as to avoid degradation of the marineenvironment, as well as tc reduce the risk of long-termor irreversible adverse effects upon it;(b) Ensure prior assessment of activities that may havesignificant adverse impacts upon the marine environment,(c) Integrate protection of the marine environment intorelevant general environmental, social and economicdevelopment policies;(d) Develop economic incentives, where appropriate,to apply clean technologies and other means consistentwith the internalization of environmental costs, such asthe polluter pays principle, so as to avoid degradation ofthe marine environment:(e) Improve the living standards of coastal populations,particularly in developing countries, so as to contributeto reducing the degradation of the coastal and marineenvironment.17.23 States agree that provision of additional financialresources, through appropriate international mecha-nisms, as well as access to cleaner technologies andrelevant research, would be necessary to support actionby developing countries to implement this commitment.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITI ES

D Prevention, reduction and control of degrodotion of themori ne envi ro nment f rom I ond-bosed octiviti es

17.24 ln carrying out their commitrnent to deal with degra-dation of the marine environment from land-based activities,States should take action at the national level and, whereappropriate, at the regional and subregional levels, in conceftwith action to implement progamme areaA, and should takeaccount of the Monffeal Guidelines for the Protection of theMarine Environment from l,and-Based Sources.17.25 To this end, States, with the support of the relevantinternational environmental, scientific, technical and fi-nancial organizations, should cooperate, inter alia, to:(a) Consider updating, strengthening and extending theMontreal Guidelines, as appropriate;(b) Assess the effectiveness of existing regional agree-ments and action plans, where appropriate, with a viewto identifying means of strengthening action, wherenecessary, to prevent, reduce and control marine degra-dation caused by land-based activities;(c) Init iate and promote the development of newregional agreements, where appropriate;

r50

(d) Develop means of providing guidance on technol-ogies to deal with the major types of pollution of themarine environment from land-based sources. accordinsto the best scientific evidence;(e) Develop policy guidance for relevant global fund-ing mechanisms;(f) Identify additional steps requiring internationalcooperation.17.26 The UNEP Governing Council is invited to con-vene, as soon as practicable. an intergovernmental meet-ing on protection of the marine environment from land-based activities.17.27 As concerns sewage, priority actions to be con-sidered by States may include:(a) Incorporating sewage concerns when formulatingor reviewing coastal development plans, includinghuman settlement plans;(b ) Bu i ld ing and main ta in ing sewage t rea tmentfacilities in accordance with national policies and capac-ities and international cooperation available;(c) Locating coastal outfalls so as to maintain an ac-ceptable level of environmental quality and to avoidexposing shell fisheries, water intakes and bathing areasto pathogens;(d) Promoting environmentally sound co-treatments ofdomestic and compatible industrial effluents, with theintroduction, where practicable, of controls on the entryof effluents that are not compatible with the system;(e) Promoting primary treatment of municipal sewagedischarged to rivers, estuaries and the sea, or other solu-tions appropriate to specific sites;(0 Establishing and improving local, national, sub-regional and regional, as necessary, regulatory andmonitoring programmes to control effluent discharge,using minimum sewage effluent guidelines and waterquality criteria and giving due consideration to thecharacteristics of receivins bodies and the volume andtype of pollutants.17.28 As concerns other sources of pollution, priorityactions to be considered by States may include:(a) Establishing or improving, as necessary, regulatoryand monitoring programmes to control effluent dis-charges and emissions, including the development andapplication of control and recycling technologies;(b) Promoting risk and environmental impact assess-ments to help ensure an acceptable level of environmentalquality:(c) Promoting assessment and cooperation at theregional level, where appropriate, with respect to theinput of point source pollutants from new installations;(d) Eliminating the emission or discharge of organo-halogen compounds that threaten to accumulate todangerous levels in the marine environment;

(e) Reducing the emission or discharge of other syn-thetic organic compounds that threaten to accumulate todangerous levels in the marine environment;(0 Promoting controls over anthropogenic inputs ofnitrogen and phosphorus that enter coastal waters wheresuch problems as eutrophication threaten the marineenvironment or its resources;(g) Cooperating with developing countries, throughfinancial and technological support, to maximize the bestpracticable control and reduction of substances andwastes that are toxic, persistent or liable to bio-acculnu-late and to establish environmentally sound land-basedwaste disposal alternatives to sea dumping;(h) Cooperating in the development and implementa-tion of environmentally sound land-use techniques andpractices to reduce run-off to water-courses and estuarieswhich wouldcause pollution ordegradation of the marineenvironment;(i) Promoting the use of environmentally less harmfulpesticides and fertilizers and alternative methods for pestcontrol, and considering the prohibition of those foundto be environmentally unsound;

0) Adopting new initiatives at national, subregionaland regional levels for controlling the input of non-pointsource pollutants, which require broad changes in sewageand waste management, agricultural practices, mining,construction and transportati on.17.29 As concerns physical destruction of coastal andmarine areas causing degradation of the marine environ-ment, priority actions should include control and preven-tion of coastal erosion and siltation due to anthropogenicfactors related to, inter alia,land-use and constructiontechniques and practices. Watershed management prac-tices should be promoted so as to prevent, control andreduce degradation of the marine environment.

> Prevention, reduction ond control of degradotion of them a r i n e envi ro nm e nt f rom seo -bosed a ctiv it-t e s

17.30 States, acting individually, bilaterally, regionallyor multilaterally and within the framework of IMO andother relevant international organizations, whether sub-regional, regional or global, as appropriate, should assessthe need for additional measures to address desradationof the marine environment:

A) FROM SHIPPING, BY:

(i) Supporting widerratification and implementation ofrelevant shipping conventions and protocols;(ii) Facilitating the processes in (i), providing supportto individual States upon request to help them overcomethe obstacles identified bv them:

t 5 t

(iii) Cooperating in monitoring marine pollution fromships, especially from illegal discharges (e.g., aerial sur-vei llance), and enforcing MARPOL di scharge provisionsmore rigorously,(iv) Assessing the state of pollution caused by ships inparticularly sensitive areas identihed by IMO and takingaction to implen-rent applicable measures, where neces-sary, within such areas to ensure compliance withgenerally accepted international regulations;(v) Taking action to ensure respect of areas designatedby coastal States, within their exclusive economic zones,consistent with international law, in order to protect andpreserve rare or fragile ecosystems, such as coral reefsand mangroves;(vi) Considering the adoption of appropriate rules onballast water discharge to prevent the spread of non-indigenous organisms;(vii) Promoting navigational safety by adequate chartingof coasts and ship-routittg, as appropriate;(viii) Assessing the need for stricter international regula-tions to further reduce the risk of accidents and pollutionfrom cargo ships (including bulk caniers);(ix) Encouraging IMO and IAEA to work together tocomplete consideration of a code on the carriage ofinadiated nuclear fuel in flasks on boarcl ships;(x) Revising and updating the IMO Code of Safety forNuclear Merchant Ships and considering how best toimplement a revised code;(xi) Supporting the ongoing activity within IMO regard-ing development of appropriate measures for reducinsair pollution from ships;(x i i ) Support ing the ongoing act iv i ty wi th in IMOregarding the development of an international regimegoverning the transponation of hazardous and noxioussubstances carried by ships and further considering whetherthe compensation funds similar to the ones established underthe Fund Convention would be appropriate in respect ofpollution damage caused by substances other ttran oil;

B) FROM DUMPING, BY;

(i) Supporting wider ratification, implementation andparticipation in relevant Conventions on dumping at sea,including early conclusion of a future strategy for theLondon Dumping Convention;(ii) Encouraging the London Dumping Convention par-ties to take appropriate steps to stop ocean dumping andincineration of hazardous substances :

C) FROM OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS PI,ATFORMS, BY:

(i) Assessing existing regulatory measures to addressdischarges, emissions and safety and assessing the needfor additional measures:

152

D) FROM PORTS, BY:

(i) Facilitating establishment ofportreception facilitiesfor the collection of oily and chemical residues andgarbage from ships, especially in MARPOLspecial areas,and promoting the establishment of smaller scalefacilities in marinas and fishing harbours.17.31 IMO and as appropriate, other competent UnitedNations organizations, when requested by the Statesconcerned, should assess, where appropriate, the state ofmarine pollution in areas of congested shipping, such asheavily used international straits, with a view to ensuringcompliance with generally accepted international regu-lations, particularly those related to illegal dischargesfrom ships, in accordance with the provisions of Part IIIof the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.17.32 States should take measures to reduce water pol-lution caused by organotin compounds used in anti-fouling paints.17.33 States should consider ratifying the Convention onOil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation,which addresses, inter alia, the development of contin-gency plans on the national and international level, asappropriate, including provision of oil-spill responsernaterial and training of personnel, including its possibleextension to chemical spill response.17.34 States should intensify international cooperationto strengthen or establish, where necessary, regionaloiVchemical-spill response centres and/or, as appropriate,mechanisms in cooperation with relevant subregional,regional or global intergovernmental organizations and,where appropriate, industry-based organizations.

B) DATA, AND 'NFORMAilON

17.35 States should, as appropriate, and in accordancewith the means at their disposal and with due regard fortheir technical and scientific capacity and resources,make systematic observations on the state of the marineenvironment. To this end, States should, as appropriate,consider:(a) Establishing systematic observation systems tomeasure marine environmental quality, including causesand effects of marine degradation, as a basis for manage-ment;(b) Regularly exchanging information on marine deg-radation caused by land-based and sea-based activitiesand on actions to prevent, control and reduce suchdegradation;(c) Supporting and expanding international pro-grammes for systematic observations such as the musselwatch prograrnme, building on existing facilities withspecial attention to developing countries;

(d) Establishing a clearing-house on marine pollutioncontrol information, including processes and technol-ogies to address marine pollution control and to supporttheir transfer to developing countries and other countrieswith demonstrated needs;(e) Establishing a global profile and database providinginformation on the sources, types, amounts and effectsof pollutants reaching the marine environment from land-based activities in coastal areas and sea-based sources;(f) Allocating adequate funding for capacity-buildingand training programmes to ensure the full participationof developing countries, in particular, in any intemationalscheme under the organs and organizations of the UnitedNations system for the collection, analysis and use of dataand information.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

17.36 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programrle to be about $200 millionfrom the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of--magni-tude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs andfinancial terms, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend upon, interalia, the specific strategies and programrnes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SCTENT/F/C AND TECHNOT.OG\CAL MFANS

17.37 Nat iona l , subreg iona l and reg iona l ac t ionprogrammes will, where appropriate, require technologytransfer, in conformity with chapter 31, and financialresources, parlicularly where developing countries areconcerned. including:(a) Assistance to industries in identifying and adoptingclean production or cost-eff'ective pollution control tech-nologies;(b) Planning development and application of low-costand low-maintenance sewage installation and treatmenttechnologies for developing countries;(c) Equipment of laboratories to observe systematicallyhuman and other impacts on the marine environment;(d) Identification of appropriate oil- and chemical-spillcontrol materials, including low-cost locally availablematerials and techniques, suitable for pollution emergen-cies in developing countr ies.(e) Study of the use of persistent organohalogens thatare liable to accumulate in the marine environment to

identify those that cannot be adequately controlled andto provide a basis for a decision on a time schedule forphasing them out as soon as practicable;(0 Establishment of a clearing-house for informationon rnarine pollution control, including processes andtechnologies to address marine pollution control, andsupport for their transfer to developing and othercountries with demonstrated needs.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

17.38 States individually or in cooperation with eachother and with the support of international organizations,whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate,should:(a) Provide training for critical personnel required forthe adequate protection of the marine environment asidentified by training needs' surveys at the national,regional or subregional levels;(b) Promote the introduction of marine environmentalprotection topics into the curriculum of marine studiesprogrammes;(c) Establish training courses for oil- and chemical-spill response personnel, in cooperation, where appropri-ate, with the oil and chemical industries;(d) Conduct workshops on environmental aspects ofport operations and development;(e) Strengthen and provide secure financing for newand existing specialized international centres of profes-sional maritime education;(0 Through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, sup-port and supplement the national efforts of developingcountries as regards human resource development inrelation to prevention and reduction of degradation of themarine environment.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

17.39 National planning and coordinating bodies shouldbe given the capacity and authority to review all land-based activities and sources of pollution for their impactson the marine environment and to propose appropriatecontrol measures.17.40 Research facilities should be strengthened or,where appropriate, developed in developing countries forsystematic observation of marine pollution, environmen-tal impact assessment and development of control rec-ommendations and should be managed and staffed bylocal experts.17.41 Special arrangements will be needed to provideadequate financial and technical resources to assist

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developing countries in preventing and solving problems

associated with activities that threaten the marine envi-ronment.17.42 An intemational funding mechanism should be

created for the application of appropriate sewage treat-ment technologies and buildittg sewage treatmentfacil i t ies, including grants or concessional loans from

international agencies and appropriate regional funds,replenished at least in part on a revolving basis by userfees.17.43 ln carrying out these programme activities, par-

ticular attention needs to be given to the problems ofdeveloping countries that would bear an unequal burdenbecause of their lack of facilities, expertise or technicalcapacities.

c) SusrArNABrE usE AND CONSERVATION OFfiTAHNE LIVING RESOURCES OF THE I{IGH SEAS

BASIS FOR ACTION

11.44 Over the last decade, fisheries on the high seashave considerably expanded and currently representapproximately 5 per cent of total world landings. Theprovisions of the United Nations Convention on theLaw of the Sea on the marine living resources of thehigh seas sets forth rights and obligations of States withrespect to conservation and uti l ization of those re-

sources.17.45 However, management of high seas fisheries, in-

cluding the adoption, monitoring and enforcement ofeffective conservation measures, is inadequate in manyareas and some resources are overutilized. There areproblems of unregulated fishing, overcapitalization, ex-cessive fleet size, vessel reflagging to escape controls,insufficiently selective gear, unreliable databases andlack of sufficient cooperation between States. Action byStates whose nationals and vessels fish on the highseas, as wel l as cooperat ion at the bi lateral , sub-regional, regional and global levels, is essential par-ticularly for highly migratory species and straddlingstocks. Such action and cooperation should addressinadequacies in fishing practices, as well as in biologi-cal knowledge, fisheries statistics and improvement ofsystems for handling data. Emphasis should also be onmulti-species management and other approaches thattake into account the relationships among species,especially in addressing depleted species, but also inidentifying the potential of underuti l ized or unutil izedpopulations.

OBJECTIVES

17.46 States commit themselves to the conservation andsustainable use of marine living resources on the highseas. To this end, it is necessary to:(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine livingresources to meet human nutritional needs, as well associal, economic and development goals;(b) Maintain or restore populations of marine speciesat levels thatcan produce the maximum sustainable yieldas qualified by relevant environmental and economicfactors, taking into consideration relationships amongspecies;(c) Promote the development and use of selective fish-ing gear and practices that minimize waste in the catchof target species and minimrze by-catch of non-targetspecies;(d) Ensure effective monitoring and enforcement withrespect to fishing activities;(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;(f) Preserve habitats and other ecologically sensitiveareas;(g) Promote scientific research with respect to themarine living resources in the high seas.17.47 Nothing in paragraph 17.46 above restricts theright of a State or the competence of an internationalorganization, as appropriate, to prohibit, limit or tegulatethe exploitation of marine mammals on the high seasmore strictly than provided for in that paragraph. Statesshall cooperate with a view to the conservation ofmarine mammals and, in the case of cetaceans, shallin part icular work through the appropr iate inter-national organizations for their conservation, manage-ment and study.17.48 The ability of developing countries to fulfil theabove objectives is dependent upon their capabilities,including the tinancial, scientif ic and technologicalmeans at their disposal. Adequate financial, scientific andtechnological cooperation should be provided to supportaction by them to implement these objectives.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT-R ELAT ED ACTIV lTt ES

17.49 States should take effective action, includingbilateral and multilateral cooperation, where appropriateat the subregional, regional and global levels, to ensurethat high seas fisheries are managed in accordance withthe provisions of the United Nations Convention on theLaw of the Sea. In particular, they should:(a) Give f'ull effect to these provisions with regard tofisheries populations whose ranges lie both within andbeyond exclusive economic zones (straddling stocks);

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(b) Give full effect to these provisions with regard tohighly migratory species;(c) Negotiate, where appropriate, international agree-ments for the effective management and conservation offishery stocks;(d) Define and identify appropriate management units;17.50 States should convene, as soon as possible, anintergovernmental conference under United Nationsauspices, taking into account relevant activities at thesubregional, regional and global levels, with a view topromoting effective implementation of the provisions ofthe United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea onstraddling fish stocks and highly rnigratory lish stocks.The conference, drau,ing, inter alia, on scientific andtechnical studies by FAO, should identify and assessexisting problems related to the conservation andmanagement of such fish stocks, and consider means ofimproving cooperation on fisheries among States, andformulate appropriate recofilrnendations. The work andthe results of the conference should be fully consistentwith the provisions of the United Nations Convention onthe Law of the Sea, in particularthe rights and obligationsof coastal States and States fishing on the high seas.17.51 States should ensure that f ishing activit ies by ves-sels flying their flags on the high seas take place in amanner so as to minimize incidental catches.17.52 States should take effective action consistent withinternational law to monitor and control fishing activitiesby vessels flying their flags on the high seas to ensurecompliance with applicable conservation and manage-ment rules, including full, detailed, accurate and timelyreporting of catches and effort.17.53 States should take effective action, consistent withinternational law, to deter reflagging of vessels by theirnationals as a means of avoiding compliance with applic-able conservation and management rules for fishingactivities on the high seas.17.54 States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning andother comparable destructive fishing practices.17.55 States should fully implement General Assemblyresof ution 461215 on large-scale pelagrc drift-net fishing.17.-56 States should take measures to increase the availa-bility of marine living resources as human food by reducingwastage, post-harvest losses and discards, and improvingtech n iq ue s of processi ng, di stribu tion and transportation.

B) DATA AND /NFORMATION

17.57 States. with the supporl of international organ-izations, whether subregional, regional or global, asappropriate, should cooperate to:(a) Promote enhanced collection of data necessary for

the conservation and sustainable use of the marine livineresources of the high seas;(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data andinformation adequate for fisheries assessment;(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools,such as stock assessment and bioeconomic models;(d) Establish or expand appropriate nronitoring andassessment programmes.

c/ /NIERNAI/ONAL AND REGIONAICOOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON

17.58 States, through bilateral and multilateral cooper-ation and within the frarnewclrk of subregional andregional fisheries bodies, as appropriate, and with thesupport of other intemational intergovernmental agen-cies, should assess high seas resource potentials anddevelop profiles of all stocks (target and non-target).17.59 States should, where and as appropriate, ensureadequate coordination and cooperation in enclosed andsemi-enclosed seas and between subregional, regionaland global intergovemmental fisheries bodies.I 7.60 Effective cooperation within existing subregional,regional or global fisheries bodies should be encouraged.Where such organizations do not exist, States should, asappropriate, cooperate to establish such organizations.17 .61 States with an interest in ahigh seas fishery regulatedby an existing subregional and/or regional high seasfisheries organization of which they are not members shouldbe encouraged to join that organization. where appropriate.17.62 States recognize:(a) The responsibility of the International Whaling Com-mission fbr the conservation and marlagement of whalestocks and the regulation of whaling pursuant to the 1946International Convention tbr the Regulation of Whaling;(b) The work of the Intemational Whaling CommissionScientific Cornmittee in carrying out studies of largewhales in particular, as well as of other cetaceans;(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission and the Agreementon Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and North Sea under theBonn Convention, in the conservation, management andstudy of cetaceans and other marine mammals.17.63 States should cooperate for the conservation,management and study of cetaceans.

MEANS OF I,\\PLEMENTATION

Aj F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

17 .64 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the

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activities of this programme to be about $12 million from

the international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and programmes Governments decideupon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENIFtC AND TECHNOLOG|CAL MEANS

17.65 States, with the support of relevant internationalorganizations, where necessary, should develop collabo-rative technical and research prograffImes to improveunderstanding of the life cycles and migrations of speciesfound on the high seas, including identifying critical areas

and life stages.17.66 States, with the support of relevant internationalorganizations, whether subregional, regional or global,

as appropriate, should:(a) Develop databases on the high seas marine livingresources and fisheries:(b) Collect and correlate marine environmental datawith high seas marine living resources data, including theimpacts of regional and global changes brought about bynatural causes and by human activities;(c) Cooperate in coordinating research programmes toprovide the knowledge necessary to manage high seasresources.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

17.67 Human resource development at the national levelstrould be targeted at both development and managementof high seas resources, including training in high seasfishing techniques and in high seas resource assessment.strengthening cadres of personnel to deal with high seasresource management and conservation and related envi-ronmental issues, and training observers and inspectorsto be placed on fishing vessels.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

17.68 States, with the support, where appropriate, ofrelevant internat ional organizat ions, whether sub-regional, regional or global, should cooperate to developor upgrade systems and institutional structures for moni-toring, control and surveillance, as well as the researchcapacity for assessment of marine living resource popu-lations.

17.69 Special support, including cooperation amongStates, will be needed to enhance the capacities ofdeveloping countries in the areas of data and information,scientific and technological means, and human resourcedevelopment in order to participate effectively in theconservation and sustainable utilization of high seasmarine living resources.

Dl susrArNABtE usE AND CoNSERVATION OFMARINE TIVING RESOURCES UNDERNATIONAT JURISDICTION

BASIS FOR ACTION

17.70 Marine fisheries yield 80 to 90 mill ion tons offish and shellf ish per/year, 95 per cent of which is takenfrom waters under national jurisdiction. Yields haveincreased nearly fivefold over the past four decades.The provisions of the United Nations Convention onthe Law of the Sea on marine l iving resources of theexclusive economic zone and other areas under na-tional jurisdiction set forth rights and obligations ofStates with respect to conservation and uti l ization ofthose resources.17.71 Marine l iving resources provide an importantsource of protein in many countries and their use is oftenof major importance to local communities and indigenouspeople. Such resources provide food and livelihoods tomillions of people and, if sustainably utilized, offer in-creased potential to meet nutritional and social needs,particularly in developing countries. To realize thispotential requires improved knowledge and identifica-tion of marine living resource stocks, particularly ofunderuti l ized and unutil ized stocks and species, use ofnew technologies, bet ter handl ing and processingfacil i t ies to avoid wastage, and improved quality andtraining of skilled personnel to manage and conserveeffectively the marine living resources of the exclusiveeconomic zone and other areas under national jurisdic-

tion. Emphasis should also be on multi-species manage-ment and other approaches that take into account therelationships among species.17.72 Fisheries in many areas under national jurisdiction

face mounting problems. including local overfishing,unauthorized incursions by foreign fleets, ecosystemdegradation, overcapitalization and excessive fleet sizes,underevaluation of catch. insufficiently selective gear,unreliable databases, and increasing competition be-tween artisanal and large-scale fishing, and betweenfishing and other types of activities.17.73 Problems extend beyond fisheries. Coral reef's andother marine and coastal habitats, such as mangroves andestuaries, are among the most highly diverse, integrated

1 5 6

and productive of the Earth's ecosystems. They oftenserve important ecological functions, provide coastalprotection, and are critical resources for food, energy,tourism and economic development. In many parts ofthe world, such marine and coastal systems are understress or are threatened from a varietv of sources. Lrothhuman and natural.

OBJECTIVES

17.74 Coastal States, particularly developing countriesand States whose economies are overwhelmingly de-pendent on the exploitation of the marine living resourcesof their exclusive economic zones, should obtain the fullsocial and economic benefits from sustainable utilizationof marine living resources within their exclusive eco-nomic zones and other areas under national jurisdiction.17.75 States commit themselves to the conservation andsustainable use of marine living resources under nationaljurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to:(a) Develop and increase the potential of marine livingresources to meet human nutritional needs, as well associal, economic and development goals;(b) Take into account traditional knowledge and inter-ests of local communities, small-scale artisanal flsheriesand indigenous people in development and managernentprogrammes;(c) Maintain or restore populations of marine species atlevels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield asqualified by relevant environmental and economic factors,taking into consideration relationships among species;(d) Promote the development and use of selective fish-ing gear and practices that minimize waste in the catchof target species and minimize by-catch of non-targetspecies;(e) Protect and restore endangered marine species;(0 Preserve rare or fragile ecosystems, as well ashabitats and other ecologically sensitive areas.17.76 Nothing in paragraph I1.15 above restricts theright of a coastal State or the competence of an inter-national organization, as appropriate, to prohibit, l imitor regulate the exploitation of marine marrunals morestrictly than provided for in that paragraph. States shallcooperate with a view to the conservation of marinemammals and in the case of cetaceans shall in particularwork through the appropriate international organizationsfor their conservation, management and study.17.71 The ability of developing countries to fulfil theabove objectives is dependent upon their capabilities,including the financial, scientif ic and technologicalmeans at their disposal. Adequate financial, scientificand technological cooperation should be provided tosupport action by them to implement these objectives.

ACTIVITIES

A) MAN AGEMENI-R ELATED ACT IV ITI E S

17.78 States should ensure that marine l iving resourcesof the exclusive econonric zone and other areas undernational jurisdiction are conserved and managed in ac-cordance with the provisions of the United Nations Con-vention on the Law of the Sea.17.79 States, in implementing the provisions of theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, shouldaddress the issues of straddling stocks and highlymigratory species, and, taking fully into account theobjective set out in paragraph 17,74, access to the surplusof aliowable catches.17.80 Coastal States, individually or through bilateraland/or multilateral cooperation and with the support, asappropriate of international organizations, whether sub-regional, regional or global, should inter alia:(a) Assess the potential of marine living resources,including underutilized or unutilized stocks and species,by developing inventories, where necessary, for theirconservation and sustainable use'(b) Implement strategies for the sustainable use ofmarine living resources, taking into account the specialneeds and interests of small-scale artisanal fisheries, localcommunities and indigenous people to meet human nu-tritional and other development needs;(c) Implement, in particular in developing countries,mechanisms to develop rnariculture, aquaculture andsmall-scale, deep-sea and oceanic fisheries within areasunder national jurisdiction where assessments show thatmarine living resources are potentially available;(d) Strengthen their legal and regulatory frameworks,where appropriate, incl udi n g manage ment, en forcementand surveil lance capabil it ies, to regulate activit ies relatedto the above strategies:(e) Take measures to increase the availability of marineliving resources as human food by reducing wastage,post-harvest losses and discards. and improving tech-niques of processing, distribution and transportation;(0 Develop and promote the use of environrnentallysound technology under criteria compatible with thesustainable use of marine l iving resources, includingassessment of the environmental irnpact of major newfishery practices;(g) Enhance the productivity and utilization of theirmarine living resources for food and income.17.81 Coastal States should explore the scope forexpanding recreational and tourist activities based onmarine living resources, including those fbr providingalternative sources of income. Such activities should becompatible with conservation and sustainable develop-ment policies and plans.

157

17.82 Coastal States should support the sustainability ofsmall-scale artisanal fisheries. To this end, they should,as appropriate:(a) Integrate small-scale artisanal tisheries develop-ment in marine and coastal planning, taking into accountthe interests and, where appropriate, encouraging repre-sentat ion of f ishermen, smal l -scale f isherworkers,women, local communities and indigenous people;(b) Recognize the rights of small-scale fishworkers andthe special situation of indigenous people and local com-munities, including their rights to utilization and protec-tion of their habitats on a sustainable basis;(c) Develop systems for the acquisition and recordingof traditional knowledge concerning marine living re-sources and environment and promote the incorporationof such knowledge into management systems.17.83 Coastal States should ensure that, in the negotia-tion and implementation of international agreements onthe development or conservation of marine living re-sources, the interests of local communities and indige-nous people are taken into account, in particular theirright to subsistence.17.84 Coastal States, with the support, as appropriate, ofinternational organizations should conduct analyses ofthe potential for aquaculture itr marine and coastal areasunder nat ional jur isdict ion and apply appropr iatesafeguards as to the introduction of new species.17.85 States should prohibit dynamiting, poisoning andother comparable destructive fishing practices.17.86 States should identify marine ecosystems exhibit-ing high levels of biodiversity and productivity and othercritical habitat areas and should provide necessary limi-tations on use in these areas. through, inter alia, desig-nation of protected areas. Priority should be accorded,as appropriate, to:(a) Coral reef ecosystems;(b) Estuaries;(c) Temperate and tropical wetl ands, including mangroves;(d) Seagrass beds:(e) Other spawning and nursery areas.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

17.87 States, individually or through bilateral and multi-lateral cooperation and with the support, as appropriate,of international organizations, whether subregional,regional or global, should:(a) Promote enhanced collection and exchange of datanecessary for the conservation and sustainable use of themarine l iving resources under national jurisdiction;(b) Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data andinformation necessary for fisheries assessment;

(c) Develop and share analytical and predictive tools,such as stock assessment and bioeconomic models;(d) Establish or expand appropriate monitoring andassessment programmes ;(e) Complete or update marine biodiversity, marineliving resource and critical habitat profiles of exclusiveeconomic zones and other areas under national jurisdic-

tion, taking account of changes in the environmentbrought about by natural causes and human activities.

c/ /NTERNAilONAT. AND REG'ON,AICOO P E R AIION AND COORD'NAI'ON

17.88 States, through bilateral and multilateral cooper-ation, and with the support of relevant United Nationsand other international organizations, should cooperateto:(a) Develop financial and technical cooperation to en-hance the capacities of developing countries in small-scale and oceanic fisheries, as well as in coastal aquacul-ture and mariculture;(b) Promote the contribution of marine living resourcesto eliminate malnutrition and to achieve food self-suffi-ciency in developing countries,inter alia,by minimizingpost-harvest losses and managing stocks for guaranteedsustainable yields:(c) Develop agreed criteria for the use of selectivefishing gear and practices to minimize waste in the catchof target species and minimize by-catch of non-targetspecies;(d) Promote seafood quality, including through na-tional quality assurance systems for seafood, in order topromote access to markets, improve consumer con-fidence and maximize economic returns.17.89 States should, where and as appropriate, ensureadequate coordination and cooperation in enclosed andsemi-enclosed seas and between subregional, regionaland global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.17.90 States recognize:(a) The responsibility of the International WhalingCommission for the conservation and management ofwhale stocks and the regulation of whaling pursuant tothe 1946 International Convention for the Resulation ofWhaling;(b) The work of the International Whaling CommissionScientific Committee in carrying out studies of largewhales in particular, as well as of other cetaceans;(c) The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical TunaCommission and the Agreementon Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and North Sea under theBonn Convention, in the conservation, management andstudy of cetaceans and other marine mammals.

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17.91 States should cooperate formanagement and study of cetaceans.

the conservation,

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

17.92 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $6 billion,including about $60 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs will dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmesGovernments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SCrENrrFtC AND TECHNOIOG\CAL MEANS

17.93 States, with the support of relevant intergovern-mental organizations, as appropriate, should:(a) Provide for the transfer of environmentally soundtechnologies to develop fisheries, aquaculture andmariculture, particularly to developing countries;(b) Accord special attention to mechanisms for trans-ferring resource information and improved fishing andaquaculture technologies to fishing communities at thelocal level;(c) Promote the study, scientific assessment and use ofappropriate traditional management systems;(d) Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAOACESCode of Practice for Consideration of Transfer and Intro-duction of Marine and Freshwater Organisms;(e) Promote scientific research on marine areas of par-ticular importance for marine living resources, such asareas of high diversity, endemism and productivity andmigratory stopover points.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

17.94 States individually, or through bilateral and multi-lateral cooperation and with the support of relevant in-ternational organizations, whether subregional, regionalor global, as appropriate, should encourage and providesupport for developing countrtes, inter alia, to:.(a) Expand multidisciplinary education, training andresearch on marine living resources, particularly in thesocial and economic sciences;(b) Create training opportunities at national and re-gional levels to support artisanal (including subsistence)fisheries, to develop small-scale use of marine living

resources and to encourage equitable participation of-local communities, small-scale fish workers. women andindigenous people;(c) Introduce topics relating to the importance ofmarine living resources in educational curricula at alllevels.

D) CAPACTTY-BUILD|NG

17.95 Coastal States, with the support of relevant sub-regional, regional and global agencies, where appropri-ate, should:(a) Develop research capacities for assessment ofmarine living resource populations and monitoring;(b) Provide support to local fishing communities, inparticular those that rely on tishing for subsistence, in-digenous people and women, including, as appropriate.the technical and financial assistance to organize, main-tain, exchange and improve traditional knowledge ofmarine living resources and fishing techniques, andupgrade knowledge on marine ecosystems;(c) Establish sustainable aquaculture developmentstrategies, including environmental management in sup-port of rural fish-farming communities;(d) Develop and strengthen, where the need may arise,institutions capable of implementing the objective s andactivities related to the conseruation and manasement ofmarine living resources.17.96 Special support , including cooperat ion atnongStates, wil l be needed to enhance tl-re capacities ofdeveloping countr ies in the areas of data and infbrma-t ion, scient i f ic and technological means and humanresource development in c l rder to enable theln toparticipate effectively in the conservation and sustain-able use of marine l ivinc resources under nationaljurisdiction.

E) ADDRESSTNG CR|T|CAT UNCERTATNTTES FORTHE 'VIANAGEMENT OF THE MARINEENVIRONMENT AND CLIIAATE CHANGE

BASIS FOR ACTION

17.97 The marine environment is vulnerable and sensi-tive to climate and atmosphenc changes. Rational useand development of coastal areas, all seas and marineresources, as well as conservation of the marine environ-ment, requires the ability to determine the present stateof these systems and to predict future conditions. Thehigh degree of uncertainty in present infbrmation inhibitseffective management and limits the ability to makepredictions and assess environmental change. Systematic

t 5 9

collection of data on marine environmental parameterswill be needed to apply integrated management ap-proaches and to predict effects of global climate changeand of atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone depletion,on living marine resources and the marine environment.In order to determine the role of the oceans and all seasin driving global systems and to predict natural andhuman-induced changes in marine and coastal environ-ments, the mechanisms to collect, synthesize and dis-seminate information from research and systematic ob-servation activities need to be restructured and reinforcedconsiderably.17.98 T'here are many uncertainties about climate changeand particularly about sealevel rise. Small increases insealevel have the potential of causing significant damageto small islands and low-lying coasts. Response strategiesshould be based on sound data. A long-term cooperativeresearch commitment is needed to provide the data re-quired for global climate models and to reduce uncer-tainty. Meanwhile, precautionary measures should beundertaken to diminish the risks and effects, particularlyon small islands and on low-lying and coastal areas ofthe world.17.99 Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozonedepletion has been reported in some areas of the world.An assessment of its effects in the marine environmentis needed to reduce uncertainty and to provide a basis foraction.

OBJECIIVES

17.100 States, in accordance with provisions of theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea onmarine scientific research, commit themselves to im-prove the understanding of the marine environment andits role on global processes. To this end, it is necessaryto:(a) Promote scientific research on and systematicobservation of the marine environment within thelimits of national jurisdiction and high seas, includinginteractions with atmospheric phenomena, such asozone depletion;(b) Promote exchange of data and information resultingfrom scientific research and systematic observation andfrom traditional ecological knowledge and ensure itsavailability to policy makers and the public at the nationallevel;(c) Cooperate with a view to the development of stand-ard inter-calibrated procedures, measuring techniques,data storage and management capabilities for scientificresearch on and systematic observation of the marineenvironment.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT-R ELAT ED ACT IV ITI ES

l7.l0l States should consider, inter alia:(a) Coordinating national and regional observationprogrammes for coastal and near-shore phenomena re-lated to climate change and for research parametersessential for marine and coastal management in allregions;(b) Providing improved forecasts of marine conditionsfor the safety of inhabitants of coastal areas and for theefficiency of maritime operations;(c) Cooperating with a view to adopting specialmeasures to cope with and adapt to potential climatechange and sealevel rise, including the development ofglobally accepted methodologies for coastal vulnera-bility assessment, modelling and response strategiesparticularly for priority areas, such as small islands andlow-lying and critical coastal areas;(d) Identifying ongoing and planned programmes ofsystematic observation of the marine environment, witha view to integrating activities and establishing prioritiesto address critical uncertainties for oceans and all seas;(e) Initiating a programme of research to determine themarine biological effects of increased levels of ultravioletrays due to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layerand to evaluate the possible effects.17.lO2 Recognizing the important role that oceans andall seas play in attenuating potential climate change,IOCand other relevant competent United Nations bodies, withthe support of countries having the resources and exper-tise, should carry out analysis, assessments and system-atic observation of the role of oceans as a carbon sink.

B) DATA AND 'NFORMAIION

17.103 States should consider, inter alia:(a) Increasing international cooperation particulariywith a view to strengthening national scientific and tech-nological capabi l i t ies for analysing, assessing andpredicting global climate and environmental change;(b) Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation withWMO, UNEP and other international organizations inthe collection, analysis and distribution of data and in-formation from the oceans and all seas, including asappropriate, through the Global Ocean Observing Sys-tem, giving special attention to the need for IOC todevelop fully the strategy for providing training andtechnical assistance for developing countries through itsTraining, Education and Mutual Assistance (TEMA)programme;

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(c) Creating national multisectoral information bases,covering the results of research and systematic observa-tion prograrnmes;(d) Linking these databases to existing data andinformation services and mechanisms. such as WorldWeather Watch and Earthwatch;(e) Cooperating with a view to the exchange of dataand information and its storage and archiving through theworld and regional data centres;(0 Cooperating to ensure full participation of develop-ing countries, in particular, in any international schemeunder the organs and organizations of the United Nationssystem for the collection, analysis and use of data andinformation.

Ci 'NIERNAIIONAT AND REG'ONAI-COOPERAI'ON AND COORD/NAI/ON

17.lM States should consider bilaterally and multilat-erally and in cooperation with international orgamza-tions, whether subregional, regional, interregional orglobal, where appropriate:(a) Providing technical cooperation in developing thecapacity of coastal and island States for marine researchand systematic observation and for using its results;(b) Strengthening existing national institutions andcreating, where necessary, international analysis andprediction mechanisms in order to prepare and exchangeregional and global oceanographic analyses and forecastsand to provide facilities for international research andtraining at national, subregional and regional levels,where applicable.17.105 In recognition ofthe value of Antarcticaas an areafor the conduct of scientific research, in particular re-search essential to understanding the global environment,States carrying out such research activities in Antarcticashould, as provided for in Article III of the AntarcticTreaty, continue to:(a) Ensure that data and information resulting fromsuch research are freely available to the internationalcommunity;(b) Enhance access of the international scientific com-munity and specialized agencies of the United Nationsto such data and information, including the encourage-ment of periodic seminars and symposia.17. 106 States should strengthen high-level inter-agency,subregional, regional and global coordination, as appro-priate, and review mechanisms to develop and integratesystematic observation networks. This would include:(a) Review of existing regional and global databases;(b) Mechanisms to develop comparable and compatibletechniques, validate methodologies and measurements,

organrze regular scientific reviews, develop options forcorrective measures, agree on formats for presentationand storage, and communicate the information gatheredto potential users;(c) Systematic observation of coastal habitats andsealevel changes, inventories of marine pollution sourcesand reviews of fisheries statistics;(d) Orgamzation of periodic assessments of ocean andall seas and coastal area status and trends.17.107 Internat ional cooperat ion, through relevantorganizat ions wi th in the United Nat ions system,should support countries to develop and integratereg i on al sy stematic long-term observat ion programmes,when applicable, into the Regional Seas Programmes ina coordinated fashion to implement, where appropriate,subregional, regional and global observing systemsbased on the principle of exchange of data. One aimshould be the predicting of the effects of climate-relatedemergencies on existing coastal physical and socio-economic infrastructure.17.108 Based on the results of research on the effects ofthe additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth'ssurface, in the fields of human health, agriculture andmarine environment, States and international organiza-t ions should consider taking appropr iate remedialmeasures.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

11.109 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to Lre about S750 million,including about $480 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.l7.l l0 Developed countries should provide the financ-ing for the further development and implementation ofthe Global Ocean Observins Svstem.

8/ SC/ENIIFIC AND IECHNOI.OGICAL MEANS

l7.l1l To address critical uncertainties through system-atic coastal and marine observations and research, coastalStates shouldcooperate in the developmentof proceduresthat allow forcomparable analysis and soundness of data.They should also cooperate on a subregional and regional

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basis, through existing programmes where applicable,share infrastructure and expensive and sophisticatedequipment, develop quality assurance procedures anddevelop human resources jointly. Special attentionshould be given to transf-er of scientific and technologicalknowledge and means to support States, particularlydeveloping countries, in the development of endogenouscapabilities.l7.l12 International organizations should support, whenrequested, coastal countries in implementing researchprojects on the effects of additional ultraviolet radiation.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

l7. l l3 States, indiv idual ly or through bi lateral andmulti lateral cooperation and with the support, asappropriate, of international organizations whethersubregional, regional or global. should develop andimplement comprehensive programmes, particularlyin developing countries, for a broad and coherentapproach to meeting their core human resource needsin the marine sciences.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

17.114 States should strengthen orestablish as necessary,national scientific and technological oceanographic com-missions or equivalent bodies to develop, support andcoordinate marine science activities and work closelywith international organizations.l7.l15 States should use existing subregional and re-gional mechanisms, where applicable, to develop know-ledge of the marine environment, exchange information,organize systematic observations and assessments, andmake the most effective use of scientists, facilities andequipment. They should also cooperate in the promotionof endogenous research capabil it ies in developingcountries.

F) STRENGTHENTNG |NTERNATIONAL, INCIUDINGREGIONAL, COOPERATION AND COORDINATION

BASIS FOR ACTION

17.116 It is recognized that the role of internationalcooperation is to support and supplement national efforts.Implementation of strategies and activities under theprogramme areas relative to marine and coastal areas andseas requires effective institutional arrangements at na-tional. subregional, regional and global levels, as appro-priate. There are numerous national and international,

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including regional, institutions, both within and outsidethe United Nations system, with competence in marineissues, and there is a need to improve coordination andstrengthen links among them. It is also important toensure that an integrated and multisectoral approach tomarine issues is pursued at all levels.

OBJECTIVES

17.117 States commit themselves. in accordance withtheirpolicies, priorities and resources, to promote institu-tional arrangements necessary to support the implemen-tation of the prograrnme areas in this chapter. To this end,it is necessary, as appropriate, to:(a) Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressingenvironment and development in marine and coastalareas at national, subregional, regional and global levels,as appropriate;(b) Promote effective information exchange and,where appropriate, institutional l inkages betweenbilateral and multilateral national, regional, subregionaland interregional institutions dealing with environmentand development in marine and coastal areas;(c) Promote within the United Nations system, regularintergovernmental review and consideration of envi-ronment and development issues with respect to marineand coastal areas:(d) Promote the effective operation of coordinatingmechanisms for the components of the United Nationssystem dealing with issues of environment and deveiop-ment in marine and coastal areas, as well as links withrelevant international development bodies.

AC-IIVITIES

A) MANAGEA/ENI-R ELAT ED ACT IVITI E S

GLOBAL

17.1 l8 The General Assembly shouldprovideforregularconsideration, within the United Nations system, at theintergovernmental level of general marine and coastalissues, including environment and development matters,and should request the Secretary-General and executiveheads of United Nations agencies and organizations to:(a) Strengthen coordination and develop improvedarrangements among the relevant United Nations organ-izations with major marine and coastal responsibilities,including their subregional and regional components;(b) Strengthen coordination between those organiza-tions and other United Nations organizations. i n stitutionsand specialized agencies dealing with development, tradeand other related economic issues, as appropriate;

(c) Improve representation of United Nations agenciesdealing with the marine environment in United Nationssy stem- wide coordination efforts ;(d) Promote, where necessary, greater collaborationbetween the United Nations agencies and subregionaland regional coastal and marine programmes;(e) Develop a centralized system to provide forinformation on legislation and advice on implementationof legal agreements on marine environmental anddevelopment issues.17.119 States recognize that environmental policiesshould deal with the root causes of environmentaldegradation, thus preventing environmental measuresfrom resulting in unnecessary restrictions to trade. Tradepolicy measures for environmental purposes should notconstitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimi-nation or a disguised restriction on international trade.Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challengesoutside the jurisdiction of the importing country shouldbe avoided. Environmental measures addressing interna-tional environmental problems should, as far as possible,be based on an international consensus. Domesticmeasures targeted to achieve certain environmental ob-jectives may need trade measures to render them effec-tive. Should trade policy measures be found necessaryfor the enforcement of environmental policies, certainprinciples and rules should apply. These could include,inter alia, the principle of non-discrimination; the prin-ciple that the trade measure chosen should be the leasttrade-restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; anobligation to ensure transparency in the use of trademeasures related to the environment and to provide ade-quate notification of national regulations; and the need togive consideration to the special conditions and develop-ment requirements of developing countries as they movetowards intemationally agreed environmental objectives.

SUBREGIONAL AND REGIONAL

17.120 States should consider, as appropriate:(a) Strengthening, and extending where necessary, in-tergovernmental regional cooperation, the Regional SeasProgrammes of UNEP, regional and subregional fisheriesorganizations and regional commissions;(b) Introduce, where necessary, coordination amongrelevant United Nations and other multilateral organiza-tions at the subregional and regional levels, includingconsideration of co-location of their staff;(c) Arrange for periodic intraregional consultations;(d) Facilitate access to and use of expertise and tech-nology through relevant national bodies to subregionaland regional centres and networks, such as the RegionalCentres for Marine Technology.

B) DATA AND 'NFORMAT/ON

l7.l2l States should, where appropriate:(a) Promote exchange of information on marine andcoastal issues;(b) Strengthen the capacity of international organiza-tions to handle information and support the developmentof national, subregional and regional data and informa-tion systems, where appropriate. This could also includenetworks linking countries with comparable environ-mental problems;(c) Further develop existing international mechanismssuch as Earthwatch and GESAMP.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

17.122 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cosr (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this prograinme to be about $50 millionfrom the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of'-magni-tude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and flnancial terms, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend upon, interalia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SCIENI/F/C AND TFCHNO/OGtCALMEANS, HUMANRESOURCE DEVELOPMENI AND CAPACITY. BUILDING

ll.l23 The means of implementation outlined in theother programme areas on marine and coastal issues,under the sections on scientific and technological means,human resource development and capacity-building areentirely relevant for this programme area as well. Addi-tionally, States should, through international cooperation,develop a comprehensive programme for meeting the corehuman resource needs in marine sciences at all levels.

Gl st sTAtNABt E DEVETOPMENT OF SrvrAU FIANDS

BASIS FOR ACTION

17.124 Small island developing States, and islands sup-porting small communities are a special case both forenvironment and development. They are ecologicallyfragile and vulnerable. Their small size, limited re-sources, geographic dispersion and isolat ion f rommarkets, place them at a disadvantage economically and

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prevent economies of scale. For small island developingStates the ocean and coastal environment is of strategicimportance and constitutes a valuable developmentresource.17.125 Their geographic isolation has resulted in theirhabitation by a comparatively large number of uniquespecies of flora and fauna, giving them a very high shareof global biodiversity. They also have rich and diversecultures with special adaptations to island environmentsand knowledge of the sound management of islandresources.llJ26 Small island developing States have all the envi-ronmental problems and challenges of the coastal zoneconcentrated in a limited land area. They are consideredextremely vulnerable to global warming and sealevelrise, with certain small low-lying islands facing the in-creasing threat of the loss of their entire national terri-tories. Most tropical islands are also now experiencingthe more immediate impacts of increasing frequency ofcyclones, storms and hurricanes associated with climatechange. These are causing major set-backs to their socio-economic development.17.127 Because small island development options arelimited, there are special challenges to planning for andimplementing sustainable development. Small islanddeveloping States will be constrained in meeting thesechallenges without the cooperation and assistance of theinternational communitv.

OBJECTIVES

17J28 States commit themselves to addressing theproblems of sustainable developrnent of small islanddeveloping States. To this end, it is necessary:(a) To adopt and implement plans and programmes tosupport the sustainable development and utilization oftheir marine and coastal resources, including meetingessential human needs, maintaining biodiversity and im-proving the quality of life for island people;(b) To adopt measures which will enable small islanddeveloping States to cope effectively, creatively andsustainably with environmental change and to mitigateimpacts and reduce the threats posed to marine andcoastal resources.

ACTIVITIESA) MANAGFMFNI-R ELATED ACT IV IT IE S

17.129 Small island developing States, with the assist-ance as appropriate of the international community andon the basis of existing work of national and internationalorganizations, should:

(a) Study the special environmental anddevelopmentalcharacteristics of small islands, producing an environ-mental profile and inventory of their natural resources,critical marine habitats and biodiversity;(b) Develop techniques for determining and monitor-ing the carrying capacity of small islands under differentdevelopment assumptions and resource constraints;(c) Prepare medium- and long-term plans for sustainabledevelopment ttrat emphasize multiple use of resources,integrate environmental considerations with economic andsectoral planning and policies, define measures for main-taining cultural and biological diversity and conserve en-dangered species and critical marine habitats;(d) Adapt coastal area management techniques, suchas planning, siting and environmental impact assess-ments, using Geographical Information Systems (GIS),suitable to the special characteristics of small islands,taking into account the traditional and cultural values ofindigenous people of islanC countries;(e) Review the existing institutional arrangements andidentify and undertake appropriate institutional reformsessential to the effective implementation of sustainabledevelopment plans, including intersectoral coordinationand community participation in the planning process;(f) Implement sustainable development plans, includ-ing the review and modification of existing unsustainablepolicies and practices;(g) Based on precautionary and anticipatory ap-proaches, design and implement rational responsestrategies to address the environmental, social and eco-nomic impacts of climate change and sealevel rise, andprepare appropriate contingency plans;(h) Promote environmentally sound technology forsustainable development within small island developingStates and identify technologies that should be excludedbecause of their threats to essential island ecosvstems.

B) DATA AND /NFORMATTAN

17.130 Additional information on the geographic, envi-ronmental, cultural and socio-economic characteristicsof islands should be compiled and assessed to assist in theplanning process. Existing island databases should be ex-panded and geographic infbrmation systems developed andadapted to suit the special characteristics of islands.

c/ /NTERNATIONAL AND REG/ONAI.COOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON

17.131 Small island developing States, with the support,as appropriate, of international organizations, whether

164

subregional, regional or global, should develop andstrengthen inter-island, regional and interregional co-operation and information exchange, including periodicregional and global meetings on sustainable developmentof small island developing States with the first globalconference on the sustainable development of smallisland developing States, to be held in 1993.17 .132 International organizations, whether subregional,regional or global, must recognrze the special develop-ment requirements of small island developing States andgive adequate priority in the provision of assistance,particularly with respect to the development and im-plementation of sustainable development plans.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANCING AND COST EVALUATION

17.133 The Conlerence secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementingthe activities o1'this programme to be about $ 130 million,including about $50 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter aliu. ttre specific strategies and pro-gfturrmes Govemments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENIIFIC AND IECHNICAT MEANS

17.134 Centres for the development and diffusion ofscientific information and advice on technical means andtechnologies appropriate to small island developingStates, especially with reference to the management ofthe coastal zone, the exclusive economic zone and marineresources, should be established or strengthened, asappropriate. on a regional basis.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

i7.135 Since populations of srnall island developingStates cannot maintain all necessary specializations,training for integrated coastal management and develop-rnent should aim to produce cadres of managers or scien-tists, engineers and coastal planners able to integrate themanv factors that need to be considered in integratedcoastal management. Resource users should be preparedto execute both management and protection functionsand to apply the polluter pays principle and support thetraining of their personnel. Educational systems should

be modified to meet these needs and special trainingprogrammes developed in integrated island managementand development. Local planning should be integratedin educational curricula of all levels and public awarenesscampaigns developed with the assistance of non-govern-mental organizations and indigenous coastal populations.

D) CAPACTTY-BU|LDING

17.136 The total capacity of small island developingStates will always be limited. Existing capacity musttherefore be restructured to meet efficiently the immedi-ate needs for sustainable development and integratedmanagement. At the same time, adequate and appro-priate assistance from the international community mustbe directed at strengthening the full range of humanresources needed on a continuous basis to implementsustainable development plans.17 .137 New technologies that can increase the output andrange of capability of the limited human resources shouldbe employed to increase the capacity of very smallpopulations to meet their needs. The development andapplication of traditional knowledge to improve thecapacity of countries to implement sustainable develop-ment should be fostered.

'References to the United Notions Convenlion on the Low of theSeo in this chopter of Agendo 2l do not preiudice the posit ion ofony Stote with respect to signoture, rotificotion of or occession tothe Convention.

2R"f"r"n.", to the United Nolions Convention on the Low of theSeo in this chopter of Agendo 2l do not preiudice the position ofStotes which view the Convention os hoving o unified chorocler.

3Norhing in the progromme oreos of this chopter should beinterpreted os preiudicing the rights of the Stotes involved in odispute of sovereignty or in the delimitotion of the moritime oreosconcerned.

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IB Protection of the quolity ond supply of freshwoterresources: Applicotion of integroted opproochesto the development, monogement ond use ofwoter resources

I N T R O D U C T I O N

l8.l Freshwater resources are an essential component ofthe Earth's hydrosphere and an indispensable part of allterrestrial ccosystems. The freshwater environment ischaracterized by the hydrological cycle, including floodsand droughts, which in some regions have become moreextreme and dramatic in their consequences. Globalclimate change and atmospheric pollution could alsohave an impact on freshwater resources and theiravailability and. through sea-level rise, threaten low-lying coastal areas and small island ecosystems.18.2 Water is needed in all aspects of life. The generalobjective is to make certain that adequate supplies ofwater of good quality are maintained for the entire popu-lation of this planet, while preserving the hydrological,biological and chemical functions of ecosystems, adapt-ing human activities within the capacity limits of natureand combating vectors of water-related diseases. Innovativetechnologies, including the improvement of indigenoustechnologies, are needed to fully utilize limited waterre source s and to s afeguard those resource s agai nst pollution.18.3 The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and ag-gravated pollution of freshwater resources in many worldregions. along with the progressive encroachment of incom-patible activities. demand integrated water resources plan-ning and management. Such integration mustcoveralltypesof interrelated freshwater bodies, including both surfacewater and groundwater, and duly consider water quantityand quality aspects. The multisectoral nature of waterresources development in the context of socio-economicdevelopment must be recognized, as well as the multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply andsan itation, agriculture, industry urban development, hydro-power generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recre-ation. lorv and flat lands manasement and other activities.

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Rational water utilization schemes for the developmentof surface and underground water-supply sources andother potential sources have to be supported by concur-rent water conservation and wastage minimizationmeasures. Priority, however, must be accorded to floodprevention and control measures, as well as sedimenta-tion control, where required.18.4 Transboundary water resources and their use are ofgreat importance to riparian States. In this connection,cooperation among those States may be desirable inconformity with existing agreements and/or otherrelevant arrangements, taking into account the interestsof all riparian States concerned.18.5 The following programme areas are proposed forthe freshwater sector:(a) Integrated water resources development andmanagement;(b) Water resources assessment;(c) Protection of water resources, water quality andaquatic ecosystems;(d) Drinking-water supply and sanitation;(e) Water and sustainable urban development;(0 Water for sustainable food production and ruraldevelopment;(g) Impacts of climate change on water resources.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) TNTEGRATED WAIER RESOT RCES DEVELOPMENTAND MANAGE'YIENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

18.6 The extent to which water resources developmentcontributes to economic productivity and social well-

being is not usually appreciated, although all social andeconomic activities rely heavily on the supply and qualityof freshwater. As populations and economic activitiesgrow, many countries are rapidly reaching conditions ofwater scarcity orfacing limits to economic development.Water demands are increasing rapidly, with 70-80 percent required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent forindustry and a mere 6 per cent for domestic consumption.The holistic management of freshwater as a finite andvulnerable resource, and the integration of sectoral waterplans and prograffnnes within the framework of nationaleconomic and social policy, are of paramount importancefor action in the 1990s and beyond. The fragmentationof responsibilities for water resources developmentamong sectoral agencies is proving, however, to be aneven greater impediment to promoting integrated watermanagement than had been anticipated. Effective im-plementation and coordination mechanisms are required.

OBJECTIVES

18.7 The overall objective is to satisfy the freshwaterneeds of all countries for their sustainable development.18.8 Integrated water resources management is basedon the perception of water as an integral part of theecosystem, a natural resource and a social and economicgood, whose quantity and quality determine the natureof its utilization. To this end, water resources have to beprotected, taking into account the functioning of aquaticecosystems and the perenniality of the resource, in orderto satisfy and reconcile needs for water in human activ-ities. In developing and using water resources, priorityhas to be given to the satisfaction of basic needs and thesafeguarding of ecosystems. Beyond these requirements,however, water users should be charged appropriately.18.9 Integrated water resources management, includingthe integration of land- and water-related aspects, shouldbe carried out at the level of the catchment basin orsub-basin. Four principal objectives should be pursued,as follows:(a) To promote a dynamic, interactive, iterative andmultisectoral approach to water resources management,including the identification and protection of potentialsources of freshwater supply, that integrates technologi-cal. socio-economic. environmental and human healthconsiderations;(b) To plan for the sustainable and rational utilization,protection, conservation and management of water re-sources based on community needs and priorities withinthe framework of national economic development policy;(c) To design, implement and evaluate projects andprogrammes that are both economically efficient andsocially appropriate within clearly defined strategies,

based on an approach of full public participation, includ-ing that of women, youth, indigenous people and localcommunities in water management policy-making anddecision-making;(d) To identify and strengthen or develop, as required,in particular in developing countries, the appropriateinstitutional, legal and financial mechanisms to ensurethat water policy and its implementation are a catalystfor sustainable social progress and economic growth.18.10 In the case of transboundary water resources, thereis a need for riparian States to formulate water resourcesstrategies, prepare water resources action programmesand consider, where appropriate, the harmonization ofthose strategies and action prograrnmes.18.1 I All States, according to their capacity and availableresources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation,including the United Nations and other relevant organiza-tions as appropriate, could set the following targets:

A) BYTHEYEAR 2000:

(i) To have designed and initiated costed and targetednational action programmes, and to have put in placeappropri ate in stitutional structure s and le gal instruments ;(ii) To have established efficient water-use programmesto attain sl.rstainable resource utilization patterns;

B) BY THE YEAR 2025:

(i) To have achieved subsectoral targets of all fresh-water programme areas.It is understood that the fulfilment of the targets quanti-fied in (A) (i) and (ii) above will depend upon new andadditional financial resources that will be made availableto developing countries in accordance with the relevantprovisions of General Assembly resolution 44/228.

ACTIVITIES

18.12 All States, according to their capacity and avail-able resources, and through bilateral or multilateralcooperation, including the United Nations and otherrelevant organizations as appropriate, could implementthe following activities to improve integrated waterresources management:(a) Formulation of costed and targeted national actionplans and investment programmes;(b) Integration of measures for the protection and conser-vation of potential sources of freshwater supply, includingthe inventorying of waterresources, with land-use planning,forest resource utilization, protection of mountain slopesand riverbanks and other relevant development and con-servation activities;

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(c) Development of interactive databases, forecastingmodels, economic planning models and methods forwater management and planning, including environmen-tal impact assessment methods;(d) Optimization of water resources allocation underphysical and socio-economic constraints;(e) Implementation of allocation decisions throughd e m a n d m a n a g e m e n t , p r i c i n g m e c h a n i s m s a n dregulatory measures;(0 Flood and drought management, including riskanaiysis and environmental and social impact assessment,(g) Promotion of schemes for rational water usethrough public awareness-raising, educational pro-grammes and levying of water tariffs and other economicinstruments:(h) Mobilization of water resources, particularly in aridand semi-arid areas:(i) Promotion of international scientif ic researchcooperation on freshwater resources;

0) Development of new and alternative sources ofwater-supply such as seawater desalination, artificialgroundwater recharge, use of marginal-quality water,waste-water reuse and water recycling;(k) Integration of water (including surface and under-ground water resources) quantity and quality manage-ment:(l) Promotion of water conservation through improvedwater-use efficiency and wastage minimization schemesfor all users. including the development of water-savingdevices;(m) Support to water-user groups to optimize localwater resources management:(n) Development of public participatory techniquesand their implementation in decision-making, particu-lzuly the enhancement of the role of women in waterresources planning and management;(o) Development and strengthening, as appropriate, ofcooperation, including mechanisms where appropriate,at all levels concerned, namely:(i) At the lowest appropriate level, delegation of waterresources management, generally, to that level, in accord-ance with national legislation, including decentralizationof government services to local authorities, privateenterprises and communities;(ii) At the national level, integrated water resourcesplanning and management in the framework of the na-tional planning process and, where appropriate, estab-lishment of independent regulation and monitoring offreshwater. based on national leeislation and economicmeasures:(iii) At the regional level, consideration, where appro-priate, of the harmonization of national strategies andaction programmes:

(iv) At the global level, improved delineation ofresponsibilities, division of labour and coordination ofintemational organizations and prograrnrnes, includingfacilitating discussions and sharing of experiences inareas related to water resources management;(p) Dissemination of information, including oper-ational guidelines, and promotion of education for waterusers, including the consideration by the United Nationsof a World Water Day.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FINANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

18.13 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $ I l5 millionfrom the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-tude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend upon, interalia, the specitlc strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SC/ENIIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MFANS

18.14 The deve lopment o f in te rac t ive da tabases ,forecasting methods and economic planning modelsappropriate to the task of managing water resources in anefficient and sustainable manner will require the appli-cation of new techniques such as geographical informa-tion systems and expert systems to gather, assimilate,analyse and display multisectoral information and tooptimize decision-making. In addition, the development ofnew and altemative sources of water-supply and low-costwater technologies will require innovative applied research.This will involve the transfer, adaptation and diffusion ofnew techniques and technoiogy among developingcountries, as well as the development of endogenouscapacity, for the purpose of being able to deal with the addeddimension of integrating engineering, economic, environ-mental and social aspects of water resources managementand predictrng the effects in temrs of human impact.18.15 Pursuant to the recognition of water as a social andeconomic good, the various available options for chargingwater users (including domestic, urban, industrial and agri-cultural water-user groups) have to be further evaluated andfield-tested. Further development is required for economicinstruments that take into account opportunity costs andenvironmental externalities. Field studies on the willingnessto pay should be conducted in rural and urban situations.

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18.16 Water resources development and rnanagementshould be planned in an integrated manner, taking intoaccount long-term planning needs as well as those withnuurower horizons; that is to say, they should incorporateenvironmental, economic and social considerationsbased on the principle of sustainability, include the re-quirements of all users as well as those relating to theprevention and mitigation of water-related hazards andconstitute an integral part of the socio-economic devel-opment planning process. A prerequisite for the sustain-able management of water as a scarce vulnerable resourceis the obligation to acknowledge in all planning anddevelopment its full costs. Planning cclnsiderationsshould reflect benefits investment, environmental pro-tection and operation costs, as well as the opportunitycosts reflecting the most valuable alternative use of water.Actual charging need not necessarily burden all benefi-ciaries with the consequences of those considerations.Charging mechanisms should, however, reflect as far aspossible both the true cost of water when used as aneconomic good and the ability of the communities to pay.18.17 The role of water as a social, economic and life-sustaining good should be reflected in demand manage-ment mechanisms and implemented through water con-servation and reuse. resource assessment and financialinstruments.18.18 The setting afresh of priorit ies for private andpublic investment strategies should take into account( a ) m a x i m u m u t i l i z a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g p r o j e c t s ,th rough main tenance, rehab i l i ta t ion and op t ima loperation; (b) new or alternative clean technologies; and(c) environmentally and sociaily benign hydropower.

C) HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENI

l8.19 The delegation of water resources management tothe lowest appropriate level necessitates educating andtraining watermanagement staff atall levels andensuringthat women participate equally in the education andtraining programmes. Particular emphasis has to beplaced on the introduction of public participatory tech-niques, including enhancement of the role of women.youth, indigenous people and local communities. Skil lsrelated to various water management functions have tobe developed by municipal government and water au-thorities, as well as in the private sector, local/nationalnon- governmental organizations. cooperative s, corpora-tions and other water-user groups. Education of the publicregarding the importance of water and its proper man-agement is also needed.18.20 To implement these principles, communities needto have adequate capacities. Those who establish the

framework for water development and management atany level, whether intemational, national or local, needto ensure that the means exist to build those capacities.The means will vary from case to case. They usuallyinclude:(a) Awareness-creation programmes, including mobi-lizingcommitment and support at all levels and initiatinsglobal and local action to promote such prograrnmes;(b) Training of water managers at all levels so that theyhave an appropriate understanding of all the elementsnecessary for their decision-making;(c) Strengthening of training capacities in developingcountries;(d) Appropriate training of the necessary professionals,including extension workers;(e) Improvement of career structures;(f) Sharing of appropriate knowledge and technol-ogy, both for the collection of data and for the im-plementation of planned development, including non-polluting technologies and the knowledge needed toextract the best performance from the existing invest-ment system.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

I 8.21 Institutional capacity for implementing integratedwater management should be reviewed and developedwhen there is a clear demand. Existing administrativestructures will often be quite capable of achieving localwater resources management, but the need may arise fornew institutions based upon the perspective, forexample,of river catchment areas, district development councilsand local community committees. Although water ismanaged at various levels in the socio-political system,demand-driven management requires the developmentof water-related institutions at appropriate levels, takinginto account the need for intesration with land-usemanagement.18.22 In creating the enabling environment for lowest-appropriate-level management, the role of governmentincludes mobilization of financial and human resources,legislation, standard-setting and other regulatory func-tions, monitoring and assessment of the use of water andland resources and creating of opportunities for publicparticipation. International agencies and donors have animportant role to play in providing support to developingcountries in creating the required enabling environmentfor integrated water resources management. This shouldinclude, as appropriate, donor support to local levels indeveloping countries, including community-based in-stituti ons, non-govemmental organizations and women'sgroups.

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B) WATER RESOURCES ASSESST,IENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

18.23 Water resources assessment, including the identi-fication of potential sources of fieshwater supply, com-prises the continuing determination of sources, extent,dependabil ity and quality of water resources and of thehuman activit ies that affect those resources. Such as-sessment constitutes the practical basis for their sus-tainable rnanagement and a prerequisite for evaluationof the possibil i t ies for their development. There is,however, growing concern that at a time when moreprecise and reliable information is needed about waterresources, hydrologic services and related bodies areless able than before to provide this information, espe-cially information on groundwater and water quality.Major impediments are the lack of f inancial resourcesfor water resources assessment, the fragmented natureof hydrologic services and the insufficient numbers ofqualif ied staff. At the same time, the advancing tech-nology for data capture and management is increasing-ly diff icult to access for developing countries. Estab-lishment of national databases is, however, vital towater resources assessment and to mitigation of theeffects of f loods, droughts, desertif lcation and pollu-t ion.

OBJECTIVES

18.24 Based upon the Mar del Plata Action Plan, thisprogramme area has been extended into the 1990s andbeyond with the overall objective of ensuring the assess-ment and forecasting of the quantity and quality of waterresources, in order to estimate the total quantity of waterresources available and their future supply potential, todetermine their current quality status, to predict possibleconflicts between supply and demand and to provide ascientific database fbr rational water resources utiliza-tion.18.25 Five specific objectives have been set accordingly,as follows:(a) To make available to all countries water resourcesassessment technology that is appropriate to their needs,inespective of their level of development. includingmethods for the impact assessment of climate change onfreshwater:(b) To have all r,:ountries, according to their financialmeans. allocate to water resources assessment financialresources in line with the economic and social needs forwater resources data;(c) To ensure that the assessment information is fullyuti l ized in the development of water managementpolicies;

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(d) To have all countries establish the institutional ar-rangements needed to ensure the efficient collection,processing, storage. retrieval and dissemination to usersof information about the quality and quantity of availablewater resources at the level of catchrnents andgroundwater aquifers in an integrated manner;(e) To have sufficient numbers of appropriatelyqualified and capable staff recruited and retained by waterresources assessment agencies and provided with thetraining and retraining they will need to carry out theirresponsibilities successfully.18.26 All States, according to their capacity and availableresources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-ation, including cooperation with the United Nations andother relevant organizations, as appropriate, could set thefollowing targets:(a) By the year 2000, to have studied in detail thefeasibil i ty of install ing water resources assessmentservices;(b) As a long-term target, to have fully operationalservices available based upon high-density hydrometricnetworks.

ACTIVITIES

I 8.27 All States, according to their capacity and availableresources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-ation. including the United Nations and other relevantorganizations as appropriate, could undertake the follow-ing activit ies:

A) INSTITUTIONAL FRAIvIEWORK:

(:t Establish appropriate policy fiameworks and na-tional priorities;( i i ) E s t a b l i s h a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a lcapabil it ies of countries, including legislative andregulatory arrangements, that are required to ensure theadequate assessment of their water resources and theprovision of flood and drought forecasting services;(iii) Establish and maintain effective cooperation at thenational level between the various agencies responsibleforthe collection. storage and analysis of hydrologic data;(iv) Cooperate in the assessment of transboundary waterresources, subject to the prior agreement of each riparianState concemed:

B) DATA SYSTEMS:

(i) Review existing data-collection networks and assesstheir adequacy, including those that provide real-timedata for flood and drought forecasting;(ii) Improve networks to meet accepted guidelines for

the provision of data on water quantity and quality forsurface and groundwater, as well as relevant land-usedata;(iii) Apply standards and other means to ensure datacomparibility;(iv) Upgrade facilities and procedures used to store,process and analyse hydrologic data and make such dataand the forecasts derived from them available to potentialUSCTS;

(v) Establish databases on the availability of all typesof hydrologic data at the national level;(vi) Implement "data rescue" operations, for example,establishment of national archives of water resources;(vii) Implement appropriate well-tried techniques forthe processing of hydrologic data;(viii) Derive area-related estimates from point hydrologicdata:(ix) Assimilate remotely sensed data and the use, whereappropriate. of geographical information systems;

C} DATA DISSEMINATION:

(i) Identify the need for water resources data for variousplanning purposes;(ii) Analyse and present data and information on waterresources in the forms required forplanning and manage-ment of countries' socio-economic development and foruse in environmental protection strategies and in thedesign and operation of specific water-related projects;(iii) Provide forecasts and wamings of flood and droughtto the general public and civil defence;

D} RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:

(i) Establish or strengthen research and developmentprogrammes at the national, subregional, regional andinternational levels in support of water resources assess-ment activit ies;(ii) Monitor research and development activities to en-sure that they make full use of local expertise and otherlocal resources and that they are appropriate forthe needsof the countrv or countries concerned.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Ai F/NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATION

18.28 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2W0) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $355 million,including about $145 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-masnitude estimates only and have not

been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

B' SCIENI/F/C AND IECHNOI.OGICAL MEANS

18.29 Important research needs include (a) developmentof global hydrologic models in support of analysis ofclimate change impact and of macroscale waterresourcesassessment; (b) closing of the gap between terrestrialhydrology and ecology at different scales, including thecritical water-related processes behind loss of vegetationand land degradation and its restoration; and (c) study ofthe key processes in rvater-quality genesis, closing thegap between hydrologic flows and biogeochemicalprocesses. The research models should build upon hydro-logic balance studies and also include the consumptiveuse of water. This approach should also, when appropri-ate, be applied at the catchment level.18.30 Water resources assessment necessi tates thestrengthening of existing systems for technology transfer,adaptation and diffusion, and the development of newtechnology for use under field conditions, as well as thedevelopment of endogenous capacity. Prior to inaugura-ting the above activities, it is necessary to preparecatalogues of the water resources information held bygovernment services, the private sector, educational in-stitutes, consultants, local water-use organizations andothers.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

18.31 Water resources assessment requires the estab-lishment and maintenance of a body of well-trained andmotivated staff sufficient in number to undertake theabove activities. Education and training programmesdesigned to ensure an adequate supply of these trainedpersonnel should be established or strengthened at thelocal, national, subregional or regional level. In addition,the provision of attractive terms of employment andcareer paths for professional and technical staff shouldbe encouraged. Human resource needs should be moni-tored periodically, including all levels of employment.Plans have to be established to meet those needs througheducation and training opportunities and internationalprogrammes of courses and conferences.18.32 Because well-trained people are particularly im-portant to water resources assessment and hydrologicforecasting, personnel matters should receive specialattention in this area. The aim should be to attract and

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retain personnel to work on water resources assessmentwho are sufficient in number and adequate in their levelof education to ensure the effective implementation ofthe activities that are planned. Education may be calledfor at both the national and the international levels, withadequate terms of employment being a national respon-sibility.I 8.33 Recommended actions include:(a) Identifying education and training needs geared tothe specific requirements of countries;(b) Establishing and strengthening education and train-ing programmes on water-related topics, within an envi-ronmental and developmental context, for all categoriesof staff involved in water resources assessment activities,using advanced educational technology, where appropri-ate, and involving both men and women;(c) Developing sound recruitment, personnel and paypolicies tor staff of national and local water agencies.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLD\NG

18.34 The conduct of water resources assessment on thebasis of operational national hydrometric networks re-quires an enabling environment at all levels. The follow-ing national support action is necessary for enhancednational capacities:(a) Review of the legislative and regulatory basis ofwater resources assessment:(b) Facilitation of close collaboration among watersector agencies, part icular ly between informat ionproducers and users;(c) Implementation of water management policiesbased upon realistic appraisals of water resources condi-tions and trends;(d) Strengthening of the managerial capabilities ofwater-user groups, including women, youth, indigenouspeople and local communities, to improve water-useefficiency at the local level.

cl PRoTECTTON OF WATER RESOURCES, WATERQUALITY AND AQUATIC ECOSYSIE'YIS

BASIS FOR ACTION

18.35 Freshwater is a uni tary resource. Long-termdevelopment of global freshwater requires holisticmanagement of resources and a recognition of theinterconnectedness of the elements related to fresh-water and freshwater quality. There are f'ew regions ofthe world that are still exempt from problems of loss ofpotential sources of freshwater supply, degraded waterquality and pollution of surface and groundwater sources.

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Major problems affecting the water quality of rivers andlakes arise, in variable order of importance according todifferent situations, from inadequately treated domesticsewage, inadequate controls on the discharges of indus-trial waste waters, loss and destruction of catchmentareas, ill-considered siting of industrial plants, defore-station, uncontrolled shift ing cultivation and pooragricultural practices. This gives rise to the leaching ofnutrients and pesticides. Aquatic ecosystems are dis-turbed and living freshwater resources are threatened.Undercertain circumstances, aquatic ecosystems are alsoaffected by agricultural water resource development pro-jects such as dams, river diversions, water installationsand irrigation schemes. Erosion, sedimentation, defore-station and desertif ication have led to increased landdegradation, and the creation of reservoirs has, in somecases. resulted in adverse effects on ecosystems. Manyof these problems have arisen from a developmentmodel that is environmentally destructive and from alack of public awareness and education about surf'aceand groundwater resource protection. Ecological andhuman health eff 'ects are the measurable consequences,although the means to monitor them are inadequate ornon-existent in many countries. There is a widespreadlack of perception of the l inkages between the devel-opment, management, use and treatment of waterresources and aquatic ecosystems. A preventive ap-proach, where appropriate, is crucial to the avoidingof costly subsequent measures to rehabil itate, treat anddevelop new water supplies.

OBJECTIVES

18.36 The complex interconnectedness of freshwatersystems demands that freshwater management be holistic(taking a catchment management approach) and basedon a balanced considerat ion of the needs of peopleand the env i ronment . The Mar de l P la ta Ac t ionPlan has a l ready recogn ized the in t r ins ic l inkagebetween water resource deve lopment p ro jec ts andt h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l ,heal th and socio-economic repercussions. The over-all environmental health objective was set as follows:"to evaluate the consequences which the various usersof water have on the environment, to support measuresaimed at controll ing water-related diseases, and toprotect ecosystems".'18.37 The extent and severity of contamination of un-saturated zones and aquifers have long been underesti-mated owing to the relative inaccessibility of aquifers andthe lack of reliable information on aquifer systems. Theprotection of groundwater is therefore an essential ele-ment of water resource management.

18.38 Three objectives will have to be pursued concur-rently to integrate water-quality elements into waterresource management:(a) Maintenance of ecosystem integrity, according to amanagement principle of preserving aquatic er-osystems,including living resources, and of effectively protecting themfrom any fonn of degradation on a drainage basin ba.sis;(b) Public health protection, a task requiring not onlythe provision of safe drinking-water but also the controlof disease vectors in the aquatic environment;(c) Human resources development, a key to capacity-building and a prerequisite for implementing water-quality management.18.39 All States, according to their capacity and avail-able resources, through bilateral or multilateral cooper-ation, including the United Nations and other relevantorganizations as appropriate, could set the followingtargets:(a) To identify the surface and groundwater resourcesthat could be developed for use on a sustainable basis andother major developable water-dependent resources and,simultaneously, to initiate programmes for the protection,conservation and rational use of these resources on asustainable basis;(b) To identify all potential sources of water-supply andprepare outlines for their protection, conservation andrational use;(c) To initiate effective water pollution prevention andcontrol programmes, based on an appropriate mixture ofpollution reduction-at-source strategies, environmentalimpact assessments and enforceable standards for majorpoint-source discharges and high-risk non-point sources,commensurate with their socio-economic development;(d) To panicipate, as far as appropriate, in internationalwater-quality monitoring and management programmessuch as the Global WaterQuality Monitoring Programme(GEMSAV'ATER), the UNEP Environmentally SoundManagement of Inland Waters (EMINWA), the FAOregional inland fishery bodies, and the Convention onWetlands of International Importance Especially asWaterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention);(e) To reduce the prevalence of water-associated dis-eases, starting with the eradication of dracunculiasis(guinea worm disease) and onchocerciasis (river blind-ness) by the year 2000;(0 To establish, according to capacities and needs,biological. health, physical and chemical quality criteriafor all water bodies (surface and groundwater), with aview to an ongoing improvement of water quality:(g) To adopt an integrated approach to environmentallysustainable management of water resources, includingthe protection of aquatic ecosystems and freshwaterlivine resources:

(h) To put in place strategies for the environmentallysound management of fieshwater and related coastalecosys tems, inc lud ing cons idera t ion o f f i sher ies ,aquaculture, animal grazing, agricultural activities andbiodiversity.

ACTIVITIES

18.40 All States, according to their capacity and avail-able resources, and through bilateral or multilateralcooperation, including United Nations and other relevantclrganizations as appropriate, could implement the fol-lowing activities:

A) WATER RESOURCES PROTECilON AND CONSERVATION:

(i) Establishment and strengthening of technical andinstitutional capacities to identify and protect potentialsources of water-supply within all sectors of society;(ii) Identification of potential sources of water-supplyand preparation of national profiles;(iii) Preparation of national plans for water resourcesprotection and conseruation;(iv) Rehabilitation of important, but degraded, catch-ment areas, particularly on small islands;(v) Strengthening of administrative and legislativemeasures to prevent encroachment on existing and poten-tially usable catchment areasl

B) WATER POLLUTTON PREVENTION AND CONTROL:

(i) Application of the "polluter pays" principle, whereappropriate. to allkinds of sources, including on-site andoff-s i te sani tat ionl(ii) Promotion of the construction of treatment facilitiesfor domestic sewage and indr"lstrial effluents and thedevelopment of appropriate technologies, taking intoaccourlt sound traditional and indigenous practices;(i i i) Establishment of standards for the discharge ofeffluents and fcrr the receiving waters;(iv) Introduction of the precautionary approach in water-quality management, where appropriate, with a focus onpollution minimization and prevention through use ofnew technologies, product and process change, pollutionreduction at source and effluent reuse, recycling andrecovery. treatment and environmentally safe disposal;(v) Mandatory environmental impact assessment of allmajor water resource development projects potentiallyimpairing water quality and aquatic ecosystems, com-bined with the delineation of appropriate remedialmeasures and a strengthened control of new industrialinstallations. solid waste landfil ls and infrastructuredevelopment projects;

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(vi) Use of risk assessment and risk management rnreaching decisions in this area and ensuring compliancewith those decisions;(vii) Identification and application of best environmen-tal practices at reasonable cost to avoid diffuse pollution,namely, through a limited, rational and planned use ofnitrogenous fertilizers and other agrochemicals (pest-icides, herbicides) in agricultural practices;(viii) Encouragement and promotion of the use of ade-quately treated and purified waste waters in agriculture,aquaculture, industry and other sectors;

C} DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF CLEAN TECHNOLOGY:

(i) Control of industrial waste discharges, includinglow-waste production technologies and water recircula-tion, in an integrated manner and through application ofprecautionary measures derived from a broad-based life-cycle analysis;(ii) Treatment of municipal waste water for safe reusein agriculture and aquaculture;(iii) Development of biotechnology, inter alia, for wastetreatment, production of biofertilizers and other activities;(iv) Development of appropriate methods for water pol-lution control, taking into account sound traditional andindigenous practices;

D) GROUNDWATER PROTEOTON:

(i) Development of agricultural practices that do notdegrade groundwaters;(ii) Application of the necessary measures to mitigatesaline intrusion into aquifers of small islands and coastalplains as a consequence of sealevel rise or overexploita-tion of coastal aquifers;(iii) Prevention of aquifer pollution through the regula-tion of toxic substances that permeate the ground and theestabl ishment of protect ion zones in groundwaterrecharge and abstraction areas;(iv) Design and management of landfills based upon soundhydrogeologic information and impact assessment, usingthe best practicable and best available technology;(v) Promotion of measures to improve the safety andintegrity of wells and well-head areas to reduce intrusionof biological pathogens and hazardous chemicals intoaquifers at well sites;(vi.; Water-quality monitoring, as needed, of surface andgroundwater potentially affected by sites storing toxicand hazardous materials:

E) PROTECTON OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS.

(i) Rehabil itation of polluted and degraded waterbodies to restore aquatic habitats and ecosystems;

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(ii) Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural landsand for other users, taking into account equivalent actionfor the protection and use of groundwater resourcesimportant for agricultural productivity and for thebiodiversity of the tropics:(iii) Conservation and,protection of wetlands (owing totheir ecological and habitat importance for manyspecies), taking into account social and economic factors;(iv) Control of noxious aquatic species that may destroysome other water species;

F} PROTECNON OF FRESHWATER LIVING RESOURCES:

(i) Control and monitoring of water quality to allow forthe sustainable development of inland fisheries;(ii) Protection of ecosystems from pollution and degra-dation for the development of freshwater aquacultureprojects;

G) MONITORTNG AND SURVETLLANCE OF WATER RESOURCESAND WATERS RECEIVING WASTES:

(i) Establishment of networks for the monitoring andcontinuous surveillance of waters receiving wastes andof point and diffuse sources of pollution;(ii) Promotion and extension of the application of envi-ronmental impact assessments of geographical informa-tion systems;(iii) Surveillance of pollution sources to improve com-pliance with standards and regulations and to regulate theissue of discharge permits:(iv) Monitoring of the utilization of chemicals in agri-culture that may have an adverse environmental effect;(v) Rational land use to prevent land degradation,erosion and siltation of lakes and other water bodies:

H} DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEGALINSTRUMENTS THAT MAY BE REQUIRED TO PROTECT THE AUALIWOF WATER RESOURCES, AS APPROPRIATE, PARTICULARLY FOR:(i) Monitoring and control of pollution and its effectsin national and transboundary waters;(ii) Control of long-range atmospheric transport of pol-lutants:(iii) Control of accidental and/or deliberate spills innational and/or transboundary water bodies:(il') Environmental impact assessment.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

18.41 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total cost ( 1993-2000) of irrplementing the activities

of this programme to be about $1 billion, including about$340 million from the international community on grantor concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend upon, interalia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SC/ENr/F/C AND TFCHNOLOGICAL MEANS

18.42 States should undertake cooperative research pro-jects to develop solutions to tecltnical problems that areappropriate for the conditions in each watershed orcountry. States should consider strengthening anddeveloping national research centres linked through net-works and supported by regional water research in-stitutes. The North-South twinning of research centresand field studies by international water research institu-tions should be actively promoted. It is important that aminimum percentage of funds for water resourcedevelopment projects is allocated to research anddevelopment, particularly in externally funded projects.18.43 Monitoring and assessment of complex aquaticsystems often require multidisciplinary studies involvingseveral institutions and scientists in a joint programme.Internat ional water-qual i ty programmes, such asGEMSflVATER, should be oriented towards the water-quality of developing countries. User-friendly softwareand Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and GlobalResource Information Database (GRID) methods shouldbe developed for the handling, analysis and interpretationof monitoring data and for the preparation of manage-ment strategies.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

18.44 Innovative approaches should be adopted forprofessional and managerial staff training in order to copewith changing needs and challenges. Flexibility andadaptability regarding emerging water pollution issuesshould be developed. Training activities should be under-taken periodically at all levels within the organizationsresponsible for water-quality management, and innova-tive teaching techniques adopted for specific aspects ofwater-quality monitoring and control, including devel-opment of training skills, in-service training, problem-solving workshops and refresher training courses.18.45 Suitable approaches include the strengthening andimprovement of the human resource capabilities of localGovernments in managing water protection, treatment

and use, particularly in urban areas, and the establishmentof national and regional technical and engineering courseson the subjects of water-quality protection and control atexisting schools and education/training courses on waterresources protection and conservation for laboratory andfield technicians, women and other water-user groups.

D) CAPACTTY-BU|LD|NG

18.46 The effective protection of water resources andecosystems from pollution requires considerable upgrad-ing of most countries' present capacities. Water-qualitymanagement programmes require a certain minimuminfrastructure and staff to identify and implement tech-nical solutions and to enforce regulatory action. One ofthe key problems today and for the future is the sustainedoperation and maintenance of these facilities. In ordernot to allow resources gained from previous investmentsto deteriorate further, immediate action is required in anumber of areas.

Dl DRTNKTNG-WATER Suppry AND SANTTATTON

BASIS FOR ACTION

18.47 Safe water-supplies and environmental sanitationare vital for protecting the environment, improving healthand alleviating poverty. Safe water is also crucial to manytraditional and cultural activities. An estimated 80 percent of all diseases and over one third of deaths indeveloping countries are caused by the consumption ofcontaminated water, and on average as much as one-tenthof each person's productive time is sacrificed to water-related diseases. Concerted efforts during the 1980sbrought water and sanitation services to hundreds ofmillions of the world's poorest people. The most out-standing of these efforts was the launching in 1981 of theInternational Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Dec-ade, which resulted from the Mar del Plata Action Planadopted by the United Nations Water Conference in1977 .The commonly agreed premise was that "all peoples,whatever their stage of development and their social andeconomic conditions, have the right to have access todrinking water in quantities and of a quality equal to theirbasic needs".2 The target of the Decade was to providesafe drinking-water and sanitation to underserved urbanand rural areas by 1990, but even the unprecedentedprogress achieved during the Decade was not enough.One in three people in the developing world still lacksthese two most basic requirements for health and dignity.It is also recognized that human excreta and sewage areimportant causes of the deterioration of water quality in

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developing countries, and the introduction of availabletechnologies, inc luding appropri ate technologies, and theconstruction of sewage treatment facilities could brinBsignifi cant improvement.

OBJECTIVES

18.48 The New Delhi Statement (adopted at the GlobalConsultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for the1990s, which was held at New Delhi f rom l0 to 14September 1990) formalized the need to provide, on asustainable basis, access to safe water in sufficientquantit ies and proper sanitation for all, emphasizingthe "some for all rather than more for some" approach.Four guiding principles provide for the programmeobjectives:(a) Protection of the environment and safeguarding ofhealth through the integrated management of waterresources and liquid and solid wastes;(b) Institutional reforms promoting an integrated ap-proach and including changes in procedures, attitudesand behaviour, and the full participation of women at alllevels in sector institutions;(c) Cornmunity management of services, backed bymeasures to strengthen local institutions in implementingand sustaining water and sanitation programmes;(d) Sound financial practices, achieved through bettermanagement of existing assets, and widespread use ofappropri ate technologies.18.49 Past experience has shown that specific targetsshould be set by each individual country. At the WorldSummit for Children, in September 1990, heads of Stateor Government called for both universal access to water-supply and sanitation and the eradication of guinea wormdisease by 1995. Even for the more realistic target ofachieving full coverage in water-supply by 2025, it isestimated that annual investments must reach double thecurrent levels. One realistic strategy to meet present andfuture needs, therefore, is to develop lower-cost butadequate services that can be implemented and sustainedat the community level.

ACTIVITIES

I 8.50 All States, according to theircapacity and availableresources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-ation, including the United Nations and other relevantorganizations as appropriate, could implement the fol-lowing activit ies:

A) ENVIRONMENT,AND HEALTH:

(i) Establishment of protected areas for sources ofdrinking-water supply;

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(ii) Sanitary disposal of excreta and sewage, usingappropriate systems to treat waste waters in urban andrural areas;(iii) Expansion of urban and rural water-supply anddevelopment and expansion of rainwater catchment sys-tems, particularly on small islands, in addition to thereticulated water-supply system;(iv) Building and expansion, where appropriate, ofsewage treatment facilities and drainage systems;(v) Treatment and saf-e reuse of domestic and industrialwaste waters in urban and rural areas;(vi) Control of water-associated diseases:

B) PEOPLE AND |NST|TUT|ONS:

(i) Strengthening of the functioning of Govemments inwater resources management and, at the same time,giving of f ull recognition to the role of local authorities;(ii) Encouragement of water development and manage-ment based on a participatory approach, involving users,planners and policy makers at all levels;(iii) Application of the principle that decisions are to betaken at the lowest appropriate level, with public consul-tation and involvement of users in the planning andimplementation of water projects;(iv) Human resource developmentat all levels, includingspecial programlnes for women;(v) Broad-based education programmes, with particularemphasis on hygiene, local management and risk reduc-t ion;(vi) International support mechanisms for programmefunding, implementation and follow-up;

C} NATIONAL AND COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT:(i) Support and assistance to communities in managingtheir own systems on a sustainable basis;(ii) Encouragement of the local population, especiallywomen, youth. indigenous people and local com-munities. in water management;(iii) Linkages between national water plans and com-munity management of local waters;(iv) Integration of community management of waterwithin the context of overall planning;(v) Promotion of primary health and environmental careat the local level, including training fbrlocal communitiesin appropriate water management techniques and pri-mary health care;(vi) Assistance to service agencies in becoming morecost-eff-ective and responsive to consumer needs;(vii) Providing of more attention to underserved ruraland low-income periurban areas;(viii) Rehabilitation of defective systems, reduction ofwastage and sa{'e reuse of water and waste water;

(ix) Programmes for rational water use and ensuredoperation and maintenance;(x) Research and development of appropriate technicalsolutions;(xi) Substantial increase in urban treatment capacitycommensurate with increasing loads;

D) AWARENESS CREATTON ANDPUBLIC I NFORMATION /PARTICIPATION :

(i) Strengthening of sector monitoring and informationmanagement at subnational and national levels;(i i) Annual processing, analysis and publication ofmonitoring results at national and local levels as a sectormanagement and advocacy/awareness creation tool;(iii) Use of limited sector indicators at regional andglobal levels to promote the sector and raise funds;(iv) Improvement of sector coordination, planning andimplementat ion, wi th the assistance of improvedmonitoring and information management, to increase thesector's absorptive capacity, particularly in community-based self-help projects.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

18.51 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this progranune to be about $20 billion,including about $7.4 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies and prografirmesGovernments decide upon for implementation.

B/ 5C/ENI/F/C AND TECHNOT.OGICAL MFANS

18.52 To ensure the feasibility, acceptability and sustain-ability of planned water-supply services, adopted tech-nologies should be responsive to the needs and con-straints imposed by the conditions of the communityconcerned. Thus, design criteria will involve technical,health, social. economic, provincial, institutional andenvironmental factors that determine the characteristics,magnitude and cost of the planned system. Relevantinternational support programmes should address thedeveloping countries concerning, inter alia:(a) Pursuit of low-cost scientific and technologicalmeans, as far as practicable;

(b) Utilization of traditional and indigenous practices,as far as practicable, to maximize and sustain localinvolvement;(c) Assistance to country-level technical/scientific in-stitutes to facilitate curricula development to supportfields critical to the water and sanitation sector.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

18.53 To effectively plan and manage water-supply andsanitation at the national, provincial, district and com-munity level, and to utilize funds mosteffectively, trainedprofessional and technical staff must be developed withineach country in sufficient numbers. To do this, countriesmust establish manpower development plans, takinginto consideration present requirements and planneddevelopments. Subsequently, the development andperformance of country-level training institutionsshould be enhanced so that they can play a pivotal rolein capacity-building. It is also important that countriesprovide adequate training fbr women in the sustainablemaintenance of equipment, water resource s managementand environmental sanitation.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

18.54 The implementation of water-supply and sanita-tion programmes is a national responsibility. To varyingde grees, responsibi I i ty for the i mplementation of proj ectsand the operating of systems should be delegated to alladministrative levels down to the community and indi-vidual served. This also means that national authorities,together with the agencies and bodies of the UnitedNations system and other external support agenciesproviding support to national programmes, shoulddevelop mechanisms and procedures to collaborate at alllevels. This is particularly important if full advantage isto be taken of community-based approaches and self-reliance as tools fcrr sustainability. This will entail a highdegree of community participation, involving women, inthe conception, planning, decision-making, implementa-tion and evaluation connected with projects for domesticwater-supply and sanitation.18.55 Overall national capacity-building at all adrninis-trative levels, involving institutional development, coor-dination, human resources, community pafticipation,health and hygiene education and literacy, has to bedeveloped according to its fundamental connection bothwith any efforts to improve health and socio-economicdevelopment through water-supply and sanitation andwith their impact on the human environment. Capacity-

177

building should therefore be one of the underlying keysin implementation strategies. Institutional capacity-building should be considered to have an importanceequal to that of the sector supplies and equipment com-ponent so that funds can be directed to both. This can beundertaken at the planning or programme/project formu-lation stage, accompanied by a clear detlnition of objec-tives and targets. In this regard, technical cooperationamong developing countries, owing to their availablewealth of infbrmation and experience and the need to avoid"reinventing the wheel", is crucial. Such a course has provedcost-effective in many country projects already.

E) WATER AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVETOP-A/TENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

18.56 Early in the next century, more than half of theworld's population will be living in urban areas. By theyear 2025, that proportion will have risen to 60 per cent,comprising some 5 billion people. Rapid urban popula-tion growth and industrialization are putting severestrains on the water resources and environmental protec-tion capabil it ies of many cit ies. Special attention needsto be given to the growing eff'ects of urbanization on waterdemands and usage and to the critical role played by locaiand municipal authorities in managing the supply, useand overall treatment of water, particularly in developingcountries for which special support is needed. Scarcityof freshwater resources and the escalating costs ofdeveloping new resources have a considerable impact onnational industrial, agricultural and human settlementdevelopment and economic growth. Better managementof urban water resources, including the elimination ofunsustainable consumption patterns. can make a substan-tial contribution to the alleviation of poverty and im-provement of the health and quality of life of the urbanand rural poor. A high proportion of large urban ag-glomerations are located around estuaries and in coastalzones. Such an arrangement leads to pollution frommunicipal and industrial discharges combined with over-exploitation of available water resources and threatensthe marine environment and the supply of freshwaterresources.

OBJECTIVES

18.57 The development objective of this programme isto support local and central Govemments' efforts andcapacities tt-r sustain nationai development and produc-tivity through environmentally sound management ofwater resources for urban use. Supporting this objectiveis the identiflcation and implementation of strategies and

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actions to ensure the continued supply of affordable waterfor present and future needs and to reverse current trendsof resource degradation and depletion.1S.58 All States, according to their capacity and availableresources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation,including the United Nations and other relevant organiza-tions as appropriate, could set the following targets:(a) By the year 2000, to have ensured that all urbanresidents have access to at least 40 litres per capita perday of safe water and that 75 per cent of the urbanpopulation are provided with on-site or communityfacilities for sanitation;(b) By the year 2000, to have established and appliedquantitative and qualitative discharge standards formunicipal and industrial effluents;(c) By the year 2000, to have ensured that 75 per centof solid waste generated in urban areas is collected andrecycled or disposed of in an environmentally safe way.

ACTIVITIES

18.59 All States, according to their capacity and availableresources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-ation, including the United Nations and other relevantorganizations as appropriate, could implement the fol-lowing activities:

A) PROTECnON OF WATER RESOURCES FROM DEPLETION,POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION:

(i) Introduction of sanitary waste disposal facilitiesbased on environmentally sound low-cost and upgrad-able technologies;(ii) Implementation of urban storm-water run-off anddrainage programmes;(iii) Promotion of recycling and reuse of wastewaterandsolid wastes;(iv) Control of industrial pollution sources to protectwater resources;(v) Protection of watersheds with respect to depletionand degradation of their forest cover and from harmfulupstream activities;(vi) Promotion of research into the contribution offorests to sustainable water resources development;(vii) Encouragement of the best management practicesfor the use of agrochemicals with a view to minimizingtheir impact on water resources;

B) EFF|C|ENT AND EaU|TABLE ALLOCATTON OF WATER RESOURCES:

(i) Reconciliation of city development planning withthe availability and sustainability of water resources;(ii) Satisfaction of the basic water needs of the urbanpopulation;

(iii) Introduction of water tariffs, taking into account thecircumstances, in each country and where affordable, thatreflect the marginal and opportunity cost of water, espe-cially for productive activities;

C) INSTITUTIONAL/LEGAL/MANAGEMENT REFORMS:

(i) Adoption of a city-wide approach to the manage-ment of water resources;(ii) Promotion at the national and local level of theelaboration of land-use plans that give due considerationto water resources development;(iii) Utilization of the skills and potential of non-govern-mental organizatrons, the private sector and local people,taking into account the public's and strategic interests inwater resources;

D) PROMOTION OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION:

(i) Initiation of public-awareness campaigns to encour-age the public's move towards rational water utilization;(ii) Sensitization of the public to the issue of protectingwater quality within the urban environment;(iii) Pronrotion of public participation in the collection,recycling and elimination of wastes;

E) SUPPORT TO LOCAL CAPAC|TY-BU|LD|NG:

(i) Developrnent of legislation and policies to promoteinvestments in urban water and waste management,reflecting the major contribution of cities to nationaleconomic development;(ii) Provision of seed money and technical support tothe local handling of materials supply and services;(iii) Encouragement, to the extent possible, of autonomyand financial viability of city water. solid waste andsewerage utilities;(iv) Creation and maintenance of a cadre of profession-als and semi-professionals, for water, waste-water andsolid waste management;F ) P R O V I S I O N O F E N H A N C E D A C C E S S T OSANITARY SERVICES:(i) Implementation of water, sanitation and wastemanagement programmes focused on the urban poor;(i i) Making available of low-cost water-supply andsanitation technology choices;(iii) Basing of choice of technology and service levelson user preferences and willingness to pay,(iv) Mobilization and facilitation of the active involve-ment of women in water management teams;(v) Encouragement and equipment of local water asso-ciations and water committees to manage communitywater-supply systems and communal latrines, with tech-

nical back-up available when required;(vi) Consideration of the merits and practicality ofrehabilitating existing malfunctioning systems and ofcorrecting operation and maintenance inadequacies.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

18.60 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-20A0) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $20 billion,including about $4.5 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indicativeand order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Governments. Actual costs and frnancial ternls,including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Govem-ments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC'ENilFtC AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MFANS

18.61 The 1980s saw considerable progress in thedevelopment and application of low-cost water-supplyand sanitation technologies. The programme envisagescontinuation of this work, with particular emphasis ondevelopment of appropriate sanitation and waste disposaltechnologies for low-income high-density urban settle-ments. There should also be international informationexchange, to ensure a widespread recognition amongsector professionals of the availability and benefits ofappropriate low-cost technologies. The public-aware-ness campaigns wil l also include components to over-come user resistance to second-class services by empha-sizing the benefits of reliability and sustainability.

c) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

18.62 Implicit in virtually all elements of this programmeis the need for progressive enhancement of the trainingand career development of personnel at all levels in sectorinstitutions. Specific programme activit ies wil l involvethe training and retention of staff with skills in com-munity involvement, low-cost technology, f inancialmanagement, and integrated planning of urban waterresources management. Special provision should bemade for mobilizing and facilitating the active participa-tion of women, youth, indigenous people and local com-munities in water management teams and for supportingthe development of water associations and water com-mittees, with appropriate training of such personnel as

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treasurers, secretaries and caretakers. Special educationand training programmes for women should be launchedwith regard to the protection of water resources and waterquality within urban areas.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

18.63 In combination with human resource develop-ment, strengthening of institutional, legislative and man-agement structures are key elements of the programme.A prerequisite for progress irt enhancing access to waterand sanitation services is the establishment of an institu-tional framework that ensures that the real needs andpotential contributions of currently unserved populationsare reflected in urban development planning. The multi-sectoral approach, which is a vital part of urban waterresources management, requires institutional linkages atthe national and city levels, and the programme includesproposals for establishing intersectoral planning groups.Proposals for greater pollution control and preventiondepend for their success on the right combination ofeconomic and regulatory mechanisnts, backed by ade-quate monitoring and surveillance and supported by en-hanced capacity to address environmental issues on thepart of local Governments.18.64 Establishment of appropriate design standards,water-quality objectives and discharge consents is there-fore among the proposed activities. The programme alsoincludes support for strengthening the capability of waterand sewerage agencies and for developing their auton-omy and financial viability. Operation and maintenanceof existing water and sanitation facilities have beenrecognized as entailing a serious shortcoming in manycountries. Technical and financial support are needed tohelp countries correct present inadequacies and build upthe capacity to operate and maintain rehabilitated andnew systems.

Fl WATER FOR SUSTATNABLE FOOD PRODUCTIONAND RURAT DEVETOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

18.65 Sustainability of food production increasingly de-pends on sound and efficient water use and conservationpractices consisting primarily of inigation developmentand management, including water management withrespect to rain-fed areas, livestock water-supply, inlandfisheries and agro-forestry. Achieving food security is ahigh priority in many countries, and agriculture must notonly provide food for rising populations, but also savewater for other uses. The challenge is to develop and

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apply water-saving technology and management meth-ods and, through capacity-building, enable communitiesto introduce institutions and incentives for the rural popu-lation to adopt new approaches, for both rain-fed andirrigated agriculture. The rural population must also havebetter access to a potable water-supply and to sanitationservices. It is an immense task but not an impossible one,provided appropriate policies and programmes areadopted at all levels - local, national and international.While significant expansion of the area under rain-fedagriculture has been achieved during the past decade, theproductivity response and sustainability of irrigation sys-tems have been constrained by problems of waterloggingand salinization. Financial and market constraints arealso a common problem. Soil erosion, mismanagementand overexploitation of natural resources and acute com-petition for water have all influenced the extent of pov-erty, hunger and famine in the developing countries. Soilerosion caused by overgrazing of livestock is also oftenresponsible for the siltation of lakes. Most often, thedevelopment of irrigation schemes is supported neitherby environmental impact assessments identifying hydro-logic consequences within watersheds of interbasintransfers nor by the assessment of social impacts onpeoples in river valleys.18.66 The non-availability of water-supplies of suitablequality is a significant limiting factor to livestock pro-duction in many countries, and improper disposal ofanimal wastes can in certain circumstances result inpollution of water-supplies forboth humans and animals.The drinking-water requirements of livestock vary ac-cording to species and the environment in which they arekept. It is estimated that the current global livestockdrinking-water requirement is about 60 billion litres per dayand, based on livestock population growth estimates, thisdaily requirement is predicted to increase by 0.4 billionlitres per annum in the foreseeable future.18.67 Freshwater fisheries in lakes and streams are animportant source of food and protein. Fisheries of inlandwaters should be so managed as to maximize the yield ofaquatic food organisms in an environmentally soundmanner. This requires the conservation of water qualityand quantity, as well as of the functional morphology ofthe aquatic environment. On the other hand, fishing andaquaculture may themselves damage the aquatic ecosys-tem; hence their development should conform to guide-lines for impact limitation. Present levels of productionfrom inland fisheries, from both fresh and brackish water,are about 7 million tons per year and could increase to 16million tons per year by the year 2000; however, anyincrease in environmental sffess could jeopardizn this rise.

OBJECTIVES

18.68 The key strategic principles lor holistic and inte-grated environmentally sound management of water re-sources in the rural context may be set forth as follows:(a) Water should be regarded as a finite resource havingan economic value with significant social and economicimplications reflecting the importance of meeting basicneeds;(b) Local cornmunities must participate in all phases ofwater management, ensuring the full involvement ofwomen in view of their crucial role in the practicalday-to-day supply, management and use of water;(c) Water resource management must be developedwithin a comprehensive set of policies for (i) humanhealth; (ii) food production, preservation and distribu-tion; (iii) disaster mitigation plans; (iv) environmentalprotection and conservation of the naturalresource base;(d) It is necessary to recognize and actively support therole of rural populations, with particular emphasis onwomen.18.69 An International Action Programme on Water andSustainable Agricultural Development (IAP-WASAD)has been initiated by FAO in cooperation with otherinternational organizations. The main obiective of theAction Programme is to assist developing countries inplanning, developing and managing water resources onan integrated basis to meet present and future needs foragricultural production, taking into account environmen-tal considerations.18.70 The Action Programme has developed a frame-work for sustainable water use in the agricultural sectorand identified priority areas for action at national,regional and global levels. Quantitative targets for newinigation development, improvement of existing irri-gation schemes and reclamation of waterlogged andsalinized lands through drainage for 130 developingcountries are estimated on the basis of food requirements,agro-climatic zones and availability of water and land.18.71 FAO global projections for irrigation, drainage andsmall-scale water programmes by the year 2000 for 130developing countries are as follows: (a) 15.2 millionhectares of new irrigation development; (b) l2 millionhectares of improvement/modernization of existingschemes; (c) 7 million hectares installed with drainageand water control facilities; and (d) l0 million hectaresof small-scale water programmes and conservation.18.72 The development of new irrigation areas at theabove-mentioned level may give rise to environmentalconcerns in so far as it implies the destruction of wetlands,water pollution, increased sedimentation and a reductionin biodiversity. Therefore, new irrigation schemes shouldbe accompanied by an environmental impact assessment,depending upon the scale of the scheme, in case signifi-

cant negative environmental impacts are expected. Whenconsidering proposals for new irrigation schemes, con-sideration should also be given to a more rational exploi-tation, and an increase in the efflciency or productivity,of any existing schemes capable of serving the samelocalities. Technologies for new irrigation schemesshould be thoroughly evaluated, including their potentialconflicts with other land uses. The active involvement ofwater-user groups is a supporting objective.18.73 It should be ensured that rural communities of allcountries, according to their capacities and availableresources and taking advantage of international cooper-ation as appropriate, will have access to safe water insufficient quantities and adequate sanitation to meet theirhealth needs and maintain the essential qualities of theirlocal environments.18.74 The objectives with regard to water managementfor inland fisheries and aquaculture include conservationof water-quality and water-quantity requirements foroptimum production and prevention of water pollutionby aquacultural activities. The Action Programme seeksto assist member countries in managing the tlsheries ofinland waters through the promotion of sustainable man-agement of capture fisheries as well as the developmentof environmentally sound approaches to intensificationof aquaculture.18.75 The objectives with regard to water managementfor livestock supply are twofold: provision of adequateamounts of drinking water and safeguarding of drinking-water quality in accordance with the specific needs ofdifferent animal species. This entails maximum salinitytolerance levels and the absence of pathogenic organ-isms. No global targets can be set owing to large regionaland intra-country variations.

ACTIVITIES

18.76 All States, according to their capacity and avail-able resources, and through bilateral or multilateralcooperation, including the United Nations and otherrelevant organizations as appropriate, could implementthe following activities:

A) WATER-SUPPLY AND SANTTATTONFOR THE UNSERVED RURAL POOR:

(i) Establish national policies and budget priorities withregard to increasing service coverage;(ii) Promote appropriate technologies;(i i i) Introduce suitable cost-recovery mechanisms,taking into account efficiency and equity through demandmanagement mechani sms :(iv) Promote community ownership and rights to water-supply and sanitation facilities;

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(v) Establish monitoring and evaluation systems;(vi) Strengthen the rural water-supply and sanitationsector with emphasis on institutional development, effi-cient management and an appropriate framework forfinancing of services;(vii) Increase hygiene education and eliminate diseasetransmission foci:(viii) Adopt appropriate technologies for water treat-ment;(ix) Adopt wide-scale environmental managementmeasures to control disease vectors:

Bl WATER-USE EFFTCTENCY:

(i) Increase of efficiency and productivity in agricultu-ral water use for better utilization of limited water re-

sources:(ii) Strengthen water and soil management researchunder irrigation and rain-fed conditions;(iii) Monitor andevaluate irrigation project performanceto ensure, inter alia, the optimal utilization and propermaintenance of the project;(iv) Support water-user groups with a view to improvingmanagement performance at the local level;(v) Support the appropriate use of relatively brackishwater for irrigation;

cl WATERLOGGING, SALINITY CONTROL AND DRAINAGE:

(i) Introduce surface drainage in rain-fed agriculture toprevent temporary water logging and f looding oflowlands;(ii) Introduce artificial drainage in inigated and rain-fedagriculture;(iii) Encourage conjunctive use of surface and ground-water, including monitoring and water-balance studies;(iv) Practise drainage in irrigated areas of arid and semi-arid regions;

D) WATER.OUALITY MANAGEMENT:

(i) Establish and operate cost-effective water-qualitymonitoring systems for agricultural water uses;(ii) Prevent adverse effects of agricultural activities onwaterquality for other social and economic activities andon wetlands, inter alia, through optimal use of on-farminput and the minimization of the use of external input inagricultural acti vities ;(iii) Establish biological, physical and chemical water-quality criteria for agricultural water-users and for marineand riverine ecosystems;(iv) Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;(v) Dispose properly of sewage from human settlementsand of manure produced by intensive livestock breeding;

182

(vi) Minimize adverse effects from agricultural chemi-cals by use of integrated pest management;(vii) Educate communities about the pollution-relatedimpacts of the use of fertilizers and chemicals on waterquality, food safety and human health;

E) WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT PROGMMMES:

(i) Develop small-scale irrigation and water-supply forhumans and livestock and for water and soil conservation;(ii) Formulate large-scale and long-term irrigation de-velopment programmes, taking into account their effectson the local level, the economy and the environment;(iii) Promote local initiatives for the integrated develop-ment and management of water resources;(iv) Provide adequate technical advice and support andenhancement of institutional collaboration at the localcommunity level;(v) Promote a farming approach for land and watermanagement that takes account of the level of education,the capacity to mobilize local communities and the eco-system requirements of arid and semi-arid regions;(vi) Plan and develop multi-purpose hydroelectricpower schemes, making sure that environmental con-cerns are duly taken into account:

F} SCARCE WATER RESOURCES AAANAGEMENT:

(i) Develop long-term strategies and practical im-plementation programmes for agricultural water useunder scarcity conditions with competing demands forwater;(ii) Recognize water as a social, economic and strategicgood in inigation planning and management;(i i i) Formulate specialized programmes focused ondrought preparedness, with emphasis on food scarcityand environmental safeguards;(iv) Promote and enhance waste-water reuse in agricul-ture;

G} WATER-SUPPLY FOR LIVESTOCK:

(i) Improve quality of water available to livestock,taking into account their tolerance limits;(ii) Increase the quantity of water sources available tolivestock, in particular those in extensive grazing sys-tems, in order to both reduce the distance needed to travelfor water and prevent overgrazing around water sources;(iii) Prevent contamination of water sources with anirnalexcrement in order to prevent the spread of diseases, inparticular zoonosis;(iv) Encourage multiple use of water-supplies throughpromotion of integrated agro-livestock-fishery systems;(v) Encourage water-spreading schemes for increas-

ing waterretention of extensive grasslands to stimulateforage production and prevent run-off;

H} INLAND FISHERIES;

(i) Develop the sustainable management of fisheries aspart of national water resources planning;(ii) Study specific aspects of the hydrobiology and en-vironmental requirements of key inland fish species inrelation to varying water regimes;(iii) Prevent or mitigate modification of aquatic environ-ments by other users or rehabilitate environments sub-jected to such modification on behalf of the sustainableuse and conservation of biological diversity of livingaquatic resources;(iv) Develop and disseminate environmentally soundwater resources development and management method-ologies for the intensification of fish yield from inlandwaters;(v) Establish and maintain adequate systems for thecollection and interpretation of data on water qualityand quantity and channel morphology related ro thestate and management of l iving aquatic resources,including fisheries;

I) AOUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT:

(i) Develop environmentally sound aquaculture tech-nologies that are compatible with local, regional andnational water resources management plans and take intoconsideration social factors:(ii) Introduce appropriate aquaculture techniques andrelated water development and management practices incountries not yet experienced in aquaculture;(iii) Assess environmental impacts of aquaculture withspecific reference to commercialized culture units andpotential water pollution from processing centres;(iv) Evaluate economic feasibility of aquaculture in re-lation to alternative use of water, taking into consider-ation the use of marginal-quality water and investmentand operational requi rements.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTAIION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND CCST EVALUATTON

18.77 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activit ies of this programme to be about $ 13.2 bil l ion,including about $4.5 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and havenot been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and

financial terms, including any that are non-conces-sional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, the specificstrategies and programmes Governments decide upon forimplementation.

8/ SC'ENIIFIC AND IECHNOIOGICA,L A4FANS

18.78 There is an urgent need for countries to monitorwater resources and water-quality, water and land use andcrop production; compile inventories of type and extentof agricultural water development and of present andfuture contributions to sustainable agricultural develop-ment; evaluate the potential for fisheries and aquaculturedevelopment; and improve the availability and dissemi-nation of data to planners, technicians, farmers and fish-ermen. Priority requirements for research are as follows:(a) Identification of critical areas for water-relatedadaptive research;(b) Strengthening of the adaptive research capacitiesof institutions in developing countries;(c) Enhancement of translation of water-related farm-ing and fishing systems research results into practical andaccessible technologies and provision of the supportneeded for their rapid adoption at the field level.18.79 Transfer of technology, both horizontal and verti-cal, needs to be strengthened. Mechanisms to providecredit, input supplies, markets, appropriate pricing andtransportation must be developed jointly by countries andextemal support agencies. Integrated rural water-supplyi nfrastructure, i ncludin g fac ilitie s for water-related edu -cation and training and support services for agriculture,should be expanded for multiple uses and should assistin developing the rural economy.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

18.80 Educat ion and training of human resourcesshould be actively pursued at the national level through:(a) assessment of current and long-term human resourcesmanagement and training needs; (b) establishment of anational policy for human resources development; and(c) initiation and implementation of training programmesfor staff at all levels as well as fbr farmers. The necessaryactions are as follows:(a) Assess training needs for agricultural water man-agement;(b) Increase formal and informal training activities;(c) Develop practical training courses for improvingthe ability of extension services to disseminate tech-nologies and strengthen farmers'capabilities, with spe-cial reference to small-scale producers;

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(d) Train staff at all levels, including farmers, fisher-

men and members of local communities, with particular

reference to women;(e) Increase the opportunities for career development

to enhance the capabilities of administrators and officers

at all levels involved in land- and water-managementprogrammes.

D) CAPACITY.BUILDING

18.81 The importance of a functional and coherent in-

stitutional framework at the national level to promote

water and sustainable agricultural development has

generally been fully recognized at present. ln addition,

an adequate legal framework of rules and regulations

should be in place to facilitate actions on agricultural

water-use, drainage, water-quality management, small-

scale water programmes and the functioning of water-

users' and fishermen's associations. Legislation specific

to the needs of the agricultural water sector should be

consistent with, and stem from. general legislation forthe

management of water resources. Actions should be pur-

sued in the following areas:(a) Improvement of water-use policies related to agri-

culture, fisheries and rural development and of legal

frameworks for implementing such policies;(b) Review, sftengthening and restructuring, if required,

of existing institutions in order to enhance their capacitiesin water-related activities, while recognizing the need to

manage water resources at the lowest appropriate level;(c) Review and strengthening. where necessary, of

organizational structure, functional relationships and

linkages arnong ministries and departments within a

given ministryl(d) Provision of specific measures that require supportfor institutional strengthening, inter alia, through long-

term programme budgeting, staff training, incentives,mobility, equipment and coordination mechanisms;(e) Enhancement of involvement of the private sector,

where appropriate, in human resource development andprovision of infrastructure;(0 Transfer of existing and new water-use technologies

by creating mechanisms for cooperation and information

exchange among national and regional institutions.

G) rrriPAcTs OF CUMATE CHANGE ONWATER RESOURCES

BASIS FOR ACTION

18.82 There is uncertainty with respect to the prediction

of climate change at the global level. Although the un-

certainties increase greatly at the regional, national andlocal levels, it is at the national level that the most

important decisions would need to be made. Higher

temperatures and decreased precipitation would lead to

decreased water supplies and increased water demands;they might cause deterioration in the quality of freshwaterbodies, putting strains on the already fragile balancebetween supply and demand in many countries. Evenwhere precipitation might increase, there is no guarantee

that it would occur at the time of year when it could beused; in addition, there might be a likelihood of increasedflooding. Any rise in sealevel will often cause the intru-sion of salt water into estuaries, small islands and coastal

aquifers and the flooding of low-lying coastal areas; thisputs low-lying countries at great risk.18.83 The Ministerial Declaration of the Second World

Climate Conference states that "the potential impact of

such climate change could pose an environmental threatof an up to now unknown magnitude ... and could even

threaten survival in some small island States and in

low-lying coastal, arid and semi-arid areas".3 The Con-ference recognized that among the most important im-pacts of climate change were its effects on the hydrologiccycle and on water management systems and, throughthese, on socio-economic systems. Increase in incidenceof extremes, such as floods and droughts, would causeincreased frequency and severity of disasters. The Con-ference therefore called for a strengthening of the neces-

sary research and monitoring programmes and the ex-

change of relevant data and information, these actions to

be undertaken at the national, regional and internationallevels.

OBJECTIVES

I 8.84 The verv nature of this topic calls first andforemostfor more information about and greater understanding ofthe threat being taced. This topic may be translated intothe following objectives, consistent with the UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change:(a) To understand and quantify the threat of the impactof climate change on freshwater resources;(b) To facilitate the implementation of effective na-tional countermeasures, as and when the threateningimpact is seen as sufficiently confirmed to justify suchaction;(c) To study the potential impacts of climate change onareas prone to droughts and floods.

ACTIVITIES

1 8.85 All States, according to theircapacity and availableresources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooper-

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ation, including the United Nations and other relevantorganizations as appropriate, could implement the fol-lowing activities:(a) Monitorthe hydrologic regime, including soil mois-ture, groundwater bal ance, penetrati on and transpirationof water quality, and related climare factors, especiallyin the regions and countries most likely to suffer from theadverse effects of climate change and where the localitiesvulnerable to these effects should therefore be defined;(b) Develop and apply techniques and methodologies forassessing the potential adverse effects of climate change,through changes in temperature, precipitation and sealevelrise, on freshwater resources and the flood risk:(c) Initiate case-studies to establish whether there arelinkages between climate changes and the current occur-rences of droughts and floods in certain regions;(d) Assess the resulting social, economic and environ-mental impacts;(e) Develop and initiate response strategies to counterthe adverse effects that are identified, including changinggroundwater levels, and to mitigate saline intrusion intoaquifers;(0 Develop agricultural activities based on brackish-water use;(g) Contribute to the research activities under way withinthe framework of current international prograffunes.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Ai FINANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

18.86 The Conference secretariat has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2(n0) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $ 100 million,including about $40 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indic-ative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and havenot been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs andfinancial terms, including any that are non-concessional,will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies andprogrammes Governments decide upon for implementa-tion.

8/ SC/ENTIFrc AND TECHNOI.OGICAL MFANS

18.87 Monitoring of climate change and its impact onfreshwater bodies must be closely integrated with na-tional and international programmes for monitoring theenvironment, in particular those concerned with the at-mosphere, as discussed under other sections of Agenda21, and the hydrosphere, as discussed under programmearea B above. The analysis of data for indication of

climate change as a basis for developing remedialmeasures is a complex task. Extensive research is neces-sary in this area and due account has to be taken of thework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC), the World Climate Programme, the InternationalGeosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and otherrelevant intemational programmes.18.88 The development and implementation of responsestrategies requires innovative use of technological meansand engineering solutions, including the installation offlood and drought warning systems and the constructionof nerv water resource development projects such asdams, aqueducts, well fields, waste-water treatmentplants, desalination works, levees, banks and drainagechannels. There is also a need fbr coordinated researchnetworks such as the International Geosphere-BiosphereProgramme/Global Change System for Analysis, Re-search and Training (IGBP/START) network.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

18.89 The developmental work and innovation dependfor their success on good academic training and staffmotivation. Intemational projects can help by enumera-ting alternatives, but each country needs to establish andimplement the necessary policies and to develop its ownexpertise in the scientific and engineering challenges tobe faced, as well as a body of dedicated individuals whoare able to interpret the complex issues concemed forthose required to make policy decisions. Such speciahzedpersonnel need to be trained, hired and retained in service,so that they may serve their countries in these tasks.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

18.90 There is a need, however, to build a capacity at thenational level to develop, review and implement responsesfrategies. Consffuction of major engineering works andinstallation of forecasting systems will require significantsffengthening of the agencies responsible, whether in thepublic or the private sector. Most critical is the requirementfor a socio.economic mechanism that can review predictionsof the impact of climate change and possible responsesfrategies and make the necessary judgemenls and decisions.

'Report of the United Notions Woter Conference, Mor del Ploto,

l4-25 Morch 1977 lUnited Notions publicotion, Soles No.E.77.1. ' .A.12), pori one, chopter l , section C, porogroph 35.

2lbid., port one, chopter l , resolut ion l l .

3a/$/Ogo/Add.l , onnex l l l , preomble, porogroph 2.

1 8 5

19 Environmentolly sound monogement of toxicchemicols, including prevention of illegolinternotionol troffic in toxic ond dongerous products

I N T R O D U C T I O N

19.1 A substantial use of chemicals is essential to meet

the social and economic goals of the world communityand today's best practice demonstrates that they can be

used widely in a cost-effective manner and with a high

degree of safety. However, a great deal remains to be done

to ensure the environmentally sound management of

toxic chemicals, within the principles of sustainabledevelopment and improved quality of life forhumankind.

Two of the major problems, particularly in developing

countries, are (a) lack of sufficient scientific information

for the assessment of risks entailed by the use of a great

number of chemicals, and (b) lack of resources for as-

sessment of chemicals for which data are at hand.19.2 Gross chemical contamination, with grave damage to

human health, genetic stuctures and reproductive outcomes,

and the environment, has in recent times been continuingwithin some of the world's most imporlant industrial areas.Restoration will require major investment and developmentof new techniques. The long-range effects of pollution, ex-

tending even to the fundamentalchemicerl and physical pro

cesses of the Eafth's atrnosphere and climate, are becomrng

understood only recently and the importance of those effectsis becoming recognized only recently as well.19.3 A considerable number of international bodies are

involved in work on chemical safety. In many countrieswork programmes for the promotion of chemical safety

are in place. Such work has international implications, as

chemical risks do not respect national boundaries. How-

ever. a significant strengthening of both national and

international efforts is needed to achieve an environmen-tally sound management of chemicals.19.4 Six programme areas are proposed:(a) Expanding and accelerating international assess-ment of chemical risks;

(b) Harmonization of classification and labelling of

chemicals;(c) Information exchange on toxic chemicals and

chemical risks;(d) Establishment of risk reduction programmes;(e) Strengthening of national capabilities and capac-ities for management of chemicals;(0 Prevention of illegal international traffic in toxic and

dangerous products.In addition. the short final subsection G deals with the

enhancement of cooperation related to several pro-

gramme areas.19.5 The six programme areas are together dependent for

their successful implementation on intensive interna-tional work and improved coordination of current inter-

national activities, as well as on the identification andapplication of technical, scientific, educational and fi-

nancial means, in particular for developing countries. To

varying degrees, the progralrune areas involve hazatd

assessment (based on the intrinsic properties of chemi-cals), risk assessment (including assessment of expo-sure), risk acceptability and risk management.19,6 Collaboration on chemical safety between theUnited Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), theInternational Labour Organisation (ILO) and the World

Health Organization (WHO) in the International Pro-gramme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) should be the nu-

cleus for international cooperation on environmentallysound management of toxic chemicals. All effor-ts shouldbe made to strengthen this programme. Cooperation with

other programmes, such as those of the Organisation forEconomic Cooperation and Development (OECD) andthe European Communities (EC) and other regional andgovernmental chemical programmes, should be pro-

moted.19.7 Increased coordination of United Nations bodiesand other international organizations involved in chemi-cals assessment and management should be further pro-

r 8 6

moted. Within the framework of IPCS, an intergovern-mental meeting, convened by the Executive Director ofUNEP, was held in London in December 1991 to furtherexplore this matter (see paras. 19.75 and 19.76).19.8 The broadest possible awareness of chemical risksis a prerequisite for achieving chemical safety. The prin-ciple of the right of the community and of workers toknow those risks should be recognized. However, theright to know the identity of hazardous ingredients shouldbe balanced with industry's right to protect confidentialbusiness information. (Industry, as referred to in thischapter, shall be taken to include large industrial enter-prises and transnational corporations as well as domesticindustries.) The industrv initiative on responsible careand product stewardship should be developed and pro-moted.Industry should apply adequate standards of oper-ation in all countries in ordernot to damaee human healthand the environment.19.9 There is international concern that paft of the inter-national movement of toxic and dangerous products isbeing carried out in contravention of existing nationallegislation and international instruments, to the detrimentof the environment and public health of all countries,particularly developing countries.19.10 In resolution 441226 of 22 December 1989, theGeneral Assembly requested each regional commission,within existing resources, to contribute to the preventionof the illegal traffic in toxic and dangerous products andwastes by monitoring and making regional assessmentsof that illegal traffic and its environmental and healthimplications. The Assembly also requested the regionalcommissions to interact among themselves and to co-operate with the United Nations Environment Pro-gralnme, with a view to maintaining efficient and coor-dinated monitoring and assessment of the illegal trafficin toxic and dangerous products and wastes.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) EXPANDTNG AND ACCETERATTNGINTERNATIONAT ASSESS'IAEM OF CHETATAI RISKS

l9.l I Assessing the risks to human health and the envi-ronment hazards that a chemical may cause is a pre-requisite to planning for its saf'e and beneficial use.Among the approximately 100,000 chemical substancesin commerce and the thousands of substances of naturalorigin with which human beings come into contact, manyappear as pollutants and contaminants in food, commer-cial products and the various environmental media. For-tunately, exposure to most chemicals (some 1,500 cover

over 95 per cent of total world production) is ratherlimited, as most are used in very small amounts. How-ever, a serious problem is that even for a great numberof chemicals characterized by high-volume produc-tion, crucial data for risk assessment are often lacking.Within the framework of the OECD chernicals pro-gramme such data are now being generated for anumber of chemicals.19.12 Risk assessment is resource-intensive. It could bemade cost-effective by strengthening international co-operation and better coordination. thereby making thebest use of available resources and avoiding unnecessaryduplication of effort. However, each nation should havea critical mass of technical staff with experience intoxicity testing and exposure analysis, which are twoimportant components of risk assessment.

OBJECTIVES

19.I 3 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To strengthen international risk assessment. Severalhundred priority chemicals or groups of chemicals, in-cluding major pollutants and contaminanrs of globalsignificance, should be assessed by the year 2000, usingcurrent selection and assessment criteria:(b) To produce guidelines for acceptable exposure for agreater number of toxic chemicals, based on peer reviewand scientific consensus distinguishing between health- orenvironment-based exposure limits and those relating tosocio-economic factors.

ACTIVIIIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIV ITI ES

19.14 Governments, through the cooperation of relevantinternational organizations and industry, where appropri-ate, should:(a) Strengthen and expand programmes on chemicalrisk assessment within the United Nations system IPCS(UNEP, ILO. WHO) andthe Food and Agriculture Organ-ization of the United Nations (FAO), rogether with otherorganizations, including the Organisation for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD), based on anagreed approach to data-quality assurance, application ofassessment criteria, peer review and linkages to riskmanagement activities, taking into account the precau-tionary approach;(b) Promote mechanisms to increase collaborationamong Governments, industry, academia and relevantnon-governmental organizations involved in the variousaspects of risk assessment of chemicals and related pro-cesses, in particular the promoting and coordinating of

187

research activities to improve understanding of the mech-

anisms of action of toxic chemicals;(c) Encourage the development of procedures for the

exchange by countries of their assessment reports on

chemicals with clther countries for use in national chemi-

cal assessrnent programmes.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

19.15 Governments, through the cooperation of relevanti nternational organi za ti ons and indttstry, where appropri-ate, should:(a) Give high priority to hazard assessment of chemi-

cals, that is, ot ttreir intrinsic propefties as the appropriatebasis for risk assessment:(b) Generate data necessary for assessment, building,

inter ulia, on programmes of IPCS (UNEP WHO, ILO),

FAO, OECD anci EC and on established programmes

other regions and Governments. Industry should partici-pate actively.19.16 Industry should provide data tbr substances pro-

duced that are nee ded spe cif ically for the assessment ofpotential risks to human health and the environment.Such data should be made available to relevant nationalcompetent authorities and international bodies and otherinterested parties involved in hazard and risk assessment,and to the greatest possible extent to the public also,taking into account legitimate claims of confidentiality.

CJ /NIERNAIIONAI AND RFGIONA.COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

19. I 7 Governments, through the cooperation clf relevantinternational organizations and industry, where appropri-ate. should:(a) Develop criteria lor priority-setting for cherricalsof global concern n'ith respcct to assessment;(b) Revicu' strategies 1-or exposure assessment andenvironnrental monitoring to allclrv for the best use o1'

available resource s. to ensure compatibil i ty of data andto encouragc coherent na t iona l and in te rna t iona lstratesies for that assessnte ltt.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Al F/NANC/AI AND COST EVALUATION

19.18 Most o f the data and methods for chemica l r isk

assessment arc generated in the developed countr ies and

an expansion and accelerat ion of the assessment work

u' i l l cal l for a considerable increase in research and safety

r 8 8

testing by industry and research institutions. The costprojections address the needs to strengthen the capacitiesof relevant United Nations bodies and are based oncurrent experience in IPCS. It should be noted that thereare considerable costs, olten not possible to quantify, thatare not included. These comprise costs to industry andGovernments of generating the safety data underlying theassessments and costs to Governments of providing back-ground documents and draft assessment statements toIPCS, the International Register of Potentially ToxicChemicals (IRPTC) and OECD. They also include thecost of accelerated work in non-United Nations bodiessuch as OECD and EC.19. 19 The Conf-erence secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this prograntme to be about $30 million fromthe intemational communitv on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs ancl financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, thespecific strategies and programmes Governments decideupon for inrplcnrentat ion.

Bi 5C/ENI FtC AND TECHNOLOG\CAL MEANS

19.20 Major research efforts should be launched in orderto improve methods lor assessntent of chemicals as worktowards a common framework for risk assessffIent and toimprove procedures for r-rsing toxicological and epidemi-ological data to predict the effbcts of chemicals on humanhealth and the environntent. so as to enable decisionmakers to adopt adequatc policies and measures to reducer isks posed bv cherrr icals.19 .21 Ac t i r i t ies inc lude:(a) Strengthening research cln safe/saf 'er a l ternat ivesto toxrc chemicals that pose an unrcasonable and other-w' ise unmanageable r isk to thc cnvironntent or humanhealth and to those that are toxic. persistent and bio-accumula t ive and tha t cannot he adequate ly con-trol led;(b) Promotion of research tin. iind validation of, meth-ods const i tut ing a rcplaccrnent for those using testanimals (thus rcducing the use ol' animals for testingpurposes ):(c) Promotion of relevant epidemiological studies witha vie$' to establishin-s a canse-and-ef1-ect relationshipbetween exposure to chemicals and the occurrence ofcertain diseases:(d) Promot ion of ecotoxicological studies wi th theaim of assessing the r isks of chemicals to the envi-ronment.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

19.22 lnLemational organizations, with the participationof Governments and non-governmental organizations,should launch training and education projects involvingwomen and children, who are at greatest risk. in order to

enable countries, and particularly developing countries,to make maximum national use of international assess-ments of chemical risks"

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDING

19.23 lnte rnational organizations, building on past, pres-

ent and future assessment work, should support countries,particularly developing countries. in developing andstrengthening risk assessillent capabilities at national andregional levels tc l minimize, and as far as possiblecontrol and prevent, risk in the manufacturing and useof toxic and hazardclus chemicals. Technical cooper-at ion and f inancial support or other contr ibut ionsshould be given to ac-tivit ies aimed at expanding andaccelerating the national and international assessmentand control of chemical risks to enable the best choiceof chemica ls .

B) HARMONTZATION OF CLASSIFICATIONAND LABELLING OF CHEMICATS

BASIS FOR ACTION

19.24 Adequate labell ing of chemicals and the dissemi-nation of salety data sheets such as ICSCs (International

Chemical Safety Cards) and sin-rilarly written materials,based on assessed hazards to health and environment, arethe simplest and most efficient way of indicating how tohandle and use chemicals saf-ely.19.25 For the safe transporl of dangerous goods, includ-ing chemicals, a comprehensive scheme elaborated with-in the United Nations system is in current use. Thisscheme mainly takes into account the acute hazards ofchemicals.19.16 Globally harmonized hazard classil ' ication andlabell ing systerns are not yet available to promote the safeuse of chernicals, inter aliu. ar the workplace or in thehonre. Classification of chemicals can be tnade for dif-l-erent purposes and is a particularlf i tnportant tool in

establishrng labell ing systems. There is a need to der.'elopharmonized hazard classiflcation and labe ll ine systems,building on ongoing work.

OBJECTIVES

19.27 A globally harmonized hazard classification andcompatible labelling system, including material safetydata sheets and easily understandable symbols, should beavailable, if feasible, by the year 2000.

ACTIVITIES

A) MAN AGEMENI-R ELAT ED ACT IVITI ES

19.28 Governments, through the cooperation of relevantintemational organizations and industry, where appropri-ate, should launch a project with a view to establishingand elaborating a harmonized classification and com-patible labelling system for chemicals for use in allUnited Nations official languages including adequatepictograms. Such a labelling system should not lead tothe imposition of unjustified trade barriers. The newsystem should draw on curent systems to the greatestextent possible; it should be developed in steps andshould address the subject of compatibility with labels ofvarious applications.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

19.29 International bodies including, inter alia. IPCS(UNEP, ILO, WHO), FAO, the International MaritimeOrganization (IMO), the United Nations Committee ofExperts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods andOECD, in cooperation with regional and national au-thorities having existing classification and labelling andother information-dissemination systems, should estab-lish a coordinating group to:(a) Evaluate and, if appropriate, undertake studies ofexisting hazard classification and information systems toestablish general principles for a globally harmonizedsystem;(b) Develop and implement a work plan for the estab-lishment of a globally harmonizedhazard classificationsystem. The plan should include a description of the tasksto be cornpleted, deadline for completion and assignmentof tasks to the participants in the coordinating group;(c) Elaborate a harmonizedhazard classification sys-tem:(d) Draft proposals for standardization of hazard com-munication terminology and symbols in orderto enhancerisk management of chemicals and facilitate both inter-national trade and translation of information into theend-user's language;(e) Elaborate a harmonized labelling system.

r89

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANCIAL AND COSI EVALUATTON

19.30 The Conference secretariat has included the tech-nical assistance costs related to this programme in esti-mates provided in programme area E. They estimate theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) for strengtheninginternational organizations to be about $3 rnilliort fromthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are inclicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms. including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alia, the

specific strategies and programmes Governments decide

upon for irnplernentation.

B) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

19.31 Governments and institutions and non-govern-rnental organizations. with the collaboration of appropri-ate organizations and programmes of the United Nations,should launch training courses and infonnation cam-paigns to lacil i tatc the understanding and use of a newharmonized classification and compatible labell ing sys-tem for chemicals.

c) cAPACtTY-BUtLDtNG

ic).32 In strengthening national capacities for manage-Inent o1' chemicals. including development and im-plementation of, and adaptation to, new classification andlabell ing systems. the creation of trade barriers should beavoided and the l imited capacities and resources of a largenumber of countries. particularly developing countries,for implementin-r such s.vsterns, should be taken into tullaccount.

c) TNFoRMATTON EXCHANGE ON TOXICCHEMICATS AND CHEMICAL RISKS

BASIS FOR ACTION

19.33 The lol lowing activi t ics. related tci infbrrnation

exchange on the benefi ts as well as the r isks associated

u' i th the use of chemicals, are ainted at enhancing the

sound management of toxic chemicals through the ex-

change of scienti f ic, technical, economic ancl legal infor-

rtrat icl t t .

i 9.3-1 The London Guidel ines for the Exchange of Infor-

n'rat ion on Chemicals in International Trade are a set of

guidelines adopted by Governments with a view toincreasing chemical safety through the exchange ofinformation on chemicals. Special provisions havebeen included in the guidelines with regard to theexchange of informat ion on banned and severelyrestricted chemicals.19.35 The export to developing countries of chemicalsthat have been banned in producing countries or whoseuse has been severely restricted in some industrializedcountries has been the subject of concern, as some itn-porting countries lack the ability to ensure safe use, owingto inadequate infrastructure for controlling the irnpor-tation, distribution. storage, tormulation and disposal ofchemicals.19.36 In order to address this issue, provisions for PriorInformed Consent (PIC) procedures were introduced in1989 in the London Guidelines (UNEP) and in the Inter-national Code of Conduct on the Distnbution and Use ofPest ic ides (FAO). In addi t ion a jo int FAO/UNEPprogramme has been launched for the operation of thePIC procedures for chemicals, including the selection ofchemicals to be included in the PIC procedure and prep-aration of PIC decision guidance documents. The ILOchemicals convention calls for communication betweenexporting and importing countries when hazardouschemicals have been prohibited for reasons of safety andhealth at work. Within the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) framework, negotiations have beenpursued with a view to creating a binding instrument onproducts banned or severely restricted in the domesticmarket. Further, the GATT Council has agreed, asstated in its decision contained in Cll l{ l25l, to extendthe mandate of the working group for a period of threemonths, to begin from the date of the group's nextmeeting, and has authorized the Chairman to holdconsultations on timing with respect to convening thismeet ing.19.37 Notwithstanding the importance of the PIC proce-dure, information exchange on allchemicals is necessary.

OBJECTIVES

19.38 The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To promote intensified exchange of intormation onchemical safety, use and emissions among all involvedparties:(b) To achieve by the year 2000, if possible, full par-ticipation in and implementation of the PIC procedure,including possible mandatory appl icat ions throughlegally binding instruments contained in the AmendedLondon Guidelines and in the FAO International Codeof Conduct, taking into accclunt the experience gainedwrthin the PIC procedure.

r 9 0

ACTIVITIES

A,) MANAGEMENT-R ELATED ACT tVtT tES

19.39 Governments and relevant intemational organrza-tions with the cooperation of industry should:(a) Strengthen national institutions responsible for in-formation exchange on toxic chemicals and promote thecreation of national centres where these centres do notexist:(b) Strengthen international institutions and networks,such as IRPTC, responsible for information exchange ontoxic chemicals;(c) Establish technical cooperation with, and provideinformation to, other countries, especially those withshortages of technical expertise, including training in theinterpretation of relevant technical data, such as Environ-mental Health Criteria Documents, Health and SafetyGuides and International Chemical Safety Cards (pub-lished by IPCS); monographs on the Evaluation of Car-cinogenic Risks of Chemicals to Humans (published bythe International Agency for Research on Cancer(IARC)); and decision guidance documents (providedthrough the FAOfuNEPjointprogrammeon PIC), as wellas those submitted by industry and other sources;(d) Implement the PIC procedures as soon as possibleand, in the light of experience gained, invite relevantinternational organrzations, such as UNEP, GATI FAO,WHO and others, in their respective area of competenceto consider working expeditiously towards the conclu-sion of legally binding instruments.

B) DATA AND /NFORMATTON

19.40 Governments and relevant intemational organiza-tions with the cooperation of industry should:(a) Assist in the creation of national chemical informa-tion systems in developing countries and improve accessto existing international systems;(b) Improve databases and information systems ontoxic chemicals, such as emission inventory pro-grantmes, through provision of training in the use of thosesystems as well as software, hardware andotherfacilities;(c) Provide knowledge and information on severelyrestricted or banned chemicals to importing countries toenable them to judge and take decisions on whether toimport, and how to handle, those chemicals and establishjoint responsibilities in trade of chemicals between im-porting and exporting countries;(d) Provide data necessary to assess risks to humanhealth and the environment of possible alternatives tobanned or severelv restricted chemicals.

19.41 United Nations organizations should provide, asfar as possible, all international information naterialon toxic chemicals in al l Uni ted Nat ions ol f ic ia l lan-guages.

C/ /NIERNAIIONAI. AND REG/ONAI.COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

19.42 Governments and relevant international organrza-tions with the cooperation of industry should cooperatein establishing, strengthening and expanding, as appro-priate, the network of designated national authorities forexchange of information on chemicals and establish atechnical exchange programme to produce a core oftrained personnel within each participating country.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION

19.43 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $ l0 rnillion fromthe international cornmunity on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter alict, thespecific strategies and programmes Govemrnents decideupon for implementation.

D) ESTABUSHi/IENT OF R|SK REDUCTTONPROGRATAMES

BASIS FOR ACTION

19.44 There are often alternatives to toxic chernicalscurrently in use. Thus, risk reduction can sometimes beachieved by using other chemicals or even non-chemicaltechnologies. The classic example of risk reduction is thesubstitution of harmless or less harmful substances forharmful ones. Establishment of pollution prevention pro-cedures and setting standards fbr chemicals in each en-vironmental rnedium, including food and water, and inconsumer goods, constitute another example of riskreduction. In a wider context. risk reduction involvesbroad-based approaches to reducing the risks of toxicchemicals, taking into account the entire life cycle of thechemicals. Such approaches could encompass both regLr-latory and non-regulatory measures, such as promotionof the use of cleaner products and technologies, pollutionprevention procedures and programffles, emission inven-

1 9 1

tories, product labelling, use limitations, economic in-centives, procedures for safe handling and exposure regu-lations, and the phasing out or banning of chemicals thatpose unreasonable and otherwise unmanageable risks tohuman health and the environment and of those that aretoxic, persistent and bio-accumulative and whose usecannot be adequately controlled.19.45 In the agricultural area, integrated pest manage-ment, including the use of biological control agents asalternatives to toxic pesticides, is one approach to riskreduction.19.46 Other areas of risk reduction encompass theprevention of chemical accidents, prevention of poison-ing by chemicals and the undertaking of toxicovigilanceand coordination of clean-up and rehabilitation of areasdamaged by toxic chemicals.19.41 The OECD Council has decided that OECD mem-ber countries should establish or strengthen national riskreduction programmes. The International Council ofChemical Associations (ICCA) has introduced initiativesregarding responsible care and product stewardshipaimed at reduction of chemical risks. The Awareness andPreparedness for Emergencies at Local Level (APELL)programme of UNEP is designed to assist decisionmakers and technical personnel in improving communityawareness of hazardous installations and in preparingresponse plans. ILO has published a Code of Practice onthe prevention of major industrial accidents and is pre-paring an international instrument on the prevention ofindustrial disasters for eventual adoption in 1993.

OBJECTIVES

19.48 The objective of the programme areais to eliminateunacceptable or unreasonable risks and, to the extenteconomically feasible, to reduce risks posed by toxicchemicals, by employing abroad-based approach involv-ing a wide range of risk reduction options and by takingprecautionary measures derived from a broad-based life-cycle analysis.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMFNI-R ELATED ACT IV IT IES

19.49 Governments, through the cooperation of relevantinternational organizations and industry, where appropri-ate. should:(a) Consider adopting policies based on acceptedproducer liability principles, where appropriate, as wellas precautionary, anticipatory and life-cycle approachesto chemical managemen t. coveri ng manufac turing, trade,transport, use and disposal;

(b) Undertake concerted activities to reduce risks fortoxic chernicals, taking into account the entire life cycleof the chemicals. These activities could encompass bothregulatory artd non-regulatory measures, such as promo-tion of the use of cleaner products and technologies;emission inventories; product labelling; use limitations;economic incentives; and the phasing out or banning oftoxic chemicals that pose an unreasonable and otherwiseunmanageable risk to the environment or human healthand those that are toxic, persistent and bio-accumulativeand whose use cannot be adequately controlled;(c) Adopt policies and regulatory and non-regulatorymeasures to identify, and minintize exposure to, toxicchemicals by replacing them with less toxic substitutesand ultimately phasing out the chemicals that pose un-reasonable and otherwise unmanageable risk to humanhealth and the environment and those that are toxic,persistent and bio-accumulative and whose use cannotbe adequately controlled:(d) lncrease etforts to identify'national needs for stand-ard setting and implementation in the context of theFAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius in order to minimizeadverse effects of chemicals in food;(e) Develop national policies and adopt the necessaryregulatory framework for prevention of accidents,preparedness and response, inter alia, through land-useplanning, permit systems and reporting requirements onaccidents, and work with the OECD/UNEP internationaldirectory of regional response centres and the APELLprogramme;(0 Promote establishment and strengthening, as appro-priate, of national poison control centres to ensure promptand adequate diagnosis and treatment of poisonings;(g) Reduce overdependence on the use of agriculturalchemicals through ai ternat ive larming pract ices. inte-grated pest management and other appropriate means;(h) Require manufacturers, importers and others han-dling toxic chemicals to develop, with the cooperation ofproducers of such chemicals. where applicable, emer-gency response procedures and preparation ofon-site andotf-site emergency response plans;(i) Identify, assess, reduce and rninimize, or eliminateas far as feasible by environmentally sound disposalpractices, risks fiom storage of outdated chemicals.19.50 Industry should be encouraged to:(a) Develop an internationally agreed upon code ofprinciples for the management of trade in chemicals,recognizing in particular the responsibility for makingavailable information on potential risks and environmen-tally sound disposal practices if those chemicals becomewastes, in cooperation with Governments and relevantintemational organizations and appropriate agencies ofthe United Nations svstem:

192

(b) Develop application of a "responsible care" ap-proach by producers and manufacturers towards chemi-cal products, taking into account the total life cycle ofsuch products;(c) Adopt, on a voluntary basis, community right-to-know programmes based on international guidelines,including sharing of information on causes of acciden-tal and potential releases and means of preventing ihem.and reporting on annual routine emissions of toxic chemi-cals to the environment in the absence of host countryrequirements.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

19.51 Governments, through the cooperation of relevantinternational organizations and industry, where appropri-ate, should:(a) Promote exchange of information on national andregional activities to reduce the risks of toxic chemicals;(b) Cooperate in the development of communicationguidelines on chemical risks at the national level topromote information exchange with the public and theunderstanding of risks.

c/ INTERNAT/ONAI AND REGIONA/COOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

19.52 Governments, through the cooperation o1'relevantinternational organizations and industry, where appropri-ate, should:(a) Collaborate to develop common criteria to deter-mine which chemicals are suitable candidates for con-certed risk reduction activities;(b) Coordinate concerted risk reduction activities;(c) Develop guidelines and policies for the disclosureby manufacturers, importers and others using toxicchemicals of toxicity information declaring risks andemergency response arrangements:(d) Encourage large industrial enterprises includingtransnational corporations and other enterprises wher-ever they operate to introduce policies demonstrating thecommitment, with reference to the environmentallysound management of toxic chemicals, to adopt standardsof operation equivalent to or not less stringent than thoseexisting in the country of origin;(e) Encourage and support the development and adop-tion by small- and medium-sized industries of relevantprocedures for risk reduction in their activities;(0 Develop regulatory and non-regulatory measuresand procedures aimed at preventing the export of chemi-cals that are banned, severely restricted, withdrawn ornot approved for health or environmental reasons. except

when such export has received prior written consent fromthe importing country or is otherwise in accordance withthe PIC procedure;(g) Encourage national and regional rvork tcl harmonizeevaluation of pesticides :(h) Promote and develop mechanisrns for the saf-eproduction, management and use of dangeroLls materials,formulating programmes to substitute for thenr sal-eralternatives, where appropriate;(i) Formalize networks of ernergency response centres;

0t Encourage industry, with the help ol'rnulti lateralcooperation. to phase ont as appropriate, and dispose of.any banned chemicals that are sti l l in stock or in use inan environmentally sound manner. including saf'e reuse,where approved and appropriate.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/AL AND COSI EVALUATION

19.53 The Contercr tcc secretar ia t has inc luded most

costs related to this prograr"nme in estimates provided forprogramme areas A and E.

-fhey estinlate other require-

ments for training and strcngthening thc cinergcncy andpoison control centres to be about $' l rni l l ion annually

from the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-nragni-

tude estimates only and have not been reviewed by

Governments . Actua lcosts and f inanc ia l ter rns. inc lud-

ing any that are non-concess ional . w i l l c lepend Lrpon,

irt ter al ia, the specif ic strategies and programmes Gov-

ernments decide upon lbr inrplernentation.

B/ SCIENI /F/C AND IECHNOTOGICAL MEANS

19.54 Governments. in cooperatiorlr i , i th relevant inter-

national organizaticlns and programrnes, shoulcl:(a) Promote technology that would mininrize release

of, and exposure to. toxic chemicals in al l countr ies;(b) Carry out national reviews, as appropriate. of pre-

viously accepted pcsticidcs whose acceptance was based

on cri teria now recognized as insuff icie-nt or outdated and

of their possiblc rcplacement with othe'r pest control

rnethods. part icr-r lar lv in the case of pesticides that are

toxic. persistent and/or bio-accumulative.

E) STRENGTHENTNG OF NAnONAT CAPABTUnESAND CAPACITIES FOR MANAGE'VIENT OF CHEMICATS

BASIS FOR ACTION

19.55 Many count r ies lack nat iona l svs lcms to cope wi th

r 9 3

chemical risks. N4ost countries lack scientific means ofcollecting evidence of misuse and of judging the impactof toxic chemicals on the environment, because of thedifficulties involved in the detection of many problematicchemicals and systematically tracking their flow. Signi-ficant new uses are among the potential hazards to humanhealth and the environment in developing countries. lnseveral countries with systems in place there is an urgentneed to make those systems more efficient.19.56 Basic elements for sound management of chemi-cals are: (a) adequate legislation, (b) information gather-ing and dissemination, (c) capacity for risk assessmentand interpretation, (d) establishment of risk managementpolicy, (e) capacity for implementation and enforcement,(f) capacity for rehabilitation of contaminated sites andpoisoned persons, (g) eff'ective education programmesand (h) capacity to respond to emergencies.19.57 As management of chemicals takes place within anumber of sectors related to various national ministries.experience suggests that a coordinating mechanism isessent ia l .

OBJECTIVE

19.58 By the year 2000, national systems for environ-mentally sound management of chemicals, includinglegislation and provisions for implementation and en-forcement, should be in place in all countries to the extentpossible.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

19.-59 Governments, where appropriate and with the col-laboration of relevant intergovemmental organizations.agencies and progranlmes of the United Nations system,should:(a) Promote and support multidisciplinary approachesto chemical safety problems;(b) Consider the need to establish and strengthen,where appropriate, a national coordinating mechanism toprovide a l iaison tor all parties involved in chemicalsafety activit ies (fbr example, agriculture, environment,education, i ndustry, labour, health, transportation, police,civil defence, economic aff 'airs, research institutions, andpoison control centres);(c) Develop institutional nrechanisms fbr the ntanage-ment of chemicals. includine effective means of enforce-ment;(d) Establish and develop or strengthen, where appro-priate, networks of emergency response centres, includ-ing poison control centres:

194

(e) Develop national and local capabilities to preparefor and respond to accidents by taking into account theUNEP APELL programme and similar programmes onaccident prevention, preparedness and responsc, whercappropriate, including regularly tested and updated crner-gency plans;(0 Develop, in cooperation with industry, erlrergencyresponse procedures, identifying means and equiprnentin industries and plants necessary to reduce inrpacts ol'accidents.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

19.60 Governments should:(a) Direct information campaigns such as progranlmesproviding information about chemical stockpiles. envi-ronmentally saf.er alternatives and emission inventoriesthat could also be a tool for risk reduction to the generalpublic to increase the awareness of probletns of chenicalsafety;(b) Establish, in conjunction with IRPTC, nationalregisters and databases, including sa{'ety information, tbrchemicals:(c) Generate field monitoring data for toxic chernicalsof high environmental importance;(d) Cooperate with international organizations, r.vhereappropriate, to monitor and control eff-ectively thc gener-ation. manufacturing, distribution, transp(rr-tation auddisposal activit ies relating to toxic chenricals. to fosterpreventive and precautionaly approaches and ensurecompliance with safety management rules. and provideaccurate reporting of relevant data.

c/ /NIERNATTONAL AND REG/ONArCOO PERAI/ON AND COORD/NAI/ON

19.61 Governments, with thc cooperation of interna-tional organizations, where appropriate. shctuld:(a) Prepare guidelines, where not alreadl' available,with advice and check-lists for enactins lesislation in thechemical saf'ety field:(b) Support countries, particularly developing coun-tries, in developing and further strengthening nationallegislation and its implementation;(c) Consider adoption of community ri-eht-to-know orother public information-dissemination programlt"les.when appropriate, as possible risk reduction tools. Appro-priate international organizations, in particular IJNEPOECD, theEconomic Cornmission forEurope (ECE) andother interested parties, should consider the possibil i tyof developing a guidance document on the establishntcnt

of such programmes for use by interested Governments''rhe docun-rent shoulclbuild on existing workon accidents

ancl inclr idenewguidanceclntoxicemissioninventor iesandr iskcommutr icat ion.Suchguidanceshouldincludeharmonization of requirements, definitions and data ele-

ments to promote unitormity and allow sharing of data

internationallY;(d) Build on past. present and future risk assessment

work at an international level, to support countries'

particularly developing countries' in developing and

strengthening risk orr.rr,.r.ttnt capabilities at national and

regional levels to rninimize risk in the manufacturing and

use of toxic chernicals:(e ) Promote implementat ion of UNEP's APEI-L

programmc ancl. in pelrticular, use of an OECD/UNEP

international directory of emergency response centres;

(fl Cooperate with all countries, particularly develop-

ing cottntr ies, in the sett ing up of an inst i tut ional

mechanism at the national level and the development of

appropriate tools for management of chemicals;

(;; Arrangc information courses atall levelsof production

irncl use-. aimed at stafl- working on chemical safety issues:

(h) Devclop mechanisms to make maximum use in

countriesofinternationallyavailableinformation;(i) Invite UNEP to promote principles for accident

prer ctttion. prepareclness aud response for Governments'

industry and the public. builcl ing on ILO, OECD and ECE

work in this area.

fu) Promote translation, where feasible, of intemationally

prepzfed documents on chemical saf'ety into local languages

und ,upport various levels of regional activities related to

technolo gy transfer and information e xchan ge'

C/ HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

I 9.64 International organizations should:

(a) Enhance technical training for developing countries

in relation to risk management of chemicals;

(b) Promote and increase support for research activities

at the local level by providing grants and fellowships for

studies at recognized research institutions active in dis-

ciplines of importance for chemical safety programmes'

lg .65Governmentsshou ldorgan ize , inco l labcr ra t ionwith industry and trade unions, training programmes in

the management of chemicals, inclr"rding emergency re-

sponse, targeted at all levels. In all countries basic ele-

ments of chemical safety principles should be included

in the primary education curricula'

F) PREVENTION OF ltLEGAt INTER'NATIoNAL

rirarrtc lN Toxlc AND DANGERoUS PR'oDucrs

l g .66There iscument lynog loba l in te rna t iona lagree-ment on traffic in toxic and dangerous products (toxic

and dangerous products are those that are banned' sev-

erely restricted, withclrawn or not approved for use or

sale by Governments in order to protect public health and

theenv i ronment ) .However , there is in te rna t iona lcon-cernthat i l legal internat ional t raf f ic intheseproductsisde t r imenta l topub l ichea l thandtheenv i ronment 'par -ticularly in developing countries' as acknowledged by

the General Assembly in resolutions 421183 and441226.

Illegal traffic refers to traffic that is carried out in con-

travention of a country's laws or relevant international

legal instruments. The cclncern also relates to transboun-

dary movements of those products that are not carried

out in accordance with applicable intemationally adopted

g u i d e l i n e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s . A c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t h i s p r o -g r a m m e a r e a a r e i n t e n c l e d t o i m p r c l v e d e t e c t i o n a n dprevention of the traffic concerned'

lg.6TFurtherstrengtheningof intemat ionalandregionalcooperaticln is ncederJ to prevent illegal transboundary

-ou.*.nt of toxic and clangerous products' Further-

more.capaci ty-bui ld ingatthenat ional level isneededtoimprove monitor ing and enforcement capabi l i t ies

involving recognition ol the fact that appropriate penal-

t iesmayneedtobe imposec lunderanef fec t i veenforce-ment programme. Other activities envisaged in the pres-

ent chapter (for example, under paragraph 19'39 (d)) wil l

also contribute to achieving these objectives'

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Al F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

lg.62. fheConlerencesecretar ia thasest imatedtheaver-

age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the

activities of this programme in developing countries to

bc abour $600 mil l ion, inclu<l ing $150 rni l l ion from the

international cOmmunity cln grant or concessional terms.

Thcse are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates

only and have not been reviewed by Governments' Actual

costs and f inancra l tern ls . inc lud ing any that are non-

cottcsssional. wi l l clepend Llpon' inter al ia' the specif ic

:tnttegies anrJ programnles Govemments decide upon for

irrplett t i :ntat ion.

B / SC /FNT /F /C AND rEcHNo toG lcAL MEANS

I c).6r I t t tctr lat iotral clrganizations should:

( i l ) Prot r lo tc the estab l ishment and s t rengthening of

nat io la l lubot ' i t to r ies t0 ensLl re the ava i lab i l i ty o f ade-

qLlatc tr i t t ional control in al l countr ies regarding the im-

potlat ion. t tr l tntt f 'acture and use of chemicals:

1 9 5

OBJECTIVES

19.68 The ob-jectives of the programme are:(a) To reinlbrcc national capacities to detect and haitani; illegal attempt to introcluce toxic and dan_{erousprodLrcts into the tcnitory of any State" in contraventioncll ' national legislation and rele.vant intemational legalinstruments:(b) ' Io

assist a l l countr ic:s. part icular ly developingcountries. in clbtaining all irppropriate information con-cerning i l legal trafl lc in toxic and dangerous products.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGFA4FNI RELATED ACTIVITIES

19.69 Gove-rnnlents. according to their capacit ies andavailable lesolrrces and ivi th the cooperation of theUni ted Nat ions and other rc levant organizat ions. asappropriate, should:(a) Adopt, where nr-cessary. and implernent legislat ionto prevent the i l legal inrpofi and export of toxic anddangerous prr. lclrrct s :(b) [ )evekrp appropr ia tc nat iona l enforce lnent pro-gramrnes to moni tor compl iance wi th sr - rch leg is la t ion,and detcct and c le ter v io la t ions through appropr ia tepena l t i c s .

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

19.70 Governments should der , 'e lop. as appropr ia te . na-t ional alert systenl\ to assist in detecting i l legal traff ic intoxic and dangerous prodr.rcts; local cornr-nunit ies. andothers cou ld be invo lvcc l in thc operat ion o f such a systcm.19.7 | Governrnents shoulr l cociperate in thc exchange ofi n lirrnrat ion on i I I ega I tmn sbounclary rnoverne nts of tox i clrncl clangerous pnrdLrcls ancl should make such infomra-t ion a'u'ai lable to appropriate L. lnitcd Nations bodies. suchas L lNl rP and the res ional commiss ions.

c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL AND RFG/ONALCOO PERAI/ON AND COORDINAI/ON

19 .7 2 Further strengthening of international and regionalcooperation is needed to prevent illegal transboundarymovement of toxic and dangerclus products.19.73 l'he regional commissions, in cooperation withand relying upon expert support and advice from UNEPand other relevant bodies of the United Nations, shouldmonitor, on the basis of data and information providedby Governments, and on a continuous basis makeregional assessments of the illegal traffic in toxic anddangerous products and its environmental, economic andhealth implications, in each region, drawing upon theresults and experience gained in the joint UNEP/ESCAPpreliminary assessment of illegal traffic, expected to becompleted in August 1992.19.74 Governments and international organizations, asappropriate, should cooperate with developing countriesin strengthening their institutional and regulatory capac-ities in order to prevent illegal import and export of toxicand dangerous products.

G) ENHANCE'YIENT OF INTERNATTONALCOOPERATION RETATING TO SEVERAT OFTHE PROGRAMME AREAS

19.75 A meeting of government-designated experts, heldin London in f)ecember 1991. made recommendationsfor increased coordination among United Nations bodiesand other international organizations involved in chemi-cal risk assessment and management. That meeting calledfor the taking of appropriate measures to enhance the roleof IPCS and establish an intergovernmental forum onchemical risk assessment and management.19.76 To further consider the recommendations of theLondon meeting and initiate action on them, as appropri-ate. the Executive Heads of WHO, ILO and UNEP areinvited to convene an intergovernmental meeting withinone year, which could constitute the first meeting of thei ntergovernmental forum.

1 9 6

20 wostes, including prevention of illegol internotionolEnvironmentolly sound monogement of hozordous

troffic in hozordous wostes

I N T R O D U C T I O N

20J Effective control of the geueration, storage, treat-ment, recycling and reuse, transport, recovery and dispo-sal of hazardous wastes is of paramount importance forproper health, environmental protection and natural re-

source management, and sustainable development. Thiswill require the active cooperation and participation of

the international community, Governrnents and industry.Industry, as referred to in this paper, shall include large

industrial enterprises, including transnational corpora-

tions and domestic industry.20.2 Prevention of the generation of hazardous wastes

and the rehabilitation of contaminated sites are the key

elements, and both require knowledge, experiencedpeople, facilities, financial resources and technical and

scientific capacities.20.3 The activities outiined in the present chapter arevery closely related to, and have implications for, manyof the progralnme areas described in other chapters, so

that an overall integrated approach to hazardous wastemanagement is necessary.20.4 There is internationai concern that part of the

international movement of hazardous wastes is beingcarried out in contravention of existing national legisla-

tion and international instruments to the detriment of the

environment and public health of all countries, particu-

larly developing countries.20.5 In section I of resolution 441226 of 22 December

1989, the General Assembly requested each regional

commission, within existing resources, to contribute tothe prevention of the illegal traffic in toxic and dangerousproducts and wastes by monitoring and making regional

assessments of that illegal traffic and its environmentaland health implications. The Assembly also requestedtheregional commissions to interact among themselves and

cooperate with the United Nations Environment Pro-gramme (UNEP), with a view to maintaining efficientand coordinated monitoring and assessment of the illegaltraffic in toxic and dangerous products and wastes.

OVERALL OBJECTIVE

20.6 Within the framework of integrated life-cyclemanagement, the overall objective is to prevent to theextent possible, and minimize,the generation of hazard-ous wastes, as well as to manage those wastes in such away that they do not cause harm to health and theenvironment.

OVERALL TARGETS

20.7 The overall targets are:(a) Preventing or minimizing the generation of hazerd-ous wastes as part of an overall integrated cleaner pro-

duction approach; eliminating or reducing to a minimumtransboundary movements of hazardous wastes, consist-ent with the environmentally sound and efficient man-agement of those wastes; and ensuring that environmen-tally sound hazardous waste management options arepursued to the maximum extent possible within thecountry of origin (the self-sufficiency principle). Thetransboundary movements that take place should be onenvironmental and economic grounds and based uponagreements between the States concemed;(b) Ratification of the Basel Convention onthe Controlof Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal and the expeditious elaboration of relatedprotocols, such as the protocol on liability and compen-sation, mechanisms and guidelines to facilitate the im-plementation of the Basel Convention;(c) Ratification and full implementation by the coun-tries concerned of the Bamako Convention on the Banon the Import into Africa and the Control of Transbound-

197

ary Movement of Hazardous Wastes within Africa andthe expeditious elaboration of a protocol on liability andcompensation;(d) Elimination of the export of hazardous wastes tocountries that, individually or through internationalagreements, prohibit the import of such wastes, such as,the contracting parties to the Bamako Conventicln, thefourth Lom6 Convention or other relevant conventions.where such prohibition is provided for.20.ti The following programme areas are included inthis chapter:(a) Promoting the prevention and minimization of haz-ardous waste;(b) Promoting and strengthening institutional capac-ities in hazardous waste management;(c) Promoting and strengthening international cooper-ation in the management of transboundary movementsof hazardous wastes:(d) Preventing illegal international traffic in hazardouswastes.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) PROI OTING THE PREVENTTON ANDMINIMIZATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

BASIS FOR ACTION

20.9 Human health and environmental quality are un-dergoing continuous degradation by the increasingamount of hazardous wastes being produced. There areincreasing direct and indirect costs to society and toindividual citizens in connection with the generation,handling and disposal of such wastes. It is thereforecrucial to enhance knowledge and information on theeconomics of prevention and management clf hazardouswastes, including the impact in relation to the employ-ment and environmental benefits. in order tcl ensure thatthe necessary capital investment is made available indevelopment programmes through economic incentives.One of the firstpriorities in hazardous waste managementis minimization, as part of a broader approach to changingindustrial processes and consumer patterns through pol-lution prevention and cleaner production strategies.20.10 Among the most important factors in thesestrategies is the recovery of hazardous wastes and theirtranformation into useful material. Technology applica-tion, modificaticln and development of new low-wastetechnoklgies are therefore currently a central focus ofhazardous waste minirnization.

OBJECTIVES

20.1I The objectives of this programme area are:(a) To reduce the generation of hazardous wastes, tothe extent teasible, as part of an integrated cleaner pro-duction approach;(b) To optimize the use of materials by utilizing, wherepracticable andenvironmentally sound, the residues fromproduction processes;(c) To enhance knowledge and information on the eco-nomics of prevention and management of hazardouswastes.20.12 To achieve those objectives, and thereby reducethe impact and cost of industrial development, countriesthat can afford to adopt the requisite technologies withoutdetriment to their development should establish policiesthat include:(a) Integration of cleaner production approaches andhazardous waste minimization in all planning, and theadoption of specific goals;(b) Promotion of the use of reguiatory and marketmechanisms;(c) Establishment of an intermediate goal for the sta,bilization of the quantity of hazardous waste generated;(d) Establ ishment of long-term programmes andpolicies including targets where appropriate for reducingthe amount of hazardous waste produced per unit ofmanufacture;(e) Achievement of a qualitative improvement of wastestreams, mainly through activities aimed at reducing theirhazardous characteri stics ;(0 Facilitation of the establishment of cost-effectivepolicies and approaches to hazardous waste preventionand management, taking into consideration the state ofdevelopment of each country.

ACTIVITIES

A) MAN AGFMENI-R ELAT ED ACTIVITI E S

20J3 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Governments should establish or modify standardsor purchasing specifications to avoid discriminationagainst recycled materials, provided that those materialsare environmentally sound;(b) Governments, according to their possibilities andwith the help of multilateral cooperation, should provideeconomic orregulatory incentives, where appropriate, tostimulate industrial innovation towards cleaner produc-tion methods, to encourage industry to invest in preven-tive and/or recycling technologies so as to ensure envi-ronmentally sound managentent of all hazardous wastes,including recyclable wastes, and to encourage wasteminim izat ion investments:

1 9 8

(c) Governments should intensify research and devel-opment activities on cost-effective alternatives for pro-

cesses and substances that currently result in the gener-

ation of hazardoLts wastes that pose particular problems

for environmentally sound disposal or treatment, thepossibility of ultimate phase-out of those substances thatpresent an unreasonable or otherrvise unmanageable risk

and are toxic. persistent and bio-accumulative to beconsidered as soon as practicable. Emphasis should begiven to alternatives that could be economically ac-cessible to developing countries;(d) Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations andindustries, as appropriate, should support the estab-lishment of domestic facil i t ies to handle hazardouswastes of domestic origin,(e) Govemments of developed countries should pro-

mote the transfer of environmentally sound technologiesand know-how on clean technologies and low-wasteproduction to developing countries in conformity with

chapter 34, which will bring about changes to sustaininnovation. Governments should cooperate with industryto develop guidelines and codes of conduct, where appro-priate" leading to cleaner production through sectoraltrade industry associations:(f) Governments should encourage industry to treat,recycle, reuse and dispose of wastes at the source ofgeneration, or as close as possible thereto, wheneverhazardous waste generation is unavoidable and when itis both economically and environmentally efficient forindustry to do so;(g) Governments should encourage technology assess-ments, for example through the use of technology assess-ment centres;(h) Governments should promote cleaner productionthrough the establishment of centres providing trainingand information on environmentally sound technologies;(i) Industry should establish environmental manage-ment systems, including environmental auditing of itsproduction or distribution sites, in order to identify where

the installation of cleaner production ntethods is needed;(j) A relevant and competent United Nations organ-ization should take the lead, in cooperation with otherorganizations, to develop guidelines for estimating thecosts and benefits of various approaches to the adoptionof cleaner production and waste minimization and envi-ronmentally sound management of hazardous wastes,including rehabilitation of contaminated sites, taking intoaccount. where appropriate, the report of the l99l Nai-robi meeting of government-designated experts on aninternational strategy and an action programme, includ-ing technical guidelines for the environmentally sound

management of hazardous wastes; in particular in thecontext of the work of the Basel Convention, beingdeveloped under the UNEP secretariat;(k) Governments should establish regulations that laydown the ultimate responsibility of industries for envi-ronmentally sound disposal of the hazardous wastes theiractivities generate.

B) DATA AND /NFORM,AI/ON

20.14 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Governments, assisted by international organiza-tions, should establish mechanisms fbr assessing thevalue of existing information systems:(b) Governments should establish nationwide and re-gional information collection and dissemination clear-ing-houses and networks that are etrsy for Governmentinstitutions and industry and other non-governmentalorganizations to access and use;(C) Ittternational organizations, through the {JNEPCleaner Production prograntme altd ICPICI. shoulcl cr-t e n d a n d s t r e n g t h e t l e x i s t i l r g \ v s l e t t r s l i r t ' t o l l e e l i o l t r ' ;

cleaner production information:(d) All United Nations organs and organizations shouldpromote the use and dissemination of information c.ol-lected through the Cleaner Production network:(e) OECD should, in cooperation with other organiza-tions, undertake a comprehensive survey of, and dissemi-nate information on, experiences of member countries inadopting economic regulatory schemes and incentivemechanisms for hazardous waste management and forthe use of clean technologies that prevent such waste f rombeing generated;(0 Governments should encourage industries to be trans-parcnt in their operations eurd provide relevant informationto the communities that might be affected by the generation,management and disposal of hazardous wastes.

cJ INTERNATONAT" AND REG/ONAICCOPERAIION AND COORD/NAI/ON

20.1 5 International/regional cooperation should encour-age the ratification by States of the Basel and BamakoConventions and promote the implementation of thoseConventions. Regional cooperation will be necessary forthe development of similar conventions in regions otherthan Africa. if so required. In addition there is a need foreffective coordination of international regional and na-tional policies and instruments. Another activity pro-posed is cooperating in monitoring the effects of themanagement of hazardous wastes.

199

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

20.16 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $750 millionfrom the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-tude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend upon, interalia, the specific strategies and prograrrunes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENIIFIC AND TECHNOIOG|CAL MFANS

20J7 The following activities related to technology de-velopment and research should be undertaken:(a) Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations. andindustries, as appropriate, should significantly increasefinancial support fcrr cleaner technology research anddevelopment prograrrunes, including the use of biotech-nologies;(b) States, with the cooperation of international organ-izations where appropriate, should encourage industry topromote and undertake research into the phase-out of theprocesses that pose the greatest environmentalrisk basedon hazardous wastes generated;(c) States should encourage industry to developschemes to integrate the cleaner production approach intodesign of products and management practices:(d) States should encourage industry to exercise envi-ronmentally responsible care through hazardous wastereduction and by ensuring the environmentally soundreuse, recycling and recovery of hazardous wastes, aswell as their final disposal.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

20.18 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Governments, international organizations and in-dustry should encourage industrial training programmes,incorporating hazardous waste prevention and minimi-zation techniques and launching demonstration projectsat the local level to develop "success stories" in cleanerproduction;(b) Industry should integrate cleaner production princi-ples and case examples into training programmes and es-tablish demonstration projects/networks by sector/country ;

200

(c) All sectors of society should develop cleaner prod-uction awareness campaigns and prornclte dialogue andpartnership with industry and other actors.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

20.19 The following activit ies should be undcrtaken:(a) Governments of developing countries, in coopera-tion with industry and with the cooperation of appro-priate international organizations, should develop inven-tories of hazardous waste production. in order to identifytheir needs with respect to technology transfer and im-plementation of measures for the sound management ofhazardous wastes and their disposal:(b) Governments should include in national planningand legislation an integrated approach to environmentalprotection, driven by prevention and source reductioncriteria, taking into account the "polluter pays" principle,and adopt programmes for hazardous waste reduction,including targets and adequate environmental control;(c) Governments should work with industry/ on sector-by-sector cleaner production and hazardous waste min-imization campaigns, as well as on the reduction of suchwastes and other emissions;(d) Governments should take the lead in establishingand strengthening, as appropriate, national proceduresfor environmental i mpact assessnlent, taki ng into accountthe cradle-to-grave approach to the management of haz-ardous wastes, in order to identily options for minimizingthe generation of hazardous wastes, thror"rgh saf'er han-dling, storage, disposal and destruction:(e) Governments. in collaboration u,ith industry andappropriate intemational organizations, should developprocedures for monitoring the application of the cradle-to-grave approach. including environmental audits;(0 Bilateral and multi lateral development assistanceagencies should substant ia l ly increase funding forcleaner technologv transfer to developing countries, in-cluding small- and medium-sized enterprises.

B) PRO'VIOTING AND STRENGTHENTNGINSTITUTIONAT CAPACITIES IN HAZARDOUSWASTE MANAGEMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

20.2A Many countries lack the national capacity tohandle and manage hazardous wastes. This is prirnarilydue to inadequate infiastructure. deficiencies in regula-tory frameworks. insufficient education and ti'aining pro-grammes and lack of coordination between the difl-erentministries and institutions involvecl in various aspects of

waste management. In addition, there is a lack of know-ledge about environmental contarnination and pollution

and the associated health risk from the exposure ofpopulations, especially women and children. and ecosys-tems to hazardous wastes; assessment of risks; and the

characteristics of wastes. Steps need to be taken imme-diately to identify populations at high risk and to takeremedial measures, where necessary. One of the mainpriorit ies in ensuring environmentally sound manage-ment of hazardous wastes is to provide awareness, edu-cation and training programmes covering all levels ofsociety. There is also a need to ttndertake research pro-grammes to understand the nature of hazardclus wastes,to identify their potential environmental effects and to

develop technologies to safely handle those wastes.Finally, there is a neeci to strengthen the capacities ofinstitutions that are responsible for the management ofhazardous wastes.

OBJECTIVES

20.21 The obiectives in this programme area are:(a) To adopt appropriate coordinating, legislative andregulatory measures at the national level for the environ-mentally sound management of hazardous wastes, in-cluding the implementation of international and regionalconventions;(b) To establish public awareness and information pro-grammes on hazardous waste issues and to ensure thatbasic education and training programmes are providedfor industry and govemment workers in all countries;(c) To establish comprehensive research programmeson hazardous wastes in countries:(d) To strengthen service industries to enable them tohandle hazardous wastes, and to build up internationalnetworking,(e) To develop endogenous capacities in all developingcountries to educate and train statf at all levels in envi-ronmentally sound hazardous waste handling and moni-toring and in environmentally sound management;(f) To promote human exposLlre assessment with re-spect to hazardous waste sites and identify the rernedialmeasures requircd:(g) To facil i tate the assessmcnt of impacts and risks ofhazardous wastes on human health and the environmentb1' establishing appropriate procedures. methodologies,criteria and/or efl luent-related guidelines and standards:(h) To improve knowledge regarding the effbcts ofhazardous wastes on human health and the environment;(i) To make information available to Governments andto the general public on the eff-ects of hazardous wastes,including inf'ectious wastes, on human health and theenvironment.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

20.22 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Governments should establish and ntaintain inven-tories, including computerized inventories, of hazardouswastes and their treatment/disposal sites, as well as ofcontaminated sites that require rehabilitation, and assessexposure and risk to human health and the environment:they should also identify the measures required to cleanup the disposal sites. Industry should make the necessaryinformation available ;(b) Governments, industry and international organiza-tions should collaborate in developing guidelines andeasy-to-implement methods for the characterization andclassification of hazardous wastes:(c) Governments should carry out exposure and healthassessments of populations residing near uncontrolledhazardous waste sites and initiate remedial measures;(d) International organizations should develop improvedhealttr-based criteria, taking into accclunt national decision-making processes, and assist in the preparation of practicaltechnical guidelines fbr the prevention, minimization andsafe handling and disposal of hazardous wastes;(e) Governments of developing countries should en-courage interdisciplinary and intersectoral groups, incooperation with international organizations and agen-cies, to implement training and research activit ies relatedto evaluation, prevention and controlof hazardous wastehealth risks. Such groups should serve as models todevelop similar regional programmes;(0 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and rvith the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other rele vant organizations as appro-priate, should encourage as far as possible the estab-lishment of combined treatment/disposal facilities forhazardous wastes in srnall- and medium-sized industries;(g) Governments should promote identif ication andclean-up of sites of hazardolrs wastes in collaborationwith industry and international organizations. Technol-ogies, expertise and financing shoulcl be available for thispurpose, as far as possible and when appropriate with theapplication of the "polluter pays" principle:(h) Governments should ascertain that their militaryestablishments conform to their nationally applicableenvironmental norms in the treatment and disposal ofhazardous wastes.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

20.23 The fbllowing activities should be undertaken:(a) Governments, international and regional organiza-

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tions and industry should facilitate and expand the dis-semination of technical and scientific information deal-ing with the various health aspects of hazardous wastes,and promote its application;(b) Governments should establish notification systemsand registries of exposed populations and of adversehealth effects and databases on risk assessments of haz-ardous wastes:(c) Governments should endeavour to collect informa-tion on those who generate or dispose/recycle hazardouswastes and provide such information to the individualsand institutions concerned.

c/ /NTERNATTONAL AND REG/ONALCOOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON

20.24 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations, asappropriate. should:(a) Promote and support the integration and operation,at the regional and local levels as appropriate, of institu-tional and interdisciplinary groups that collaborate, ac-cording to their capabilities, in activities oriented towardsstrengthening risk assessment, risk management and riskreduction with respect to hazardous wastes;(b) Support capacity-building and technological devel-opment and research in developing countries in connec-tion with human resource development, with particularsupport to be given to consolidating networks;(c) Encourage self-sufficiency in hazardous waste dis-posal in the country of origin to the extent that is en-vironmentally sound and feasible. The transboundarymovements that take place should be on environmentaland economic grounds and based upon agreements be-tween all States concerned.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

20.25 The Conference secretariat has estimated the averagetotal annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing ttre activitiesof this programme to be about $ 18.5 billion on a global basiswith about $3.5 billion related to developing countries,including about $500 million fiom the intemational com-munity on grant orconcessional terms. These are indicativeand order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

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8/ SC/ENilF/C AND TECHNOLOGTCAL TIEANS

20.26 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations andindustry as appropriate, should increase support forhaz-ardous waste research management in developing coun-tries;(b) Governments, in collaboration with internationalorganizations, should conduct research on the healtheffects of hazardous wastes in developing countries,including the long-term effects on children and women;(c) Governments should conduct research aimed at theneeds of small and medium-sized industries;(d) Govemments and intemational organizations in co-operation with industry should expand technological re-search on environmentally sound hazardous waste han-dling, storage, transport, treatment and disposal and onhazardous waste assessment, management and remediation ;(e) International organizations should identify relevantand improved technologies for handling, storage, treat-ment and disposal of hazardous wastes.

c) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

20.27 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant oreanizations andindustry as appropriate, should:(a) Increase public awareness and information on haz-ardous waste issues and promote the development anddissemination of hazardous wastes information that thegeneral public can understand;(b) Increase participation in hazardous waste manage-ment programmes by the general public, particularlywomen, including participation at grass-roots levels;(c) Develop training and education programmes formen and women in industry and Government aimed atspecific real-lif'e problems, for example, planning andimplementrng hazardous waste minimization pro-grammes, conducting hazardous materials audits ande stabl i shi n g appropri ate regulatory progranilne s ;(d) Promote the training of labour, industrial manage-ment and govemment regulatory staff in developingcountries on technologies to minimize and manage haz-ardous wastes in an environmentally sound manner.20,28 'Ihe

following activities should also be undertaken:(a) Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations, other organizations and non-governmen-tal organizations, should collaborate in developing and

disseminating educational materials concerning hazaro-ous wastes and their effects on environment and humanhealth, for use in schools, by women's groups and by thegeneral public;(b) Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of the

United Nations and other organizations, should establishor strengthen programmes for the environmentally soundmanagement of hazardous wastes in accordance with, asappropriate, health and environmental standards, andextend surveillance systems for the purpose of iden-tifying adverse effects on populations and the environ-ment of exposure tohazardous wastes;(c) International organizations should provide assist-ance to member States in assessing the health and envi-ronmental risks resulting from exposure to hazardouswastes, and in identifying their priorities fbr controllingthe various categories or classes of wastes;(d) Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations, shouldpromote centres of excellence for training in hazardouswaste management, building on appropriate national in-stitutions and encouraging international cooperation,inter alia, through institutional links between developedand developing countries.

D) CAPACTTY-BUTLDING

20.29 Wherever they operate, transnational corporationsand other large-scale enterprises should be encouragedto introduce policies and make commitments to adoptstandards of operation with reference to hazardous waste-generation and disposal that are equivalent to or no lessstringent than standards in the country of origin, andGovernments are invited to make efforts to establishregulations requiring environmentally sound manage-ment of hazardous wastes.20.30 International organizations should provide assis-tance to member States in assessing the health and envi-ronmental risks resulting from exposure to hazardouswastes and in identifying their priorities for controllingthe various categories or classes of wastes.20.31 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations andindustries, should:(a) Support national institutions in dealing with haz-ardous wastes from the regulatory monitoring and en-forcement perspectives, with such support includingenabling of those institutions to implement internationalconventions:

(b) Develop industry-based institutions for dealingwith hazardous wastes and service industries forhandlinghazardous wastes;(c) Adopt technical guidelines for the environmentallysound management of hazardous wastes and support theimplementation of regional and international conven-tions;(d) Develop and expand international networkingamong professionals working in the area of hazardouswastes and maintain an information flow among coun-tries;(e) Assess the feasibility of establishing and operatingnational, subregional and regional hazardous wastestreatment centres. Such centres could be used for educa-tion and training, as well as for facilitation and promotionof the transfer of technologies for the environmentallysound management of hazardous wastes;(0 Identify and strengthen relevant academic/researchinstitutions or centres for excellence to enable them tocarry out education and training activities in the environ-mentally sound management of hazardous wastes;(g) Develop a programme for the establishment ofnational capacities and capabilities to educate and trainstaff at various levels in hazardous wastes manaqe-ment;(h) Conduct environmental audits of existing industriesto improve in-plant regimes for the management of haz-ardous wastes.

c) PROMOTTNG AND STRENGTHENINGINTER.NATIONAT COOPERATION IN THEMANAGEMENT OF TRANSBOUNDARYMOVEMENTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTES

BASIS FOR ACTION

20.32 In order to promote and strengthen internationalcooperation in the management, including control andmonitoring, of transboundary movements of hazardouswastes, a precautionary approach should be applied.There is a need to harmonize the procedures and criteriaused in various intemational andlegal instruments. Thereis also a need to develop or harmonize existing criteriafor identifying wastes dangerous to the environment andto build monitoring capacities.

OBJECTIVES

20.33 The objectives of this programne area are:(a) To facilitate and strengthen international cooper-ation in the environmentally sound management of haz-ardous wastes, including control and monitoring of trans-boundary movements of such wastes, including wastes

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for recovery, by using internationally adopted criteria toidentify and classify hazardous wastes and to harmonizerelevant international legal instruments;(b) To adopt a ban on or prohibit, as appropriate, theexport of hazardous wastes to countries that do not havethe capacity to deal with those wastes in an environmen-tally sound way or that have banned the import of suchwastes;(c) To promote the development of control proceduresfor the transboundary movement of hazardous wastesdestined for recovery operations under the Basel Con-vention that encourage environmentally and economi-cally sound recycling options.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

> Strengthening ond hormonizing criferio and rqulotions

20.34 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of UnitedNations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate,should:(a) Incorporate the notification procedure called for inthe Basel Convention and relevant regional conventions,as well as in their annexes, into national legislation;(b) Formulate, where appropriate, regional agreementssuch as the Bamako Convention regulating the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes;(c) Help promote the compatibility and complemen-tarity of such regional agreements with internationalconventions and protocols;(d) Strengthen national and regional capacities andcapabilities to monitor and control the transboundarymovement of hazardous wastes;(e) Promote the development of clear criteria andguidelines, within the framework of the Basel Conven-tion and regional conventions, as appropriate, for envi-ronmentally and economically sound operation in re-source recovery, recycling reclamation, direct use oralternative uses and for determination of acceptable re-covery practices, including recovery levels where feas-ible and appropriate, with a view to preventing abusesand false presentation in the above operations;(0 Consider setting up, at national and regional levels,as appropriate, systems for monitoring and surveillanceof the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes;(g) Develop guidelines for the assessment of environ-mentally sound treatment of hazardous wastes;(h) Develop guidelines forthe identification of hazard-ous wastes at the national level, taking into accountexisting internationally - and, where appropriate, re-

204

gionally - agreed criteria and prepare a list of hazardprofiles forthe hazardous wastes listed in national legisla-tion;(i) Develop and use appropriate methods for testing,characterizing and classifying hazardous wastes andadopt or adapt safety standards and principles for man-aging hazardous wastes in an environmentally soundway.

> lmplementing existing ogrements

20.35 Governments are urged to ratify the Basel Conven-tion and the Bamako Convention, as applicable, and topursue the expeditious elaboration of related protocols,such as protocols on liability and compensation, and ofmechanisms and guidelines to facilitate the implementa-tion of the Conventions.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A' F'NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATTON

20.36 Because this programme area covers a relativelynew field of operation and because of the lack so far ofadequate studies on costing of activities under this pro-gramme, no cost estimate is available at present. How-ever, the costs for some of the activities related to capac-ity-building that are presented under this programmecould be considered to have been covered under thecosting of programme area B above.20.37 The interim secretariat for the Basel Conventionshould undertake studies in order to arrive at a reasonablecost estimate for activities to be undertaken initiallv untilthe year 2000.

B) CAPACTTY-BUILD|NG

20.38 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of UnitedNations and other relevant organizations, as appropriate,should:(a) Elaborate or adopt policies for the environmentallysound management of hazardous wastes, taking intoaccount existing intemational instruments;(b) Make recommendations to the appropriate forumsor establish or adapt norrns, including the equitable im-plementation of the "polluter pays" principle, and regu-latory measures to comply with obligations and princi-ples of the Basel Convention, the Bamako Conventionand other relevant existing or future agreements, includ-ing protocols, as appropriate, for setting appropriate rules

and procedures in the field of liability and compensationfor damage resulting lrom the transboundary movement

and disposal of hazardous wastes;(c) Implement pol ic ies for the implementat ion of a

ban or prohibi t ion, as appropr iate, of exports of

hazardous wastes to countr ies that do not have the

capaci ty to deal wi th those wastes in an environmen-tal ly sound way or that have banned the import of

such wastes ;(d) Study, in the context of the Basel Convention andrelevant regional conventions, the feasibil i ty of pro-

viding temporary financial assistance in the case of an

emergency situation, in order to minimize damagefrom accidents arising from transboundary movementsof hazardous wastes or during the disposal of thosewastes.

D) PREVENTING lttEGAt INTERNATIONAL TRAFFICIN HAZARDOUS WASTES

BASIS FOR ACTION

20.39 The prevention of illegal traffic in hazardouswastes will benefrt the environment and public health in

all countries, particularly developing countries. It willalso help to make the Basel Convention and regionalinternational instruments, such as the Bamako Conven-tion and the fourth Lomd Convention, more effective bypromoting compliance with the controls established in

those agreements. Article IX of the Basel Conventionspecifically addresses the issue of illegal shipments ofhazardous wastes. Illegal traffic of hazardous wastes maycause serious threats to human health and the environ-ment and impose a special and abnormal burden on the

countries that receive such shipments.20..10 Effective prevention requires action through effec-tive monitoring and the enforcement and imposition ofappropriate penalties.

OBJECTIVES

20.41 The objectives of this progranlffle area are:-(a) To reinforce national capacities to detect and halt

any i l legal attempt to introducehazardous wastes into

the ten'itory of any State in contravention of nationallegis lat ion and relevant internat ic lnal legal instru-ments :(b) To assist all countries, particularly developingcountries, in obtaining all appropriate information con-cerning illegal traffic in hazardous wastes;(c) To cooperate, within the frarnework of the Basel

Convention. in assisting countries that suff'er the conse-quences of illegal traffic.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELAT ED ACT IV ITI ES

2A.42 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations, asappropriate, should:(a) Adopt, where necessary, and implement legislationto prevent the illegal irnport and export of hazardouswastes;(b) Develop appropriate national enforcement pro-grammes to monitor compliance with such legislation,detect and deter violations through appropriate penalties

and give special attention to those who are known to have

conducted illegal traffic in hazardous wastes and to haz-

ardous wastes that are particularly susceptible to illegaltraffic.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

20.43 Governments should develop as appropriate, aninformation network and alert system to assist in detect-ing i l legal traffic in hazardous wastes. Local com-munities and others cor"rld be involved in the orrerationof such a network and system.2A.44 Governments should cooperate in the exchange ofinformation on illegal transboundary movements of haz-ardous wastes and should make such information avail-able to appropriate United Nations bodies such as UNEPand the regional commissions.

c/ /NTERNAT|ONAL AND REGIONAI COOPERATION

20.45 The regional commissions, in cooperation withand relying upon expert support and advice from UNEPand other relevant bodies of the United Nations system,taking full account of the Basel Convention, shall con-tinue to monitor and assess the illegal traffic in hazardouswastes, including its environmental, economic and healthimplications, on a continuing basis, drawing upon theresults and experience gained in the joint UNEP/ESCAPpreliminary/ assessment of illegal traffic.20.46 Countries and international organizations, asappropriate, should cooperate to strengthen the institu-tional and regulatory capacities, in particular of devel-oping countries, in order to prevent the illegal import andexport of hazardous wastes.

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21

I N T R O D U C T I O N

2l.l This chapter has been incorporated in Agenda 21in response to General Assembly resolution441228, sec-tion I, paragraph 3, in which the Assembly affirmed thatthe Conference should elaborate strategies and measuresto halt and reverse the effects of environmental degrada-tion in the context of increased national and intemationalefforts to promote sustainable and environmentally sounddcveloprnent in all countries, and to section I, paragraphl2 (g), of the same resolution, in which the Assemblyaffirrned that environmentally sound management ofwastes was among the environmental issues of majorconcern in rnaintaining the quality of the Earth's envi-ronment and especially in achieving environmentallysound and sustainable development in all countries.21.2 Programme areas included in the present chapterof Agenda 21 are closely related to the following pro-gramme areas of other chapters of Agenda 2l :(a) Rotection of the quality and supply of freshwater re-sources: application of integrated approaches to the develop-ment, management and use of water resources (chapter l8);(b) Promoting sustainable human settlement develop-ment (chapter 7);(c) Protecting and promoting human health conditions(chapter 6);(d) Changing consumption patterns (chapter 4).21.3 Solid wastes, as defined in this chapter, include alldorlestic refuse and non-hazardous wastes such as com-rnercial and institutional wastes, street sweepings andconstruction debris. In some countries, the solid wastesmanagement systern also handles human wastes such asnight-soil, ashes from incinerators, septic tank sludge andsludge fiom sewage treatment plants. If these wastesmanif-est hazardous characteristics thev should be treatedas hazardous wastes.

Environmentolly sound monogement of solid wostesond sewoge-reloted issues

21.4 Environmentally sound waste management must gobeyond the mere safe disposal or recovery of wastes thatare generated and seek to address the root cause of theproblem by attempting to change unsustainable patternsof production and consumption. This implies the appli-cation of the integrated life cycle management concept,which presents a unique opportunity to reconcile devel-opment with environmental protection.21.5 Accordingly, the framework for requisite action shouldbe founded on a hierarchy ofobjectives and focused on thefour major waste-related prograrnme areas, as follows:(a) Minimizing wastes;(b) Maximizing environmentally sound waste reuseand recycling;(c) Promoting environmentally sound waste disposaland treatment;(d) Extending waste service coverage.21.6 The four programme areas are interrelated andmutually supportive and must therefore be integrated inorder to provide a comprehensive and environmentallyresponsive framework for managing municipal solidwastes. The mix and emphasis given to each of the fourprogramme areas will vary according to the local socio-economic and physical conditions, rates of waste gener-ation and waste composition. All sectors of society shouldpanicipate in all the programme areas.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) MtNtMtZtNG WASTES

BASIS FOR ACTION

21.7 Unsustainable patterns of production and consump-tion are increasing the quantities and variety of environ-

/ L i 0

mentally persistent wastes at unprecedented rates. Thetrend could significantly increase the quantities of wastesproduced by the end of the century and increase quantitiesfour to fivefold by the year 2025. A preventive wastemanagement approach focused on changes in lifestylesand in production and consumption pattems offers thebest chance for reversing current trends.

OBJECTIVES

21.8 The objectives in this area are:(a) To stabilize or reduce the production of wastesdestined for final disposal, over an agreed time-frame,by formulating goals based on waste weight, volume andcomposition and to induce separation to facilitate wasterecycling and reuse;(b) To strengthen procedures for assessing waste quan-tity and composition changes for the purpose of formu-lating operational waste minimization policies utilizingeconomic or other instruments to induce beneficial modi-fications of production and consumption patterns.21.9 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of thcUnited Nations and other relevant orsanizations. asappropriate, should:(a) By the year 2000, ensure sufficient national.regional and international capacity to access, process andmonitor waste trend information and implement wasteminimization policies ;(b) By the year 2000, have in place in all industrializedcountries programmes to stabilize or reduce, if practic-able, production of wastes destined for final disposal,including per capita wastes (where this concept applies ),at the level prevailing at that date; developing countriesas well should work towards that goal without jeopard-

izing their development prospects ;(c) Apply by the year 2000. in all countries, in pzu'ticularin industriaJizeA countries. progralrlmes to reduce the pro-duction of agrochemical wastes, containers and packagingmaterials, which do not meet hazardous characteristics.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIV IT IES

21.10 Governments shou ld in i t ia te p rogrammes toachieve sustained minimization of waste generation.Non-governmental organizations and consumer groupsshould be encouraged to participate in such programmes.which could be drawn up with the cooperation of inter-national organizations, where necessary. These pro-grammes should, wherever possible, build upon existingor planned activities and should:

(a) Develop and strengthen national capacities in re-search and design of environmentally sound technol-ogies, as well as adopt measures to reduce wastes to aminimum:(b) Provide fbr incentives to reduce unsustainable pat-terns clf production and consumption;(c) l)evelop, where necessary. national plans to min-imize waste generation as part of overall national devel-opment plans;(d) Emphasize waste minimization considerations inprocurement within the United Nations system.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAI/ON

21. t I Monitoring is a key prerequisite for keeping trackof changes in waste quantity and quality and their resui-tant irnpact on health and the environment. Govemments,with the support of international agencies, should:(a) Develop and apply methodologies forcountry-levelwaste monitoring;(b) Unclertake data gathering and analysis, establishnational goals and monitor progress;(c) Util izc clata to assess environmental soundness ofnational waste policies as a basis fbr corrective action;(d) Input inf'ormation into global information systems.

C] /NIERNAI/ONAI. AND REG/ONAtCOO PERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON

21.12 The United Nations and intergovernmental organ-izations. r,vith the collaboration of Governments, shouldhelp promote waste rlinimization by facilitating greaterexchange of inforrnation. know-how and experience. Thefbllowing is a non-exhaustive l ist of specific activit iesthat could be undertaken:(a) Identifying, developing and harmonizing method-ologies for rvaste monitoring and transferring such meth-odologiu 's t r l countr ies:(b) Iclentifying and further developing the activities ofexisting int-ormation networks on clean technologies andwaste rninimizat ion:(c) Llndertaking periodic assessment, collating andanalvsing country data and reporting systematically, in anappropriate Un ited Nations fomm, to the countries concemed;(d) Reviewing the effectiveness of all waste minimiza-tion instrunrents and identifying potential new instru-mcnts that could be used and techniques by which theycor.rld be rnac'le operational at the country level. Guide-lines and codes of practice should be developed;(e) Undertaking research on the social and economicimpacts of waste minimization at the consumer level.

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MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

21.13 The Conference secretariat suggests that indus-trialized countries should consider investing in wasteminimization the equivalent of about I per cent of theexpenditures on solid wastes and sewage disposal. Atcurrent levels, this would amount tcl about $6.5 billionannually, including about $1.8 bil l ion related to minimiz-ing municipal solid wastes. Actual amounts would bedetermined by relevant municipal, provincial and na-tional budget authorities based on local circumstances.

B/ SC/FNIIFIC AND IECHNOI.OGICAL MEANS

21.14 Waste minimization technologies and procedureswill need to be identified and widely disseminated. Thiswork should be coordinated by national Governments,with the cooperation and collaboration of non-govern-mental organizations, research institutions and appropri-ate organizations ol'the United Nations, and could in-clude the folloi,ving:(a) Undertaking a continuous review of the effective-ness of all waste minimization instruments and identi-fying potential new instruments that could be used andtechniques by which instruments could be made oper-ational at the country level. Guidelines and codes ofpractice shoLrld be developed;(b) Promoting waste preventicln and minimization asthe principal objective of national waste managementprogrammes;(c) Promoting public education and a range of regula-tory and non-regulatory incentives to encourage industryto change product design and reduce industrial processwastes through cleaner produciion technologies and goodhousekeeping practices and to encourage industries andconsumers to use types of packaging that can be safelyreused:(d) Executing, in accordance with national capacities,demonstration and pilot programmes to optimize wasteminimi zation instruments ;(e) Establishing procedures for adequate transport.storage, conseryation and management of agriculturalproducts, foodstuffs and other perishable goods in orderto reduce the loss of those products, which results in theproduction of solid waste;(0 Facilitating the transfer of waste-reduction technol-ogies to industry, particularly in developing countries,and establishing concrete national standards fbr effluentsand solid waste, taking into account, inter a.lia, rawmaterial use and energy consumption.

C) HUIAAN RFSOURCE DEVELOPMENT

21.15 Human resource development for waste minimi-zation not only should be targeted at professionals in thewaste management sector but also should seek to obtainthe support of citizens and industry. Human resourcedevelopment programmes must therefore aim to raiseconsciousness and educate and inform concerned groupsand the public in general. Countries should incorporatewithin school curricula, where appropriate, the principlesand practices of preventing and minimizing wastes andmaterial on the environmental impacts of waste.

B) i AXrMtZtNc ENVTRONTUENTAIrY SOUNDWASTE REUSE AND RECYCTING

BASIS FOR ACTION

21.16 The exhaustion of traditional disposal sites, stricterenvironmental controls governing waste disposal andincreasing quantities of more persistent wastes, particu-larly in industrializecl countries. have all contributed to arapid increase in the ct-rst of waste disposal services. Costscould double or triple by the end of the decade. Somecurrent disposal practices pose a threat to the environ-ment. As the econr-rmics of waste disposal serviceschange, waste recycling and resource recovery arebecoming increasingly cost-effective. Future wastemanagernent prograntmes should take maximum ad-vantage of resource-efficient approaches to the controlof wastes. These activit ies should be carried out inconjunction with public education programmes. It isimportant t.hat markets for products from reclaimedmaterials be identif ied in the development of reuse andrecycling programmes.

OBJECTIVES

21.17 The ob.jectives in this area are:(a) To strengthen and increase national waste reuse andrecycl ing systems:(b) To create a model internal waste reuse and recyclingprogramme for waste streams, including paper, withinthe United Nations system;(c) To make available informaticln, techniques andappropriate policy instruments to encourage and makeoperational waste reuse and recycling schemes.2l .1 8 Govemments, accclrding to their capacities and avail-able resources and with the cooperation of the United Nationsand other relevant organizations, as appropriate, should:(a) By the year 2000, promote sufficient financial andtechnological capacities at the regional, national andlocallevels, as appropriate, to implement waste reuse andrecycling policies and actions;

208

(b) By the year 2000, in all industrialized countries, andby the year 2010, in all developing countries, have anational programme, including, to the extent possible,targets for efficient wastc reuse and recycling.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACTIVITIES

21.19 Governments and inst i tut ions and non-govern-

mental organizations, inch.rding consumer. women's andyouth groups, in collaboration with appropriate organ-

izations of the United Nations system, should launch

programmes to demonstrate and make operational en-

hanced waste reuse and recycl ing. These programmes

should, whereverpossible, bui ld upon exist ing orplanned

act iv i t ies and should :(a) Develop and strengthen national capacity to reuse

and recycle an increasing proport ion of wastes;(b) Review and rclorm national rvaste pol icies to pro-

vide incentives for waste reuse and recycl ing;(c) Develop and implement national plans fbr waste

management that take advantage of, and give priority to,

waste reLrse and recycl ing;(d) Modify exist ing standards or purchase specif ica-

t ions to avoid discrimination against recycled materials,

tak ing in to account the sav ing in energy and raw

materials:(e) Develop publ ic educat ion and awareness pro-

grammes to promote the use of recycled products.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAIION

21.20 Information and research is required to identifypromising social ly acceptable and cost-effect ive forms

of u'aste reuse and recycl ing relevant to each country. For

example. support ing acti i ' i t ies undeftaken by national

and local govemments in col laboration with the UnitedNations and other international organizations could in-

c l ude .(a) Undertaking an extensive review of options and

techniques fbr reuse and recycl ing al l lbrms of municipalsol id u, 'astes. Pol icies fbr leuse and recycl ing should bemadc an integral component of national and local waste

millliigenlent programme s :(b ) ,Assessing the extent and practice o1'waste reuse andrecvcl ing operations cl lrentlv undertaken and identi-

f f ing \\ avs by which these could be increased and sup-pofiecl:(c) Incrcasing funding for research pi lot programmes

to test various options tor reuse and recycl ing. including

the use of ' small-scale, cottage-based rccycl ing indus-

trie s ; c ompost production I treated waste -water irri gat ion ;and energy recovery from wastes;(d) Producing guidelines and bcst practices for wastereuse and recycling;(e) Intensifying efforts, at. collecting, analysing anddisseminating, to key target groups, relevant informationon waste issues. Special research grants could be nradeavailable on a competit ive basis fbr innovative researchprojects on recycling techniques;(0 Identifying potential markets for rccycled products.

c/ /NIERNAI/ONAL AND RFG/ONA/COO PERAI/ON AND COORD/NAI/ON

21 .21 States. through bilateral and ntultjlateral cooperation,including through the United Nations and other relevanti ntemati onal organ i zati on s, as apprclpri ate, shclul d :(a) Undertake a penodic review of the extent to whichcountries reuse and recycle their wastes;(b) Review the effectiveness of techniques for andapproaches to waste reuse and recycling and ways clfenhancing their application in countrie s:(c) Revierv and update international guidelines for thesafe reuse of wastes:(d) Establish appropriate prograntrnes to support smallcommunities' waste reLlsc and recy'cling industrics indeveloping countries.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FINANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

21.22 The Contercncc sccrctariat has estimated that i f

the equivalent of I per cent o1'waste-related municipalexpenditures was clevoted to sale rvaste reuse schemes,worldwide e-xpenditr-rres lor this purpose would amountto $8 bi l l ion. The secretariat est intates the total annualcost (1993-2000) o f i rnp ler rent ing the act iv i t ies o1 ' th isprogramme area in developing countr ies to be about $850mil l ion on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-

t ive and order-of-rnagnitude estimates only and have not

been reviewed by Govc-rnmcnts. Actual costs and f inan-

cial terms. including any that are non-concessional. wi l l

depend upon, ir t tcr ol ir t . the specif ic programmes pro-posed by international inst i tut ions and approved by theirgovern ing bodies.

B/ sC/ENI /F/C AND IFCHNOTOGTCAL MEANS

21.23 The transfer of t .echncl logy should support wasterecycl ing and rcuse hy the fol lowing means:

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(a) Including the transfer of recycling technologies,such as machinery for reusing plastics, rubber and paper,within bilateral and multilateral technical cooperationand aid programmes;(b) Developing and improving existing technologies,especially indigenous technologies, and facilitating theirtransfer under ongoing regional and interregional tech-nical assistance programmes;(c) Facilitating the transferof waste reuse and recyclingtechnology.21.24 Incentives for waste reuse and recycling arenumerous. Countries could consider the following op-tions to encourage industry, institutions, commercial es-tablishments and individuals to recycle wastes instead ofdisposing of them:(a) Offering incentives to local and municipal authoritiesthat recycle the maximum proportion of their wastes;(b) Providing technical assistance to informal wastereuse and recycling operations:(c) Applying economic and regulatory instruments, in-cluding tax incentives, to support the principle that gen-erators of wastes pay fbr their disposal;(d) Providing legal and economic conditions condu-cive to investments in waste reuse and recycling;(e) Implementing specific mechanisms such as de-posit/refund systems as incentives for reuse and recycling;(f) Promoting the separate collection of recyclableparts of household wastes;(g) Providing incentives to improve the marketabilityof technically recyclable waste;(h) Encouraging the use of recyclable materials, par-ticularly in packaging, where feasible;(i) Encouraging the development of markets for re-cycled goods by establishing programmes.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

21.25 Training wil l be required to reorient currentwaste management practices to include waste reuseand recycling. Governments, in collaboration withUnited Nations international and regional organizations,should undertake the following indicative list of actions:(a) Including waste reuse and recycling in in-servicetraining programmes as integral components of technicalcooperation programmes on urban management andinfrastruc ture devel opment;(b) Expanding training programmes on water supplyancl sanitation to incorporate techniques and policies forwaste reuse and recycling;(c) Including the advantages and civic obligations as-sociated with waste reuse and recycling in school cur-ricula and relevant general educational courses;

(d) Encouraging non-governmental organizations,c ommunity-based or ganization s and women' s, you th andpublic interest group programmes, in collaboration withlocal municipal authorities, to mobilize community sup-port for waste reuse and recycling through focused com-munity-level campaigns.

D) CAPACITY.BUILDING

21.26 Capacity-building to support increased wastereuse and recycling should focus on the following areas:(a) Making operational national policies and incentivesfor waste management;(b) Enabling local and municipal authorities to mobi-lize community support for waste reuse and recycling byinvolving and assisting informal sector waste reuse andrecycling operations and undertaking waste managernentplanning that incorporates resource recovery practices.

c) PROMOTTNG ENVIRONMENTATTY SOUNDWASTE DISPOSAI AND TREATMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

21.21 Even when wastes are minimized, some wasteswill still remain. Even after treatment, all discharges ofwastes have some residual impact on the receiving envi-ronment. Consequently, there is scope for improvingwaste treatment and disposal practices such as, forexample, avoiding the discharge of sludges at sea. Indeveloping countries, the problem is of a more fundamen-tal nature: less than l0 per cent of urban wastes receivesome form of treatment and only a small proportion oftreatment is in compliance with any acceptable qualitystandard. Faecal matter treatment and disposal should beaccorded due priority given the potential threat of faecesto human health.

OBJECTIVES

21.28 The objective in this area is to treat and safelydispose of a progressively increasing proportion of thegenerated wastes.21.29 Governments, according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the cooperation of theUnited Nations and other relevant orsanizations. asappropriate, should:(a) By the year 2000, establish waste treatment anddisposal quality criteria, objectives and standards basedon the nature and assimilative capacity of the receivingenvironment;(b) By the year 2000, establish sufficient capacity to

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undertake waste-related pollution impact monitoring and

conduct regular surveillance, including epidemiologicalsurveil lance. where appropriate :(c) By the year 1995, in industrialized countries, and

by the year 2005, in developing countries, ensure that at

least 50 per cent of all sewage, waste waters and solidwastes are treated or disposed of in conformity with

national or international environmental and healthquality guidelines;(d) By the year 2025, dispose of all sewage, wastewaters and solid wastes in conformity with national orinternational environmental quality guidelines.

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT-R ELATED ACT tVlT lE S

21.30 Governments, institutions and non-govemmentalorganizations, together with industries, in collaborationwith appropriate organizatrons of the United Nationssystem, should launch programmes to improve the con-trol and management of waste-related pollution. Theseprogrammes should, wherever possible, build upon exist-ing or planned activities and should:(a) Develop and strengthen national capacity to treatand safely dispose of wastes;(b) Review and reform national waste managementpolicies to gain control over waste-related pollution;(c) Encourage countries to seek waste disposal solu-tions within their sovereign territory and as close aspossible to the sources of origin that are compatible withenvironmentally sound and efficient management. In anumber of countries, transboundary movements takeplace to ensure that wastes are managed in an environ-rnentally sound and efficient way. Such movements ob-sen/e the relevant conventions, including those that applyto areas that are not under nationaljurisdiction;(d) Develop human wastes management plans, givingdue attention to the development and application ofappropriate technologies and the availability of resourcesfor implementation.

B) DATA AND INFORMAI/ON

21 .31 Standard setting and monitoring are two key ele-ments essential for gaining control over waste-relatedpollution. The following specific activities are indicativeof the kind of supportive actions that could be taken byinternational bodies such as the United Nations Centrefor Human Settlements (Habitat), the United NationsEnvironment Programme and the World Health Organ-ization:

(a) Assembling and analysing the scientific evidenceand pollution impacts of wastes in the environment inorder to formulate and disseminate recommended scien-tific criteria and guidelines for the environmentally soundmanagement of solid wastes;(b) Recommending national and, where relevant, localenvironmental quality standards based on scientific cri-teria and guidelines;(c) Including within technical cooperat ion pro-grammes and agreements the provision for monitorinpequipment and for the requisite training in its use;(d) Establishing an information clearing-house withextensive networks at the regional, national and locallevels to collect and disseminate information on all as-pects of waste management, including safe disposal.

C/ 'NIERNAI/ONAT AND REG/ONATCOOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON

21.32 States, through bilateral and multilateral cooper-ation, including through the United Nations and otherrelevant international organizations. as appropriate,should:(a) Identify, develop and harmonize methodologies andenvironmental quality and health guidelines for safewaste discharge and disposal;(b) Review and keep abreast of developments and dis-seminate information on the effectiveness of techniquesand approaches to safe waste disposal and ways of sup-porting their application in countries.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Ai FINANCTNG AND COST EVALUATTON

21.33 Safe waste disposal programmes are relevant toboth developed and developing countries. In developedcountries the focus is on improving facilities to meethigher environmental quality criteria, while in develop-ing countries considerable investment is required to buildnew treatment facilities.21.34 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programrne in developing countries tobe about $15 bil l ion, including about $3.4 bil l ion fronrthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude esti-mates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments.Actual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter nlia, thespecific strategies and progrartmes Govemments decideupon for implementation.

, ) I lL t I

8/ SC/FNI/F/C AND IECHNOTOGICAL MEANS

21.3-5 Scientit ic guidelines and research on various as-pects of waste-related pollution control rvil l be crucialfor achieving the obiectives of this programme. Govern-ments, municipalit ies and local authorit ies, with appro-priate international cooperation, should:(a) Prepare guidclines and tcchnical reporls on subjectssuch as the integration of land-use planning in humansettlements with waste disposal, environmental qualitycriteria ancl standards" u'aste trcl.ttl-nent and saf-e disposaloptions. industrial waste treatment and landfll l oper-ations;(b) Undertake rescarch on crit ical subjects such aslow-cost, low-maintenarlcc waste-water treatment sYs-terns: safe sludge clisposal options; industrial waste treat-ment; and low-tcchnology. ecological ly safe waste dis-posal options;(c) Transl'er tcchnclkrgies, in conlormity with the terms aswell as the provisions of chapter 34 (Transf-er of environ-mentally sound technology, cooperation and capacity-building), on indusffial waste treatnreltt processes throughbilateral and muitilateral tcchnical cooperation programmesand in cooperation u'ith bLrsincss and industry. includinglarge and transnatiorlal corprlratiotts. as irppropriate.(d) Focus on the rehabil itatic-rn. operation and mainte-nance of exist ing laci l i t ies and technical assistance oninrproved maintcnance practice's and techniques fol-lowed by the planning and constluction of waste treat-ment facil i t ics;(e') Irstablish prograrnrxe s to traximize thc sollrce seg-regation and saf-e disposal ol 'thc hazardous conrponentsot ' n iunic ipal sol id waste"(f ) Ensure the inve strnent and prclvision of waste col-lcction facil i t ies with ther concomitant provision of watersen,ices anci rl ' i th an equal and parallcl investmerlt andprovision of waste treatme nt facil i t ies.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

21.36 Training would bc required to improve curuentwaste management practices to include safe collectionand waste disposal. The following is an indicative l ist ofactions that should be taken by Governments, in collab-oration with international organizations:(a) Providing both torn-ral and in-service t ra in ing.focused on pollLrtior.l control, waste treatment and dis-p t - rs r l techno log ies , and opera t ing and nra in ta in ingw a s te - re lated i n fiastrLlcture. I ntercountry staff exchangeprogramnles should also be established;(b) Undertaking the reqr-risite training fbr waste-relatedpollr.rt ion monitoring and control en{rlrcement.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

21.37 Institutional reforms and capacity-building will beindispensable if countries are to be able to quantify andmitigate waste-related pollution. Activities to achievethis objective should include:(a) Creating and strengthening independent environ-mental control bodies at the national and local levels.International organizations and donors should supportneeded upgrading of manpower skills and provision ofequipment;(b) Empowering of pollution control agencies with therequisite legal mandate and financial capacities to carryout their duties effectively.

DI EXTENDING WASTE SERVICE COVERAGE

BASIS FOR ACTION

21.38 By the end of the century, over 2.0 bi l l ion peoplewi l l be wi thout access to basic sani tat ion, and anest imated hal l 'o l ' the urban populat ion in developingcountr ies wi l l be wi thout adequate sol id waste disposalservices. As many as 5.2 rni l l ion people, including 4mi l l ion chi ldren under f ive years of age, die each yearfrom waste-related diseases. The health impacts areparticularly severe for the urban poor. The health andenvironmental impacts of inadequate waste lnanage-ment, however, go beyond the unserved settlementsthemselves and resul t in water. land and air contami-nat ion and pol lut ion over a wider area. Extending andimproving waste col lect ion and safe disposal servicesare crucial to gaining control over this form of pollu-t ion.

OBJECTIVES

21.39 The overall objective of this programme is toprovi de health-protecting, environmental I y safe wastecol lect ion and disposal services to al l people. Govern-ments, according to their capaci t ies and avai lable re-sources and with the cooperat ion of the Uni ted Nat ionsand o ther re levant o rgan iza t ic lns , as appropr ia te ,should:(a) By the year 2000, have the necessary technical,flnancial and human resource capacity to provide wastecollection serviccs commensurate with needs:(b) By the year 2025. provide all urban populationswith adequiite waste services:(c) By the year 2025, ensure that full urban wasteservice coverage is maintained and sanitation coverageachieved in all rural arcas.

? 1 2

ACTIVITIES

A) MANAGEMENT-RELATED ACTIVITIES

21.4A Governments. according to their capacities andavailable resources and with the coopcration of theUnited Nations and other relevant organizations. asappropriate, should:(a) Establish financing mechanisms lbr waste manage-ment service development in deprive-d areas. includingappropriate modes of revenue generation:(b) Apply the "polluter pays" principle. where appro-priate, by setting waste management charges at rates thatreflect the costs of providing the service and ensure thatthose who generate the wastes pay the full cost of disposalin an environmentally safe way;(c) Encourage institutionalization ofcomnrunities' par-ticipation in planning and implernentation procedures forsolid waste management.

B) DATA AND /NFORMATION

21.41 Governments. in collaboration with the UnitedNations and international organizations. should under-take the following:(a) Developing and applying methodologies for wastemonitoring;(b) Data gathering and analysis to establish goals andmonitor progress;(c) Inputting information into a _elobal information sys-tem building upon existing svstems,(d) Strengthening the activities of existing intbrmationnetworks in order to disseminate focused information onthe application of innovative and low-cost alternativesfor waste disposal to targeted audiences.

ci /NTERNAI/ONA/ AND REG/ONAtCOOP ERAI/ON AND COORD/NAI/ON

71.42 Many United Nations and bilateral programmesexist that seek to provide water supply and sanitationsen'ices to the unserved. The Water and Sanitation Col-laborative Council, a global forum. currently acts tocoordinate development and encourage cooperation.Even so, given the ever-increasing numbers of unservedurban poor populations and the need to address, in addi-tion. the problem of solid waste disposal, additionalmechanisms are essential to ensure accelerated coverageof urban waste disposal services. The international com-munity in general and selected United Nations organ-izations in particular should:

(a) Launch a settlement infrastructure and environmentprogramme following the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development to coordinate the activitiesof all organizations of the United Nations system involvedin this area and include a clearing-house for infonnationdissemination on all waste management issues;(b) Undertake and systematically reporl on progress inproviding waste services to those without such services;(c) Review the effectiveness of techniques lor andapproaches to increasing coverage and identify innova-tive ways of accelerating the process.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

21.43 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of irnplementing theactivities of this programme to be about $7.5 billion,including about $2.6 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alio, the specifrc stratcgies and pro-granrmes Govemments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/ENI/FIC AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANS

21.44 Governments and institutions. together with non-governmental organizations. should, in collaborationwith appropriate organizations of the United Nationssystem, launch programmes in different parts of thedeveloping world to extend waste services to the un-served populations. These programmes should. rvhereverpossible, build upon and reorient existing or plannedactivit ies.21.45 Policy changes at the national and local levelscould enhance the rate of waste service coverage exten-sion. These changes should include the following:(a) Giving full recognition to and using the full rangeof low-cost options for waste management. including,where appropriate, their institutionalization and incor-poration within codes of practice and regulation;(b) Assigning high priority to the extension of wastenanagement services, as necessary and appropriate, toall settlements irrespective of their legal status, givingdue emphasis to meeting the waste disposal needs of theunserved, especially the unserved urban poor:(c) Integrating the provision and maintenance of wastemanagement services with other basic services such aswater-supply and storm-water drainage.

213

21.46 Research activit ies could be enhanced. Countries.in cooperation with appropriate international organ-i zati ons and non- governmen tal or gani za t i on s, sh o u I d, f orinstance:(a) Find solutions and equiprnent for managing u'astesin areas of concentrated populations and on sn-rall islands.In particular, there is a need for appropriate refuse storageand coilection systems and cost-effective and hygienichuman waste disposal options;(b) Prepare and disseminate guidclines, case-studies,policy reviews and technical reports on appropriatesolutions and modes of service delivery to unservedlow-income areas;(c) Launch campaigns to encourage active communityparticipation involving women's and youth groups in themanagement of waste, parlicularly househt-lld waste;(d) Promote intercountry transfer of relevant techno-logies, especially technologies for high-density settle-ments.

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

21.47 Intemational organizations and national and locaiGovernrnents, in collaboration with non-governnrentalorganizations, should provide focused training on low-costwaste collection and disposal opticlns, particularly' tech-niques for their planning and deliverry. Intercountr-.1 staffexchange programmes among developing countrics couldfbrm part of such training. Particuiar attention shoulci begiven to upgrading the status and skills of managcmcnt-lcvelpersonnel in waste management agencies.

21.48 Improvements in management techniques arelikely to yield the greatest returns in terms of improvingrvaste management service efficiency. The United Na-tions, international organizations and financial institu-tions should, in collaboration with national and localGovernments, develop and render operational manage-ment information systems for municipal record keepingand accounting and for efficiency and effectivenessassessment.

D) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

21.49 Governments, institutions and non-governmentalorganizatrons, with the collaboration of appropriateorganizations of the United Nations system, shoulddevelop capacities to implement programrnes to providewaste collection and disposal services to the unservedpopulations. Some activit ies under the programmesshould include the following:(a) Establishing a special unit within current institu-tional arrangements to plan and deliver services to theunserved poor communities, with their involvement andparticipation;(b) Making revisions to existing codes and regulationsto perrnit the use of the full range of low-cost alternativetechnologies tor waste disposal;(c) Bui ld ing inst i tut ional capaci ty and developingprocedures for undertaking service planning andde l ivery .

21A

) ) Sofe ond environmentolly sound monogement^L z- of rodiooctive wostes

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

PROA'IOTING THE SAFE AND ENVIRONA/IENTALLYSOUND MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTES

BASIS FOR ACTION

22.1 Radioactive wastes are generated in the nuclear fuelcycle as well as in nuclear applications (the use ofradionuclides in medicine, research and industry). Theradiological and safety risk from radioactive wastesvaries from very low in short-lived, low-level wastes upto very large for high-level wastes. Annually about200,000 m3 of low-level and intermediate-level wasteand 10,000 m3 of high-level waste (as well as spentnuclear fuel destined for final disposal) is generatedworld wide from nuclear power production. These vol-umes are increasing as more nuclear power units are takeninto operation, nuclear facilities are decommissioned andthe use of radionuclides increases. The high-level wastecontains about 99 per cent of the radionuclides and thusrepresents the largest radiological risk. The wastevolumes from nuclear applications are generally muchsmaller. typically some tens of cubic metres or less peryear and country. However, the activity concentration,especially in sealed radiation sources, might be high, thusj u s t i f y i n g v e r y s t r i n g e n t r a d i o l o g i c a l p r o t e c t i o nmeasures. The growth of waste volumes should continueto be kept under close review.21.2 The safe andenvironmental ly soundmanagementof radioact ive wastes, including their minimizat ion,t ransportat ion and disposal . is important, g iven theircharacter ist ics. In most countr ies wi th a substant ia lnuclear power programme, technical and administra-tive measures have been taken to irnplement a wa-stemanagement system. In many other countr ies st i l l onlyin preparation for a national nuclear programme or

having only nuclear applications, such systems are sti l lneeded.

OBJECTIVE

22.3 The objective of this programme area is to ensurethat radioactive wastes are safely managed, transpofted,stored and disposed of, with a view to protecting humanhealth and the environment, within a wider frameworkof an interactive and integrated approach to radioactivewaste management and safety.

ACTIVITIES

A) MAN AGEMENT. RELAT ED ACT IVITI ES

22.4 States, in cooperation with relevant internationalorganizations, where appropriate, should:(a) Promote policies and practical measurcs to min-imize and limit, where appropriate, the generation ofradioactive wastes and provide for their safe processing,conditioning, transpofiation and disposal;(b) Support efforts within IAEA to develop and pro-mulgate radioactive waste safety standards or guidelinesand codes of practice as an internationally accepted basisfor the safe and environmentally sound management anddisposal of radioactir,e wastes:(c) Promote saf'e storage, transportation and disposalof radioactive wastes, as well as spent radiation sourcesand spent fuel from nuclear reactors destined for finaldisposal, in all countries, in particular in developingcountries, by facilitating the transfer of relevant techno-logies to those countries and/or the return to the supplierof radiation sources after their use, in accordance withrelevant international regulations or guidelines;(d) Promote proper planning, including environmentalimpact assessment where appropnate, of safe and envi-

215

ronmentally sound management of radioactive waste,including emergency procedures, storage. transportationand disposal, prior to and after activities that generatesuch waste.

B/ /NIERN,AI/ONAi. AND REGIONALCOOPERAIION AND COORDINAI/ON

22.5 States, in cooperation with relevant intemationalorganizattons, where appropriate, should:(a) Strc'ngthen their efforts to implement the Code ofPractice on the Transboundary 1\{ovements o1'Raditt-active Waste and, under the auspices o1'IAEA. in cooper-ation with relevant intemational organizations dealingwith different modes of transport, keep the question ofsuch movements under active review, including thedesirabil ity of concluding a legally binding instrument;(b) Encourage the London Dumping C'onventiott toexpedite work to complete studies on replacing the cur-rent voluntary moratorium on disposal of low-levelradioactive wastes at sea by a ban, taking into accountthe precautionary approach, with a view to taking a wellinformed and timely decision on the issue:(c) Not promote or allow the storage or disposal ofhigh-level, intermediate-level and low-level radioactivewastes near the marine environment unless they deter-mine that scientific evidence, consistent with the applic-able internationally agreed principles and guidelines,shows that such storage or disposal poses no unacceptablerisk to people and the marine environtnent or does notinterf'ere with other legitimate uses of the sea, making, inthe process of consideration, appropriate use of the con-cept of the precautionary approach;(d) Not export radioactive wastes to countries that,individually or through international agreements, pro-hibit the import of such wastes, such as the contractingparties to the Bamako Convention on the Ban of thelmport into Africa and the Control of TransboundaryN{ovement of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, the fourthLom6 Convention or other relevant conventions. wheresuch prohibition is pror,'ided for;(e) Respect, in accordance with international law. thedecisions, as far as applicable to them, taken by partiesto other relevant regional environmental conventionsdealing with other aspects of safe and environmentallysound management of radioactive wastes.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANCTNG AND COST EVALUATTON

22.6 The costs at the national level of managing anddisposing of radioactive wastes are considerable and willvary, depending on the technology used for disposal.22.1 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) to international organ-izations to implement the activities of this programme tobe about $8 million. Actual costs and financial terms,including any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmesGovernments decide upon for implementation.

8/ sC/ENI/F/C AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

22.8 States, in cooperation with international organ-izations, where appropriate, should:(a) Promote research and development of methods forthe safe and environmentally sound treatment, processingand disposal, including deep geological disposal, of high-level radioactive waste ;(b) Conduct research and assessment programmes con-cerned with evaluating the health and environmentalimpact of radioactive waste disposal.

c) .APAC\TY-BU|LD\NG, /NCtUD/NG HUMANRESOURCE DEVELOPMFNI

22.9 States, in cooperation with relevant internationalorganizations, should provide, as appropriate, assistanceto developing countries to establish and/or strengthenradio ac ti ve waste management infrastructure s, includi nglegislation, organizations, trained manpower and fa-cilities for the handling, processing, storage and disposalof wastes generated from nuclear applications.

216

Section 3

Role ofGroups

Strengtheningthe

Moiot

23 Preomble

23.1 Critical to the effective implementation of the ob-jectives, policies and mechanisms agreed to by Govern-ments in all programme areas of Agenda 2l will be thecommitment and genuine involvement of all socialgroups.23.2 One of the fundamental prerequisites for theachievement of sustainable development is broad publicparticipation in decision-making. Furthermore, in themore specific context of environment and development,the need for new forms of participation has emerged.This includes the need of individuals, groups and organ-izations to participate in environmental impact assess-ment procedures and to know about and participate indecisions, particularly those which potentially affect thecommunities in which they live and work. Individuals,

groups and organizations should have access to informa-tion relevant to environment and development held bynational authorities, including information on productsand activities that have or are likely to have a significantimpact on the environment, and information on environ-mental protection measures.23.3 Any policies, definitions or rules affecting accessto and participation by non-governmental organizationsin the work of United Nations institutions or agenciesassociated with the implementation of Agenda 21 mustapply equally to all major groups.23.4 The prograrnme areas set out below address themeans for moving towards real social partnership insupport of common efforts for sustainable development.

219

24 ond equitoble developmentGlobol oction for women towords sustoinoble

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

BASIS FOR ACTION

24.1 The international contmunity has endorsed several

plans clf act ion and ceinventions for the ful l , equal and

benr:f lcial intcgration of women in al ldeveloprnent act iv-

i ti e s. in partic ular the N airobi Forward-looki n g Strategi e s

for the Advancemc-nt cl f Wonten,l which emphasize

women's part icipation in national and intemational eco-

systenr management and control of environment degra-

dation. Several conl 'entions, including the Convention

on the E,l irnination of Al l Forms of Discrimination against

Wornen (General Assembiy resolut ion 34l180. anncx)

and conventions of tLO and UNESCO have also been

adopted to end gender-based discrimination and ensure

wornen access to land and other resources. eclucation and

saf.e and equal employrnent. Also relevant are the 1990

World Dcclaration on the Sun'ival. Protection and Devel-

opnrent of Chilclren and the Plan ctf Action f or irnplement-

ing the Declarat ion (,4/4*5/6?5, annex). Effect ive im-

plementation of thesc prograrnlnes r,r ' i l l depend on the

active involvernent of rvomen in economic and pol i t ical

decision-making and ivi l l be cri t ical to the successful

implementat ion o f Agenda 21.

OBJECTIVES

l;t I i'he following objectives are proposed ftrr nationalGovernntents:(a ) 1o r rnp lement the Na i rob i For rvard- look ingStrategics for the Advancement of Wotnen, panicularly withregzud to wor-nen's par-ticipation in national ccosystetn miur-agement and control of environment degradation:(b) To increase lhc- proport ion of women decis ionmakers, planners. technical advisers, managers and ex-tensiol workers in enyironment and de velopment fields;

(c) To consider developing and issuing by the year 2000a strategy of changes necessary to eliminate constitu-tional, legal, administrative, cultural, behavioural, socialand economic obstacles to women's full participation insustainable development and in public l i fe;(d) To establish by the year 1995 mechanisms at thenational, regional and international levels to assess theimplementation and irnpact of development and environ-ment policies and programlnes on women and to ensuretheir contributions and beneflts:(e) To assess, review, revise and implement, whereappropriate, curricula and other educational material,with a view to promoting the dissemination to both menand women of gender-relevant knowledge and appreci-ation of women's roles through formal and non-formaleducation, as wcll as through training institutions, incollaboration with non-governmental organizations;(0 To formulate and implcrnent clear govetnmentalpolicies and national guidelines, strategies and plans forthe achievement of equality in all aspects of society,including the promotion of \ ,olnen's l i teracy, education,training. nutrit ion and health and their participation inkey decision-making positions and in management of theenvironnrent" particularly as it pertains to their access toresources. by lacil i tating better access to all lbrms ofcredit. particularly in the inforntal sector, taking measurestowards ensuring wonlen's access to property rights aswell as agriculturai inputs and implements;(gt To irnplemcnt. as a matter of urgency, in accordanceu'ith country-specific conclitions. measures to ensure thatwomen and men have the sarne right to decide freely andresponsibly the number and spacing of their children andhave access to information. education and means, asappropriate. Ltl enable them to exercise this right inkeeping with their freedom. dignity and personally heldvalues:(h) To consider adopting. strengthening and enforcinglegislation prohibit ing violence against women and to

220

take all necessary adminisbative, social and educationalmeasures to eliminate violence against women in all its forms.

ACTIVITIES

24.3 Governments should take active steps to imple-ment the following:(a) Measures to review policies and establish plans toincrease the proportion of women involved as decisionmakers, planners, managers, scientists and technical ad-visers in the design, development and implementation ofpolicies and programmes for sustainable development;(b) Measures to strengthen and empower women'sbureaux, women' s non- governmental organizations andwomen's groups in enhancing capacity-building for sus-tainable development;(c) Measures to eliminate illiteracy among females andto expand the enrolment of women aurd girls in educa-tional institutions, to promote the goal of universal accessto primary and secondary education for girl children andfor women, and to increase educational and trainingopportunities for women and girls in sciences and tech-nology, particularly at the post-secondary level;(d) Programmes to promote the reduction of theheavy workload of women and girl children at homeand outside through the establishment of more andaffordable nurseries and kindergartens by Governments,local authorities, employers and other relevant organ-izations and the sharing of household tasks by men andwomen on an equal basis, and to promote the provisionof environmentally sound technologies which have beendesigned, developed and improved in consultation withwomen, accessible and clean water, an efficient fuelsupply and adequate sanitation f4cilities;(e) Programmes to establish and strengthen preventiveand curative health facilities, which include women-centred, women-managed, safe and effective reproduc-tive health care and affordable, accessible, responsibleplanning of family size and services, as appropriate, inkeeping with freedom, dignity and personally heldvalues. Programmes should focus on providing compre-hensive health care, including p:e-natal care, educationand information on health and responsible parenthood,and should provide the opportunity for all women to fullybreastfeed at least during the first four months post-par-tum. Progriunmes should fully support women's produc-tive and reproductive roles and well-being and shouldpay special attention to the need to provide equal andimproved health care for all children and to reduce therisk of maternal and child mortality and sickness;(f) Programmes to support and strengthen equal em-ployment opportunities and equitable remuneration forwomen in the formal and informal sectors with adequate

economic, political and social support systems and ser-vices, including child care, particularly day-care facilitiesand parental leave, and equal access to credit, land andother natural resources;

G) Programmes to establish rural banking systemswith a view to facilitating and increasing rural women'saccess to credit and to agricultural inputs and imple-ments:(h) Programmes to develop consumer awareness andthe active participation of women, emphasizing theircrucial role in achieving changes necessary to reduce oreliminate unsustainable patterns of consumption and pro-duction, particularly in industrialized countries, in orderto encourage investment in environmentally sound pro-ductive activities and induce environmentally and so-cially friendly industrial development;(i) Prograrnmes to eliminate persistent negative im-ages, stereotypes, attitudes and prejudices against womenthrough changes in socialization patterns, the media,advertising, and formal and non-formal education;

0) Measures to review progress made in these areas,including the preparation of a review and appraisal reportwhich includes recommendations to be submitted to the1995 world conference on women.24.4 Governments are urged to ratify all relevant con-ventions pertaining to women if they have not alreadydone so. Those that have ratified conventions shouldenforce and establish legal, constitutional and adminis-trative procedures to transform agreed rights into domes-tic legislation and should adopt measures to implementthem in order to strengthen the legal capacity of womenfor full and equal participation in issues and decisions onsustainable development.24.5 States parties to the Convention on the Eliminationof All Forms of Discrimination against Women shouldreview and suggest amendments to it by the year 2000,with a view to strengthening those elements of the Con-vention related to environment and development, givingspecial attention to the issue of access and entitlementsto natural resources, technology, creative banking fa-cilities and low-costhousing, and the control of pollutionand toxicity in the home and workplace. States partiesshould also clarify the extent of the Convention's scopewith respect to the issues of environment and develop-ment and request the Committee on the Elimination ofDiscrimination against Women to develop guidelinesregarding the nature of reporting such issues, requiredunder particular articles of the Convention.

A) AREAS REQU/RING URGENT ACTTON

24.6 Countries should take urgent measures to avert theongoing rapid environmental and economic degradation

221

in dcveloping countr ies that general ly atfects the l ives of

\ 'omen and chi ldren in rural areas sLrffering drouglrt ,

dese rt i f icat ion and delorcstat ion. arnrcd hosti l i t ie s. natu-

rai disasters. toxic rvaste and the aftermath of the use of

urisuitablc agrc'-chcnrical products.

1.1.7 In order to reach these goals, women should be ful ly

involvcd in decision-making and in the implen-rentat ion

of susta inable develooment act iv i t ies .

8 l RESFARCH, DATA COLLFCTTON AND

D/S.SEMINAI/ON OF INFORMAI/ON

l-tr. t1 ( 'ountr ies should develop gender-sensit ive data-

bases, inforn-rat ion systems and part icipatory action-

orientcd research and pol icy analyses with the col-

iaboration of acaclemic inst i tLrt ions and local women

rcsearchers on the fol lowing:(at Knowledge and experience on the part of women

of' thc managenrcnt trnd consen,ation clf natural resources

lor incorporation in thc databases and intbrmation sys-

tems for sr istainablc- developrnent;(b) The' irnpact of structural adjustment prograffunes onworncn. ln rt:su'rrrclt donc c-ut structural adjustment pro-

gramnres. special aitention should be given to the difl-eren-

tial inipact o1'those prograrnmcs on women, especially in

lr-rnrs ot'cut-hacks in sociai scrvices. education and health

and in the remrlvai of subsidies cln tbcld and fuel:(c) The impact ()n women of environmental degrada-

t ion. part icularlv dror.rght. deserri f icat ion. toxic chemi-

e a ls i l r td anrec l host i l i t ies :(r j ) , \nalvsis of the structural l inkages between gender

r -c i i i l ions. c r rv inrnr t tcnt and dcvc lopment ;(c . t T 'he in tegrat ion o f the va lue of unpaid rvork . inc lud-

rng u'ork that is currently designated "domestic", in

resource accounting mechanisms in order better to rep-

rcscnt thi: truc value of the contr ibution of rvomen to the

cconon)v. using re viseci guidel ines f or the United Nations

Svstern t r f Nat iona l Accounts . to be issued in 1993:(t) I\{eiisures to develop and inclLrde environmental, social

and genclcr irnpact analyses as an essential step in the

developrnc-n1 ancl monitoring of prograrnmes and policies;(g) Prograrnrnes 1<.l create rural and urban training,

research and rcsource centres in developing and de-

veloped countr ie\ that wrl l serve to disseminate environ-

rner t ta l l t ' sound technolog ies to \ \ 'omen.

c j /NTFRNAT/ONAI AND REG/ONAL

COOPERAI/ON AND COORD/NAI /ON

l-{. t) I 'hc Sccretary-Generalof the United Nations should

rcr icu the adequacy of al l United Nations inst i tut ions,

including those with a special focus on the role of women,in meeting development and environment objectives, andmake recommendations fbr strengthening their capac-ities. Institutions that require special attention in this areainclude the Division for the Advancement of Women(Centre for Social f)evelopment and Humanitarian Af-fairs, United Nations Office at Vienna), the United Na-tions Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), theInternational Research and Training Institute for the Ad-vancement of Women (INSTRAW) and the women'sprogrammes of regional commissions. The review shouldconsider how the environment and development pro-grammes of each body of the United Nations systemcould be strengthened to implernerlt Agenda 2l and howto incorporate the role of women in programmes anddecisions related to sustainable developmenf.74J0 Each body of the United Nations system shouldreview the number of women in senior policy-level anddecision-making posts and, where appropriate, adoptprogranlmes to increase that nurnber, in accordance withEconomic and Social Council resolution 1991l17 on theimprovement of the status of women in the Secretariat.24.11 UNIFEM should establish regular consultationswith donors in collaboration with UNICEF. with a viewto promoting operational programmes and projects onsustainable development that will strengthen the partici-pation of women, especially low-income wornen, in sus-tainable development and in decision-rnaking. UNDPshould establish a \,\,'omen's focal point on developmentand environment in each of its resident representativeoffices to provide information and promote exchange ofexperience and information in these fields. Bodies of theUnited Nations system, governments and non-govem-mental organizations involved in the follow-up to the Con-ference and the implementation of Agenda 2l should ensurethat gender considerations are fully integrated intcl all thepolicies, programmcs and activities.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVAI.UATION

21.12 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of intplementing theactivities of this chapter to be about $.10 million from theintemational community on grant or concessional terms.These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimatesonlv and have not been reviewed by Governments. Ac-tual costs and financial terms, including any that arenon-concessional, wil l depend upon, inter ulia, the spe-cific strategies and programmes Governrnents decideupon for implernentation.

222

I Reporf of the World Conference to Review ond Approise fhe

Achievements of the United Nofions Decode for Women: Equality,Development ond Peoce, Noirobi, 15-26 July 1985 (United

Not ions pub l i co t i on , So les No . E .85 . lV . . l 0 ) , chop te r l , sec t .A .

l t J

I N T R O D U C T I O N

25"1 Youth comprise nearly 30 per cent of the world'spopulation. The involvement of today's youth in environ-ment and development decision-making and in the im-plementation of prograrnmes is critical to the long-termsuccess of Agenda 21.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

Al ADVANCTNG TF|E ROLE OF YOTTTH ANDACTIVETY INVOTVING IHE'YT IN THE PROIECTIONOF THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE PRO}TONON OFECONO}Trc AND SOCIAI DEVETOPfrIENT

BASIS FOR ACNON

25.2 lt is imperative that youth from all parts of the worldparticipate actively in all relevant levels of decision-makingprocesses because it affects their lives today and has impli-cations for their futures. In addition to their intellectualcontribution and their ability to mobilize support, they bringunique perspectives that need to be taken into account.25.3 Numerous actions and recommendations within theinternational community have been proposed to ensurethat youth are provided a secure and healthy future,including an environment of quality, improved standardsof living and access to education and employment. Theseissues need to be addressed in development planning.

OBJECTVES

25.4 Each country should, in consultation with its youth

communities, establish a process to promote dialoguebetween the youth community and Government at alllevels and to establish mechanisms that permit youthaccess to information and provide them with the oppor-tunity to present their perspectives on government deci-sions, including the implementation of Agenda 21.25.5 Each country, by the year 2000, should ensure thatmore than 50 per cent of its youth, gender balanced, areenrolled in or have access to appropriate secondary edu-cation or equivalent educational or vocational trainingprogrammes by increasing participation and access rateson an annual basis.25.6 Each country should undertake initiatives aimed atreducing current levels of youth unemployment, particu-larly where they are disproportionately high in compari-son to the overall unemployment rate.25.7 Eachcountry and the United Nations should supportthe promotion and creation of mechanisms to involveyouth representation in all United Nations processes inorder to influence those processes.25.8 Each country should combat human rights abusesagainst young people, particulariy young women andgirls, and should consider providing all youth with legalprotection, skills, opportunities and the support necessaryfor them to fulfil their personal, economic and socialaspirations and potentials.

ACTIVITIES

25.9 Governments, according to their strategies, shouldtake measures to:(a) Establish procedures allowing for consultation andpossible participation of youth of both genders, by 1993, indecision-making processes with regard to the environment,involving youth at the local, national and regional levels;(b) Promote dialogue with youth organizations regard-ing the drafting and evaluation of environment plans andprogrammes or questions on development;

224

(c) Consider for incorporation into relevant policies the

rccommendations of intemational, regional and local youth

conferences and other forums that offer youth penpectives on

social and economic development and resource mirnagement;(d) Ensure access for allyouth to all types of education,

wherever appropriate, providing alternative learning

structures, ensure that education reflects the economic

and social needs of youth and incorporates the concepts

of environmental awareness and sustainable develop-

ment throughout the curricula; and expand vocational

training, implementing innovative methods aimed at in-

creasing practical skills, such as environmental scouting;(e) In cooperation with relevant ministries and organ-

izations, including representatives of youth, develop and

implement strategies for creating alternative employ-

ment opportunities and provide required training to

young men and women;(0 Establish task forces that include youth and youth

non-goverrlmental organizations to develop educational

and awareness programlnes specifically targeted to the

youth population on critical issues pertaining to youth.

These task forces should use formal and non-formal educa-

tional methods to reach a maximum audience. National and

local media, non-govemmental organizations, businesses

and other organizations should assist in these task forces;(g) Give support to programmes, projects, networks,

national organizations and youth non-governmental

organizations to examine the integration of programmes

in relation to their project requirements, encouraging the

involvement of youth in project identification, design,

implementation and follow-up;(h) Include youth representatives in their delegations

to international meetings, in accordance with the relevant

General Assembly resolutions adopted in 1968, l9ll ,1985 and 1989.25.10 The United Nations and international organiza-

tions with youth programmes should take measures to:(a) Review their youth programmes and consider how

coordination between them can be enhanced;(b) Improve the dissemination of relevant information to

govemments, youth organizations and other non-govern-

mental organizations on ctrrent youth positions and activities,

and monitor and evaluate the application of Agenda 21;(c) Promote the United Nations Trust Fund for the

International Youth Year and collaborate with youth rep-

resentatives in the administration of it, focusing particu-

larly on the needs of youth from developing countries.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION

25.11 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-

age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the

activities of this programme to be about $1.5 million on

grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and

order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been

reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial

terms, including any that are non-concessional, will de-

pend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-

grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

B) CHIIDREN lN SUSTAINABTE DEVETOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

25.12 Children not only will inherit the responsibility of

looking after the Earth, but in many developing countries

they comprise nearly half the population. Furthermore,

children in both developing and industrialized countries

are highly vulnerable to the effects of environmental

degradation. They are also highly aware supporters of

environmental thinking. The specific interests of children

need to be taken fully into account in the participatory

process on environment and development in order to

safeguard the future sustainability of any actions taken

to improve the environment.

OBJECTIVES

25.13 National governments, according to their policies,

should take measures to:(a) Ensure the survival, protection and development of

children, in accordance with the goals endorsed by the

1990 World Summit for Children (A1451625, annex);(b) Ensure that the interests of children are taken fully

into account in the participatory process for sustainable

development and environmental improvement.

ACTIVITIES

25.14 Governments should take active steps to:(a) Implement programmes for children designed to

reach the child-related goals of the 1990s in the areas of

environment and developn-rent, especially health, nutri-

tion, education, literacy and poverty alleviation;(b) Ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child(General Assembly resolution 44125 of 20 November

1989, annex), at the earliest moment and implement it by

addressing the basic needs of youth and children;(c) Promote primary environmental care activities that

address the basic needs of communities, improve the

environment for children at the household and com-

munity level and encourage the participation and em-

powerment of local populations, including wolnen.youth, children and indigenous people, towards the ob-

225

jective of integrated community management of re- non-governmental organizations to develop programmessources, especially in developing countries; for children and programmes to mobilize children in the(d) Expand educational opportunities for children and activities outlined above.youth, including education for environmental and devel-opmental responsibility, with overriding attention to theeducation of the girl child;(e) Mobilize communities through schools and localhealth centres so that children and their parents u..or*

A/ F'NANC'NG AND cosT EVALUATI?N

effective focal points for sensitization of communities to: , : 25.16 Financing requirements for most of the activitiesenvlronmenttu lssues;

(0 Establish procedures to incorporate children's con- are included in estimates for other programlnes'

cerns into all relevant policies and strategies for environ-ment and development at the local, regional and nationallevels, including those concerning allocation of and en- B) HUMA,N RESOURCE DEVELaPMENT

titlement to natural resources, housing and recreation AND CAPACITY-BUILDING

needs, and control of pollution and toxicity in both ruraland urban areas. 25.17 The activities should facilitate capacity-building

Z5.lS International and regional orgamzatrons should andtrainingactivitiesalreadycontainedinotherchapters

cooperate and coordinate in the proposed areas. UNICEF of Agenda 21'

should maintain cooperation and collaboration with otherorganizations of the United Nations, Governments and

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

226

) A Recog nizing ond strengthening the role ofZ-V indigenous people ond their communities

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

BASIS FOR ACTION

26.1 Indigenous people and their communities have anhistorical relationship with their lands and are gener-

ally descendants of the original inhabitants of suchlands. In the context of this chapter the term "lands"

is understood to include the environment of the areaswhich the people concerned traditionally occupy. In-digenous people and their communities represent asignificant percentage of the global population. Theyhave developed over many generations a holistic tradi-tional scientif ic knowledge of their lands, natural re-sources and environment. Indigenous people and theirconrmunities shall enjoy the full measure of humanrights and fundamental freedoms without hindrance ordiscrinrination. Their abil ity to participate fully insustainable development practices on their lands hastended to be l imited as a result of factors of an eco-nomic. social and historical nature. In view of theinterrelationship between the natural environment andits sustainable development and the cultural, social,economic and phys ica l we l l -be ing o f ind igenouspeople. national and international efforts to implementenvironmentally sound and sustainable developmentshould recognize, accommodate, promote and strengthenthc- role of indigenous people and their communities.16.l Some of the goals inherent in the objectives andactivities of this programme area are already containedin such international iegal instruments as the ILO In-digenous and Tribal Peoples Convention (No. 169) andare being incorporated into the draft universal declarationon indigenous rights, being prepared by the United Na-tions working group on indigenous populations. Thelntemational Year for the World's Indigenous People(1993), proclaimed by the General Assembly in its res-

olution 451164 of 18 Decemberopportunity to mobilize furtherand fi nancial cooperation.

1990, presents a timelyinternational technical

OBJECTIVES

26.3 ln full partnership with indigenous people and theircommunities, Governments and, where appropriate, in-tergovernmental organizations should aim at fulfillinsthe following objectives:(a) Establishment of a process to empower indigenouspeople and their communities through measures thatinclude:(i) Adoption or strengthening of appropriate policiesand/or legal instruments at the national level;(ii) Recognition that the lands of indigenous people andtheir communities should be protected from activities thatare environmentally unsound or that the indigenouspeople concerned consider to be socially and culturallyinappropriate;(iii) Recognition of their values, traditional knowledgeand resource management practices with a view to pro-moting environmentally sound and sustainable develop-menU(iv) Recognition that traditional and direct dependenceon renewable resources and ecosystems, including sus-tainable harvesting, continues to be essential to the cul-tural, economic and physical well-being of indigenouspeople and their communities;(v) Development and strengthening of national dis-pute-resolution arrangements in relation to settlement ofland and resource-management concerns;(vi) Support for alternative environmentally soundmeans of production to ensure a range of choices on howto improve their quality of life so that they can effectivelyparticipate in sustainable development;(vii) Enhancement of capacity-building for indigenouscommunities, based on the adaptation and exchange of

227

traditional experience, knowledge and resource-manage-ment practices, to ensure their sustainable development;(b) Establishment, where appropriate, of arrangementsto strengthen the active participation of indigenouspeople and their communities in the national formulationof policies, laws and prograrrrmes relating to resourcemanagement and other development processes that mayaffect them, and their initiation of proposals for suchpolicies and programmes;(c) Involvement of indigenous people and their com-munities at the national and local levels in resourcemanagement and conservation strategies and other relev-ant prografiunes established to support and review sus-tainable development strategies, such as those suggestedin other programme areas of Agenda 21 .

ACTIVITIES

26.4 Some indigenous people and their communitiesmay require, in accordance with national legislation,greatercontrol over their lands, self-management of theirresources, participation in development decisions affect-ing them, including, where appropriate, participation inthe establishrnent or management of protected areas. Thefollowing are some of the specific measures which Gov-ernments could take:(a) Consider the ratiflcation and application of existinginternational conventions relevant to indigenous peopleand their communities (where not yet done) and providesupport for the adoption by the General Assembly of adeclaration on indigenous rights;(b) Adopt or strengthen appropriate policies and/orlegal instruments that will protect indigenous intellectualand cultural property and the right to preserve customaryand administrative systems and practices.26.-5 United Nations organizations and other interna-tional development and finance organizations and Gov-ernments should. drawing on the active participation ofindigenous people and their communities, as appropriate,take the following measures, inter alia, to incorporatetheir values, views and knowledge, including the uniquecontribution of indigenous women, in resource manage-ment and other policies and programmes that may affectthem:(a) Appoint a special fbcal point within each interna-tional organization, and organize annual interorganiza-tional coordination meetings in consultation with Gov-ernments and indigenous organizations, as appropriate,and develop a procedure within and between operationalagencies for assisting Governments in ensuring thecoherent and coordinated incorporation of the views ofindigenous people in the design and implementation ofpolicies and programmes. Under this procedure, in-

228

digenous people and their communities should be in-formed and consulted and allowed to participate in na-tional decision-making, in particular regarding regionaland international cooperative efforts. In addition, thesepolicies and prograrnmes should take fully into accountstrategies based on local indigenous initiatives;ft) Provide technical and financial assistance for ca-pacity-building prograrnmes to support the sustainableself-development of indigenous people and their com-munities;(c) Strengthen research and education programmesaimed at:(i) Achieving a better understanding of indigenouspeople's knowledge and management experience relatedto the environment, and applying this to contemporarydevelopment challenges ;(ii) Increasing the efficiency of indigenous people'sresource management systems, for example, by promot-ing the adaptation and dissemination of suitable techno-logical innovations;(d) Contribute to the endeavours of indigenous peopleand theircommunities in resource management and con-servation strategies (such as those that may be developedunder appropriate projects funded through the GlobalEnvironment Facility and the Tropical Forestry ActionPlan) and other programme areas of Agenda 21, includingprogrammes to collect, analyse and use data and otherinformation in support of sustainable developmentprojects.26.6 Governments, in full partnership with indigenouspeople and their communities should, where appropriate:(a) Develop or strengthen national arrangements toconsult with indigenous people and their communitieswith a view to reflecting their needs and incorporatingtheir values and traditional and other knowledge andpractices in national policies and programmes in the fieldof natural resource management and conservation andother devel opment pro granxne s affectin g them ;(b) Cooperate at the regional level, where appropriate,to address comfiton indigenous issues with a view torecognizing and strengthening their participation in sus-tainable development.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

26.7 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $3 million ongrant or concessional terms. These are indicative andorder-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial

terms, including any that are non-concessional, will de- C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

pend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation. 26.9 International development agencies and Govern-

ments should commit financial and other resources toeducation and training for indigenous people and their

B) LEGAL AND ADM/N/srRAr/y E TRAMEwoRKs communities to develop their capacities to achieve theirsustainable self-development, and to contribute to and

26.g Governments should incorporate, in collaboration participate in sustainable and equitable development at

with the indigenous people affected, the rights and re- the national level. Particular attention should be given

sponsibilities of indigenous people and their com- to strengthening the role of indigenous women.

munities in the legislation of each country, suitable to thecountry's specific situation. Developing countries mayrequire technical assistance to implement these activities.

229

27 Strengthening the role of non-governmentolorgonizotions: Portners for sustoinoble development

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

BASIS FOR ACTION

l- i . I Nnn,sovernnren ia l organizat ions p lav a v i ta l ro le in! l tr : . , l r ;rpi r r g urir i rrr rpl crr icntat i on ol ' part icipatory democ-r:ac v

-['hei r credi bi I i tv I ies i n the respon si ble and constnlc-

Ine ro lc lhe l p la ] in sr lc ie tv . Formal and in lbrmalorg:rni; . .atrons. i ls well as grass-roots nlovements, shouldbe recognized as par tners in the implerncntat ic ln o fAgenda 21. The nature of the independent role played by

non-governmental organizations within a society cal lsfbr real participation: therelore, independence is a major

attr ibute of non-govenrmental organizations and is theprcconcl i t ion of real part icipation.

27.2 One of the major chal lenges facing the world cont-ntunitv as i t seeks to replace unsustainable developmentpatte rns with environmental ly sound and sustainable de-velopnlent is the need to activate a sense of commonpLrrpose on behalf of all sectors of society. The chancesri l ' l i l rging such a sense of prirylose wil l clepend on thervi l l ingness of al l sectors to part icipate in genuine socialpartnership and dialogue. while recognizing the inde-pendent roles. responsibi l i t ies and special capacit ies ofeach.

17..1 Non-goveil)mental organizations. including thoserron. prof i t organizations representing groups addressedin thc prcsent sect ion o f Agenda 21, possess wel l -es tab-i ishe-cl and divcrse experience, expert ise and capacity inf ielcls u'hich wil l be of part icular importance to theimplcinc'ntat ion and review of environrnental ly soundand social ly responsible sustainable development. as el l-r i saged th roughou t Agenda 21 . The commun i t y o fn( rn-g( ) \ 'e l 'nnrenta l organizat ions, therefc l re , o f fers ag lobal network that should be tapped, enabled andst rengthcncd in suppor t o f e f for fs to ach ieve thesec()nrmon goals .

230

27.4 To ensure that the full potential contribution ofnon-governmental organizations is realized, the fullestpossible communication and cooperation between inter-national organizations, national and local governmentsand non-governmental organizations should be promotedin institutions mandated, and programmes designed tocarry out Agelrda 21. Non-governmental organiza-tions wil l also need to foster cooperation and com-munication among themselves to reinforce their effec-tiveness as actors in the implementation of sustainabledevelopment.

OBJECTIVES

27.5 Society. Governments and international bodiesshould develop mechanisms to allow non-governmentalorganizations to play their partnership role responsiblyand effectively in the process of environmentally soundand sustainable development.27.6 With a view to strengthening the role of non-governmental organizations as social partners, theUnited Nations system and Govemments should initiatea process, in consultation with non-goverrrmental organ-izations, to review formal procedures and mechanismsfor the involvement of these organizations at all levelsfrom policy-making and decision-making to implemen-tat ion.27.7 By 1995, a mutually productive dialogue should beestablished at the national level between all Governmentsand non-governmental organizat ions and their sel f -organized networks to recognize and strengthen theirrespective roles in implementing environmentally soundand sustainable development.27.8 Governments and international bodies shouldpromoteand allow the participation of non-governmental organiza-tions in the conception, establishment and evaluation ofofficial mechanisms and formal procedures designed toreview the implementation of Agenda 2I atall levels.

ACTIVITIES

21.9 The L ln i tec l Nat ions systern, inc lud ing in terna-

t iona l f inance and development agenc ies, and a l l in -

tergovernnrental r:rganizations and lbrurns should, in

consul ta t ion wi th non-sovernmenta l organizat ions,

take measures to:(a) Review and report on ways of enhancing exist ing

procedures and mechanisms by rvhich non-governmental

organizat ions cont r ibute to po l icy des ign. dec is ion-

rnaking, irnplernentatiott ancl evaluation at the individual

agency level" in inter-agency disc:ussions and in United

Nations conlerences:(b) On the basis of subparagraph (a) above, enhance

exist ing or, where they do not exist, establ ish, nrechan-

isms and procedures within each agency to draw on the

expertise and views of non-governmental organizations

in pol icy and programme design, irnplernentation and

evaluation:(c) Review levels of f inancial and administrat ive sup-

port fbr non-,gover"nmental organizaticlns and the extent

and efl 'ect iveness of their involvement in project and

programnre impiementation. with a view to augmenting

their role as social partners:(d) Design open and effect ive means of achier, ' ing the

part icipation of non-governnrental clrganizations in the

processes establ ished to rer, ' iew and evaluate the im-

p lementat ion o f Agenda 21 at a l l leve ls :(e) Promote and al low' non-govemmental organiza-

t ions and their self-organized networks to contr ibute to

the review and evalual ion of pol icies and programtnes

des igned to implement Agenda 21, inc lud ing suppor t for

deve lopin g country non -governntcntal organ izations and

their sel l-organized networks.(f) Tlrke into account the f indings of non-govemmental

rel ' iew s) 'stems and evalr"rat ion processes in relevant

reports of the Secretary-General to the Gencral Assem-

bly' . and of al l pert inent United Nations organizations and

othcr intergovernmental rtrganizations and forums con-

cerning implenrentation of Agenda 21, in accordance

u ' i th the rev iew,process lbr Agcndi i 2 l :(g) Prov ide acrcess for non-governmenta l organiza-

t ions to accurate and t imely data and in format ic ln to

promote the ef1 'ec t iveness of thc i r prograntmes and

luct iv i t ies and the i r nr les in sr - rppon of susta inable

de r e l opmen t .

l7 l0 Governments shor-r ld take measures to:(a ) Establ ish or enhance an exist ing dialogue with non-

sovenlmcntal organizations and their se l f-organized net-

u orks representing various sectors. which could serve to:( i ) consider the r ights and responsibi l i t ies of ' these organ-

izations: ( i i I eff iciently channel integraled non-govern-

nrental inputs to the governmental pol icy developmentprocess: and ( i i i ) faci l i t i t te non-governmental coordina-

t ion in implernenting national pol icies at the programnrc

level:(b) Encourage and enable partnership and dialogue

between local non-governmental clrganizations and local

authorit ies in act ivi t ies ainred at sustainable develop-

ment;(c) Invo lve non-governmenta l c l rgan izut ions i r t r ta-

t iona l mechanisms or procedures estab l ished to car ry

out Agenda 21, making the best use o l - the i r par t icu lar

capac i t ies . espec ia l ly in the f ie lds o f educat ion. pov-

er ty a l lev ia t ion and cnv i ronnrenta l pro tect ion and re-

habi l i ta t ion:(d) Take into account the l indings r: f non-govcrnntental

monitoring and revieu, mechanisrns in the design and

evalt iat ion of pol icies concenll l ' rg the ir lplementi i t ic l i i of '

Agenda 21 at a l l leve ls .(e) Review government education systems to identi l ' r '

ways t o i nc l ude and expand the i nvo l ven ten t o1 'non -

governmental organizations in the f ielci of lbrrnal and

informal education and of publ ic awareness:(f) Make avai lable and accessible to non-govrrnrne ntal

organizations the cLata and infbrnration ncccssarr ' l i rr their '

effect ive contr ibution tr) rescitrch i tnt l to lht i lesi; :n.

implementation and evi i luatiort ci l - prosr ' ; l r i lntes"

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A' F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

27.11 Depending on thc outcome of rcv ieu ' processes

and the evolut ion of r, ' iews as to hclw bcst to bui lcl

partnership i ind dialogue hctu'een ol l lc ial organizaticins

and groups of non-govcrn mcntal orga n i z at i on s. rel at i ve: -

l"v* l imited but unprcdictahlc. costs r.r, i l l bc involved;tt thr--

international and national levels in enhancing con:iult-

at ive procedures and mechanisnrs. Non-govgrnrnenti i l

organizations'uvi l I i i lso rccluirc acldit ional l .unding in . ;rrp-

pclrt of their establ ishrnent of. i rnprol 'enrerl t o1' ot corr

tr ibutions to Age nda 2l rnonitoring sy'stcnrs. The'se costs

wi l lbe s ign i f ic :ant bu lcannot be re l ia l - r lv cs t inra tc t lon thc

bas is o f ex is t ing in lornrat ic rn"

B ) CAPACTTY-BUtLD tNG

21.12 The organizat ions o l ' thc l - - in i ted Nat ions systen l

and other intcrgovcrnnrcntal organizations and forurrr is.

bi lateral programmes ancl the private sectr lr . as appropri-

ate, wi l l need to provide' increased f inancial ancl at lnrin-

istrat ive sLlpport f or non-govcrnmcntal organizlt ions i ind

their sel l-organized nctw'orks. in part icular thosc l-rased

in develop ing count r ies . that c i in t r ibu le to thc nron i tor i r tg

and evaluation ol ' Agencla 2 | progranrnres. antl pror icle

231

training for non-governmental organizations (and assistthem to develop their own training prograrnmes) at theinternational and regional levels to enhance their partner-ship role in programme design and implementation.27.13 Govemments will need to promulgate orsftengthen,subject to country-specific conditions, any legislativemeasures necessary to enable the establishment by non-gov-ernmental organizations of consultative groups, and to en-sure the right of non-govemmental organizations to protectthe public interest through legal action.

232

A n '.ocql outhorities' initiotiveslU l, support of Agendo 21

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

BASIS FOR ACTION

28.1 Because so many of the problems and solutionsbeing addressed try Agenda 2l have their roots in localactivit ies, the participation and cooperation of localauthorities will be a determining l"actor in fulfilling itsobjectives. Local authorities construct, operate and main-tain economic, social and envirclnmental infrastructure,oversee planning processes, establish local environmen-tal policies and regulations, ancl assist in implementingnational and subnational environmental policies. As thelevel of governance closest to the people. they play a vitalrole in educating, mobil izing and responding to the publicto promote sustainable developtnent.

OBJECTIVES

28.2 The following objective s are proposcd f or this pro-gramme area:(a) By 1996, most lclcal authonties in each countryshould have undertaken a consultative process with thcirpopulat ions and achieved a consel lsus on "a localAgenda 2I" for the community ' ;(b) By 1993, the international community should haveinit iated a consultative process aimed at increasing co-operation between local authorit iesl(c) By 1994, representatives of associattions of cit iesand other local authorit ies should have increased levelsof cooperation and coordination with the goal of enhanc-ing the cxchange of information and experience amonglocal authorit icsr(d) All local authorities in each country should be encour-aged to implement and monitor prograrnmes which aim atensuring that women and youth are represented in decision-making. planning and implementation processes.

ACTIVITIES

28.3 Each local authority should enter into a clialoguewith its cit izens, local organizations and private enter-prises and adopt "A local Agenda 21""

-l 'hrough consul-

tation and consensus-building, local authorit ies wouldlearn from citizens and from lclcal, civic. conrmunity,business and industrial organizations and acquire theinformation needed for formulating the best strategies.The process of consultation would increase householdawareness of sustainable development issues. l-ocal au-thority programmes. policies. laws ancl regulations toachieve Agenda 2l objectives wor-rld be assessed andm o d i f i e d . b a s e d o n l o c a l p r o g r a m m e s a d o p t c d .Strategies could also be used in supporting proposals forlocal, national. regional and international funding.28.4 Partnerships should be fosterecl among relevantorgans and organizations such as UNDP, the UnitedNations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) andUNE,P. the World Bank" regional banks, the IntcrnationalUnion of l,ocal Authorit ies. thc World Association of theMajor Metropolises. Summit of Great Cities of the World,the United Towns Organizat ion and other relevantpartners. wi th a v iew to mobi l iz ing increased interna-t ional support for local author i ty progran" lmes. Animportant goal would be to support . extend and im-prove exist ing inst i tut ions working in the f ie ld of localauthor i ty capaci ty-bui ld ing and local environmentmanagement. For th is purposc:(a) Habitat and other relevant organs and organizationsof the Un i ted Nat ions s ) ' \ tL 'm are ca l led L lpon tos t r e n g t h e n s e r v i c e s i n c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o nstrategies of local authorit ies. in prarlicular for those thatneed international support:(b) Periodic consultations involving both internationalpanners and developing countries could rcview strategiesand consider how such international support ccluld bestbe mobil izcd. Such a sectoral consultation wclulcl cont-plement concurrent country-fircused consultatiotts. such

l J 3

as those taking place in consultative groups and roundtables.28.5 Representatives of associations of local authoritiesare encouraged to establish processes to increase theexchange of information, experience and mutual techni-cal assistance among local authorities.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Al F/NANC'NG AND COST EVALUATTON

28.6 It is recommended that all parties reassess fundingneeds in this area. The Conference secretariat has esti-mated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) for

strengthening international secretariat services for imple-menting the activities in this chapter to be about $1 mil-lion on grant or concessional terms. These are indicativeand order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Governments.

B) HUMAN RFSOURCE DEVELOPMENIAND CAPACITY-BUILDING

28.7 This programme should facilitate the capacity-building and training activities already contained in otherchapters of Agenda 21.

234

29 Strengthening the role of workersond their trode unions

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

BASIS FOR ACTION

29.1 Efforts to implement sustainable development willinvolve adjustments and opportunities at the national andenterprise levels, with workers foremost among thoseconcerned. As their representatives, trade unions are vitalactors in facilitating the achievement of sustainable de-velopment in view of their experience in addressingindustrial change, the extremely high priority they giveto protection of the working environment and the relatednatural environment, and their promotion of sociallyresponsible and economic development. The existingnetwork of collaboration among trade unions and theirextensive membership provide important channelsthrough which the concepts and practices of sustain-able development can be supported. The establishedprinciples of tripartism provide a basis for strengthenedcollaboration between workers and their representatives,Governments and employers in the implementation ofsustainable development.

OBJECTIVES

29.2 The overall objective is poverty alleviation andfull and sustainable ernployment, which contribute tosafe. clean and healthy environments - the workingenvironment, the community and the physical environ-ment. Workers should be full participants in the im-plementation and evaluation of activit ies related toA g e n d a 2 1 .29.3 To that end the following objectives are proposedfor accomplishment by the year 2000:(a) To promote ratiflcation of relevant conventions ofILO and the enactment of legislation in support of thoseconventions:

(b) To establish bipartite and tripanite mechanisms onsafety, health and sustainable development;(c) To increase the number of environmental collectiveagreements aimed at achieving sustainable development;(d) To reduce occupational accidents, injuries and dis-eases according to recognized statistical reporting proce-dures;(e) To increase the provision of workers' education,training and retraining, particularly in the area of occu-pational health and safety and environment.

ACTIVITIES

A) PROMOIING FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION

29.4 For workers and their trade unions to play a full andinformed role in support of sustainable development, Gov-emments and employers should promote the rights of indi-vidual workers to freedom of association and the protectionof the right to organize as laid down in ILO conventions.Governments should consider ratifying and implementingthose conventions, if they have not alreadv done so.

8/ SIRENGIHEN'NG PARTTCTPAIIONAND CONSUIIAI/ON

29.5 Governments, business and industry should pro-mote the active participation of workers and their tradeunions in decisions on the design, implementation andevaluation of national and international policies andprogrammes on environment and development. includ-ing employment policies, industrial strategies, labouradj ustment programme s and technology tran st-ers.29.6 Trade unions, employers and Governments shouldcooperate to ensure that the concept of sustainable devel-opment is equitably implemented.

235

29.7 Iornt (employer/worker) or t r ipart i te (em-

ployer/worker/Govemment) collaborative mechanisms

at the workplace, coffImunity and national levels should

be established to deal with safety, health and environ-

ment, including special reference to the rights and status

of women in the workplace.29.8 Governments and employers should ensure that

workers and their representatives are provided with all

relevant information to enable effective participation in

these decision-making processes.29.9 Trade unions should continue to define, develop andpromote policies on all aspects of sustainable develop-ment.29.10 Trade unions and employers should establish theframework for a joint environmental policy, and setpriorities to improve the working environment and the

overall environmental performance of enterprise.29.11 Trade unions should:(a) Seek to ensure that workers are able to participate

in environmental audits at the workplace and in environ-mental impact assessments ;(b) Participate in environment and development activ-ities within the local community andpromote joint actionon potential problems of common concern;(c) Play an active role in the sustainable developmentactivities of international and regional organizations,particularly within the United Nations system.

C) PROVIDE ADEQUAIE IRA/N/NG

29.12 Workers and their representatives should have ac-cess to adequate training to augment environmentalawareness, ensure their safety and health. and improve

their economic and social welfare. Such training shouldensure that the necessary skills are available to promote

sustainable livelihoods and improve the working envi-ronment. Trade unions, employers, Governments andinternational agencies should cooperate in assessingtraining needs within their respective spheres of activity.Workers and their representatives should be involved in

the design and implementation of worker trainingprogrammes conducted by employers and Governments.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A) F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

29.13 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $300 millionfrom the intemational community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-tude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, includ-ing any that are non-concessional, will depen dupon, interalia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

B) CAPACITY-BUILDING

29.14 Particular attention should be given to strengthen-ing the capacity of each of the tripartite social partners(Governments and employers' and workers' organiza-tions) to facilitate greater collaboration towards sustain-able development.

236

3 0 Shengthening the role of business ond industry

I N T R O D U C T I O N

30.1 Business and industry, including transnational cor-porations, play a crucial role in the social and economicdevelopment of a country. A stable policy regime enablesand encourages business and industry to operate respon-sibly and efficiently and to implement longer-termpolicies. Increasing prosperity, a major goal of the devel-opment process, is contributed primarily by the activitiesof business and industry. Business enterprises, large andsmall, formal and informal, provide majortrading, employ-ment and livelihood opportunities. Business opportunitiesavailable to women are contributing towards their profes-sional development, sffengthenrng their economic role andtransforming social systems. Business and industry, includ-ing transnational corporations, and their representative or-ganizations should be full participants in the implementa-tion and evaluation of activities related to Agenda 21.30.2 Through more efficient production processes,preventive stategies, cleaner production technologies andprocedures throughout the product life cycle, hence mini-mizing or avoiding wastes, the policies and operations ofbu sine ss and industry, including transnational corporations,can play a major role in reducing impacts on resource useand the environment. Technological innovations, develop-ment. applications, ffansfer and the more comprehensiveaspects of partnership and cooperation are to a very largeextent within the province of business and industry.30.3 Buslness and industry, including transnational cor-porations, should recognize environmental managementas among the highest corporate priorities and as a keydeterminant to sustainable development. Some enlight-ened leaders of enterprises are already implementing"responsible care" and product stewardship policies andprogrammes, fostering openness and dialogue with em-ployees and the public and carrying out environmental

audits and assessments of compliance. These leaders inbusiness and industry, including transnational corpora-tions, are increasingly taking voluntary initiatives, pro-moting and implementing self-regulations and greaterresponsibilities in ensuring their activities have minimalimpacts on human health and the environment. Theregulatory regimes introduced in many countries and thegrowing consciousness of consumers and the generalpublic and enlightened leaders of business and industry,including transnational corporations, have all contributedto this. A positive contribution of business and industry,including transnational corporations, to sustainable devel-opment can increasingly be achieved by using economicinstruments such as free market mechanisms in which theprices of goods rurd sen,ices should increasingly reflect theenvironmental costs of their input, production, use, recy-cling and disposal subject to country-specific conditions.30.4 The improvement of production systems throughtechnologies and processes that utilize resources moreefficiently and at the same time produce less yysstss -achieving more with less - is an important pathway to-wards sustainability for business and industry. Similarly,lacilitating and encouraging inventiveness, competitive-ness and voluntary initiatives are necessary for stimulatingmore varied, efficient and effective options. To addressthese major requirements and strengthen further the role ofbusiness and industry, including ftansnational corporations,the following two programmes are proposed.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) PROMOTTNG CLEANER PRODUCTTON

BASIS FOR ACTION

30.5 There is increasing recognition that production,

237

technology and management that use resources ineffi-ciently form residues that are notreused, discharge wastesthat have adverse impacts on human health and theenvironment and manufacture products that when usedhave further impacts and are difficult to recycle, need tobe replaced with technologies, good engineering andmanagement practices and know-how that would mi-nimize waste throughout the product life cycle. Theconcept of cleaner production implies striving for optimalefficiencies at every stage of the product life cycle. Aresult would be the improvement of the overall compet-itiveness of the enterprise. The need for a transitiontowards cleaner production policies was recognized atthe UNlDO-organized ministerial-level Conference onEcologically Sustainable Industrial Development, heldat Copenhagen in October l99l.l

OBJECTIVES

30.6 Governments, business and industry, includingtransnational corporations, should aim to increase theefficiency of resource uti l ization, including increasingthe reuse and recycling of residues, and to reduce thequantity of waste discharge per unit of economic out-put.

ACTIVITIES

30.7 Governments. business and industry, includingtransnational corporations, should strengthen partner-ships to implement the principles and criteria for sustain-able development.30.8 Governments should identify and implement anappropriate mix of economic instruments and normativemeasures such as laws, legislations and standards, inconsultation with business and industry, including trans-national corporations, that will promote the use of cleanerproduction, with special consideration for small and me-dium-sized enterprises. Voluntary private init iativesshould also be encouraged.30.9 Governments, business and industry, includingtransnational corporations, academia and internationalorganizations, should work towards the development andimplementation of concepts and methodologies for theinternalization of environmental costs into accountingand pricing mechanisms.30. l0 Business and industry, including transnational cor-porations, should be encouraged:(a) To report annually on their environmental records,as well as on their use of energy and natural resources;(b) To adopt and report on the implementation of codesof conduct promoting the best environmental practice,such as the Business Charter on Sustainable Develop-

ment of the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)and the chemical industry's responsible care initiative.30.11 Governments should promote technological andknow-how cooperation between enterprises, encompass-ing identification, assessment, research and develop-ment, management marketing and application of cleanerproduction.30.12 Industry should incorporate cleaner productionpolicies in its operations and investments, taking also intoaccount its influence on suppliers and consumers.30.l3 Industry and business associations should cooper-ate with workers and trade unions to continuously im-prove the knowledge and skills for implementing sustain-able development operations.30.14 Industry and business associations should encour-age individual companies to undertake programmes forimproved environmental awareness and responsibility atall levels to make these enterprises dedicated to the taskof improving environmental performance based on inter-nationally accepted management practices.30. 1 5 International organizations should increase educa-tion, training and awareness activities relating to cleanerproduction, in collaboration with industry, academia andrelevant national and local authorities.30.l6 International and non-governmental organiza-t ions, including trade and scient i f ic associat ions,should strengthen cleaner production information dis-semination by expanding existing databases, such asthe UNEP International Cleaner Production ClearingHouse (ICPIC), the UNIDO Industrial and Technologi-cal Information Bank (INTIB) and the ICC Interna-tional Environment Bureau (IEB), and should forgenetworking of national and international informationsystems.

Bl PROTVTOnNG RESPONSTBLE ENTR.EPRENEURSHTP

BASIS FOR ACTION

30.17 Entrepreneurship is one of the most importantdriving forces for innovations, increasing market effi-ciencies and responding to challenges and opportunities.Small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, in particulaqplay a very important role in the social and economicdevelopment of a country. Often, they are the majormeans tor rural development, increasing off-farm em-ployment and providing the transitional means for im-proving the livelihoods of women. Responsible entre-preneurship can play a major role in improving theefficiency of resource use, reducing risks and hazards,minimizing wastes and safeguarding environmentalqualities.

238

OBJECTIVES

30.18 The following objectives are proposed:(a) To encourage the concept of stewardship in themanagement and utilization of natural resources by en-trepreneurs;(b) To increase the number of entrepreneurs engagedin enterprises that subscribe to and intplement sustainabledevelopment policies.

ACTIVITIES

30.19 Governments should encourage the establishmentand operations of sustainably managed enterprises. Themix would include regulatory measures. economic incen-tives and streamlining of administrative procedures toensure maximum efficiency in dealing with applicationsfor approval in order to facilitate investrnent decisions.advice and assistance with infbrmation. infiastructuralsupport and stewardship responsibilities.30.20 Governments should encourage, in cooperationwith the private sector, the establishment of venturecapital funds for sustainable development projects andprogrammes.30.21 In collaboration r,vith busincss. indr.rstry, academiaand international organizations. Governments shouldsupport training in the environmental aspects of enter-prise management Attention should also be dilectedtowards apprenticeship schernes fbr youth.30.22 Business and industry, including transnational cor-porations, should be encouraged to establish world-widecorporate policies on sustainable development, arrangefor environmentally sound technologics to be availableto affiliates owned substantially by their parent companyin developing countries without extra external charges,encourage overseas afilliates to modify procedures inorder to reflect local ecological conditions and shareexperiences with local authorit ies, national Govemmentsand intemational or ganizations.30.23 Large business and industry, including transna-tional corporati ons, shoul d cons ider establ i shin g partner-ship schemes with small and medium-sized enterprisesto help facilitate the exchange of experience in manage-rial skil ls. market developntent arrd technological know-how, where appropriate, with the assistance of interna-tional organizations.30.2.1 Business and industry should establish nationalcouncils for sustainable development and help promoteentrepreneurship in the formal and inlitrnral sectors. Theinclusion of wornen entrepreneurs should be facil i tated.30.25 Business and industry, including transnational cor-porations. should increase research and development ofenvironmentally sound technologies and environmentalmanagement systems, in collaboration with academia

and the scientific/engineering establishments, drawingupon indigenous knowledge, where appropriate.30.26 Business and industry, including transnational cor-porations, should ensure responsible and ethical manage-ment of products and processes from the point of viewof health, safety and environmental aspects. Towards thisend, business and industry should increase self-regula-tion, guided by appropriate codes, charters and initiativesintegrated into all elements of business planning anddecision-making, and fostering openness and dialoguewith employees and the public.30.27 Multilateral and bilateral financial aid institutionsshould continue to encourage and support small- andmedium-scale entrepreneurs engaged in sustainabledevelopment activities.30.28 United Nations organizations and agencies shouldimprove mechanisms for business and industry inputs,policy and strategy formulation processes, to ensure thatenvironmental aspects are strengthened in foreign invest-ment.30.29 International organizations should increase sup-port for research and development on improving thetechnological and managerial requirements for sustain-able development, in particular for small and medium-sized enterprises in developing countries.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION

30.30 The activities included under this programme areaare mostly changes in the orientation of existing activitiesand additional costs are not expected to be significant.The cost of activities by Governments and internationalorganizations are already included in other programmeareas.

I' See A/CONF. l51 /PC/125.

239

3 t Scientific qnd technologicol community

I N T R O D U C T I O N

3l.l The present chapter focuses on horv to enable thescientific and technological community, which includes,among others, enginc ers, architec ts, i ndu stri al de si gners,urban planners and other professionals and policy rna-kers, to make a more clpen and effective contribution tothe decision-making processes concerning environmentand development. It is important that the role of scienceand technology in human affairs be more widely knownand better understood, both by decision makers who helpdetermine public policy and by the general public. Thecooperative relationship existing between the scientificand technological community and the general publicshould be extended and deepened into a full partnership.Improved communication and cooperation between thescientific and technological community and decisionmakers will facilitate greater use of scientific and tech-nical information and knowledge in policies and pro-gramme implementation. Decision makers should createmore favourable conditions for improving training andindependent research in sustainable development. Exist-ing multidisciplinary approaches will have to be streng-thened and more interdisciplinary studies developed be-tween the scientific and technological community andpolicy makers and with the general public to provideleadership and practical know-how to the concept ofsustainable development. The public should be assistedin communicating their sentiments to the scientific andtechnologicerl community concerning how science andtechnology might be better managed to affect their livesin a beneficial way. By the same token, the independenceof the scient i f ic and technological community to inves-tigate and publish without restriction and to exchangetheir findings freely must be assured. The adoption andirnplementation of ethical principles and codes of prac-

240

tice for the scientif ic and technological community thatare internationally accepted could enhance professional-ism and may improve and hasten recognition of the valueof its contributions to environment and development,recognizing the continuing evolution and uncertainty ofscientif ic knorvledse.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) TMPROVTNG COMMUNTCATION ANDCOOPERATION AMONG THE SCIENTIFICAND TECHNOTOGICAT COMMUNITY,DECISION MAKERS AND THE PUBTIC

BASIS FOR ACTION

31.2 The scientif ic and technological community andpolicy makers should increase their interaction in orderto irnplement strategies for sustainable development onthe basis of the best available knowledge. This impliesthat decision makers should provide the necessary frame-work for rigorous research and for full and open com-munication of the tindings of the scientific and techno-logical community, and develop with it ways in whichresearch results and the concerns stemming from thef indings can be communicated to decis ion-makingbodies so as to better link scientific and technical know-ledge'with strategic policy and programme formulation.At the same time, this dialogue would assist the scientificand technological comrnunity in developing priorities forresearch and proposing actions for constructive solutions.

OBJECTIVES

31.3 The following objectives are proposed:

(a) To extend and open up the decision-making processand broaden the range of developmental and environ-mental issues where cooperation at all levels between thescientif ic and technological community and decisionmakers can take place;(b) To improve the exchange of knowledge and concernsbetween the sc ientifi c and technological cornm uni qr and thegeneral public in order to enable policies and programmesto be better formulated, understood and supported.

ACTIVITIES

31.4 Governments should undertake the lollowins ac-t iv i t ies:(a) Review how national scientif ic and technologicalactivit ies could be more responsive to sustainable devel-opment needs as part t.l1'an overall eftbrt to strengthennational research and development systems, includingthrough strengthening and widening the membership ofnational scientif ic and technological advisory councils,organizations and committees to ensure that:(i) The full range of national needs tor scientif lc andtechnological programmes are commllnicated to Govern-ments and the public;(i i) The various strands of public opinion are repre-sented:(b) Promote regional cooperative mechanisms to ad-dress regional needs fbr sustainable development. Suchregional cooperative mechanisms could be facil i tatedthrough public/private partnerships and provide supportto Governments. industry, non-governmental educa-tional institutions and other domestic and internationalorganizations, and by strengthening global professionalnetworks:(c) Improve and expand scientif lc and technical inputsthrough appropriate mechanisms to intergovemmentalconsul tat ive, cooperat ive and negot iat ing processestorvards international and regional agreements;(d) Strengthen science and technology advice to thehighest levels of the United Nations, and other interna-tional institutions. in order to ensure the inclusion ofscience and technology know-how in sustainable devel-opment policies and strategies;(el Improve and strengthen programmes for dissemi-nating research results of universit ies and research in-stitutions. This requires recognition of and greater sup-poft to the scientists, technologists and teachers who areen_eaged in communicating and interpreting scientif icand technological inforrnation to policy makers, profes-sionals in other tields and the general public. Such sup-port should fbcus on the transf-er of skills and the transferand adaptation of planning techniques. This requires fulland open sharing of data and information among scien-

tists and decision makers. The publication of nationalscientific research reports and technical reports that areunderstandable and relevant to local sustainable devel-opment needs would also improve the interface betweenscience and decision-making, as well as the implemen-tation of scientific results;(0 Improve links between the official and independentresearch sectors and industry so that research maybecome an important element of industrial strategy;(g) Promote and strengthen the role of women as fullpartners in the science and technology disciplines;(h) Develop and implenrent information technologiesto enhance the dissemination of infclrmation f-or sustain-able development.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

31.5 The Conf'erencre secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of irnplementing rheactivities of this programme to be abor,rt $ 15 million fromthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude es-timates only and have not been reviewed by Govern-ments. Actual costs and financial terms, including anythat are non-concessional. wil l depend upon. inter alio,the specific strategies and programmes Governnrentsdecide upon for implementation.

B) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

31.6 Intergovernmental panels on development and en-vironmental issues should be organized. with emphasison their scientif ic and technical aspects. and studies ofresponsiveness and adaptabil ity included in subsequentprogrammes ol 'act ion.

B) PROMOTTNG CODES OF PRACTTCE ANDGUIDEUNES REI.AIED TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOTOGY

BASIS FOR ACTION

31.7 Scient ists and technologists have a special set ofresponsibil i t ies which belong to them both as inheritorsof a tradition and as prof'essionals and members of disci-plines devoted to the search for knowledge and to theneed to protect the biosphere in the context of sustainabledevelopment.31.8 Increased ethical awareness in environmental anddevelopmental decision-making should help to place

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appropriate priorities for the maintenance and enhance-ment of life-support systems for their own sake, and in

so doing ensure that the functioning of viable naturalprocesses is properly valued by present and future so-

cieties. Therefore, a strengthening of the codes of prac-

tice and guidelines for the scientific and technologicalcommunity would increase environmental awarenessand contribute to sustainable development. It would buildup the level of esteem and regard for the scientific andtechnological community and facilitate the "account-

ability" of science and technology.

OBJECTIVES

31.9 The objective should be to develop, improve andpromote international acceptance of codes of practice andguidelines relating to science and technology in which

the integrity of life-support systems is comprehensivelyaccounted for and where the important role of scienceand technology in reconciling the needs of environmentand development is accepted. To be effective in the

decision-making process, such principles, codes of prac-

tice and guidelines must not only be agreed upon by thescientific and technological community, but also berecognized by the society as a whole.

ACTIVITIES

31.10 The following activit ies could be undertaken:(a) Strengthening national and international cooper-ation, including the non-governmental sector, to develop

codes of practice and guidelines regarding environmen-tally sound and sustainable development, taking intoaccount the Rio Declaration and existing codes of prac-

tice and guidelines;(b) Strengthening and establishing national advisory

groups on environmental and developmental ethics, inorder to develop a common value framework betrveenthe scientific and technological community and societyas a whole, and promote continuous dialogue;(c) Extending education and training in developmentaland environmental ethical issues to integrate such objec-tives into education curricula and research priorities;(d) Reviewing and amending relevant national and in-ternational environment and development legal instru-ments to ensure appropriate codes of practice and guide-lines are incorporated into such regulatory machinery.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

AJ FINANC'NG AND COST EVALUATION

3l.l I The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $5 million fromthe international community on grant or concessionalterms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude es-timates only and have not been reviewed by Govern-ments. Actual costs and financial terms, including anythat are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia,the specific strategies and programmes Governmentsdecide upon for implementaticln.

B) CAPACITY.BUILDING

31.12 Codes of practice and guidelines, including onappropriate principles, should be developed for and bythe scientific and technological community in the pursuitof its research activities and implementation of pro-grammes aimed at sustainable development.

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3 2 Skengthening the role of the formers

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

BASIS FOR ACTION

32.1 Agriculture occupies one third of the land surfaceof the Earth, and is the central activity for much of theworld's population. Rural activities take place in closecontact with nature, adding value to it by producingrenewable resources, while at the same time becomingvulnerable to overexploitation and improper manage-ment.32.2 The rural household, indigenous people and theircommunities, andthe family farmer, a substantialnumberof whom are women, have been the stewards of much ofthe Earth's resources. Farmers* must conserve theirphvsical environment as they depend on it fbr theirsustenance. Over the past 20 years there has been ani mpre ssive increase i n aggregate agricultural production.Yet, in some regions, this increase has been outstrippedby population growth or international debt or fallingcommodity prices. Further, the natural resources thatsustain farming activity need proper care, and there is agrowing concern about the sustainability of agriculturalproduction systems.32.3 A farmer-centred approach is the key to the attain-ment of sustainability in both developed and developingcountries and many of the programme areas in Agenda2l address this objective. A significanr number of therural population in developing countries depend primar-ily upon small-scale, subsistence-oriented agriculturebased on family labour. However, they have limitedaccess to resources, technology, alternative livelihood

and means of production. As a result, they are engagedin the overexploitation of natural resources, includingmarginal lands.32.4 The sustainable development of people in marginaland fragile ecosystems is also addressed in Agenda 21.The key to the successful implementation of these pro-grammes lies in the motivation and attitudes of individualfarmers and government policies that would provideincentives to farmers to manage their natural resourcesefficiently and in a sustainable way. Farmers, particularlywomen, face a high degree of economic, legal and in-stitutional uncertainties when investing in their land andother resources. The decentralization of decision-makingtowards local and community organizations is the key inchanging people's behaviour and implementing sustain-able farming strategies. This programme area deals withactivities which can contribute to this end.

OBJECTIVES

32.5 The following objectives are proposed:(a) To encourage a decentralized decision-making pro-cess through the creation and strengthening of local andvillage organizations that would delegate power andresponsibility to primary users of natural resources;(b) To support andenhance the legal capacity of womenand vulnerable groups with regard to access, use andtenure of lartd;(c) To promote and encourage sustainable farmingpractices and technologies;(d) To introduce or strengthen policies that would en-courage self-sufficiency in low-input and low-energytechnologies, incl uding indigenous practices, and pricingmechanisms that internalize environmental costs;(e) To develop a policy framework that provides incen-tives and motivation among farmers for sustainable andefficient farming practices ;(f) To enhance the participation of farmers, men and

* In this chopter, ol l references to "formers" include ol lrurol peoplewho derive their l ivel ihood from octivi t ies such os forming, f ishingond forest horvesting. The term "forming" olso includes f ishing onJforesi horvesting.

243

women, in the design anddirected towards these ends,orsanizations.

implernentation of policiesthrough their representative

ACTIVITIESA) MANAGEMENI-R ELATED ACT IV IT IE S

32.6 National(iovernmentsshould:(a) Ensure the implementation of the programmes on

sustainable l ivelihoods, agriculture and rural develop-

ment. managing fragi le ecosystems. watcr use in agr i -

culture, and integrated management of natural re-

sources;(b) Promote pricing mechanisms, trade policies. f iscal

incentives and other policy instruments that positively

affect individual t-arme r's decisions about an efficient and

sustainable use of natural resources, and take full account

of the impact of these decisions on household fbod

security. farm incomes, employment and the environ-

ment:(c) Involve farmers and their representative organiza-

tions in the tormulation of PolicY;(d) Protect, recognize and forrnalize wotnen's access

to tenure and use of Iand, as well as rights to land, access

to credit, technology, inputs and training:(e) Support the fcrrmation of f-armers' organizations by

providing adequate legal and social conditions.

32.7 Support for farmers' organizations could be ar-

ranged as follows:(a) National and international research centres should

cooperate with farmers' organizations in developing

location-specific environment-friendly farming tech-

niques:(b) National Governments, multi lateral and bilateral

development agencies and non-governmental organiza-

tions should collaborate with tamrers' organizations in

fomrul atin g agric u ltu ral devel opment proj ect s to spec ific

agro-ecological zones.

B) DATA AND /NFORMAT/ON

32.8 Governments and farmers' organizations should:(a) In i t iate mechanisms to document, synthesize and

disserninate local knowledge, pract ices and project

experiences so that they wil l make use of the lessons of

the past when forrnulating and irnplementing policies

affecting tarming, forest and fishing populations;(b) Establish networks for the exchange of experienceswith regard to farming that help to conserve land, water

and forest resources, minimize the use of chemicals and

reduce or reutilize farm wastes;

C/ /NIERNATIONAL AND REG/ONAT COOPERAIION

32.9 FAO. IFAD, WFP, the World Bank, the regional de-velopment banks and other intemational organizations in-

volved in rural development should involve fanners and

their representatives in their deliberations. AS appropriate.32.10 Representative organizations ol' farmers should

establish programmes filr the development and support

of farmers' organizations, particularly in developingcountries.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A) FINANCING AND COST EVALUATION

32.11 The financing needed for this programme area is

estimated in chapter l4 (Promoting sustainable agricul-ture and rural development), particularly in the pro-

gramme area entitled "Ensuring people's participation

and promoting human resource development for sustain-

able agriculture". The costs shown under chapters 3(Combating poverty), l2 (Managing fragile ecosystems:combating desertification and drought), and l3 (Man-

aging fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain develop-

ment) are also relevant to this programme area.

B/ sC/FNil FtC AND TECHNOLOGtCAL MEANS

32.12 Governments and appropriate international organ-

izations, in collaboration with national research organ-izations and non-govemmental organizations should, as

appropriate:(a) Develop environmentally sound farming technol-ogies that enhance crop yields, maintain land quality,

recycle nutrients, conserve water and energy and controlpests and weeds:(b) Conduct studies of high-resource and low-resource

agriculture to compare their productivity and sltstain-

ability. The research should preferably be conducted

under various environmental and sociological settings;(c) Support research on mechanization that would op-

timize human labour and animal power and hand-held and

animal-drawn equipment that can be easily operated andmaintained. The developrnent of fanr-r technologies shouldtake into account farmers' available resources and the role

of animals in fanning households and the ecology.

(c) Develop pilotwould seek to buildwomen farmers.

projects and extension services thaton the needs and knowledge base of

244

C) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENI

32.13 Governments, with the support of multi lateral andbilateral development agencies and scientific organiza-tions. should develop curricula for agricultural collegesand training institutions that would integrate ecoiogy intoagricultural science. Interdisciplinary programmes inagricultural ecology are essential to the training of a newgeneration of agric ultural scienti sts and fie ld-level exten-sion agents.

D) CAPACITY-BUILDING

32.14 Governments should, in the l ight of each country'sspecific situation:

(a) Create the institutional and legal mechanisms toensure effective land tenure to farmers. The absence oflegislation indicating land rights has been an obstacle intaking action against land degradation in many farmingcommunities in developing countries;(b) Strengthen rural institutions that would enhancesustainability through locally managed credit systemsand technical assistance, local production and distribu-tion facilities for inputs, appropriate equiprnent andsmall-scale processing units, and marketing and distribu-tion systems;(c) Establish mechanisms to increase access of farmers.in particular women and farmers from indigenous groups,to agricultural training, credit and use clf improved tech-nology for ensuring food security.

245

Section 4

Meons ofIrplementotion

33

I N T R O D U C T I O N

33.1 The General Assembly, in resolution 441228 of 22December 1989, inter alia, decided that the United NationsConference on Environment and Development should:

"Identify ways and means of providing new and addi-tional financial resources, parlicularly to developingcountries, for environmentally sound development pro-grammes and projects in accordance with national devel-opment objectives, priorities and plans and to considerways of effectively monitoring the provision of such newand additional financial resources, particularly to develo-ping countries, so as to enable the international com-munity to take further appropriate action on the basis ofaccurate and reliable data;"Identify ways and means of providing additional fin-ancial resources for measures directed towards solvingmajor environmental problems of global concern andespecially of supporting those countries, in particulardeveloping countries, for which the implementation ofsuch measures would entail a special orabnomral burden,owing, in particular, to their lack of financial resources,expertise or technical capacity;"Consider various funding mechanisms, including vol-untary ones, and exanrine the possibility of a specialintemational fund and other innovative approaches,with a view to ensuring, on a favourable basis. the mosteffective and expeditious transfer of environmentallysound technologies to developing countries;"Quantify the financial requirements for the successfulimplementation of Conference decisions and recom-mendations and identify possible sources, includinginnovative ones, of additional resources."

33.2 This chapter deals with the financing of the im-plementation of Agenda 21, which reflects a globalcon-sensus integrating environmental considerations into an

Finonciol resources ond mechonisms

accelerated development process. For each of the otherchapters, the secretariat of the Conference has providedindicative estimates of the total costs of implementationfor developing countries and the requirements for grantor other concessional financing needed from the interna-tional community. These reflect the need for a substan-tially increased effort, both by countries themselves andby the international community.

BASIS FOR ACTION

33.3 Economic growth, social development and povertyeradication are the first and overriding priorit ies indeveloping countries and are themselves essential tomeeting national and global sustainabil ity objectives.In the l ight of the global benefits ro be realized by rheimplementation of Agenda 21 as a whole, the provisionto developing countries of effective means, inter alia,financial resources and technology, without which it wil lbe difficult for them to fully implemenr their commit-ments, will serve the common interests of developed ancldeveloping countries and of humankind in general, in-cluding future generations.33.4 The cost of inaction could outweigh the financialcosts of implementing Agenda 2l . Inaction will narrowthe choices of future generations.33.5 For dealing with environmental issues, special effortswill be required. Global and local environmental issues areinterrelated. The United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change and the Convention on BiologicalDiversity address two ol the most important global issues.33.6 Economic conditions, both domestic and interna-tional, that encourage free trade and access to marketswill help make economic growth and environmentalprotection mutually supportive for all countries, particu-larly for developing countries and countries undergoingthe process of transition to a market economy (see chapter2 for a fuller discussion of these issr:es ).

249

33.7 International cooperation for sustainable develop-

ment should also be strengthened in order to support and

complement the efforts of developing countries, particu-

larly the least developed countries.33.8 Allcountries should assess how to translate Agenda

2I into national policies and programmes through a

process that will integrate environment and development

considerations. National and local priorities should be

established by means that include public participation

and community involvement, promoting equal oppor-

tunity for men and women.33.9 For an evolving partnership among all countries of the

world, including, in particular, between developed and

developing countries, sustainable development strategies

and enhanced and predictable levels of funding in support

of longer term objectives are required. For that purpose,

developing countries should arliculate their own priority

actions and needs for support and developed counffies

should commit themselves to addressing these priorities. In

this respect, consultative groups and round tables and other

nationally based mechanisms can play a facilitative role.

33.10 The implementation of the huge sustainable devel-

oprnent programmes of Agenda 2l will require the pro-

vision to developing countries of substantial new and

additionai financial resources. Grant or concessional fi-

nancing should be provided according to sound and

equitable criteria and indicators. The progressive im-

plementation of Agenda 21 should be matched by the

provision of such necessary financial resources. The

initial phase will be accelerated by substantial early

commitments of concessional funding.

OUECTN/ES

33.11 The objectives are as lollows:(a) To establish measures conceming financial resources

and mechanisms f or the implementation of Agenda 21;(b) To provide new and additional financial resources

that are both adequate and predictable;(c) To seek full use and continuing qualitative improve-merlt of f.unding mechanisms to be utilized for the im-

plementation of Agenda 21.

ACTIVITIES

33.11 Fundamentally, the activities of this chapter are

related to the implementation of all the other chapters of

Agenda 2 l .

MEANS OF IMPLEMENIATION

33.13 in general, the financing for the implernentation ofAgenda 2l will corle from a country's own public and

private sectors. For developing countries, particularly theleast developed countries, ODA is a main source of

external funding, and substantial new and additionalfundin g f or sustainable development and implementation

of Agenda 21 will be required. Developed countriesreaffirm their commitments to reach the accepted United

Nations target of 0.7 per cent of GNP for ODA and, to

the extent that they have not yet achieved that target, agree

to augment their aid prografiImes in order to reach that

target as soon as possible and to ensure prompt andeffective implementation of Agenda 21. Some countrieshave agreed to reach the target by the year 2000. It was

decided that the Commission on Sustainable Develop-ment would regularly review and monitor progress to-wards this target. This review process should systemati-cally combine the monitoring of the implementation of

Agenda 21 with a review of the financial resources

available. Those countries that have already reached the

target are to be commended and encouraged to continue

to contribute to the colrlmon effort to make available the

substantial additional resources that have to be mobil-

ized. Other developed countries, in line with their supportfor reform effbrts in developing countries, agree to maketheir best efforts to increase their level of ODA. In this

context, the importance of equitable burden-sharingamong developed countries is recognized. Other coun-

tries, including those undergoing the process of transitionto a market economy, may voluntarily augment the con-

tributions of the developed countries.33.14 Funding for Agenda2l and other outcomes of the

Conference should be provided in a way that maximizes

the availability of new and additional resources and uses

all available funding sources and mechanisms. Theseinclude, among others:

A) THE MULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS AND FUNDS:

(i) The International Development Association (lDA).

Among the various issues and options that IDA deputieswill examine in connection with the forthcorning tenthreplenishment of IDA, the statement made by the Presi-

dent of the World Bank at the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development should be given spe-

cial consideration in order to help the poorest countriesmeet their sustainable development objectives as con-

tained in Agenda 21;(ii) Regional and subregional development banks. The

regionai and subregional development banks and funds

should play an increased and more effective role inproviding resources on concessional or other favourable

terms needed to implement dgenda 21;(iii) The Global Ent,ironment Facililvn, managedjointlyby the World Bank, UNDP and UNEP, whose additional

250

grant and concessional funding is designed to achieveglobal environmental benefits, should cover the agreedincremental costs of relevant activities under Agenda 2l ,in particular for developing countries. Therefore, itshould be restructured so as to, inter alia:> Encourage universal participation;> Have sufficient flexibility to expand its scope and

coverage to relevant programme areas of Agenda 21,with global environmental benefits, as agreed;

> Ensure a governance that is transparent and demo-cratic in nature, including in terms of decision-makingand operations, by guaranteeing a balanced and equit-able representation of the interests of developingcountries and giving due weight to the funding effortsof donor countries;

D Ensure new and additional financial resources ongrant and concessional terms, in particular to develop-ing countries;

> Ensure predictability in the flow of funds by contribu-tions from developed countries, taking into accountthe importance of equitable burden-sharing;

> Ensure access to and disbursement of the funds undermutually agreed criteria without introducing newforms of conditionality ;

(b) The rclevant specialized agencies, other UnitedNations bodies and other international organizations,which have designated roles to play in supporting na-tional Govemments in implementing Agenda2l:(c) Multilateral institutions for capacity-building ondtechnical cooperatiorz. Necessary financial resourcesshould be provided to UNDP to use its network of fieldoffices and its broad mandate and experience in the fieldof technical cooperation for facilitating capacity-build-ing at the country level, making full use of the expertiseof the specialized agencies and other United Nationsbodies within their respective areas of competence, inparticular UNEP and including the multilateral and re-gional development banks;(d) Bilateral assistance programmes. These pro-grammes will need to be strengthened in order to promotesu stainable development;(e) Debt relief. It is important to achieve durable so-lutions to the debt problems of low- and middle-incomedeveloping countries in order to provide them with theneeded means for sustainable development. Measures toaddress the continuing debt problems of low- and middle--income countries should be kept under review. All credi-tors in the Paris Club should promptly implement theagreement of December 1991 to provide debt relief forthe poorest heavily indebted countries pursuing structuraladjustment; debt relief measures should be kept underreview so as to address the continuing difficulties of thosecountries;

(0 Private funding. Voluntary conrributions throughnon-governmental channels, which have been running atabout l0 per cent of ODA, might be increased.33.15 Investmenr. Mobil ization of higher levels offoreign direct investment and technology transfersshould be encouraged through national policies that pro-mote investment and through joint ventures and othermodalities.3-1.16 Innovative financing. New ways of generatingnew public and private financial resources should beexplored, in particular:(a) Various forms of debt relief, apart from official orParis Club debt, including greater use of debt swaps;(b) The use of economic and fiscal incentives andmechanisms;(c) The feasibility of tradeable permits;(d) New schemes for fund-raising and voluntary con-tributions through private channels, including non-gov-ernmental organizations;(e) The reallocation of resources at present committedto military purposes.33.17 A supportive intemational and domestic economicclimate conducive to sustained economic growth anddevelopment is important, particularly for developingcountries, in order to achieve sustainability.33.l8 The secretariat of the Conference has estimated theaverage annual costs (1993-2000) of implementing indeveloping countries the activities in Agenda 2l to beover $600 billion, including abour $125 billion on granror concessional terms lrom the international community.These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimatesonly, and have not been reviewed by Governments.Actual costs will depend upon, inter alia, the specificstrategies and programmes Governments decide upon forimplementation.33.19 Developed countries and others in a position to doso should make initial financial commitments to giveeffect to the decisions of the Conference. They shouldreport on such plans and commitments to the UnitedNations General Assembly at its forty-seventh session,in 1992.33.20 Developing countries should also begin to draw upnational plans for sustainable development to give effectto the decisions of the Conference.33.21 Review andmonitoring of the financing of Agenda2l is essential. Questions related to the effective follow-up of the Conference are discussed in chapter 38 (Inter-national institutional arrangements). It will be importantto review on a regular basis the adequacy of funding andmechanisms, including efforts to reach agreed objectivesof the presentchapter, including targets where applicable.

251

? / Tronsfer of environmentolly sound technology,\, + cooperotion ond copocity-building

I N T R O D U C T I O N

34.1 Environmentally sound technologies protect the en-

vironment, are less polluting, use all resources itr a more

sustainable manner, recycle more of their wastes and

products, and handle residual wastes in amore acceptable

manner than the technologies for which they were sub-

stitutes.34.2 Envtonmentally sound technologies in the context

of pollution are "process and product technologies" that

generate low orno waste, forthe prevention of pollution'

They also cover "end of the pipe" technologies for treat-

ment of pollution after it has been generated.

34.3 Environmentally sound technologies are not just

individual technologies, but total systems which include

know-how, procedures, goods and services, and equip-

ment as well as organizational and managerial proce-

dures. This implies that when discussing transfer of

technologies, the human resource development and local

capacity-building aspects of technology choices, includ-

ing gender-relevant aspects, should also be addressed.

Environmentally sound technologies should be com-

patible with nationally determined socio-economic, cul-

tural and environmental priorities.34.4 There is a need for favourable access to and transfer

of environmentally sound technologies, in particular Lo

developing countries, through supporlive measures that

promote technology cooperation and that should enable

transfer of necessary technological know-how as well as

building up of economic, technical, and managerial ca-

pabilities for the efficient use and further developmentclf transferred technology. Technology cooperation in-

volves joint efforts by enterprises and Governments, both

suppliers of technology and its recipients. Therefore, such

cooperation entails an iterative process involving gov-

ernment, the private sector, and research and develop-

ment facilities to ensure the best possible results from

transfer of technology. Successful long-term partnerships

in technology cooperation necessarily require continuing

systernatic training and capacity-building at all levels

over an extended period of time.34.5 The activities proposed in this chapter aim at im-

proving conditions and processes on information, access

to and transfer of technology (including the state-of-the-

art technology and related know-how), in particular to

developing countries, as well as on capacity-building and

cooperative arrangements and partnerships in the field of

technology, in order to promote sustainable development.New and efficient technologies will be essential to in-

crease the capabilities, in particular of developing coun-

tries, to achieve sustainable development, sustain the

world's economy, protect the environment, and alleviatepoverty and human suffering. Inherent in these activities

is the need to address the improvement of technology

currently used and its replacement, when appropriate,with more accessible and more environmentally sound

technology.

BASIS FOR ACTION

34.6 This chapter of Agenda 2l is without prejudice to

specific commitments and affangements on transfer of

technology to be adopted in specific international instru-

ffrents.34.7 The availability of scientific and technological in-

formation and access to and transl'er of environmentallysound technology are essential requirements for sustain-

able development. Providing adequate information on

the environmental aspects of present technologies con-sists of two interrelated components: upgrading infor-mation on present and state-of-the-art technologies, in-

cluding their environmental risks, and improving access

to environmentally sound technologies.34.8 The primary goal of improved access to technology

252

information is to enable informed choices, leading to accessto and ffansfer of such technologies and the strengtheningof countries' own technological capabilities.-74.9 Alarge body of useful technological knowledge liesin the public domain. There is a need for developingcountries to have access to such technologies as are notcovered by patents or lie in the public domain. Develop-ing countries would also need to have access to theknow-horv and expertise required for the effective utili-zation of the aforesaid technologies.34.10 Consideration must be given to the role of patentprotection and intellectual property rights along with anexamination of their impact on the access to and transferof environmentally sound technology, in particular todeveloping cor-lntries, as well as to further exploringefficiently the concept of assured access for developingcountries to environmentally sound technologv in itsrelation to proprietary rights with a vierv to developingeffective responses to the needs of developing countriesin this area.34.1I Proprietary technology is available through com-mercial channels, and international business is an impor-tant vehicle for technology transfer. Tapping this pool ofknowledge and recombining it with local innovations togenerate alternative technologies should be pursued. Atthe same time that concepts and modalities for assuredaccess tu environmentally sound technologies, includingstate-ot--the-art technologies, in particular by developingcountries, continued to be explored" enhanced access toe n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d t e c h n o i o g i e s s h o u l d b epromoted, farilitated and financed as appropriate, whileproviding fair incentives to innovators that promote re-search and development of new environmentally soundtechnologies.34.1? Recipient countr ies require technoloey andstrengthened support to help further develop their scien-tific, technological, professional ancl related capacities,taking into account existing technologies and capacities.This support would enable countries, in particular de-veloping countries, to make more rational technologychoices. These countries could then better assess envi-ronmentally sound technologie s prior to thei r tran sfcr andproperly apply and manage them, as well as improveupon already existing technologies and adapt thern to suittheir specific development needs and priorities.34.1-l A critical mass of research and development ca-pacitv is crucial to the effective dissernination and use ofenv i ronmental ly sound technologies and their generationlcrcally. Education and training programmes should re-flect the needs of specific goal-oriented research activ-ities and should work to produce specialists literate inenvironmentally sound technology and with an interdis-ciplinary outlook. Achieving this critical mass involves

building the capabilities of craftspersons, technicians andmiddle-level managers, scientists, engineers and educa-tors, as well as developing their coresponding social ormanagerial support systems. Transferring environmen-tally sound technologies also involves innovativelyadapting and incorporating them into the local or nationalculture.

OBJECTIVES

34.14 The following objectives are proposed:(a) To help to ensure the access, in particular ofdeveloping countries. to scientific and technological in-fbrmation, incl uding information on state-of-the-art tech-nologies;(b) To promote, facilitate. and finance, as appropriate,the access to and the transf'er of environmentally soundtechnologies and corresponding know-how, in particularto developing countries, on f'avourable terms, includingon concessional and preferential terms, as mutuallyagreed, taking into account the need to protect intellectualproperty rights as well as the special needs of developingcountries for the implementation of Agenda 2l;(c) To facilitate the maintenance and promotion ofenvironmentally sound indigenous technologies that mayhave been neglecteC or displaced, in particular indeveloping countries, paying particular attention to theirpriority needs and taking into account tlre complementaryroles of men and women;(d) To support endogenous capacity-building, in par-ticular in developing countries, so they can assess, adopt,manage and apply environmentally sound technologies.This could be achieved through inter alia:(i) Human resource developrnent;(ii) Strengthening of institutional capacities for researchand development and programme implementation;(iii) Integrated sector assessments of technology needs,in accordance with countries' plans, objectives andpriorities as foreseen in the implementation of Agenda2l at the nat ional level ;(e) To promote long-term technological partnershipsbetween holders of environmentally sound technologiesand potential users.

ACTIVITIES

A) DEVELOqMENT OF /NTERNAT/ONAI TNFORMAITONNEIWORKS WHICH IINK NAT/ON,A[, SUBREG/ONAI.,REG/ONAI. AND /NIERNAT/ONAT SYSIEMS

34.15 Existing national, subregional, regional and inter-national information systems should be developed andlinked through regional clearing-houses covering broad-

253

based sectors of the economy such as agriculture, indus-

try and energy. Such a network might, inter alia, includenational, subregional and regional patent offices that areequipped to produce reports on state-of-the-art technol-

ogy. The clearing-house networks would disseminate

information on available technologies, their sources,

their environmental risks, and the broad terms underwhich they may be acquired. They would operate on aninformation-demand basis and focus on the informationneeds of the end-users. They would take into account thepositive roles and contributions of international, regional

and subregional organizations, business conununities,trade associations, non-governmental organizations, na-

tional Governments, and newly established or strength-ened national networks.34.16. The international and regional clearing-houseswould take the initiative, where necessary, in helping

users to identify their needs and in disseminating infor-

mation that meets those needs, including the use of

existing news, public infonnation, and communicationsystems. The disseminated information would highlightand detail concrete cases where environmentally soundtechnologies were successfully developed and im-plemented. In order to be effective, the clearing-housesneed to provide not only information, but also referralsto other services, including sources of advice, training,technologies and technology assessment. The clearing-houses would thus facilitate the establishment of joittt

ventures and partnerships of various kinds.34.11 An inventory of existing and international or re-gional clearing-houses or information exchange systems

should be undertaken by the relel'ant United Nationsbodies. The existing structure should be strengthened andimproved when necessary. Additional information sys-tems should be developed. if necessary, in order to fillidentified gaps in this international network.

B) SUPPORT OF AND PROMOilON OF ACCESS TOIRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY

34. I 8 Governments and internation d, organizations shouldpromote, and encourage the private sector to promote,

effective modalities for the access and transfer, in particular

to developing countries, of environmentally sound tech-nologies by means of activities, including the following:(a) Formulation of policies and programmes for thee ffe ct ive tran sfer of environmental ly sclund tec hnol og i esthat are publicly owned or in the public domain;(b) Creation of favourable conditions to encourage theprivate and public sectors to innovate, market and useenvironmentally sound technologies;(c) Examination by Governments and, where appropri-

ate, by relevant organizations of existing policies, includingsubsidies and tax policies, and rrgulations to determinewhether they encourage or impede the access to, transfer ofand introduction of environmentally sound technologies;(d) Addressing, in a framework which fully integratesenvironment and development, barriers to the transfer ofprivately owned environmentally sound technologiesand adoption of appropriate general measures to reducesuch barriers while creating specific incentives, fiscal orotherwise, for the transfer of such technologies;(e) In the case of privately owned technologies, theadoption of the following measures, in particular fordeveloping countries:(i) Creation and enhancement by developed countries,as well as other countries which might be in a position todo so, of appropriate incentives, fiscal or otherwise, tostimulate the transfer of environmentally sound technol-ogy by companies, in particular to developing countries,as integral to sustainable development;(ii) Enhancement of the access to and transfer of patentprotected environmentally sound technologies, in par-

ticular to developing countries;(iii) Purchase of patents and licences on commercialterms for their transfer to developing countries on non-commercial terms as part of development cooperation forsustainable developrnent, taking into account the need toprotect intellectual property rights;(iv) In compliance with and under the specific circum-stances recognized by the relevant international conven-tions adhered to by States, the undertaking of measuresto prevent the abuse of intellectual property rights, in-

cluding rules with respect to their acquisition throughcompulsory licensing, with the provision of equitable andadequate compensation ;(v) Provision of financial resources to acquire environ-mentally sound technologies in order to enable in par-

ticular developing countries to implement measures topromote sustainable development that would entail aspecial or abnormal burden to them;(0 Development of mechanisms for the access to andtransfer of environmentally sound technologies, in par-

ticular to developing countries, while taking into accountdevelopment in the process of negotiating an interna-tional code of conduct on transfer of technology, asdecided by UNCTAD at its eighth session, held atCartagena de Indias, Colombia, in February 1992.

c) TMPROVEMENT OF THE CAPACTTY TO DEVELOPAND MANAGE ENV'RONMENTALLY SOUNDTECHNOLOGIES

34.19 Frameworks at subregional, regional and interna-tional levels should be established and/or strengthened

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for the development, transt'er and application of environ-mentally sound technologies and corresponding techni-cal know-how with a special focus on developing coun-tries'needs, by adding such functions to already existingbodies. Such frameworks would tacilitate initiatives fromboth developing and developed countries to stimulate theresearch, development and transfer of environmentallysound technologies, often through partnerships within andamong countries and between the scientific and technologi-cal community, industry and Governments.34.20 National capacities to assess, develop, manage andapply new technologies should be developed. This willrequire strengthening existing institutions, training ofpersonnel at all levels, and education of the end-user ofthe technology.

D) ESTABLISHMENI OF A COLLABORATTVENFTWORK OF RESEARCH CENTRES

34.21 A collaborative network of national, subregional,regional and international research centres on environmen-tally sound technology should be established to enhance theaccess to and development, management and transfer ofenvironmentally sound technologies, including transfer andcooperation among developing countries and betrveen de-veloped and developing countries, primarily based on exist-ing subregional or regional research, development anddemonsfration centres which iue linked with the nationalinstitutions, in close cooperation wittr the private sector.

E) SUPPORT FOR PROGRAMMES OFCOOP ERAI/ON AND ASS/SIANCE

34.22 Support should be provided for programmes ofcooperation and assistance, including those provided byUnited Nations agencies, irrternational organizations,and other appropriate public and private organizations,in particular to developing countries, in the areas of researchand development, technological and human resourcescapacity-building in the fields of training, maintenance,national technology needs assessments, environmental im-pact assessments, and sustainable development planning.34.23 Support should also be provided for national, sub-regional, regional, multilateral and bilateral programmesof scientific research, dissemination of information andtechnology development among developing countries,including through the involvement of both public andprivate enterprises and research facilities, as well asfunding for technical cooperation among developingcountries' programmes in this area. This should includedeveloping links among these facilities to maximi zetheirefficiency in understanding. disserninating and imple-menting technologies for sustainable development.

34.24 Thc development of global, regional and sub-regional programmes should include identification andevaluation of regional, subregional and national need-based priorities. Plans and studies supporting these pro-grammes should provide the basis for potential financingby multilateral development banks, bilateral organiza-tions, private sector interests and non-governmental or-ganizations.34.25 Visits should be sponsored and, on a voluntarybasis, the return of qualified experts from developingcountries in the field of environmentally sound technol-ogies who are currently working in developed countryinstitutions should be facilitated.

F/ TECHNOLOGY ASSFSSMENT tN SU??ORT OFTHE MANAGEA4ENT OF ENY/RONMENIAI.I.YSOUND TECHNOLOGY

34.26 The international community, in particular UnitedNations agencies, international organizations, and otherappropriate and private organizations should help ex-change experiences and develop capacity for technologyneeds assessment, in particular in developing countries,to enable them to make choices based on environmentallysound technologies. They should:(a) Build up technology assessment capacity for thernanagement of environntentally sound technology, in-cluding environmental impact and risk assessment, withdue regard to appropriate safeguards on the transfer oftechnologies subject to prohibition on environmental orhealth grounds;(b) Strengthen the international network of regional,subregional or national environmentally sound technol-ogy assessment centres, coupled with clearing-houses, totap the technology assessment sources mentioned abovefor the benefit of all nations. These centres could. inprinciple, provide advice and training for specific na-tional situations and promote the building up of nationalcapacity in environmentally sound technology assess-ment. The possibility of assigning this activity to alreadyexisting regional organizations should be fully exploredbefore creating entirely new institutions, and funding ofthis activity through public-privare parrnerships shouldalso be explored. as appropriatc.

G) CO LLABORATIV E ARRANGEMENISAND PARTNERSH/PS

34.27 Long-tenn collaborative arangements should bepromoted between enterprises of developed and devel-oping countries for the development of environmentallysound technologies. Multinational companies, as re-positories of scarce technical skills needed for the pro-

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tection and enhancement of the environment. have aspecial role and interest in promoting cooperation in andrelated to technology transfer, as they are importantchannels for such transfer, and for building a trainedhuman resource pool and infrastructure.34.28 Joint ventures should be promoted between sup-pliers and recipients of technologies, taking into ac-count developing countries' policy priorities and ob-jectives. Together with direct foreign investment, theseventures could constitute important channels of trans-ferring environmentally sound technologies. Throughsuch joint ventures and direct investment, sound envi-ronmental management practices could be transferredand maintained.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTANON

F'NANC'NG AND COSI EVALUATION

34.29 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this chapter to be between $450 million and$600 million from the international community on grantor concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewedby Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, in-cluding any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Gov-ernments decide upon for implementation.

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3 5 Science for sustoinoble development

I N T R O D U C T I O N

35.1 This chapter focuses on the role and the use of thesciences in supporting the prudent management of theenvironment and development for the daily survival andfuture development of humanity. The prograrnme areasproposed herein are intended to be over-arching, in orderto support the specific scientific requirements identifiedin the other Agenda 21 chapters. One role of the sciencesshould be to provide information to better enable formu-lation and selection of environment and developmentpolicies in the decision-making process. In order to fulfilthis requirement, it will be essential to enhance scientificunderstanding, improve long-term scientific assess-ments, strengthen scientific capacities in all countries andensure that the sciences are responsive to emerging needs.35.2 Scientists are improving their understanding inareas such as climatic change, growth in rates of resourceconsumption, demographic trends, and environmentaldegradation. Changes in those and other areas need to betaken into account in working out long-term strategiesfor development. A first step towards improving thescientific basis for these strategies is a better under-standing of land, oceans, atmosphere and their interlock-ing water, nutrient and biogeochemical cycles and energyflows which all form part of the Earth system. This isessential if a more accurate estimate is to be provided ofthe carrying capacity of the planet Earth and of itsresilience under the many stresses placed upon it byhuman activities. The sciences can provide this under-standing through increased research into the underlyingecological processes and through the application of mod-em, effective and efficient tools that are now available,such as remote-sensing devices, robotic monitoring in-struments and computing and modelling capabilities.The sciences are playing an important role in linking the

fundamental significance of the Earth system as lifesupport to appropriate strategies for development whichbuild on its continued functioning. The sciences shouldcontinue to play an increasing role in providing for animprovement in the efficiency of resource utilization andin finding new development practices, resources, andalternatives. There is a need for the sciences constantlyto reassess and promote less intensive trends in resourceutilization, including less intensive utilization of energyin industry, agriculture, and transportation. Thus, thesciences are increasingly being understood as an essentialcomponent in the search for feasible pathways towardssustainable development.35.3 Scientific knowledge should be applied to articulateand support the goals of sustainable development,through scientific assessments of current conditions andfuture prospects for the Earth system. Such assessments,based on existing and emerging innovations within thesciences, should be used in the decision-making processand in the interactive processes between the sciences andpolicy-making. There needs to be an increased outputfrom the sciences in order to enhance understanding andfacilitate interaction between science and society. Anincrease in the scientific capacity and capability toachieve these goals will also be required, particularly indeveloping countries. Of crucial importance is the needfor scientists in developing countries to participate fullyin international scientific research programmes dealingwith the global problems of environment and develop-ment so as to allow all countries to participate on equalfooting in negotiations on global environmental anddevelopmental issues. In the face of threats of irreversibleenvironmental damage, lack of full scientific under-standing should not be an excuse for postponing actionswhich are justified in their own right. The precautionaryapproach could provide a basis for policies relating tocomplex systems that are not yet fully understood and whoseconsequences of disnrrbances cannot yet be predicted.

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35.4 The programme areas, which are in harmonywith the conclusions and recommendat ions of theInternational Conference on an Agcnda of Science forEnvironment and Developrnent into the ZIst Century(ASCEND /21) are(a) Strengthening the scientific basis for sustainablemanagement;(b) Enhancing scientiflc understanding;(c) Improvinglong-termscientif icassessment;(d) Building up scientific capacity and capability.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) STRENGTHENTNG THE SCTENTTF|C BASISFOR SUSTAINABTE MANAGEMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

35.5 Sustainable developrnent requires taking longer-term perspectives, integrating local and regional effectsof global change into the developrnent process, and usingthe best scientific and traditional knowledge available.The development process should be constantly re-evalu-ated, in light of the findings of scientific research, toensure that resource utilization has reduced impacts onthe Earth system. Even so, the future is uncertain, andthere rvill be surprises. Good environmental and devel-opmental management policies must therefore be scien-tifically robust, seeking to keep open a range of optionsto ensure flexibility of response. The precautionary ap-proach is important. Often, there is a communication gapamong scientists, policy makers, and the public at large,whose interests are articulated by both governmental andnon- governmen tal organization s. Better communicationis required among scientists, decision makers, and thegeneral public.

OBJECTIVES

3.5.6 The primary objective is for each country with thesupport of intemational organizations, as requested, toidentify the state of its scientif ic knowledge and itsresearch needs and priorities in order to achieve, as soonas possible, substantial improvements in:(a) Large-scale widening of the scientific base andstrengthening of scientific and research capacities andcapabilities - in particular, those of developing coun-tries - in areas relevant to environment and develop-nlent:(b) Environmental and developmental policy formula-

tion, building upon the best scientitic knowledge andassessments, and taking into account the need to enhanceinternational cooperation and the relative uncertaintiesof the various processes and options involved;(c) The interaction between the sciences and decision-making, using the precautionary approach, where appro-priate, to change the existing patterns of production andconsumption and to gain time for reducing uncertaintywith respect to the selection of policy options;(d) The generation and application of knowledge, es-pecially indigenous and local knowledge, to the capac-ities of different environments and cultures, to achievesustained levels of development, taking into accountinterrelations at the national, regional and internationallevels;(e) Improving cooperation between scientists by pro-moting interdisciplinary research programmes and activ-it ies;(f) Participation of people in setting priorities and indecision-making relating to sustainable development.

ACTIVITIES

35.7 Countries, with the assistance of international or-ganizations, where required, should:(a) Prepare an inventory of their natural and socialscience data holdings relevant to the promotion of sus-tainable development;(b) Identify their research needs and priorities in thecontext of international research efforts;(c) Strengthen and design appropriate institutionalmechanisms at the highest appropriate local, national,subregional and regional levels and within the UnitedNations system for developing a stronger scientific basisfor the improvement of environmental and developmen-tal policy formulation consistent with long-term goals ofsustainable development. Current research in this areashould be broadened to include more involvement of thepublic in establishing long-term societal goals forformu-lating the sustainable development scenarios;(d) Develop, apply and institute the necessary tools forsustainable development, with regard to:(i) Quality-of-life indicators covering, for example,health, education, social welfare, state of the environ-ment, and the economy;(ii) Economic approaches to environmentally sounddevelopment and new and improved incentive structuresfor better resource management;(iii) Long-term environmental policy formulation, riskmanagement and environmentally sound technology as-sessment;(e) Collect, analyse and integrate data on the linkagesbetween the state of ecosystems and the health of hurnan

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communities in order to improve knowledge of the costand benefit of different development policies andstrategies in relation to health and the environment,particularly in developing countries;(0 Conduct scientific studies of national and regionalpathways to sustainable development, using comparableand complementary methodologies. Such studies, coor-dinated by an international science effort. should to alarge extent involve local expertise and be conducted bymultidisciplinary teams from regional networks and/orresearch centres, as appropriate and according to nationalcapacities and the available resources;(g) Improve capabilities for determining scientific re-search priorities at the national, regional and global levelsto meet the needs of sustainable development. This is aprocess that involves scientific judgements regardingshort-term and long-ternt benefits and possible long-termcosts and risks. It should be adaptive and responsive toperceived needs and be carried out via transparent, "user-friendly", risk-evaluation methodologies :(h) Develop methods to link the findings of the estab-lished sciences with the indigenous knowledge of differ-ent cultures. The methods should be tested using pilotstudies. They should be developed at the local level andshouid concentrate on the links between the traditionalknowledge of indigenoLls groups and corresponding, cur-rent "advanced science", with particular focus on dis-serninating and applying the results to environmentalprotection and sustainable development.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Ai F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

35.8 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivit ies of this programme to be about $150 mill ion,including about $30 million from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of'-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-ciai terms, including any that are non-concessional, wil ldepend upon, inter ulia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

B/ SC/FNIIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL MEANS

35.9 The scientif ic and technoloeical means include thefollorving:(a) Supporting new scientific research programmes,including their socio-ecclnomic and human aspects, at thecommunity, national, subregional, regional and global

levels, to complement and encourage synergies betweentraditional and conventional scientific knowledge andpractices and strengthening interdisciplinary researchrelated to environmental degradation and rehabilitation:(b) Setting up demonstration models of differenr types(e.9., socio-economic, environmental conditions) tostudy methodologies and formulate guidelines;(c) Supporting research by developing relative-riskevaluation methods to assist policy makers in rankingscientifi c research priorities.

B) ENHANCTNG SC|ENTIFIC UNDERSTANDTNG

BASIS FOR ACTION

35.10 In orderto promote sustainable development, moreextensive knowledge is required of the Earth's carryingcapacity, including the processes that could either impairor enhance its ability to support life. The global environ-ment is changing more rapidly than at any time in recentcenturies; as a result, surprises may be expected, and thenext century could see signi f icant environmentalchanges. At the same time, the human consumption ofenergy, water and non-renewable resources is increas-ing, on both a total and a per capita basis, and shortagesmay ensue in many parts of the world even if environ-mental conditions were to remain unchanged. Socialprocesses are subject to multiple variations across timeand space, regions and culture. They both affect andare influenced by changing environmental conditions.Human factors are key driving forces in these intricatesets of relationships and exert their influence directlyon global change. Therefore, study of the humandimensions of the causes and consequences of envi-ronmental change and of more sustainable develop-ment paths is essent ia l .

OBJEC'IIVES

35.11 One key objective is to improve and increase thefundamental understanding of the linkages betweenhuman and natural environmental systems and improvethe analytical and predictive tools required to betterunderstand the environmental impacts of developmentoptions by:(a) Carrying out research programmes in order better tounderstand the carrying capacity of the Eafih as conditionedby its natural systems, such as the biogeochemical cycles,the atmosphereftrydro sphere/l i tho sphere/cryo sph ere sy s -tem, the biosphere and biodiversity, the agro-ecosystem andother terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems:(b) Developing and applying new analytical and pre-

259

dictive tools in order to assess more accurately the waysin which the Earth's natural systems are being increas-ingly influenced by human actions, both deliberate andinadvertent, and demographic trends, and the impact andconsequences of those actions and trends;(c) Integrating physical, economic and social sciencesin orderbetter to understand the impacts of economic andsocial behaviour on the environment and of environmen-tal degradation on local and global economies.

ACTIVITIES

35.12 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Support development of an expanded monitoringnetwork to describe cycles (for example. global, biogeo-chemical and hydrological cycles) and test hypothesesregarding their behaviour, and improve research into theinteractions among the various global cycles and theirconsequences at national, subregional, regional andglobal levels as guides to tolerance and vulnerability;(b) Support national, subregional, regional and interna-tional observation and research programmes in global at-mospheric chemistry and the sources and sinks of green-house gases, and ensure that the results are presented in apublicly accessible and understandable form;(c) Support national, subregional, regional and interna-tional research prograrnmes on marine and terrestrialsystems, strengthen global terrestrial databases of theircomponents, expand correspondi ng sy stern s for monitoringtheir changing states and enhance predictive modelling ofthe Earth system and its subsystems, including modellingof the f'unctioning of these systems assuming differentintensities of human impact. The research programmesshould include the programmes mentioned in otherAgenda2l chapters which suppoft mechanisms for cooperation andcoherence of research programmes on global change;(d) Encourage coordination of satellite missions, thenetworks, systems and procedures for processing anddisseminating their data; and develop the intertace withthe research users of Earth observation data and with theUnited Narions EARTHWATCH sysrem;(e) Develop the capacity for predicting the responses ofterrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems andbiodiversity to short- and long-term pernrrbations of theenvironment, and develop further restoration ecology;(0 Study the role of biodiversity and the loss of speciesin the functioning of ecosystems and the global life-sup-port system:(g) Initiate a global observing system of parametersneeded for the rational management of coastal and mountainzones and significantly expand freshwater quantity/quality monitoring systems, particularly in developingcountries;

(h) In order to undentand the Earth as a system, developEatth observation systems from space which will provideintegrated, continuous and long-term measurements of theinteractions of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere,and develop a distribution system for data which will facilitatethe utilization of data obtained through observation;(i) Develop and apply sysrems and technology thatautomatically collect, record and transmit data and infor-mation to data and analysis centres, in order to monitormarine, terrestrial and atmospheric processes and provideadvance warning of natural disasters;0) Enhance the contribution of the engineering scien-ces to multidisciplinary research programmes on theEarth system, in particular with regard to increasingemergency preparedness and reducing the negative ef_fects of major natural disasters;(k) Intensify research to integrate the physical, eco-nomic and social sciences to better understand the im-pacts of economic and social behaviour on the environ-ment and of environmental degradation on local andglobal economies and, in particular:(i) Develop research on human attitudes and behaviourasdriving forces central to an understanding of the causes andconsequences of environmental change and resource use;(ii) Promote research on human, economic and socialresponses to global change;(l) Support development of new user-friendly technol-ogies and systems that facilitate the integration of multidis-ciplinary, physical, chemical, biological ancl socialhumanprocesses which, in tum, provide information and know_ledge for decision makers and the general public.

MEANS OF IMPTEMENTATION

Ai F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALTJATTON

35.13 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver_age totai annual cosr (1993-2000) of implemenring theactivities of this programme to be about $2 billion, in-cluding about $ 1.5 billion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any thatare non-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmesGovernments decide upon for implementation.

Bi sc/ENI/FtC AND TECHNOLOGTCAL MEANS

35.14 The scientific and technological means include thefollowing:(a) Supporting and using the relevant national research

260

activities of academia, research institutes and govern-mental and non-governmental organizations, und pro_moting their active participation in regional ano gtobatprogrammes, particularly in developing countries;(b) Increasing the use of appropriate enabling systemsand technologies, such as supercomputers, space_basedobservational technology, Earth- and ocean-based obser-vational technologies, data management and databasetechnologies and, in particular, developing and expand_ing the Global Climate Observing System.

c) |frrpRovtNc t oNG-TER lr SCtENTtFtcASSESSMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION35.15 Meeting scientific research needs in the environ-ment/development field is only the first step in the sup_port that the sciences can provide for the sustainabredevelopment process. The knowledge acquired may thenbe used to provide scientific assessments (audits) of thecurrent status and for a range of possible future condi-tions. This implies that the biosphere must be maintainedin a healthy state and that losses in biodiversity must beslowed down. Although many of the long_term environ_mental changes that are likely to affect people and thebiosphere are globar in scare, key chang", .un often bemade at the nationar and local revels. At the same time,human activities at the locar and regionar levels oftencontribute to global threats - €.g., stratospheric ozonedepletion. Thus scientific assessments and projectionsare required at the global, regional and local levers. Manycountries and organizations already prepare reports onthe environment and deveropment which review currentconditions and indicate future trends. Regional andglobal assessments courd make full use of such reportsbut should be broader in scope and include the resultsof detailed studies of future conditions for a range ofassumptions about possible future human ,.rpoi..r,using the best avairable moders. Such assersmentsshould be designed to map out manageable develop_ment pathways within the environmental and socio-economic carrying capacity of each region. Full useshould be made of traditional knowredge of the rocalenvironment.

ing indigenous approaches, for the different scales of timeand space required for long-term policy formulation.

OBJECNVES

35.16 The primary objective is to provide assessments ofthe current stafus and trends in major developmental andenvironmental issues at the national, subregional, regionarand global levels on the basis of the best available scientificknowledge in order to deverop artemative strategies, includ-

ACTIVITIES

35'17 The following activities shourd be under-taken:(a) Coordinate existing data- and statistics-gatheringsystems relevant to developmental and environ .nturissues so as to support preparation of rong-term scientificassessments - for example, data on resource depletion,import/export flows, energy use, health impacts anddemographic trends; apply the data obtained through theactivities identified in programme area B to environ-ment/development assessments at the global, regionaland local levels; and promote the wide distribution of theassessments in a form that is responsive to public needsand can be widely understood;(b) Develop a methodorogy to carry out national andregional audits and a five-year gtobar audit on an inte-grated basis. The standardized audits should help to refinethe pattern and character of development, examining inparticular the capacities of globar and regionar life-s"up-porting systems to meet the needs of human and non_human life forms and identifying areas and resourcesvulnerable to further degradation. This task would in-volve the integration of arl rerevant sciences at the na-tional, regional, and global levels, and would be or_ganized by governmental agencies, non_governmentalor ganization s, uni versi ties and research inititutions, as-sisted by international governmental and non_govern_mental organizations and united Nations bodiei whennecessary and as appropriate. These audits should thenbe made available to the general public.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALI,JATION

35' 18 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993_2000) of implementing theactivities of this progranrme to be about $35 million,including about $18 mi l l ion f rom the internat ionalcommunity on grant or concessional terms. These areindicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only andhave not been reviewed by Governments. Actuar costsand f inanc ia l te rms, inc lud ing any tha t a re non_concessional , wi l l depend upon, inter al ia, the speci f icstrategies and programmes Governments decid. uponfor implementation.35.19 With regard to the existing data requirementsunder programme area A, suppori should be providedfor national data collection and warning systems. Thiswould involve setting up database, information and

261

report ing systems, including data assessment andinformat ion disseminat ion in each region.

D) BUlLDll.lG UP SCIE].InFrc CAPACITY AD.ID C/N4BUTY

BASIS FOR ACTION

35.20 In view of the increasing role the sciences have toplay in dealing with the issues of environment and devel-opment, it is necessary to build up scientific capacity andstrengthen such capacity in all countries - particularlyin developing countries - to enable them to participatefully in the generation and application of the results ofscientific research and development concerning sustain-able development. There are many ways to build upscientific and technological capacity. Some of the mostimportant of them are the following: education and trainingin science and technology; assistance to developing coun-tries to improve infrastructures for research and develop-ment which could enable scientists to work more produc-tively; development of incentives to encourage research anddevelopment; and greater utilization of their results in theproductive sectors of the economy. Such capacity-buildingwould also form the basis for improving public awarenessand understanding of ttre sciences. Special emphasis mustbe put on the need to assist developing countries tostrengthen their capacities to study their own resource basesand ecological systems and manage them better in order tomeet national, regional and global challenges. Furthermore,in view of the size and complexity of global environmentalproblems, a need for more specialists in several disciplineshas become evident world wide.

OBJECTIVES

35.21 The primary objective is to improve the scientificcapacities of all countries - in particular, those of de-veloping countries - with specific regard to:(a) Education, training and facilities for local researchand development and human resource development inbasic scientific disciplines and in environment-relatedsciences, utilizing where appropriate traditional and localknowledge of sustainability:(b) A substantial increase by the year 2000 in thenumber of scientists - particularly women scientists -

in those developing countries where their number is atpresent insufficient;(c) Reducing significantly the exodus of scientists fromdeveloping countries and encouraging those who haveleft to return;(d) Improving access to relevant information for scien-tists and decision makers, with the aim of improvingpublic awareness and participation in decision-making;

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(e) Involvement of scientists in national, regional andglobal environmental and developmental research pro-grammes, including multidisciplinary research;( f ) Per iodic academic update o1' scient ists f romdeveloping countries in their respective fields o1'know-ledse.

ACTIVITIES

35.22 The following activities should be undertaken:(a) Promote the education and training of scientists, notonly in their disciplines but also in their ability to identili,manage and incorporate environmental considerationsinto research and development projects: ensure that asound base in natural systetns, ecology and resourcemanagement is provided: and develop specialists capableof working in interdisciplinary programmes related toenvironment and development, including the field ofapplied social sciences;(b) Strengthen the scientific infrastructure in schools,universities and research institutions -- particularlythose in developing countries - by the provision ofadequate scientific equipment and access to currentscientific literature, for the purpose of achieving andsustaining a crit ical mass of highly qualif ied scientists inthese countries;(c) Develop and expand national scientific and techno-logical databases, processing data in unified formats andsystems, and allowing full and open access to the deposi-tory libraries of regional scientific and technologicalinformation networks. Prornote submission of scientificand technological information and databases to global orregional data centres and network systems;(d) Develop and expand regional and global scientificand technological information networks which are basedon and linked to national scientific and technologicaldatabases; collect, process and disseminate infonnationfrom regional and global scientific programmes; expandactivities to reduce information barriers due to languagedifferences. Increase ttre applications - particularly indeveloping countries - of cornputer-based retrieval sys-tems in orderto cope with the growth of scientiflc literature;(e) Develop, strengthen and forge new partnershipsamong national, regional and global capacities tcl pro-mote the full and open exchange of scientific and tech-nological data and information and to facilitate technicalassistance related to environmentally sound and sustain-able development. This should be done through the de-velopment of mechanisms for the sharing of basic re-search, data and inforrnation, and the improvement anddevelopment of intemational networks and centres, in-cluding regional linking vr'ith national scientiflc data-bases, for research, training and monitoring. Such mech-

anisms should be designed so as to enhance professionalcooperation among scientists in all countries and to es-tablish strong national and regional alliances betweenindustry and research institutions;(0 Improve and develop new links between existingnetworks of natural and social scientists and universitiesat the international level in order to strengthen nationalcapacities in the formulation of policy options in the fieldof environment and development;(g) Compile, analyse and pubiish information on in-digenous environmental and developmental knowledge,and assist the communities that possess such knowledgeto benefit from them.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F'NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

35.23 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $750 million,including about $470 million from the intemational com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indicativeand order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any ttrat arenon-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmesGovernments decide upon for implementation.

8/ SC/FNilF'C AND TECHNOLOG\CAL MEANS

35.24 Such means include increasing and strengtheningregional multidisciplinary research and training net-works and centres making optimal use of existing fa-

cilities and associated sustainable development and tech-nology support systems in developing regions. Promoteand use the potential of independent initiatives and in-digenous innovations and entrepreneurship. The func-tion of such networks and centres could include. forexample:(a) Support and coordination of scientific cooperationamong all nations in the region;(b) Linking with monitoring centres and carrying outassessment of environmental and developmental condi-tions;(c) Support and coordination of national studies ofpathways towards sustainable development;(d) Organization of science education and training;(e) Establishment and maintenance of information,monitoring and assessment systems and databases.

c) CAPACTTY-BUtLDtNG

35.25 Capacity-building includes the fbllowing:(a) Creating conditions (e.g., salaries, equipment, li-braries) to ensure that the scientists will work effectivelyin their home countries;(b) Enhancing national, regional and global capacitiesforcarrying out scientific research and applying scientificand technological information to environmentally soundand sustainable development. This includes a need toincrease financ ial resource s for global and regional scien-tific and technological information networks, as may beappropriate, so that they will be able to function effec-tively and efflciently in satisfying the scientific needs ofdeveloping countries. Ensure the capacity-building ofwomen by recruiting more women in research and re-search trainins.

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3 6 Promoting educotion, public oworeness ond troining

I N T R O D U C T I O N

36.1 Education. raising of public awareness and trainingare l inked to virtually all areas in Agenda 21, and evenmore closely to the ones on meeting basic needs, capac-ity-building. data and information, science, and the roleof major groups. This chapter sets out broad proposals,while specific suggestions related to sectoral issues arecontained in other chapters. The Deciaration and Recom-mendations of the Tbilisi Intergovernmental Conferenceon Environmental Education,l organizecl by UNESCOand UNEP and held in l9ll, have provided the fun-damental principles for the proposals in this document.36,2 Programme areas described in the present chapterare:(a) Reorienting education towards sustainable devel-opment:(b) Increasing public awareness:(c) Prornotingtraining.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) REORTENTTNG EDUCATTON TOWARDSSUSTAINABLE DEVETOPMENT

BASIS FOR ACTION

36.3 Education, including formal education, publicawareness and training, should be recognized as a processb1' which human beings and societies can reach theirfullest potential. Education is crit ical for promoting sus-tainable development and improving the capacity of thepeople to address environment and development issues.

While basic education provides the underpinning for anyenvironmental and development education, the latterneeds to be incorporated as an essential part of leaming.Both fonnal education and non-formal education areindispensable to changing people's attitudes so that theyhave the capacity to assess and address their sustainabledevelopment concerns" It is also critical for achievingenvironmental and ethical awareness, values and atti-tudes, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainabledevelopment and for effective public participation indecision-making. To be eff'ective, environment and de-velopment education should deal with the dynamics ofboth the physical/biological and socio-economic envi-ronment and human (which may include spiritual) devel-opment, should be integrated in all disciplines, and shouldemploy formal and non-formal rnethods and effectivemeans of communication.

OBJECTIVES

36..1 Recognizing that countries and, regional and inter-national organizations will develop their own prioritiesand schedules fbr irnplementation in accordance withtheir needs, policies and programmes. the following ob-jectives are proposed:(a) To endorse the recommendations arising from theWorld Conf'erence on Education for All: Meeting BasicLearning Needs2 (Jomtien. Thailand, 5-9 March 1990)and to strive to ensure universal access to basic education,and to achieve primary education for at least 80 per centof girls and 80 per cent of boys of prirnary school agethrough formal schooling or non-fornral education andto reduce the adult illiteracy rate to at least half of its I 990level. Efforts shor-rld focus on reducing the high illiteracylevels and redressing the lack of basic education amongwomen and should bring their l i teracy levels into l inewith those of men:

264

(b) To achieve environmental and development aware-ness in all sectors of society on a world-wide scale assoon as possible;(c) To strive to achieve the accessibility of environmen-tal and development education, linked to social educa-tion, from primary school age through adulthood to allgroups of people;(d) To promote integration of environment and devel-opment concepts, including dernography, in all educa-tional programmes, in particular the analysis of the causesof major environment and development issues in a localcontext, drawing on the best available scientific evidenceand other appropriate sources of knowledge, and givingspecial emphasis to the further training of decisionmakers at all levels.

ACTIVITIES

36.5 Recognizing that countries and regional and inter-national organizations will develop their own prioritiesand schedules for implementation in accordance withtheir needs, policies and prografitmes, the following ac-tivities are proposed:(a) All countries are encouraged to endorse the recom-mendations of the Jomtien Conference and strive toensure its Framework for Action. This would encompassthe preparation of national strategies and actions formeeting basic learning needs, universalizing access andpromoting equity, broadening the means and scope ofeducation, developing a supporting policy context, mobi-lizing resources and strengthening international cooper-ation to redress existing economic, social and genderdisparities which interfere with these aims. Non-govern-mental organizations can make an importantcontributionin designing and implementing educational programmesand should be recognized;(b) Governments should strive to update or preparestrategies aimed at integrating environment and develop-ment as a cross-cutting issue into education at all levelswithin the next three years. This should be done incooperation with all sectors of society. The strategiesshould set out policies and activities, and identify needs,cost, means and schedules for their implementation,evaluation and review. A thorough review of curriculashould be undertaken to ensure a multidisciplinary ap-proach, with environment and development issues andtheir sociocultural and demographic aspects and link-ages. Due respect should be given to community-definedneeds and diverse knowledge systems, including science,cultural and social sensitivities;(c) Countries are encouraged to set up national advi-sory environmental education coordinating bodies orround tables representative of various environmental,

developmental, educational, gender and other interests.including non-governmental organizations, to encouragepartnerships, help mobilize resources, and provide asource of information and focal point for internationalties. These bodies would help mobilize and facilitatedifferent population groups and communities to assesstheir own needs and to develop the necessary skills tocreate and implemeut their own environment and devel-opment initiatives:(d) Educational authorities. with the appropriate assist-ance from community groups or non-governmentalorganizations, are recommended to assist or set uppre-service and in-service training programmes fbr allteachers, administrators, and educational planners, aswell as non-formal educators in all sectors. addressingthe nature and methods of environmental and develop-ment education and making use of reler,'ant experienceof non- governmental or ganizati ons ;(e) Relevant authorities should ensure that every schoolis assisted in designing environmental activity workplans, with the participation of students and staff.Schools should involve schoolchildren in local and re-gional studies on environmental health. including safedrinking-water, sanitation and food and ecosystems, andin relevant activities, linking these studies with servicesand research in national parks, wildlife reserves, ecologi-cal heritage sites etc.;(0 Educational authorities should promote proven edu-cational methods and the development of innovativeteaching methods for educational settings. They shouldalso recognize appropriate traditional education systemsin local communities;(g) Within two years the United Narions system shouldundertake a comprehensive review of its educationalprogrammes, encompassing training and public aware-ness, to reassess priorities and reallocate resources. TheUNESCO/LTNEP Internati onal Environmental EducationProgramme should, in cooperation with the appropriatebodies of the United Nations system, Governments, non-governmental organizations and others, establish a pro-gramnie within two years to integrate the decisions of theConference into the existing United Nations frameworkadapted to the needs of eclucators at different levels andcircumstances. Regional organizations and national auth-orities should be encouraged to elaborate similar parallelprogrammes and opportunities biu conducting an analysisof how to mobilize different sectors of the population inorder to assess and address their environmental anddevelopment education needs ;(h) There is a need to strengthen, within five years.information exchange by enhancing technologies andcapacities necessarv to promote environment and devel-opment education and public atvareness. Countries

265

should cooperatc rvith cach other and with the various

social sectors and populat ion grclups to prepare educa-

t iclnal tools that include regional environment and devel-

opment issues and init iat ivcs, using learning materials

and resources suited to their owtt requirentcnts:

( i) Countr ies could support university and othertert iary

activi t ies and networks for environmental and develop-

ment education. Crclss-discipl inary courses could be

made avai lable to ai lstr"rdents. Exist ing regional networks

and ac:t ivi t ies and national university act ions which pro-

mote research and cotntnon teaching apprclaches on sus-

tainable develclpntent should be bui l t upon. and ncw

partnerships and bridges created with the business and

other independent sectors, as well as with al l countr ies,

for technology. know-how, aud knowledge exchange;

0) Countries, assistcd by international organizations, non-

governmental organizations and other sectors, could

strengthen or cstablish natiotlal or rcgional centres of excel-

lence in irrterdisciplinary research and educalionin environ-

rnental and developtttetttal sciences, law and the manage-

rnent of specific environntental problems. Such centres

could be urt iversit i r 's or cr ist ing networks in each country

or region. prornotitig coopel'ativc research and infonnation

sharing and disscrnirtatiott. At the giobal level these func-

tions should Lrc perlirnred by appropriate institutions:

(k) Countr ics :hoLtlcl l 'aci l i tate and promote non-formal

educat ion act i r i t i c -s u t t l tc loca l . reg ional anc l nat iona l

levcls bl, cooperati t t-r uith ancl support ing the efforts of

non- fbnn al cch.rc ators ali d ot hcr cotnntunity -based org an-

izations. l 'hc applopriatc bodies of the tJnited Nations

systern ir t cooperit t iort ' ,r ' i th non-govemrnental organiza-

tions should c-rtcountsc tht: dr-r'cloptnent of an intemational

network fbr the achie i e ntcrtt tr1-global educational aims. At

the national and l trcal lcrcls. publ ic and scholastic forums

should discuss ertviront.t.tcntal and development issues, and

suggest sustaitrable altctratil 'cs to policy makers;

( l) Educational authorit ics. u' i th appropriate assistance

of non-governmental orgatt izat ions. including women's

and indigenous pr-oplcs' orgart izat ions. should promote

al l kinds of adult educatron progralnmes for continuing

education in environntent and delelclpment, basing ac-

t ivi t ies around eletuentarv/secondauy schools and local

problerns. These authorit ics and industry should encour-

age business, industl ial and agricultrrral schocl ls to in-

clude such topics in their curr icula. ' Ihe

corporate sector

could include sustainable developrttcnt in their education

and training programtncs. Prograrnntcs at a postgraduatc

ler el shoLrld includc specit ic courscs aint ing at the f 'urther

t ra in ing of dec is ion makers ;(nr ) Gor ernments and educational authorit ics should

l 'ostc-r ' opportunit ics for woll ten i t l non-tradit ional f ields

and c l inr i r ta tc ge nde r s tereotyp ing in cur r icu la . Th is cou ld

be dorre hr i rnprovtng enro lment oppor tun i t ies . inc lud ing

females in advanced programmes as students and instruc-

tors, reforming entrance ancl teacher staffing policies andprovidin g incenti ves for e stabli shing child-care facilities.

as appropriate. Priority should be given to education of

young females and to programmes promoting literacy

among women;(n) Governments should affirrn thc rights of indigenouspeoples, by legislation if necessary, to use their experi-

ence and understanding of sustainable development toplay a part in education and training:(o) The United Nations could maintain a monitoring

and evaluative role regarding decisions of the UnitedNations Conference on }invironment and Developlnenton education and awareness, through the relevant UnitedNations agencies. With Governrnents and non-govern-mental organizations, as appropriate, it should present

and disseminate decisions in a variety of fonns, and

should ensure the continuous implementation and review

of the educational implications of Conference decisions,in particular through relevant events and conferences.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION

36.6 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the

activities of this programme to be about $8 billion to

$9 bil l ion, including about $3.5 bil l ion to $4.5 bil l ionfrom the intemational community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicatir.'c and order-ot--magni-tude estimates only and have not treen reviewed by

Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend upon. interalia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for irnplementation.36.7 In the l ight of country-specific situations, moresupport for education, training and public itwarenessactivit ies related to environment and development couldbe provided, in appropriate cases, through measures suchas the following:(a) Giving higher priority to those sectors in budgetallocations, protecting them from structural cutting re-quirernents;(b) Shi f t ing al locat ions wi th in exist ing educat ionbudgets in favour of primarv education, with focus onenvironment and development;(c) Promoting conditiclns where a larger share of thecost is borne by local communities, with rich com-munities assisting poorer ones:(d) Obtaining additional funds fiom private donorsconcentrating on the poorest countries, and those withrates of l i teracy below 40 per cent;

266

(e) Encouraging debt for education swaps;(0 Lifting restrictions on private schooling and increas-ing the flow of funds from and to non-govemmentalorganizations, including small-scale grass-roots organi-zations;(g) Promoting the effective use of existing facilities,for example, multiple school shifts, fuller developmentof open universities and other long-distance teaching;(h) Facilitating low-cost or no-cost use of mass mediafor the purposes of education;(i) Encouraging twinning of universities in developedand developing countries.

Bl TNGREASTNG PUBUC AWARENESS

BASIS FOR AC-TON

36.8 There is still a considerable lack of awareness of theinterrelated nature of all human activities and the envi-ronment, due to inaccurate or insufficient information.Developing countries in particular lack relevant tech-nologies and expertise. There is a need to increasepublic sensitivity to environment and developmentproblems and involvement in their solutions and fostera sense of personal environmental responsibil i ty andgreater motivation and commitment towards sustain-able development.

OBJECTIVE

36.9 The objective is to promote broad public awarenessas an essential part of a global education effort tostrengthen attitudes. values and actions which are com-patible with sustainable development. It is inrportant tostress the principle of devolving authority', accountabilityand resources to the most appropriate level with pref-erence given to local responsibility and control overawareness-buildins activit ies.

ACTMTIES

36.10 Recognizing that countries and regional and inter-national organizations will develop their own prioritiesand schedules for implementation in accordance withtheir needs, policies and programmes, the following ac-tivities are proposed:(a) Countries should strengthen existing advisorybodies or establish new ones for public environmentand development information, and should coordinateact iv i t ies wi th, among others, the Uni ted Nat ions, non-governmental organizat ions and important media.They should encourage public participation in discus-sions of environmental pol ic ies and assessments.

Governments should also facil i tate and support nationalto local networkins of information throush existins net-works;(b) The United Nations system should improve its out-reach in the course of a review of its education and publicawareness activities to promote greater involvement andcoordination of all parts of the system, especially itsinformation bodies and regional and country operations.Systematic sun/eys of the impact of awareness pro-grammes should be conducted, recognizing the needs andcontributions of specific community groups;(c) Countries and regional organizations should be en-couraged, as appropriate, to provide public environmen-tal and development information services for raising theawareness of all groups, the private sector and particu-larly decision makers;(d) Countries should stimulate educational estab-lishments in all sectors, especially the tertiary sector, tocontribute more to awareness building. Educational ma-terials of all kinds arrd for all audiences should be basedon the best available scientific information, including thenatural, behavioural and social sciences, and taking intoaccount aesthetic and ethical dimensions;(e) Countries and the United Nations system shouldpromote a cooperative relationship with the media, popu-lar theatre groups. and entertainment and advertisingindustries by init iating discussions to mobil ize their ex-perience in shaping public behaviour and consumptionpatterns and making wide use of their methods. Suchcooperation would also increase the active public partici-pation in the debate on the environment. UNICEF shouldmake child-oriented material available to rnedia as aneducational tool, ensuring close cooperation between theout-of-school public information sector and the schoolcuniculum, f or the primary level. UNESCO, UNEP anduniversities should enrich pre-service curricula for jour-nalists on environment and development topics;(f) Countries, in cooperation with the scientific com-munity, should establish ways of employing rnoderncommunication technologies for effective public out-reach. National and local educational authorities andrelevant Llnited Nations agencies should expand, as ap-propriate, the use of audio-visual methods, especially inrural areas in mobile units, by producing television andradio prograrnmes for developing countries, involvinglocal participation, employing interactive multimediamethods and integrating advanced methods with fblkmedia;(g) Countries should promote, as appropriate. environ-mentally sound leisure and tourisrn activit ies, buildingon The Hague Declaration of Tourism (1989) and thecurrent prograrnmes of the World Tourism Organizationand UNEP, making suitable use of museums, heritage

267

sites, zoos. botanical gardens, national parks, and otherprotected treas;(h) Countries should encourage non-governmental or-ganizations to increase their involvement in environnten-tal and development problems, through joint awarenessinitiatives and improved interchange with other constit-uencies in society;(i) Countries and the United Nations system shouidincrease their interaction with and include, as appropri-ate, indigenous people in the management, planning anddevelopment of their local environment, and should pro-mote dissemination of traditional and socially leamedknowledge through means based on local customs, espe-cially in rural areas, integrating these efforts with theelectronic media, whenever appropriate;

0) UNICEF, LTNESCO, UNDPand non-governmentalorganizatrons should develop support programmes toirrvolve young people and children in environment anddevelopment issues, such as children's and youth hear-ings and building on decisions of the World Summit forChildren (A/451625, annex);(k) Countries, the United Nations and non-governmen-tal organizations should encourage mobilization of bothmen and women in awareness campaigns, stressing therole of the family in environmental activities, women'scontribution to transmission of knowledge and socialvalues and the development of human resources;(l) Public awareness should be heightened regardingthe impacts of violence in society.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION

36.1 I The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implernenting theactivit ies of this programme to be about $1.2 bil l ion,including about $110 mill ion from the international com-munity on grant or concessional terms. These are indica-tive and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have notbeen reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and finan-cial terms, including any that are non-concessional, willdepend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and pro-grammes Governments decide upon for implementation.

cl PRoMoTTNG TRATNTNG

BASIS FOR ACTION

36.12 Training is one of the most important tools todevelop human resources and facilitate the transition toa more sustainable world. It should have a job-specific

focus, aimed at filling gaps in knowledge and skill thatwould help individuals find employment and be involvedin environmental and development work. At the sametime, training programmes should promote a greaterawareness of environment and development issues as atwo-way learning process.

OBJECTIVES

36.13 The following obiectives are proposed:(a) To establish or strengthen vocational training pro-grammes that meet the needs of environment and devel-opment with ensured acc:ess to training opportunities,regardless of social status, age, gender, race or religion;(b) To promote a flexible and adaptable workforce ofvarious ages equipped to meet growing environment anddevelopment problems and changes erising from thetransition to a sustainable society;(c) To strengthen national capacities, particularly inscientific education and training, to enable Govemments,employers and workers to meet their environmental anddevelopment objectives and to facilitate the transfer andassimilation of new environmentally sound, socially ac-ceptable and appropriate technology and know-how;(d) To ensure that environmental and human ecologicalconsiderations are integrated at all managerial levels andin all functional management areas, such as rnarketing,production and finance.

ACTIVITIES

36.14 Countries with the support of the United Nationssystem should identify workforce training needs andassess measures to be taken to meet those needs. Areviewof progress in this area could be undertaken by the UnitedNations system in 1995.36.15 National professional associations are encouragedto develop and review their codes of ethics and conductto strengthen environmental connections and commit-ment. The training and personal development compo-nents of programmes sponsored by prof'essional bodiesshould ensure incorporation of skills and information onthe implementation of sustainable development at allpoints of policy- and decision-making.36.16 Countries and educational institutions should inte-grate environmental and developmental issues into exist-ing training curricula and promote the exchange of theirmethodologies and evaluations.36.17 Countries should encourage all sectors of society,such as industry, universities, government ofticials andemployees, non-governrnental organizations and com-munity organizations, to include an envirclnmental man-agement cornponent in all relevant training activities,

268

with emphasis on meeting immediate skill requirementsthrough short-term formal and in-plant vocational andmanagement training. Environmental management train-ing capacities should be strengthened, and specialized"training of trainers" programmes should be establishedto support training at the national and enterprise levels.New training approaches fbr existing environmentallysound practices should be developed that create employ-ment opportunities and make maximum use of localresource-based methods.36.18 Countries should strengthen or establish practicaltraining programmes for graduates from vocationalschools, high schools and universities, in all countries, toenable them to meet labour market requirements and toachieve sustainable livelihoods. Training and retrainingprogrammes should be established to meet structuraladjustments which have an impact on employment andskill qualifications.36.19 Governments are encouraged to consult withpeople in isolated situations, whether geographicaily,culturally or socially, to ascertain their needs for trainingto enable them to contribute more fully to developingsustainable work practices and lifestyles.36.20 Governments, industry, trade unions, and consum-ers should promote an understanding of the interrelation-ship between good environment and good business prac-tices.36.21 Countries should develop a service of locallytrained and recruited environmental technicians able toprovide local people and communities, particularly indeprived urban and rural areas, with the services theyrequire, starting from primary environmental care.36.22 Countries should enhance the ability to gain accessto, analyse and effectively use information and know-ledge available on environment and development. Exist-ing or established special training programmes should bestrengthened to support information needs of specialgroups. The impact of these programmes on produc-tivity, health, safety and employment should be evalu-ated. National and regional environmental labour-market information systems should be developed thatwould supply, on a continuing basis, data on environ-mental job and training opportunities. Environmentand development training resource-guides should beprepared and updated, with information on trainingprogrammes, curricula, methodologies and evaluationresults at the local, national, regional and internationallevels.36.23 Aid agencies should strengthen the training com-ponent in all development projects, emphasizing a multi-disciplinary approach, promoting awareness and provid-ing the necessary skills for transition to a sustainablesociety. The environmental management guidelines of

UNDP for operational activities of the United Nationssystem may contribute to this end.36.24 Existing networks of employers' and workers' or-ganizati ons, industry associations and non- governmentalorganizations should facilitate the exchange of experi-ence concerning training and awareness prograffrmes.36.25 Governments, in cooperation with relevant inter-national organizations, should develop and implementstrategies to deal with national, regional and local envi-ronmental threats and emergencies, emphasizing urgentpractical training and awareness programmes forincreas-ing public preparedness.36.26 The United Nations system, as appropriate, shouldextend its training programmes, particularly its environ-mental training and support activities for employers'andworkers' organization s.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENIATION

F/NANC/NG AND COST EVALUATION

36.27 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing theactivities of this programme to be about $5 billion,including about $2 billion frorn the intemational com-munity on grant orconcessional terms. These are indicativeand order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not beenreviewed by Govemments. Actual costs and financialterms, including any that are non-concessional, will dependupon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmesGovemments decide upon for implementation.

Environmentol Educotion :chop . l l l .

' lnlergovernmentol Conference on

Finol Report (Por is, UNESCO, 1978},

t Finol Report of the Wortd Conference on Educotion for All:Meeting Basic Leorning Needs, Jomtien, Thoilond, 5-9 Morch1990 (New York, Inter-Agency Commission (UNDP, UNESCO,UNICEF, World Bonkl for the World Conference on Educotion forA l l , 1990) .

269

a7 Notionol mechonisms ond internotionol cooperotion\', f for copocity-building in developing countries

P R O G R A M M E A R E A

BASIS FOR ACTION

37 "l The abil ity of a country to lollow sustainable devel-opment paths is detennined to a large extent by thecapacity of its people and its institutions as well as by itsecological and geographical conditions. Specifically,capacity-building encompasses the country's human,sc ientific, technol ogical, organi zati onal, i n stituti onal andresource capabilities. A fundamental goal of capacity-building is to enhance the ability to evaluate and addressthe crucial questions related to policy choices and modesof implementation among development options, basedon an understanding of environmental potentials andlimits and of needs as perceived b1' the people of thecountry concerned. As a result, the need to strengthennational capacities is shared by all countries.37 .2 Bu i ld ing endogenous capac i ty to imp lementAgenda 21 will require the efforts of the countries them-selves in partnership with relevant United Nations organ-izations. as well as with developed countries. The inter-national community at the national, subregional andreg iona l leve ls , mun ic ipa l i t ies , non-governmenta lorganizations, universities and research centres, and busi-ness and other private institutions and organizationscould also assist in these et-forts. It is essential for indi-vidual countries to identify priorities and determine themeans for building the capacity and capability to imple-ment Agenda 2l , taking into account their environmentaland economic needs. Skil ls, knowledge and technicalknou,-how at the individual and institutional levels arenecessary fbr institution-building, policy analysis anddevelopment management, including the assessment ofalternative courses of action with a view to enhancingaccess to and transfer of technology and promoting eco-nomic development. Technical cooperation. including

270

that related to technology transf-er and krrow-how, en-compasses the whole range of activities to develop orstrengthen individual and group capacities and capa-bilities. It should serve the purpose of long-temr capac-ity-building and needs to be managed and coordinatedby the countries themselves. Technical cooperation, in-cluding that related to technology transler and ktrow-how, is effective only when it is derived from and relatedto a country's own strategies and priorities on environ-ment and development and when development agenciesand Governments def ine improved and consistentpolicies and procedures to suppor-t this process.

OBJECTIVES

37.3 The overall objectives of endogenous capacity-building in this programme area are to develop andimprove national and related subregional ancl regionalcapacities and capabilities for sustainable development,with the involvement of the non-governmental sectors.The programme should assist by:(a) Promoting an ongoing participatory process todefine country needs and priorities in promoting Agenda2l and to give importance to technical and professionalhuman resource developrnent and developrnent of in-stitutional capacities and capabilities on the agencla ofcountries, wittr due recognition of tire potential for opti-mum use of existing human resources as well as enhance-ment of the efficiency of existing institutions and non-governmental organizations, including scientif ic andtechnological i nst i tut iorrs:(b) Reorienting technical cooperation and. in that pro-cess, setting new priorities in the field, including thatrelated to transfer of technology and know-how pro-cesses, while giving due attention to the specific condi-tions and individual needs of recipients, and intprovingcoordination among prclviders of assistance for supportto countr ies ' own programmes of act ion. This co-

ordination should also include non-governmental organ-izations and scientific and technological institutions, aswell as business and industry whenever appropriate;(c) Shifting time horizons in programme planning and

implementation for the development and strengtheningof institutional structures to permit an enhancement of

their ability to respond to new longer-terrn challengesrather than concentrating only on immediate problems;(d) Improving and reorienting existing internationalmu lti lateral insti tution s with re sponsibi I ities for environ-ment and/or development matters to ensure that thoseinstitutions have the capability and capacity to integrateenvironment and development;(e) Improving institutional capacity and capability,both public and private, in order to evaluate the environ-mental impact of all development projects.37.4 Specific objectives include the following:(a) Each country should aim to complete, as soon aspracticable, if possible by I 994,areview of capacity- andcapability-building requirements for devising nationalsustainable development strategies, including those forgenerating and implementing its own Agenda 21 actionprogramme;(b) By 1997, the Secretary-General should submit tothe General Assembly a report on the achievement ofimproved policies, coordination systems and proceduresfor strengthening the implementation of technical co-operation programmes fbr sustainable development, asweil as on additional measures required to strengthensuch cooperation. That report should be prepared on thebasis of information provided by countries, internationalorganizations, environment and development institu-tions, donor agencies and non-govemmental partners.

ACTIVITIES

A) BU|LD|NG A NAilONAt CONSENSUS ANDF O R M U LATI NG C APAC ITY- B U I LD I NG 5 IRAIEG/ESFOR IMPLEMENIING AGENDA 2I

37.5 As an important aspect of overall planning, eachcountry should seek internal consensus at all levels ofsociety on policies and programmes needed for short-and long-term capacity-building to implement its Agenda21 programme" This consensus should result from aparticipatory dialogue of r:elevant interest groups andlead to an identification of skill gaps, institutional capa-cities and capabil it ies, technological and scientif ic re-quirerlcnts and resource needs to enhance environmentalknowledge and administration to integrate environmentand development. UNDP in partnership with relevantspecialized agencies and other international intergovern-mental and non-governmental organizations could assist,

upon request of Governments, in the identification of therequirements for technical cooperation, including thoserelated to technology transfer and know-how and devel-opment assistance for the implementation of Agenda 21.The national planning process together, where appropri-ate. with national sustainable development action plans

or strategies should provide the framework for suchcooperation and assistance. UNDP should use and furtherimprove its network of field offices and its broad mandateto provide assistance, using its experience in the field oftechnical cooperation for facilitating capacity-buildingat the country and regional levels and making full use ofthe expertise of other bodies, in particular UNEP, theWorld Bank and regional commissions and developmentbanks, as well as relevant international intergovernmen-tal and non-governmental organizations.

8/ /DENI/F/CATION OF NAilONAt SOURCES ANDPRESENIAI/ON OF REAUESIS FOR TECHNICALCOOPERATION, /NCTUD/NG THAT RELATED TOTECHNOLOGY IRANSFER AND KNOW-HOWIN THE FRAMEWORK OF SECIOR SIRAIFG/ES

37.6 Countries desiring arrangements for technical co-operation, including that related to transfer of technologyand know-how. with international organizations anddonor institutions should formulate requests in the frame-work of long-term sector or subsector capacity-buildingstrategies. Strategies should, as appropriate, address pol-icy adjustments to be implemented, budgetary issues,cooperation and coordination among institutions, humanresource requirements, and technology and scientificequipment requirements. They should cover public andprivate sector needs and consider strengthening scientifictraining and educational and research programmes, in-cluding such training in the developed countries and thestrengthening of centres of excellence in developingcountries. Countries could designate and strengthen acentral unit to organrze and coordinate technical coopera-tion, linking it with the priority-setting and the resourceallocation process.

c) ESTABL/SHMFNT OF A REVIEW MECHANISMOF IECHNICAL COOPERAIION /N AND RELATEDIO IECHNOLOGY IRANSFER AND KNOW-HOW

37.7 Donors and recipients, the organizations and institu-tions of the United Nations system, and internationalpublic and private organizations should review thedevelopment of the cooperation process as it relates totechnical cooperation, including that related to activities

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for the transfer of technology and know-how linked tosustainable development. To facilitate this process theSecretary-General could undertake, taking into ac-count work carried out by UNDP and other organiza-tions in preparation for the United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development, consultations withdeveloping countries, regional organizations, organi-zations and institutions of the United Nations system,including regional commissions, and multi lateral andbilateral aid and environment agencies, with a view tofurther strengthening the endogenous capacities ofcountries and improving technical cooperation, includ-ing that related to the technology transfer and know-how process. The following aspects should be re-viewed:(a) Evaluation of existing capacity and capability forthe integrated management of environment and develop-ment, including technical, technological and institutionalcapacities and capabilities, and facilities to assess theenvironmental impact of development projects; andevaluation of abilities to respond to and link up with needsfor technical cooperation, including that related to tech-nology transfer and know-how, of Agenda 21 and theglobal conventions on climate change and biologicaldiversity;(b) Assessment of the contribution of existing activitiesin technical cooperation, including that related to transferof technology and know-how, towards strengthening andbuilding national capacity and capability for integratedenvironment and development management and an as-sessment of the means of improving the quality of inter-national technical cooperation, including that related totransfer of technolgy and know-how;(c) A strategy for shifting to a capacity- and capability-building thrust that recognizes the need for the oper-ational integration of environment and development withlonger-term commitments, having as a basis the set ofnational programmes established by each country,through a participatory process;(d) Consideration of greater use of long-term coopera-tive arrangements between municipalities, non-govern-mental organizations, universities, training and researchcentres and business, public and private institutions withcounterparts in other countries or within countries orregions. Programmes such as the Sustainable Develop-ment Networks of UNDP should be assessed in thisregard;(e) Strengthening of the sustainability of projects byincluding in the original project design consideration ofenvironmental impacts, the costs of institution-building,human resource development and technology needs, aswell as flnancial and organizational requirements foroperation and maintenance;

(0 Improvement of technical cooperation, includingthat related to transfer of technology and know-how andmanagement processes, by giving greater attention tocapacity- and capability-building as an integral part ofsustainable development strategies for environment anddevelopment programmes both in country-related coor-dination processes, such as consultative groups and roundtables, and in sectoral coordination mechanisms to enabledeveloping countries to participate actively in obtainingassistance from different sources.

D/ ENHANCEMFNI AF THE EXPERIISE ANDCOLLECTIVE CONTR/BUIION OF THE UNITED NAI/ONSSYSTEM FOR CAPACITY- AND CAPABILITY-BUII.DINGINITIATIVES

37.8 Organizations, organs, bodies and institutions of theUnited Nations system, together with other internationaland regional organizations and the public and privatesectors, could, as appropriate. strengthen their joint ac-tivities in technical cooperation, including that related totransfer of'technology and know-how, in order to addresslinked environment and development issues and to pro-mote coherence and consistency of action. Organizationscould assist and reinforce countries, particularly leastdeveloped countries, upon request, on matters relating tonational environmental and developmental policies,human resource development and fielding of experts,legislation. natural resources and environmental data.37.9 UNDP, the World Bank and regional multilateraldevelopment banks, as part of their participation in na-tional and regional coordination mechanisms, shouldassist in facilitating capacity- and capability-building atthe country level, drawing upon the special expertise andoperational capacity of UNEP in the environmental fieldas well as of the specialized agencies, organizations ofthe United Nations system and regional and subregionalorganizations in their respective areas of competence.For this purpose UNDP should mobilize funding forcapacity- and capability-building, utilizing its networkof field offices and its broad mandate and experience inthe field of technical cooperation, including that relatedto transfer of technology and know-how. UNDP, togetherwith these international organizations, should at the sametime continue to develop consultative processes to en-hance the mobilization and coordination of funds from theinternational community for capacity- and capability-build-ing, including the establishment of an appropriate database.These responsibilities may need to be accompanied bysffengthening of the capacities of LINDP.37.10 The national entity in charge of technical cooper-ation, with the assistance of the UNDP resident repre-

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sentatives and the UNEP representatives, should estab-lish a small group of key actors to steer the process, givingpriority to the countrl"s own strategies and priorities.The experience gained through existing planning exer-cises such as the national reports for the United NationsConference on Environtnent and Development, nationalconservation strategies and environment action plans

should be fully used and incorporated into a country-driven, participatory and sustainable development strat-egy. This should be cornplernented r,vith informationnetworks and consultations with donor organizations inorder to improve coordination. as well as access to theexisting body of scientific and technical knowleclge andinformation available in institutions elsewhere.

E) HARMON/ZATION OF TtlE DELMRY OFASS/SIANCE AT THE REGIONAT TEVEI.

37.11 At the regional level, existing organizations shouldconsider the desirability of irnproved regional and sub-regional consultative ptocesses and round-table meetingsto facilitate the e'xchange of data, information and experi-ence in the implementation o1'Agenda 21. UND| build-ing on the results of the regional surveys on capacity-building that those regional organizations carried out onthe United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment initiative, ancl in collaboration with exist-ing regional, subregional or national organizations withpotential for regional coordination, should provide asignificant input for this purpose. The relevant nationaiunit should establish a steering mechanisnt. A periodic

review mechanism should be established among thecountries of the region with the assistance of the appro-priate relevant regional organizations and the participa-tion of development banks, bilateral aid agencies andnon-governmental organizations. Other possibilities areto develop national and regional research and trainingfacilities building on existing regional and subregionalinstitutions.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

F/NANC/NG AND COSI EVALUATION

37.12 The cost of bilateral expenditures to developingcountries for technical cooperation, including that relatedto transfer of technology and know-how, is about $15 bil-lion or about 25 per cent of total official developmentassistance. The implementation of Agenda 2 I will requirea more effective use of these funds and additional fundinsin key areas.3l .13 The Conference secretariat has estimated the aver-age total annual cost ( 1993-20f,0) of implementing theactivities of this chapter to be between $300 million and

$ I billion from the international community on grant orconcessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial tertns, includingany that are non-concessional, will depend vpon, interalia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-ments decide upon for implementation.

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3 B Internotionol institutionol orrongements

BASIS FOR ACTION

38.1 The mandate of the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development emanates from GeneralAssembly resolution 4/'1228, in which the Assembly,irfter alia, affirmed that the Conference should elaboratestrategies and measures to halt and reverse the effects ofenvironmental degradation in the context of increasednational and international efforts to promote sustainableand environmentally sound development in all countriesand that the promotion of economic growth in developingcountries is essential to address problems of environmen-tal degradation. The intergovernmental follow-up to theConference process shall be within the framework of theUnited Nations system, with the General Assembly beingthe supreme policy-making forum that would provideoverall guidance to Governments, the United Nationssystem and relevant treaty bodies. At the same time,Governments, as well as regional economic and technicalcooperation organizations, have a responsibility to playan important role in the follow-up to the Conference.Their commitments and actions should be adequatelysupported by the United Nations system and multilateralfinancial institutions. Thus, national and internationalefforts would mutually benefit from one another.38.2 In fulfilling the mandate of the Conference, there isa need for institutional arrangements within the UnitedNations system in c:onformity with, and providing inputinto, the restructuring and revitalization of the UnitedNations in the economic, social and related flelds, andthe overall reform of the United Nations, including on-going changes in the Secretariat. In the spirit of reformand revitalization of the United Nations system. im-plementation of Agenda 2l and other conclusions of theConference shall be based on an action- and result-oriented approach and consistent with the principles ofuniversality, democracy, transparency, cost-effective-ness and accountability.38.3 The tinited Nations svstem. with its multisectoral

274

capacity and the extensive experience of a number ofspecialized agencies in various spheres of internationalcooperation in the field of environment and development,is uniquely positioned to assist Governments to establishmore effective patterns of economic and social develop-ment with a view to achieving the objectives of Agenda2l and sustainable development.38.4 All agencies of the United Nations system have akey role to play in the implementation of Agenda 2lwithin their respective competence. To ensure propercoordination and avoid duplication in the implementationof Agenda 21, there should be an effective division oflabour between various parts of the United Nations sys-tem based on their terms of reference and comparativeadvantages. Member States, through relevant governingbodies, are in a position to ensure that these tasks are caniedout properly. In order to facilitate evaluation of agencies'performance and promote knowledge of their activities, allbodies of the United Nations system should be required toelaborate and publish reports of their activities concerningthe implementati on of Agenda 2 1 on a regular basi s. Seriousand continuous reviews of theirpolicies, programmes, bud-gets and activities will also be required.38.5 The continued active and eft'ective participation ofnon-governmental organizations, the scientific com-munity and the private sector, as well as local groups andcommunities, is important in the implementation ofAgenda 21 .38.6 The institutional structure envisaged below will bebased on agreement on financial resources and mecha-nisms, technology transfer, the Rio Declaration andAgenda 21. ln addition, there has to be an effective linkbetween substantive action and financial support, and thisrequires close and effective cooperation and exchange ofinformation between the United Nations system and themultilateral financial institutions for the follow-up ofAgenda 2l within the institutional arrangement.

OBJECTIVES

38.7 The overall objective is the integration of environ-

ment and development issues at national, subregional,

regional and international levels. including in the United

Nations system instituticlnal arrangements.

38.8 Specific obiectives shall be:(a) To ensure and review the implementation of Agenda

2l so as to achieve sustainable development in all coun-

tries:(b) To enhance the role and functioning of the United

Nations system in the field of environment and develop-

ment. All relevant agencies. organizations and pro-

granunes of the linited Nations system should adopt

concrete programmes fbr the implementation of Agenda

21 and also provide policy guidance for United Nations

activities or advicc to Governments, upon request, within

their areas of competence,(c) To strengthen cooperation and coordination on en-

vironment and development in the United Nations sys-

tem;(d) To encourage interaction and cooperation between

the United Nations system and other intergovernmental

and non-governmental subregional, regional and global

institutions and non-governmental orgamzatrons in the

field of envitonment and clevelopment;(e) To strengthen institutional capabilities and arrange-

ments required for the eff-ective irnplementation, follow-

up and review of Agenda 2l :(fl To assist in the strengthening and coordination of

national. subregional and regional capacities and actions

in the areas of environment and development;(g) To establish effective cooperation and exchange of

information between United Nations organs. organiza-

tions, programmes and the multilateral financial bodies,

within the institutional arrangements for the ftlllow-up

of Agenda 21 ;(h) To respon6l 1tl sontinuing and emerging issues re-

lating to environmettt and development;(i) To ensnre that any new institutional anangements

wor,rld support revitalization, clear division of responsi-

bilities and the avoidance of duplication in the United

Nat ions system and depend to the maximum extent

possible upon exist ing resources.

I NSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE

A) GENERAL ASSEMBLY

3ti.9 'fhe

General Assembly. as the highest intergovern-

mental rnechanism. is the principal policy-making and

appraisal organ on matters relating to the follow-up of

the Conf'erence. The Assembly would organize a regular

review of the inrplementation of Agenda 2l " In fulf illing

this task, the Assembly could consider the timing, format

ancl organizational aspects t,rl'such a review. In particular,

the Assembly could consider holding a special session

not later than 1997 for the overall revicw and appraisal

of Agenda 2l , with adequate preparations at a high level.

B) ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

38.10 The Economic and Social Council, in the context

of its role under the Charter t'i,i-d-vis the General Assem-

bly and the ongoing restructuring and revitalization of

the United Nations in the econontic, social and related

fields, would assist the General Assernbly by overseeing

system-wide coordination in the intplementation of

Agenda 2l and rnaking recolnmetrdations ln this regard.

In addition. the Councii would undefiake the task of

directing system-wide coordination and integration of

environmental and developmental aspects of United Na-

tions policies and programmes and would make appro-

priate recommendations to the General Assembly. spe-

cialized agencies concerned and Member States. Appro-

priate steps should be taken to obtain rr:gular reports trom

specialized agencies on thcir plans and programmes

related to the implementation of A-senda 2l , pursuant to

Article 64 of the Charter of the lJnitecl Nations' The

Economic and Social Council should organize a periodic

review of the work of the Commission on Sustainable

Development envisaged in paragraph 38.11, as wel l as

of system-wide activit ies to integrate environment and

development, making full use of its high-level and coor-

dination segments.

C) COMMISSION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVETOPMENT

38,l1 In order to ensure the eff 'ective follow-up of the

Conference, as well as to enhance international cooper-

ation and rationalize the intergovernmental decision-

making capacity for the integration of environment and

development issues ancl to exatnine the progress in the

implementation o1' Agenda '21

at the national, regional

and international levels. a high-level Clomniission on

Sustainable Devclopment shotr l t l be establ ished in ac-

cordance with Article 6tJ o1' the Clhalter ol the l-lnited

Nations. This Comtnission would repttrt to the Bconomic

and Social Council in the colttcxt of the Council 's role

under the Charter t'i.r-r)-t,is the General Assembly. It

would consist oi representatives of States elected as

members with due rcgarcl to equitabie geographical dis-

tribution. Representative s of non-member States of the

Commission w'ould havc obseruer status. ' l 'he

Corn-

mission should provrde l irr the actir, 'e involvement of

organs, pro-qrammes and organizations of the United

275

Nations system. international financial institutions andother relevant intergovernmental organizations, and en-courage the participation of non-govemmental organiza-tions, including industry and the business and scientificcommunities. The first meeting of the Commissionshould be convened no later than 1993.

'fhe Commission

should be supported by the secretariat envisaged in para-graph 38.19. Meanwhile the Secretary-General of theUnited Nations is requested to ensure adequate interimadministrative secretariat arrangements.38.12 The General Assembly, atits fbrty-seventh session,should determine specific organizational modalities forthe work of this Commission, such as its membership, itsrelationship with other intergovernmental United Na-tions bodies dealing with matters related tcl environmentand development. and the frequency, duration and venueof its meetings. These modalities should take into accountthe ongoing process of revitalization and restructuring ofthe work of the United Nations in the economic. socialand related fields. in particular measures recommendedby the General Assembly in resolutions 451264 of13 May l99l and 461235 of 13 April 1992 and otherrelevant Assembly resolutions. In this respect. the Secre-tary-General of the United Nations, with the assistanceof the Secretary-General of the United Nations Con-ference on Environment and Development, is requestedto prepare for the Assembly a report with appropriaterecommendations and proposals.38.13 The Cornmission on Sustainable Developmentshould have the following functions:(a) To monitor progress in the implementation of Agen-da 2I and activities related to the integration of environ-mental and developmental goals throughout the UnitedNations system through analysis and evaluation of re-ports from all reJevant organs, organizations, pro-grammes and institutions of the United Nations systemdealing with various issues of environment and develop-ment, including those related to finance;(b) To consider information provided by Governments,including. for example, information in the form of peri-odic comrnunications clr national reports regarding theactivities they undertake to implement Agenda 21, theproblems they face, such as problems related to financialresources and technology transfer, and otherenvironmentand development issues they find relevant;(c) To review the progress in the implementation of thecommitments contained in Agenda 21, including thoserelated to provision of financial resources and transfer oftechnology;(d) To receive and analyse relevant input from cornpe-tent non-governmental organizations, including thescientific and private sectors, in the context of the overallimplementation of Agenda 2l;

(e) To enhance the dialogue, within the framework ofthe United Nations, with non-governmental organiza-tions and the independent sector, as well as other entitiesoutside the United Nations system;(0 To consider, where appropriate, information regard-ing the progress made in the implementation of environ-mental conventions, which could be made available bythe relevant Conferences of Parties;(g) To provide appropriate recommendations to theGeneral Assembly through the Economic and Social Coun-cil on the basis of an integrated consideration of the reportsand issues related to the implernentation of Agenda 2l;(h) To consider, at an appropriate time, the results ofthe review to be conducted expeditiously by the Secre-tary-General of all recommendations of the Conferencefor capacity-building programmes, information net-works, task forces and other mechanisms to support theintegration of environment and development at regionaland subregional levels.38;14 Within the intergoverrunental framework, con-sideration should be given to allowing non-governmentalorganizations, including those related to major groups,particularly women's groups, committed to the im-plementation of Agenda 2l to have relevant informationavailable to them, including information, reports andother data produced within the United Nations systern.

D) THE SECRETARY-GENERAL

38.15 Strong and effective leadership on the part of theSecretary-General is crucial, since he/she would be thefocal point of the institutional arrangements within theUnited Nations system for the successful follow-up to theConference and for the implementation of Agenda 21.

E) HIGH-LEVEL TNTER-AGENCY COORDTNATTON MECHANTSM

38.16 Agenda 21, as the basis for action by the interna-tional community to integrate environment and develop-ment, should provide the principal framework for coor-dination of relevant activities within the United Nationssystem. To ensure effective monitoring, coordination andsupervision of the involvement of the United Nationssystem in the follow-up to the Conference, there is a needfor a coordination mechanism under the direct leadershipof the Secretary-General.38.17 This task should be given to the AdministrativeCommittee on Coordination (ACC), headed by the Sec-retary-General. ACC would thus provide a vital link andinterface between the multilateral financial institutionsand other United Nations bodies at the highest adminis-trative level. The Secretary-General should continue torevitalize the functionine of the Committee. All heads of

276

agencies and institutions of the United Nations systemshall be expected to cooperate with the Secretary-Generalfully in order to make ACC work effectively in fulfillingits crucial role and ensure successtul implementation of

Agenda 21. ACC should consider establishing a specialtask force, subcommittee or sustainable developmentboard, taking into account the experience of the Desig-nated Officials for Environtnental Matters (DOEM) andthe Committee of International Development Institutionson Environment (CIDIE), as well as the respective rolesof UNEP and UNDP. Its report should be submitted tothe relevant intergovernmental bodies.

F) H|GH-LEVEL ADVTSORY BODY

38.18 Intergovernmental bodies, the Secretary-Generaland the United Nations system as a whole may alsobenet-it from the expertise of a high-level advisory boardconsisting of erninent persons knowledgeable about en-vironment and development, including relevant sciences,appointed by the Secretary-General in their personal

capacity. In this regard. the Secretary-Gcneral shouldmake appropriate recommendations to the General As-sembly at its forty-seventh session.

G) SECREIARIAT SUPPORT STRUCTURE

38.19 A highly qualified and cotnpetent secretariat sup-port structure rvithin the tlnited Nations Secretariat,drawing, inter alia, on the expertise gained in the Con-ference preparatory process, is essential for the follow-up to the Conference and the implementation of Agenda21. This secretariat support structure should providesupport to the work of both intergovernmental and inter-agency coordination mechanisms. Concrete organiza-tional decisions fall within the competence of the Secre-tary-General as the chief administrative officer of theOrganization, who is requested to report on the provisionsto be made, covering staffing implications, as soon aspracticable, taking into account gender balance asdefined in Article 8 of the Charter of the United Nationsand the need for the best use of existing resources inthe context of the current and ongoing restructuring ofthe United Nations Secretariat.

H) ORGANS, PROGRANMES ANDORGANIZATIONS OF THE UNITED NATIONS SYSTEM

38.20 In the follow-up to the Cont'erence, in particular

the implementation of Agenda 21, all relevant organs,programmes and organizations of the tlnited Nationssystem will have an importantrole within theirrespectiveareas of expertise and mandates in supporting and sup-plementing national efforts. Coordination and mutual

complementarity of their efforts to promote integrationof environment and development can be enhanced byencouraging countries to maintain consistent positions inthe various governing bodies.

I ) UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME

38.21 In the follow-up to the Conference, there will be aneed for an enhanced and strengthened role for UNEPand its Governing Council. The Governing Councilshould, within its mandate, continue to play its role withregard to policy guidance and coordination in the fieldof the environment, taking into account the developmentperspective.38.22 Priority areas on which UNEP should concentrateinclude the following:(a) Strengthening its catalytic role in stimulating andpromoting environmental activities and considerationsthroughout the United Nations system;(b) Promoting international cooperation in the field ofenvironment and recommending, as appropriate, policiesto this end:(c) Developing and promoting the use of such techn-iques as natural resource accounting and environmentaleconomics:(d ) Env i ronmenta l mon i to r ing and assessment ,through both improved participation by the United Na-tions system agencies in the Earthwatch programme andexpanded relations with private scientific and non-gov-ernmental research institutes; and strengthening andmaking operational its early-waming function;(e) Coordination and promotion of relevant scientificresearch with a view to prclviding a consolidated basisfor decision-making;(0 Dissemination of environmental information anddata to Governments and to organs, programmes andorganizations of the United Nations system;(g) Raising general awareness and action in the area ofenvironmental protection through collaboration with thegeneral public, non-governmental entities and intergov-ernmental institutions;(h) Further development of international environmen-tal law, in particular conventions and guidelines, promo-tion of its implementation, and coordinating functionsarising from an increasing number of international legalagreements, inter ctlia,the functioning of the secretariatsof the conventions, taking into account the need for themost efflcient use of resources, including possibleco-location of secretariats established in the future;(i) Further development and promotiotr of the widestpossible use of environmental impact assessments, in-cluding activities carried out under the auspices of spe-cialized asencies of the United Nations svstem. and in

277

connection with every significant economic develop-ment project or activity;

0) Facilitation of information exchange on environ-mentally sound technologies, including legal aspects, andprovision of training;(k) Promotion of subregional and regional cooperationand support to relevant initiatives and programmes forenvironmental protection, including playing a majorcontributing and coordinating role in the regionalmechanisms in the field of environment identified forthefollow-up to the Conference;(l) Provision of technical,legal and institutional adviceto Governments, upon request, in establishing and en-hancing their national legal and institutional frame-works, in part icular, in cooperat ion wi th UNDPcapac ity -building efforts ;(m) Support to Govemments, upon request, and devel-opment agencies and organs in the integration of envi-ronmental aspects into their development policies andprogrammes, in particular through provision of environ-mental, technical and policy advice during programmeformulation and i mplementation ;(n) Further developing assessment and assistance incases of environmental emergencies.38.23 In order to perfonn all of these functions, whileretaining its role as the principal body within the UnitedNations system in the field of environment and takinginto account the development aspects of environmentalquestions, UNEP would require access to greater exper-tise and provision of adequate financial resources and itwould require closer cooperation and collaboration withdevelopment organs and other relevant organs of theUnited Nations system. Furthermore, the regional officesof UNEP should be strengthened without weakening itsheadquarters in Nairobi, and UNEP should take steps toreinforce and intensify its liaison and interaction withUNDP and the World Bank.

2) UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

38.24 UNDP, like UNEP, also has a crucial role in thefollow-up to the United Nations Conference on Envi-ronment and Development. Through its network offield offices it would foster the United Nations system'scollective thrust in support of the implementation ofAgenda 2I, at the country. regional, interregional andglobal levels, drawing on the expertise of the spe-cialized agencies and other United Nations organrza-tions and bodies involved in operational activit ies. Therole of the resident representative/resident coordinatorof UNDP needs to be strengthened in order to coordi-nate the field-level activit ies of the United Nationsoperational activit ies.

38.25 Its role should include the following:(a) Acting as the lead agency in organizing UnitedNations system effbrts towards capacity-building at thelocal, national and regional levels;(b) Mobilizing donor resources on behalf of Govern-ments for capacity-building in recipient countries and,where appropriate, through the use of the UNDP donorround-table mechanisms ;(c) Strengthening its own programmes in support offollow-up to the Conference without prejudice to the fifthprogramming cycle;(d) Assisting recipient countries, upon request, in theestablishment and strengthening of national coordinationmechanisms and networks related to activities for thefollow-up to the Conference;(e) Assisting recipient countries, upon request, in co-ordinating the mobiliz,atron of domestic financial re-sources;(0 Promoting and strengthening the role and involve-ment of women, youth and other maj or groups in rec ipientcountries in the implementation of Agenda 21.

3) UNTTED NATTONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT

38.26 UNCTAD should play an important role in theimplementation of Agenda 2l as extended at its eighthsession, taking into account the importance of the inter-relationships between development, intemational tradeand the environment and in accordance with its mandatein the area of sustainable developrnent.

4) UNITED NATIONS SUDANO-SAFIELIAN OFFICE

38.21 The role of the United Nations Sudano-SahelianOffice (UNSO), with added resources that may becomeavailable, operating under the umbrella of UNDP andwith the support of UNEP, should be strengthened so thatit can assume an appropriate major advisory role andparticipate effectively in the implementation of Agenda21 provisions related to combating drought and deserti-fication and to land resource rnanagement. In this context,the experience gained could be used by all othercountriesaffected by drought and desertification, in particularthose in Africa, with special attention to countries mostaffected or classified as least developed countries.

5) SPECIALIZED AGENCIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS SYSTEMAND RELATED ORGANIZATIONS AND OTHER RELEVANTI NTE RGOVE RNME NTAL ORGAN IZATIONS

38.28 All specialized agencies of the United Nationssystem, related organizations and other relevant intergov-ernmental organizations within their respective fields ofcompetence have an important role to play in the im-

278

plementation of relevant parts of Agenda 2l and otherdecisions of the Conference. Their governing bodies mayconsider ways of strengthening and adjusting activitiesand programmes in line with Agenda 21, in particular,regarding projects for promoting sustainable develop-ment. Furthermore, they may consider establishing spe-cial arrangements with donors and financial institutionsfor project implementation that may require additionalresources.

r) REGTONAL AND SUBREGTONAT COOPERATIONAND IMPLEMENTATION

38.29 Regional and subregional cooperation will be animportant part of the outcome of the Conference. Theregional commissions, regional development banks andregional economic and technical cooperation organiza-tions, within their respective agreed mandates, can con-tribute to this process by:(a) Promoting regional and subregional capacity-building;(b) Promoting the integration of environmental con-cerns in regional and subregional development policies;(c) Promoting regional and subregional cooperation,where appropriate, regarding transboundary issues re-lated to sustainable development.38.30 The regional commissions, as appropriate, shouldplay a leading role in coordinating regional and sub-regional activities by sectoral and other United Nationsbodies and shall assist countries in achieving sustainabledevelopment. The commissions and regional pro-grammes within the United Nations system, as well asother regional organizations, should review the need formodification of ongoing activities, as appropriate, in thelight of Agenda 21.38.3 t There must be active cooperation and collabora-tion among the regional commissions and other relevantorganizations, regional development banks, non-govern-mental organizations and other institutions at the regionallevel. UNEPand UNDP, together with the regional com-missions, would have a crucial role to play, especially inproviding the necessary assistance, with particular em-phasis on building and strengthening the national capac-ity of Member States.38.32 There is a need fnr closer cooperation betweenUNEP and UNDP, together with other relevant institu-tions, in the implementation of projects to halt environ-mental degradation or its impact and to suppoft trainingprogrammes in environmental planning and managementfor sustainable development at the regional level.38.33 Regional intergovernmental technical and eco-nomic organizations have an important role to play inhelping Governments to take coordinated action in solv-ing environment issues of regional significance.

38.34 Regional and subregional organizations shouldplay a major role in the implementation of the provisionsof Agenda 21 related to combating drought and deserti-fication. UNEP. UNDP and UNSO should assist andcooperate with those relevant organizations.38.35 Cooperation between regional and subregional or-ganizations and relevant organizations of the UnitedNations system should be encouraged, where appropri-ate. in other sectoral areas.

J) NATTONAL TMPLEMENTATTON

38.36 States have an important role to play in the follow-up of the Conference and the implementation of Agen-da2l. National-level efforts should be undertaken by allcountries in an integrated manner so that both environ-ment and development concerns can be dealt with in acoherent manner.38.37 Policy decisions and activities at the national level,tailored to support and implement Agenda 21, should besupported by the United Nations system upon request.38.38 Furthermore, States could consider the preparationof national reports. In this context, the organs of theUnited Nations system should, upon request, assist coun-tries, in particular developing countries. Countries couldalso consider the preparation of national action plans forthe implementation of Agenda 21.38.39 Existing assistance consortia, consultative groupsand round tables should make greater efforts to integrateenvironmental considerations and related developmentobjectives into their development assistance strategiesand should consider reorienting and appropriately adjust-ing their memberships and operations to facilitate thisprocess and better support national efforts to integrateenvironment and development.38.40 States may wish to consider setting up a nationalcoordination structure responsible for the follow-up ofAgenda 2 | . Within this structure, which would benefitfrom the expertise of non-govemmental organizations,submissions and other relevant information could bemade to the United Nations.

K) C@PERATTON BETWEEN UNTTED NATTONS BODTESAND I MERNATIONAL FI NANCIAL ORGAN IZATIONS

38.41 The success of the follow-up to the Conference isdependent upon an effective link between substantiveaction and financial support, and this requires close andeffective cooperation between United Nations bodies andthe multilateral financial organizations. The Secretary-General and heads of United Nations prograrnmes andor ganization s and the mu lti I ateral financ i al org ani zati o n shave a special responsibility in forging such cooperation,not only through the United Nations highJevel coordi-

279

nation mechanism (Administrative Committee on Coor-dination) but also at regional and national levels. Inparticular, representatives of multilateral financial in-stitutions and mechanisms, as well as IFAD, shouldactively be associated with deliberations of the intergov-ernmental structure responsible for the follow-up toAgenda 21.

L) NON-C;OVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

38.42 Non-governmental organizat ions and majorgroups are important partners in the implementation ofAgenda 21. Relevant non-governmental organizations,including the scientific community, the private sectorand women's groups, should be given opportunities tomake their contributions and establish appropriate re-lationships with the United Nations system. Supportshould be provided for developing countr ies ' non-governmental organizations and their self-organizednetworks.38.43 The United Nations system, including interna-tional finance and development agencies, and all inter-governmental organizations and forums should, in con-sultation with non-governmental organizations, takemeasures to:(a) Design open and effective means to achieve theparticipation of non-govern mental organizations, includ-

ing those related to major groups, in the process estab-lished to review and evaluate the implementation ofAgenda 2l at all levels and promote their contributionto it;(b) Take into account the flndings of review systemsand evaluation processes of non-governmental organiza-tions in relevant reports of the Secretary-General to theGeneral Assembly and all pertinent United Nations agen-cies and intergovernmental organizations and forumsconcerning implementation of Agenda 2l in accordancewith the review process.38.44 Procedures should be established for an expandedrole for non - governmental organizations, i nc luding thoserelated to major groups, with accreditation based on theprocedures used in the Conf-erence. Such organizationsshould have access to reports and other informationproduced by the United Nations system. The GeneralAssembly, at an early stage, should examine ways ofenhancing the involvement of non-governmental organ-izations within the United Nations system in relation tothe follow-up process of the Conference.38.45 The Conference takes note of other institutionalinitiatives for the implementation of Agenda 21, such asthe proposal to establish anon-governmental Earth Coun-cil and the proposal to appoint a guardian for futuregenerations, as well as other initiatives taken by localgovernments and business sectors.

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? O Internotionol legol instruments ond mechqnisms\ / /

BASIS FOR ACTION

39.1 The following vital aspects of the universal, multi-lateral and bilateral treaty-making process should betaken into account:(a) The further development of international law onsustainable development. giving special attention to thedelicate balance between environmental and develop-mental concerns;(b) The need to clarify and strengthen the relationshipbetween existing international instruments or agreementsin the field of environment and relevant social and eco-nomic agreements or instruments, taking into account thespecial needs of developing countries;(c) At the global level, the essential irnportance of theparticipation in and the contribution of all countries,including the developing countries, to treaty rnaking inthe field of international law on sustainable development.Many of the existing international legal instruments andagreements in the field of environment have been de-veloped without adequate participation and contributionof developing countries, and thus may require review inorder to reflect the concerns and interests o1'developingcountries and to ensure a balanced governance of suchinstruments and agreements:(d) Developing countries should also be provided withtechnical assistance in their attempts to enhance theirnational legislative capabilities in the field of environ-mental law:(e t Future prcrjects for the progressive development andcodification of international law on sustainable develop-ment should take into account the ongoing work of theInternational Law Commission;(0 Any negotiations for the progressive developmentand codification of international law concerning sustain-able development should, in general, be conducted on auniversal basis" taking into account special circun"r-stances in the various resions.

OBJECTIVES

3L).2 'I'he

overall ob.jective of the review and develop-ment of international environmental law should be toevaluate and to promote the efficacy of that law and topromote the integration of environment and developmentpolicies through eff'ective international agreements orinstruments taking into account both universal principlesand the particular and differentiated needs and concernsof all countries.39.3 Specific objectives are:(a) To identify and address difficulties which preventsome States, in particular developing countries, fromparticipating in or duly implementing internationalagreements or instruments and, where appropriate. toreview and revise them with the purposes of integratingenvironmental and developmental concerns and layingdown a sound basis for the implementation of theseagreements or instruments;(b) To set priorities for future law-making on sustain-able development at the global, regional or subregionallevel, u'ith a view to enhancing the efficacy of interna-tional law in this field through, in particular, the integra-tion of environmental and developmental concerns;(c) To promote and support the effective participationof all countries concerned. in particulardeveloping coun-tries, in the negotiation, implernentation. review andgovernance of international agreements or instruments.including appropriate provision of technical and financialassistance and other available mechanisms for this pur-pose, as well as the use of differential obligations whereappropriatel(d) To promote, through the gradual development ofuniversally and multilaterally negotiated agreements orinstruments, international standards for the protection ofthe environment that take into account the different situ-ations and capabilities of countries. States recognize thatenvironmental policies should deal with the root causesof environmental degradation. thus preventing environ-

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mental measures from resulting in unnecessary restric-tions to trade. Trade policy measures for environmentalpllrposcs should not constitute a means of arbitrary orunjustif iable discrimination or a disguised restriction oninternational trade. Unilateral actions to deal with envi-ronmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the im-port ing country should be avoided. Environmentalmeasures addressing international environmental prclb-lems should, as far as possible, be based on an interna-tional consensus. Domestic measures targeted to achievecc : r ta in env i ronmenta l ob jec t ives may need t rademeasures to render them effective. Should trade policynleasures be found necessary fbr the enforcement ofenvironmental pol ic ies, certain pr inciples and rulesshould apply. These could include, inter alia. the prin-

ciple of non-discrimination; the principle that the trademeasure chosen should be the least trade-restrictivenecessary to achieve the object ives; an obl igat ion toensure transparency in the use of trade measures re-lated to the envirclnment and to provide adequate no-tif ication of natiorral regulations; and the need to giveconsiderat ion to the special condi t ions and develop-ment requirements of developing countr ies as theymove towards internationally agreed environmentalob jec t ives :(e) To ensure the etfective. full and prompt implemen-tation of legally binding instruments and to facilitatetimely review and adjustment of agreements or instru-ntents by the parties concerned, taking into account thespecial needs and concerns of all countries, in particulardevcloping countr ies:(l) To improve the effectiveness of institutions. mech-anisms and procedures for the administration of agree-ments and instruments:(g) To identify and prevent actual or potential confl icts,particularly between environmental and sociaVeconomicagreements or instruments, with a view to ensuring thatsuch agreements or instruments are consistent. Whereconflicts arise they should be appropriately resolved,(h) To study and consider the broadening and strength-ening of the capacity of mechanisms, inter alia. in theUnited Nations system to facilitate, where appropriateand agreed to by the parties concerned, the identification,avoidance and settlement of international disputes in thel-ield of sustainable development, duly taking into ac-count existing bilateral and multi lateral agreements forthe settlement of such disputes.

ACTIVITIES

39.;l Activit ies and means of implementation should beconsidered in the l ight of the above basis for action andobjectives, without prejudice to the right of every Stateto put lorward suggestions in this regard in the General

1 6 I

Assembly. These suggestions could be reproduced in aseparate compilation on sustainable development.

A) REVIEW, ASSESSMENT AND FIELDS OF AOION INI NTE RNATIONAL LAW FOR SUSTAI NABLE DEVELOPME NT

39.5 While ensuring the elfective participation of allcountries concerned, parties should at periodic intervalsreview and assess both the past perforrnance and effec-tiveness of existing international agreements or instru-ments as well as the priorities for future law-making onsustainable development. This may include an examina-tion of the t'easibility of elaborating general rights andobligations of States, as appropriate, in the field ofsustainable development, as provided by General As-sembly resolution 441228. In certain cases, attentionshould be given to the possibil i ty of taking into accountv aryin g circ um stance s throu gh di fferential obli g ati on sor gradual application. As an option f<rr carrying outthis task, earlier UNEP practice may be followedwhereby legal experts designated by Governmentscould meet at suitable intervals, to be decided later,with a broader environmental and developmental per-spective.39.6 Measures in accordance with international lawshould be considered to address. in times of armed con-flict, large-scale destruction of the environment that can-not be justified under international law. The GeneralAssembly and its Sixth Committee are the appropriateforums to deal with this subject. The specific competenceand role of the International Committee of the Red Crossshould be taken into account.39.7 In view of the vital necessity of ensuring safe andenvironmentally sound nuclear power, and in order tostrengthen international cooperation in this field, effortsshould be made to conclude the ongoing negotiations fora nuclear safety convention in the framework of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency.

B) IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISMS

39.8 The parties to intemational agreements should con-sider procedures and mechanisms to promote and reviewtheir effective, full and prompt implementation. To thateffect, States could, inter alio:(a) Establish efficient and practical reporting systemson the effective, full and prompt implementation of in-ternational legal instruments;(b) Consider appropriate ways in which relevant inter-national bodies, such as UNEP, might contribute towardsthe further development of such mechanisms.

cl EFFECTTVE PARTICIPATION lN IMERNATIONAL IAW-MAKING

39.9 In all these activities and others that may be pursued

in the future, based on the above basis for action and

objectives, the effective participation of all countries, inparticular developing countries, should be ensured

through appropriate provision of technical assistance

and/or financial assistance. Developing countries should

be given "headstart" support not only in their national

efforts to implement international agreements or instru-

ments, but also to participate effectively in the negotia-

tion of new or revised agreements or instruments and in

the actual international operation of such agreements or

instruments. Support should include assistance in build-ing up expertise in international law particularly in rela-

tion to sustainable development, and in assuring access

to the necessary reference information and scien-

tifi c/technical experti se.

D) DISPUTES IN THE FIELD OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

39.10 In the area of avoidance and settlement ofdisputes,States should further study and consider methods tobroaden and make more effective the range of techniquesavailable at present, taking into account, among otherthings, relevant experience under existing internationalagreements, instruments or institutions and, where ap-propriate, their implementing mechanisms such as mo-dalities for dispute avoidance and settlement. This mayinclude mechanisms and procedures for the exchange ofdata and inlbrmation. notification and consultation re-garding situations that might lead to disputes with otherStates in the field of sustainable development and foreffective peaceful means of dispute settlement in accorcl-ance with the Charter of the United Nations, including,where appropnate, recourse to the International Court ofJustice, and their inclusion in treaties relating to sustain-able development.

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40 Informqtion for decision-mcking

I N T R O D U C T I O N

40.1 In sustainable development, everyone is a user andprovider of information considered in the broad sense.That includes data, information, appropriately packagedexperience and knowledge. The need for informationarises at all levels, from that of senior decision makers atthe national and intemational levels to the grass-roots andindividual levels. The following two programme areasneed to be implernented to ensure thatdecisions are basedincreasingly on sound intormation:(a) Bridging the data gap;(b) Improving information availability.

P R O G R A M M E A R E A S

A) BRIDGING THE DATA GAP

BASIS FOR ACTION

40.2 While considerable data already exist, as the varioussectoral chapters of Agenda 21 indicate, more and differ-ent types of data need to be collected, at the local,provincial, national and intemational levels, indicatingthe status and trends of the planet's ecosystem, naturalresource, pollution and socio-economic variables. Thegap in the availability. quality, coherence, standardizationand accessibility of data between the developed and thedeveloping world has been increasing, seriously impair-ing the capacities of countries to make informed decisionsconcerning environment and development.40.3 There is a general lack of capacity. particularly indeveloping countries, and in many areas at the interna-tional level, tbr the collection and assessment of data, for

284

their transfbrmation into useftrl information and for therrdissemination. There is also need for improved coordi-nation among environmental, demographic, social anddevelopmental data and information activities.40.4 Commonly used indicators such as the gross na-tional product (GNP) and measurements of individualresource or pollution flows do not provide adequateindications of sustainability. Methods for assessing inter-actions between diff'erent sectoral environmental, demo-graphic, social and developmental parameters are notsufficiently developed or applied. Indicators of sustain-able development need to be developed to provide solidbases for decision-making at all levels and to contributeto a self-regulating sustainability of integrated environ-ment and development systems.

OBJECTIVES

40.5 The following objectives are important:(a) To achieve more cost-effective and relevant datacollection and assessment by better identification ofusers, in both the public and private sectors, and of theirinformation needs at the local, provincial, national andinternational levels:(b) To strengthen local, provincial, national and inter-national capacity to collect and use multisectoral infor-mation in decision-making processes and to enhancecapacities to collect and analyse data and information fordecision-making, particularly in developing countries;(c) To develop or strengthen local, provincial, nationaland international nreans of ensuring that planning forsustainable development in all sectors is based on timely,reliable and usable infbrmation;(d) To make relevant information accessible in the formand at the time required to facilitate its use.

AC"IIVITIES

A) DEVELOPMENT OF TNDTCAIORS OFSUSIA'NA B LE DEV ELOP MENT

40.6 Countries at the national level and internationalgovernmental and non-governmental organizations at theinternational level should develop the concept of indica-tors of sustainable development in order to identify suchindicators. In order to promote the increasing use of someof those indicators in satellite accounts, and eventuallyin national accounts, the developmentof indicators needsto be pursued by the Statistical Office of the UnitedNations Secretariat, as it draws upon evolving experiencein this regard.

B) pROMOilON OF GLOBAI. UsE OF IND|CATORSOF SUSTA|NABI.E DEVELOPMENT

40.7 Relevant organs and organizations of the UnitedNations system, in cooperation with other intemationalgovernmental, intergove rnmental and non- governmentalorganizations, should use a suitable set of sustainabledevelopment indicators and indicators related to areasoutside of national jurisdiction, such as the high seas, theupper atmosphere and outer space. The organs and or-ganizations of the United Nations system, in coordinationwith other relevant international organizations, couldprovide recommendations for harmonized developmentof indicators at the national, regional and global levels,and for incorporation of a suitable set of these indicatorsin common, regularly updated, and widely accessiblereports and databases, for use at the international level,subject to national sovereignty considerations.

c) TMPROVEMENT OF DATA COLLECTION AND USE

40.8 Countries and, upon request, international organ-izations should carry out inventories of environmental,resource and developmental data, based on nationallglo-bal priorities for the management of sustainable devel-opment. They should determine the gaps and organizeactivities to fill those gaps. Within the organs and organ-izations of the United Nations system and relevant inter-national organizations, data-collection activities, includ-ing those of Earthwatch and World Weather Watch, needto be strengthened, especially in the areas of urban air,freshwater, land resources (including forests and range-lands), desertification, other habitats, soil degradation,biodiversity, the high seas and the upper atmosphere.Countries and international organizations should make

use of new techniques of data collection, including sat-ellite-based remote sensing. In addition to the strength-ening of existing development-related data collection,special attention needs to be paid to such areas as demo-graphic factors, urbanization, poverty, health and rightsof access to resources, as well as special groups, inciudingwomen, indigenous peoples, youth, children and thedisabled, and their relationships with environment issues.

D) IMPROVEMENI OF METHODS OF DATAASSESSMENI AND ANAI.YS/S

40.9 Relevant international organizations should de-velop practical recommendations for coordinated, har-monized collection and assessment of data at the nationaland intemational levels. National and international dataand information centres should set up continuous andaccurate data-collection systems and make use of geo-graphic information systems, expert systems, models anda variety of other techniques for the assessment andanalysis of data. These steps will be particularly relevant,as large quantities of data from satellite sources will needto be processed in the future. Developed countries andinternational organizations, as well as the private sector,should cooperate, in part icular wi th developingcountries, upon request, to facilitate their acquiring thesetechnologies and this know-how.

E) ESTABL/SHMENI OF A COMPREHENSIVEINFORMAT'ON FRAMEWORK

40.10 Governments should consider undertaking thenecessary institutional changes at the national level toachieve the integration of environmental and develop-mental information. At the international level. environ-mental assessment activities need to be strengthened andcoordinated with efforts to assess development trends.

F/ SIRENGTHEN/NG OF THE CA,PAC\TY FORIRADIIIONA I. 'NFORMAI'ON

40.11 Countries, with the cooperation of internationalorganizations, should establish supporting mechanismsto provide local communities and resource users with theinformation and know-how they need to manage theirenvironment and resources sustainably, applying tradi-tional and indigenous knowledge and approaches whenappropriate. This is particularly relevant for rural andurban populations and indigenous, women's and youthgroups.

285

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ F/NANCING AND COST EVALUATTON

40.12 The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the

average total annual cost (.1993-2000) of implementing

the activities of this programme to be about $1.9 billion

from the international community on grant or conces-

sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-

tude estimates only and have not been reviewed by

Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, includ-

ing any that are non-concessional, will dependupon,inter

alia, the specific strategies and programmes Govern-

ments decide upon for implementation.

8/ /N5I/IUIIONAI. MEANS

40.l3 Institutional capacity to integrate environment and

development and to develop relevant indicators is lacking

at both the national and international levels. Existing

instin-rtions and programrnes such as the Global Environ-

mental Monitoring System (GEMS) and the Global Re-

source Information Database (GRID) within UNEP and

different entities within the system-wide Earthwatch will

need to be considerably strengthened. Earthwatch has been

an essential element for environment-related data. While

programmes related to development data exist in a number

of agencies, there i s insuffi cient cclordination between them.

The activities related to development data of agencies and

institutions of the United Nations system should be more

effectively coordinated, perhaps through an equivalent and

complementary "Development Watch", which with the

existing Earthwatch should be coordinated through an ap-

propriate office wittrin the United Nations to ensure the full

integration of environment and development concerns.

C/ SCIENI/F'C AND IECHNOTOGICAL MEANS

40.14 Regarding transfer of technology, with the rapid

evolution of data-collection and information technol-

ogies it is necessary to develop guidelines and mecha-

nisms for the rapid and continuous transfer of those

technologies, particularly to developing countries, in

conformity with chapter 34 (Transfer of environmentally

sound technology, cooperation and capacity-building)'

and for the training of personnel in their utilization.

D) HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

40. 15 International cooperation for training in all uu'eas

and at all levels will be required, particularly in develop-

286

ing countries. That training will have to include technical

training of those involved in data collection, assessment

and transformation, as well as assistance to decision

makers concerning how to use such information.

E) CAPACITY-BUILDING

40.16 All countries, particularly developing countries,

with the support of international cooperation, should

strengthen their capacity to col lect, store, or ganrze, a s sess

and use data in decision-making more effectively.

B) I'VIPROVING AVAltABltlrY oF INFOR.'YIATION

BASIS FOR ACTION

40.17 There already exists a wealth of data and informa-

tion that could be used for the management of sustainable

development. Finding the appropriate information at the

required time and at the relevant scale of aggregation is

a difficult task.40.18 Information within many countries is not ade-

quately managed, because of shortages of financial re-

sources and trained manpower, lack of awareness of the

value and availability of such information and other

immediate or pressing problems, especially in develop-

ing countries. Even where information is available, it

may not be easily accessible, either because of the lack

of technology for effective access or because of associ-

ated costs, especially tor information held outside the

country and available commercially.

OBJECTIVES

40.19 Existing national and international mechanisms of

information processing and exchange, and of related

technical assistance, should be strengthened to ensure

effective and equitable availability of information gener-

ated at the local, provincial, national and international

levels, subject to national sovereignty and relevant intel-

lectual property rights.40.20 National capacities should be strengthened, as

should capacities within Governments, non-govemmen-tal organizations and the private sector, in information

handl ing and communicat ion, part icular ly wi th in

developing countries.40.21 Full participation of, in particular, developing

countries should be ensured in any international scheme

under the organs and organizations of the United Nations

system for the collection, analysis and use of data and

information.

ACTIVITIES

A) PRODUCilON OF /NFORMATTON USABLEFOR DEClSION.A4AKING

40.22 Countries and international organizations shouldreview and strengthen information systems and servicesin sectors related to sustainable development, at the local,provincial, national and international levels. Special em-phasis should be placed on the transformation of existinginformation into forms more useful for decision-makingand on targeting information at different user groups.Mechanisms should be strengthened or established fortran sforming sc ientific and socio -economic as ses smentsinto information suitable for both planning and publicinformation. Electronic and non-electronic formatsshould be used.

B) ESTABLISHA4ENT OF STANDARDS ANDMETHODS FOR HANDT/NG INFORMATION

40.23 Governments should consider supporting the ef-forts of governmental as well as non-governmental or-ganizations to develop mechanisms for efficient andharmonized exchange of information at the local, na-tional, provincial and international levels, includingrevision and establishment of data, access and dissemina-tion formats, and communication interfaces.

c) DEVELOPMENT OF DOCUMENTATIONABOUT INFORMAI/ON

40,24 The organs and organizations of the United Na-tions systern, as well as other governmental and non-gov-emmental organizations, should document and shareinformation about the sources of available informationin their respective organizations. Existing prografiImes,such as those of the Advisory Committee for the Coordi-nation of Information Systems (ACCIS) and the Interna-tional Environmental Information System (INFOTER-

RA), should be reviewed and strengthened as required.Networking and coordinating mechanisms should beencouraged between the wide variety of other actors,including arrangements with non-governmental or-ganizations for information sharing and donor acti-vit ies for sharing information on sustainable develop-ment projects. The private sector should be encouragedto strengthen the mechanisms of sharing its experienceand information on sustainable development.

D) ESTABLISHMENI AND SIRENGIHEN/NGOF ELECTRON'C NEIWORKING CAPABI LITIES

40.25 Countries, international organizations, includingorgans and organizations of the United Nations system,and non-governmental organizations should exploit vari-ous initiatives for electronic links to support informationsharing, to provide access to databases and other infor-mation sources, to facilitate communication for meetingbroader objectives, such as the implementation of Agen-da 21, to facilitate intergovernmental negotiations, tomonitor conventions and efforts for sustainable develop-ment to transmit environmental alerts, and to transfertechnical data. These organizations should also facilitatethe linkage of different electronic networks and the useof appropriate standards and communication protocolsfor the transparent interchange of electronic communi-cations. Where necessary, new technology should bedeveloped and its use encouraged to permit participationof those not served at present by existing infrastructureand methods. Mechanisms should also be established tocarry out the necessary transfer of information to andfrom non-electronic systems to ensure the involvementof those not able to participate in this way.

E) MAKTNG USE OF COMMERCTAL/NFORMAIION SOURCES

40.26 Countries and international organizations shouldconsider undertaking surveys of information available inthe private sector on sustainable development and ofpresent dissemination arrangements to determine gapsand how those gaps could be filled by commercial orquasi-commercial activity, particularly activit ies inand/or involving developing countries where feasible.Whenever economic or other constraints on supplyingand accessing information arise, particularly in develop-ing countries, innovative schemes for subsidizing suchinformation-related access or removing the non-eco-nomic constraints should be considered.

MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

A/ FTNANC/NG AND COST EVALUATTON

40.27 The secretariat of the Conference has estimated theaverage total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementingthe activities of this programme to be about $ 165 millionfrom the international community on grant or conces-sional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magni-tude estimates only and have not been reviewed byGovernments. Actual costs and financial terms, includ-

287

ing any that are non -conce s sional, wil I depen d upon, int e r

alia, the specific strategies and prograrnmes Govern-

ments decide upon for implementation.

B/ 'NSilTUilONAL MEANS

40.28 The institutional implications of this progralnme

concern mostly the strengthening of already existing

institutions, as well as the strengthening of cooperationwith non-governmental organizations, and need to be

consistent with the overall decisions on institutions madeby the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment.

C) CAPACITY-BUILDING

40.29 Developed countries and relevant international or-ganizations should cooperate, in particular with develop-

ing countries, to expand their capacity to receive, storeand retrieve, contribute, disseminate, use and provide

appropriate public access to relevant environmental anddevelopmental information, by providing technology andtraining to establish local information services and by

supporting partnership and cooperative arrangements be-tween countries and on the regional or subregional level.

D' SCTENilF'C AND TECHNOLOG\CAL MEANS

40.30 Developed countries and relevant international or-ganizations should support research and development inhardware, software and other aspects of informationtechnology, in particular in developing countries, appro-priate to their operations, national needs and environmen-tal contexts.

288

FORESTPRINCIPLES

NonJegol ly b indingouthoritotive stotement of principles

for o globol consensus on themonogement, conservotion ond sustoinoble

development of oll types of forests

Non- lego l l y B ind ing Au thor i to t i ve S to tement o f P r inc ip lesFor o G lobo I Consensus on the Monogement ,Conservot ion ond Susto inob le Deve lopment o f A l l Typesof Fo rests

P R E A M B L E

(a) The subject of forests is related to the entire rangeof environmental and development issues and oppor-tunities, including the right to socio-economic develop-ment on a sustainable basis.(b) The guiding objective of these principles is to con-tribute to the management, conservation and sustainabledevelopment of forests and to provide for their multipleand complementary functions and uses.(c) Forestry issues and opportunities should be exam-ined in a holistic and balanced manner within the overallcontext of environrnent and development, taking intoconsideration the multiple functions and uses of forests,including traditional uses, and the likely economic andsocial stress when these uses are constrained or restricted.as well as the potential for development that sustainableforest management can offer.(d) These principles reflect a first global consensus onforests. In committing themselves to the prompt im-plementation of these principles, countries also decide tokeep them under assessment for their adequacy withregard to further international cooperation on forest is-S U C S .

(e) These principles should apply to all types of forests,both natural and planted, in all geographical regions andclimatic zones, including austral, boreal, subtemperate,temperate, subtropical and tropical.(fl All types of forests embody complex and uniqureecological processes which are the basis for their presentand potential capacity to provide resources to satisfyhuman needs as well as environmental values, atrd as suchtheir sound management and conseryation are of concemto the Governments of the countries to which they belongand are of value to localcommunities and to the environ-ment as a whole.

(g) Forests are essential to economic development andthe maintenance of all forms of life.(h) Recognizing that the responsibility fbr f orest rlan-agement, conservation and sustainable developrnent is inmany States allocated among tederal/national, state/provincial and local levels of government, each State, inaccordance with its constitution and/or naticlnal legisla-tion, should pursue these principles at the appropriatelevel of government.

P R I N C I P L E S / E L E M E N T S

1. (a) States have, in accordance with the Charter ofthe United Nations and the principles of intemational law.the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pur-suant to their own environmental policies and have theresponsibil i ty to ensure that activit ies within their juris-

diction or control do not cause damage to the environmentof other States or clf areas beyond the limits ol' nationaljunsdict ion.(b) The agreed full incremental cost of achieving bene-flts associated with forest conservation and sustainabledevelopment requires increased intemational cooper-ation and should be equitably shared by the internationalcommunity.2. (a) States have the sovereign and inalienable rightto uti l ize, manage and develop their f orests in accordancewith their development needs and level of socio-eco-nomic development and on the basis of national policiesconsistent with sustainable development and legislation,including the conversion of such areas for other useswithin the overall socio-economic development plan andbased on rational land-use policies.(b) Forest resources and forest lands should be sustain-ably managed to meet the social, econclnric, ecolclgical,

291

cultural and spiritual needs of present and future gener-

ations. These needs zue for forest products and services.

such as wood and wood products, water, food, fodder,

medicine, fuel, shelter, employment, recreation, habitats

for wildli-fe, landscape diversity, carbon sinks and reser-

voirs, and for other forest products. Appropriate

measures should be taken to protect forests against harm-

ful effects of pollution, including airborne pollution,

fires, pests and diseases, in order to maintain their full

multiple value.(c) The provision of timely, reliable ancl accurate infor-

mation on forests and forest ecosystems is essential lbr

public understanding and informed decision-rnaking and

should be ensured.(d) Governments should promote and provide oppor-

tunities for the participation of interested parties, includ-

ing local communities and indigenous people, industries,

labour, non-governmental organizations and individuals,

forest dwellers and women, in the development, im-

plementation and planning of national forest policies'

3. (a) National policies and strategies should provide

a framework for increased effofts, including the devel-

opment and strengthening of inst i tut ions atrd pro-

grammes fbr the management, conservation and sustain-

able deve-lopment of ftlrests ancl forest lands.(b) lnterttational institutional arrangements. truilding

on those organizations and mechanisms already irl crist-

ence, as appropriate, should facilitate international co-

operation in the field of forests.(c) All aspects of environmental protection and social

and economic development as they relate to forests and

forest lands should be integrated and comprehensive.4. The vital role of all types of fbrests in maintaining

the ecological processes and balance at the local' na-

tional, regional and global levels through, inter alia,theit

role in protecting fragile ecosystems, watersheds and

freshwater resources and as rich storehouses of biodiver-

sity and biological resources and sources of genetic

material forbiotechnology products, as well as photosyn-

thesis, should be recognized.5. (a) National forest policies should recognize and duly

support the identity, cuhure and the rights of indigenous

people, their communities and other comm unities and fore st

dwellers. Appropriate conditions should be promoted for

these groups to enable them to have an economic stake in

forest use, perfoffn economic activities, and achier"e and

maintain cultural identity and social organization, as well

as adequate levels of livelihood and well-being, through,

inter alia, those land tenure iurangements which serve as

incentives for the sustainable management of forests.(b) The full participation of women in all aspects of the

management, conservation and sustainable development

of forests should be actively promoted.

6. (a) All types of forests play an important role in

meeting energy requirements through the provision of arenewable source of bio-energy, particularly in develop-ing countries, and the demands for fuelwood for house-

hold and industrial needs should be met through sustain-

able forest management, afforestation and reforestation.To this end, the potential contribution of plantations of

both indigenous and introduced species for the provision

of both fuel and industrial wood should be recognized.(b) Nationai policies and progralnmes should take into

account the relationship, where it exists. between the

conservation, management and sustainable developmentof forests and all aspects related to the production,

consumption, recycling and/or f inal disposal of forestproducts.(c) Decisions taken on the management, conservationand sustainable development of forest resources should

benefit, to the extent practicable, frotn a comprehensiveassessment of economic and non-economic values of

forest goods and services and of the environmental costs

and benefits. The development and improvement ofmethodologies for such evaluations should be promoted.(d) The role of planted forests and permanent agricul-tural crops as sustainable and environmentally soundsources of renewable energy and industrial raw material

should be recognized, enhanced and prornoted. Their

contribution to the maintenance of ecological processes,

to offsetting pressure on primary/old-growth forests and

to providing regional employment and development with

the adequate involvement of local inhabitants should berecognized and enhanced.(e) Natural forests also constitute a source of goods and

servi ce s, and their c on sen'ation, sustainable managementand use should be promoted.1. (a) Efforts should be made to promote a supportiveintemational economic climate conducive to sustained

and environmentally sound development of forests in all

countries, which include, inter alia, the promotion of

sustainable patterns of production and consumption, the

eradication of poverty and the promotion of food security.(b) Specific financial resources should be provided to

developing countries with significant forest areas which

establish prograrnmes for the conservati on of forests includ-

ing protected natural forest areas. These resources should

be directed notably to economic sectors which would stimu-late economic and social substitution activities.8. (a) Efforts should be undertaken towards the green-

ing of the world. All countries, notably developed coun-

tries, should take positive and transparent action towards

reforestation. afforestation and forest conservation, as

appropriate.ft) Efforts to maintain and increase forest cover and

forest productivity should be undertaken in ecologically,

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economically and socially sound ways through the reha-bilitation, refbrestation and re-establishment of trees andforests on unproductive, degraded and deforested lands,as well as through the management of existing forestresources.(c) The implementation of national policies and pro-grarnmes aimed at forest management, conservation andsustainable development, particularly in developingcountries, should be supported by international financialand technical cooperation, including through the privatesector, where appropriate.(d) Sustainable forest management and use should becarried out in accordance with national developmentpolicies and priorities and on the basis of environmentallysound national guidelines. In the formulation of suchguidelines, account should be taken, as appropriate andif applicable, of relevant internationally agreed meth-odologies and criteria.(e) Forest management should be integrated with man-agement of adjacent areas so as to maintain ecologicalbalance and sustainable productivity.(0 National policies and/or legislation aimed at man-agement, conservation and sustainable development offorests should include the protection of ecologicallyviable representative or unique examples of forests, in-cluding primary/old-growth fbrests and other unique andvalued forests of national, cultural, spiritual, historicaland religious importance.(g) Access to biological resources, including geneticmaterial, shall be rvith due regard to the sovereign rightsof the countries where the forests are located and to thesharing on mutually agreed terms of technology andprofits from biotechnology products that are derived fromthese resources.(h) National policies should ensure that environmentalimpact assessments should be carried out where actionsare likely to have significant adverse impacts on impor-tant fbrest resources, and where such actions are subjectto a decision of a competent national authority.9. (a) The effbrts of developing countries to strengthenthe management, conservation and sustainable develop-ment of their forest resources should be supported by theinternational community, taking into account the irnpor-tance of redressing external indebtedness, particularlywhere aggravated by the net transfer of resources todeveloped countries, as well as the problem of achievingat least the replacement value of forests through im-proved market access for forest products, especially pro-cessed products. In this respect, special attention shouldalso be given to the countries undergoing the process oftransition to market economies.(b) The problems that hinder efforts to attain the con-servation and sustainable use of forest resources and that

stem from the lack of alternative options available to localcommunities, in particular the urban poor and poor ruralpopulations who are economically and socially depend-ent on forests and forest resources, should be addressedby Governments and the international community.(c) National policy formulation with respect to all typesof forests should take account of the pressures and de-mands imposed on forest ecosystems and resources frominfluencing factors outside the forest sector, and intersec-toral means of dealing with these pressures and clemandsshould be sought.10. New and additional financial resources should beprovided to developing countries to enable them to sus-tainably manage, conserve and develop their forest re-sources, including through afforestation, reforestationand combating deforestation and forest and land degrada-tion.I 1. In order to enable, in perticular, developing countriesto enhance their endogenous capacity and to better man-age, conserve and develop their forest resources, theaccess to and transfer of environmentally sound tech-nologies and corresponding know-how on favourableterms, including on concessional and preferential terms,as mutually agreed, in accordance with the relevantprovisions of Agenda 21, should be promoted, facilitatedand financed, as appropriate.12. (a) Scientific research, forest inventories and as-sessments carried out by national institutions which takeinto account, where relevant, biological, phvsical, socialand economic variables, as well as technological devel-opment and its application in the field of sustainableforest management, conservation and development,should be strengthened through eff'ective modalities, in-cluding international cooperation. In rhis context, atten-tion should also be given to research and development ofsustainably harvested non-wood products.(b) National and, where appropriate, regional and in-ternational institutional capabilities in education, train-ing. science, technology, economics, anthropology andsocial aspects of forests and forest management are es-sential to the conservation and sustainable developrnentof forests and should be strengthened.(c) International exchange of information on the resultsof forest and forest lnanagement research and develop-ment should be enhanced and broadened, as appropriate,making full use of education and training institutions,including those in the private sector.(d) Appropriate indigenous capacity and local knowledgeregarding the conservation and sustainable development offorests should, through institutional and financial supportand in collaboration with the people in the local com-munities concerned, be recognized, respected, recorded,developed and, as appropriate, introduced in the im-

293

plementation of programmes. Benefits arising from the

utilization of indigenous knowledge should therefore be

equitably shared with such people.13. (a) Trade in forest products should be based on

non-discriminatory and multilaterally agreed rules and

procedures consistent with international trade law andpractices. In this context, open and free international

trade in forest products should be facilitated.(b) Reduction or removal of tariff barriers and impedi-

ments to the provision of better market access and betterprices for higher-value-added forest products and their

local processing should be encouraged to enable producer

countries to better conserve and manage their renewableforest resources.(c) Incorporation of environmental costs and benefitsinto market forces and mechanisms, in order to achieveforest conservation and sustainable developrnent, should

be encouraged both domestically and internationally.

(d) Forest conservation and sustainable developmentpolicies should be integrated with economic, trade andother relevant policies.(e) Fiscal, trade, industrial, transportation and otherpolicies and practices that may lead to forest degradationshould be avoided. Adequate policies, aimed at manage-ment, conservation and sustainable development offorests, including, where appropriate, incentives, shouldbe encouraged.14. Unilateral measures, incompatible with interna-tional obligations or agreements, to restrict and/or banintemational trade in timber or other forest productsshould be removed or avoided, in order to attain long-term sustainable forest management.15. Pollutarts, particularly airborne pollutants, includ-ing those responsible for acidic deposition, that are harm-ful to the health of forest ecosystems at the local, national,regional and global levels should be controlled.

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