A Brief Economic History of the World

7/27/2019 A Brief Economic History of the World

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Journal o Economic Literature 2008, 46:4, 946 973http:www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/jel.46.4.946

946

1. Introduction

Ish B v hks wssxs hhswAchchuss : Th x kws myhs, u h hh h. GCk s hh, hs w mk hmppu wh hs cmss wh pcy s mu m h h w. Hs s h mcc-

mc sc w Mhus Sv phss hsy. Ck s hsy h w hs ms, , s su-sy ssus s.., why E

hv h s Ius Rvu?Ckpcs sm p sh. Ths vy s Cks hs: hs sccy ss sh v hs c whch hy mchs vs s whch c sxp wh hpp. Is, m- cs ssm shwh h w xmps Cks s. AFarewell to Alms: A Brie Economic History

o the World (Pc Uvsy Pss,2007) hs c sy h mks . Bu s u?

As s huss h sy, Ck s vy hu wmk cs h uusu c-s. W hw py k ws vs s s ch E (pp.30607), hw my cs w pucy hus wk scs (p. 68),

A Rvw Gy CksA Farewell to Alms: A Brie EconomicHistory o the World

Robert C. Allen*

A Fw Ams advances striking claims about the economic history o the world.These include (1) the preindustrial world was in a Malthusian preventive check equi-librium, (2) living standards were unchanging and above subsistence or the last100,000 years, (3) bad institutions were not the cause o economic backwardness,(4) successul economic growth was due to the spread o middle class values romthe elite to the rest o society or biological reasons, (5) workers were the big gainersin the British Industrial Revolution, and (6) the absence o middle class values, orbiological reasons, explains why most o the world is poor. The empirical support orthese claims is examined, and all are questionable.

* A: Nu C, Ox Uvsy. Whumpc hm, I hk h w cmms vc: Sm Bws, S Em, Tm Gu,Kck Hy, Sh Jhss, Z Kh, JhKms, Cmc O G, P Tm, J Lu

v Z.


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947Allen: A Review o Gregory Clarks A Fw Ams

v h u c h Mhussmy u cus hs ch h h w (p. 81, . 19). Nus -s m h s sc huhuA Farewell to Alms.

I h pc, Ck (p. x) czs hh my cvc hs cus cmc hsy, h h s cc.Ms cmc hss xs, myw h k uppz. Thy s hw s cmpc pc pcucvy h h ucvy. Thms quy Bc ps-vsc: Th ccumu m vcw vuy v h uh. Ms c

hp z u h cc m, u hy susu sch. Ck hs sus wk hs smy h cc pcs cms h w w scuss uh s s smssv much hscschshp. H sushs hs k mh usu y cmc ss, whch wsm m s much w hhums. Whs ms hss shmsvs cc m c csy ccu scp hps, Ck ss h wk s wu us-c j- vcuy (p. x). I spc, Ck s us h pcu. Bu sh us h h s h hps, sh wh B cs h hhsypcy c, vs?

W shu ju k y s cv py y s h, , hscs, s ccu. Th m h k s

xp why sm cus ch hs p. Th Ws (cu Jp)hs chv mss pspy, u h shv y w ms. I, Cks vw, h pspcs k.Why hv sm cus succ? Is ps-smsm u h s w? Ths quss Ck s sws h . Whh hy mp- shs v cccs ps

whh hs hs cc wh h cs.Ck supps hs um wh hs w csu mpcsm wh -c h s h schs wh m cu, cmphsv, mhcy sphsc. Th qus- h ms hs vw s whhCks hs s up h h hsch.

Ths vw s z u h mjppss A Farewell to Alms. Thy:ThepreindustrialworldwasMalthusian,

mphy kp cm p hcs 100,000 ys.

Bad institutions do not xp hsc cmc wh. O hcy, h sus mvE w ms pc wh.

Rather,thelackofgrowthintheprein-us w ws u cuu, ck h m css vus h wk h.

The Industrial Revolution happened inE cus h m css v-us sp w h sc sc h h sxh svh cu-s c ss. Th p hv uh suvv ch puc hmsvs, wh h ch h supus wh h su h ch h ch w c w h scsc. Th m css vus w whhm sc hy wqu pssyc h s. Ths mchsm p h cus sc

h ch h p h sm um-s suvv ch.

IncomegrewslowlyduringtheIndustrialRvu wks h hcpss ws w h mcs.

TheIndustrialRevolutionoughttohavesp qucky u h w scm mchy cu mp, w ws shu hv v


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Journal o Economic Literature, Vol. XLVI (December 2008)948

ussss p cus cmp-v . Hwv, c -ss, wks As, Ac, LAmc ck m css vus. As su, h cmpv v ws wy hh m vs, p cus sy p.

2. Was the Preindustrial WorldMalthusian?

Ck vs w hsy w phss:Th s ws Mhus phs. Th sm[Mhus] cmc m pps scs 1800 (p. 30). Th sc

ws h susqu p sus c-mc wh. Ths vs s suppy h sk ph h w E m 1200 h ps. Th cuvks k h : I s hz m1200 h y h cuy wh us ms vc s y c h s 150 ys. Acc Ck,Mhus ymcs xp h sss m1200 1800. Bu hy y?

Wh s wy v h h p-us w ws Mhus, h vws cvs m cmc hss.P h u s h Mhus ppsw vss hs m, whch mks cu jc Mhussm. I hvss, h w h u ws -m y qu y my,whch w h s ucs h w. I h s smps ps-v chck vs, h my ws

c uc h w, wh -y ws s mxmum p h w. Th w h qu y my ws h s susscw. Th y c w hs h pvv chck vs h ms h h y h s y s uc h w cssu chs s mxmum vu wh ms s h w ss uh. Th s

p h y uc pss hhv pp wh m whcms w. I h cuvs h w v-ss w hws h sm, h pv-v chck ws quum w hs hh h s sussc fcs cuu ps m.Mhus k hs pssy vy susy.H v h ws Ch I, sc, w w h E, h u h c cs m hv. I E, h v sc s y psp m- wh cmc cs w -cuhc h upw sp h y

ucwh h v m wsuvs As, s y ws s mx-mum. I Mhuss vw, E qu- cuu sussc w hxc s sussc.

Th hsy ws s y cc wh Mhuss vws. T xp hsqus, I hv f h us s wh h cs s sussc sk my, p-s h mmum cs suvv ps h w.1 Ds spc- pv m wh 1940 cs py ( h my mms ccy)us h chps v chy.F hws Eup, h ws m; Fc, ws p; Dh, wsm chps; Bj, ws shum.Ps s cu s w s m-m wcs m sh, u ,ch, u, . Wh u-m, u-

y s h m qu h ucs hs sk, h my xss su-ssc. Fu 1 shws h u y,

1 Ck pss sm cmpssf ws y h pc wh, u hs c ms sc v h ps pp csumh s wh ps qu-s pcs ( ws chp h c hYz D (L 1998), u h ms xpsv E).


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u m s sussc css usk sx cs Eup As (A, Bss, M, M-Mu, v Z 2007). I pcs, ws w hh h h cuy, h Bck Dh h cu h ppu

vywh. As h ppu u,ws ms h w pp s sussc h hhcuy. Th cs hwsEup, hwv, m much hhvs ws. Wks h cuy-s h w ws h h cups L u ws shw p h sxh cuy. Hwv, -s suh E u h

svh cuy w wys v s sussc. Hh cms mj s h ms spp mE y h y svh cuy.

Hw c w xp u 1? Mhuswu s s cm hs h

h pvv chck ws cmm h-ws Eup h psv chck wsh m swh. Mhus vw ssm supp h hsy my suc-u. Th pvv chck s usuy sscwh wh Hj (1965) c h [ws]Eup m p. I h ywh cuy, 1020 pc wmv m hs wh ym u h ws. Ths

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

1375 1475 1575 1675 1775 1875

Year

Income/c

ostofsubsistencebasket

London Amsterdam Vienna Florence Delhi Beijing

Figure 1. Sussc R F Ls


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pps sp chs h w, h pvv chck.Ous hws Eup, wmm vy yu , s -y ws hh p cm.Th psv chck, h, pv Es Eup As. N y ws hpvv chck m phcy, ws m mpy. I pp vc-vy G Pw, D M vZ (2005) u h y pp h h cuy hwsEup. Chc y ws mphszh mpc vu chc m- (h h ms). Wh

v hs s c w h hh ws h ps Bck Dh p, whch wwm us m uss h msw v. As su, ms w u m h h ppy u hh cm. Th pvvchck ws . I y s w huys, hwv. Th ppu wh h m-hh cuy ws pcpy shp h v wm s m (Gs 1986). Ths ws u s ws; h, ws u h wh mucu mpym,whch w yu pp sshv hushs whu hv hppy. Th pvv chck, hws, v h psv chck. Uhs p, h Mhus pv-v chck py p y whu ys.

Ck, cs, vs h h pv-

v chck ws wys pv sc-s. Is, Ck ss h w vc u 1 s qu-um phm u h p u-z E h Lw Cus h y m p. Th ppu L , , cs m yhus 1500 m 1800, h Duch cs w smy. Sc ym cs w h ps, h my

s E h Nhs wxusy hh h swh, s wsh hh qu hs hs.Ths um s ucvc, hwv.Wh E h Nhs wm uz h Fc Gmy,Iy Sp h u ppus( cy m h mv cmc ),s cs uz c xph w vc w h ws h ss h y m cmy.I c, h wh h mm cs hws Eup ws s p p such hh s uum, h h ws pss w

pmum v h cuys h ws pss y ppu xps (A2001, 2003; By Gup 2006).

Ah ppch s Mhus s xm h ms y my. Wy Schs (1981)csuc Esh ppu hs-y m 1541 ws pvs um ss ms, hs, hs, hs c c wh m ss ws pcs. Tss hvs cuc Fc hcus, u h (W1984). Th usu s h w cmscs my cu y ccwh Mhuss vws. Ths ss v shu spss.

Oh ss sm sucu vss h Mhus m wh m cmpcsps ucs. Ths ms v -u qu hv, h s

much ss k Mhuss vws. I -, h s vc psv chck y wk m vc p-vv chck. R L (1980, pp. 541,547), sc, ccu h ws ccu y u 15 pc h vc [ppu] wh s,s h ms h v s xus. Lmy jc h Mhus m: Ths h sc mchsms cus


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ppu w c sps chs pucv cpcy, such wy s kp cms cs cuuy s w-. A smwh jc hs m s scpv hps s v s ppp hps. I c s p scp h.L As (2002) hv vs hqus us s spc mhs cm sm ccuss. Vy h -m v h y m-y pps xp y vs ws (L As 2002, p. 213).Is, v s mv xusy. Thm ck m h w ppu

ms h h h- sps shcksws v cuy.2 Ev huh y,my, ws w us Mhus sysm, ch hss mvwh suc pc h cux s xus cus c hhs, v v ps msu cu-s (L As 2002, p. 216). Thssus y cm y Cs Ms (2008). Thy sm vc pvv chck w 1541 1640 u h vc psvchck. Th yss cms h xusshcks w h m m ppu- ch.

F ms h wh cuy, hmphy cmy h MAs w p Mhus m-wk (Hch 1977; Hch By2001). Cmp (hcm) hs cyccz hs ppch wh ums

h p h vw L As.Cmp, sc, s h h wsck m h w ppu.H cs h vv xusy, h hs k my css k h BckDh wh fucus v y

2 Tm (2008) hs cy p Rm c-mc hsy wh Mhus m cp vysw ck m h w h ppu.

G c cs h h vppu-. A pcu puzz mvss swhy h hh ws h h c-uy cus h ppu us Mhus wu hv xpc. Th sws h ws v y xus shcks.

Ths vss h Mhusm hv mp mpcs hxp w hsy. I ck mh w h wh y my, whch mv xusy, h hck h Esh w 1800 ws u Mhus chcks.Is, ws h su xus m-y y shcks. Cks ph s

pv h h w ws Mhus.

3. Malthus in the Very Long Run

L Ass (2002) h ck m h w ppuwh ws m sw xpw hvu h y m pvs p h pssy h Mhuschcks cu hv m v myhuss ys. I, h Mhusm s mp Ck, -zs w hs cmsmy hh ws mpvm h s v 100,000 ys h IusRvu , sc, h ms scs 1800 . . . v w v h sussc m sc hy sy, .., h pvv chck pp.As, Ck hs suy vc uh s v h h ps;

sm vc us ck 5,000 ys c Eyp Mspm, Ckcs Mshc sk ms hcu s much s 13,000 ys (p. 59).H s h mss 87,000 ys hssump h m s jy hsm s v s u c cs-s. Hw u s h? I cc hp sc h s c , whch hs s sm vc.


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S v hs sv mss whch csump s mp. Ck uss u m hh mkcjcus u . Th s hs fuc vus hh, u hm hhs ppus fc h -c k u qu-ms u chh h h cs.Au hh c, h, us s pxy h v u pp wh p uh hv vy hh cmscy m .3 Cks c-c m s m sc mhhs w m ssv c pv. Ahpss scuss my

h us sks s w, hyp pcu w- mhh (Sck Rs 2002).

Cks vw u hum v ssv h m s s cmp-s w m s h-h cuy Bs. Th m h[m] hhs hs scs s165 cms (p. 59). H ps us B 169 170 cms (pp.57, 61), huh Cs (hcm)c wk Fu, Wch, Gys (1990) push h m hh h m-hh cuy up 172 cm.Wh v ( sv) cms m?As uh u, m hh 160 c-ms s sh wh w scs hv w m hh m. I, 160cms s chcsc ssussc w k hh cuyCh Iy u 1 (AH 2003;

Ck 2007). I cs, 170 cmsws y h ss h hcuy ws scs whh s w ws h u ms

3 D (2007) pss m vc h h s s, c shp w cm hh.Th ck c w cs hh v m sks ss h sm qus.I Ds cqu s ccp, h Cks cms u u v ss cm us.

s sussc. O hs ,Cks summy h hh cuycs h Bsh v ss h Ius Rvu w sup hs m scs.

Wh u scs h ps?Ay scuss hs ssu mus ss h quss chy,my, h mpc h v -cuu h s v. Cmmss suss h cuu s hs v, u much vc wcs h h s v whm sp. I vw h u,Ls (1995) ccu h h sh m

m uc hh sus w-, cs physc sss, [] c u- (p. 204). Th s pp vy sk cs. Fmsh m cvs, m s h,sw w ch, sm s.I my ss, ms w sh hs, u sm h ws c hh. Th y mshc hchhs h Ck (2007, p. 61) ps Eup whch s uusu hm uc hh (Ch Ams 1984). M cy, h -v mpc cuu hh ws c-m y Sck Rs (2002) hcycpc vw sk vc h Amcs. Ck sms uz y hsvc. O h h, h ckwsh v ss . . . c h sp cuu, u h hks h

cs w uv ms. Hs ssssm s quvc: Th c s cuu v ss Mhus w s hy muus(p. 37).

Cks quvc ws m hs h h Mhus m. H vs hh h s s - scs w ky h sm, hs v cm (p. 37).


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Fm hs, h s h cms h cs. Cks ssumps, hwv, s wh hpc ch-c vc, pcu, h s wky hh ms ms h mss. A y-s um pp-u cs s css wh h -y y s cuusss pps cuuss h-

phc ss, wh hh hy (Ls 1995, p. 197). Thspsump s supp chcy:sk ss cuuss shw wm --h h hu-h-s (Ls 1995, p. 197). A s ush, hsmh sus h h xpc wsw ms, u, c, m h s m y y: Ppuswh hh y hv pp

yu pp h hs w hv v h h ppu- s wh (Jhss Hwz1986).

Sk vc, h, cs hms h hh y h s.Ths s sups: m ws s-y, pm sm m hmhs h cy h s

yu ch s s w sch . Th cs ch , h um s csquc. I m-y ws c uc csump h hc, h xus cs y wu hv v w vss Mhus mwk.

I my pcs, h pshc s quy h v vss vy p u vy

TABLE 1England in 1688

Icmpc P Rv

Pp Icm ppu h sussc

L csss 200,358 3.5% 46.4 23.2Bus 262,704 4.6 40.2 20.1Cmmc 1,190,552 20.9 9.0 4.5Fms 1,023,480 18.0 10.4 5.2Wks 1,970,895 34.7 5.6 2.8Cs, p 1,041,344 18.3 2.0 1.0

T/v 5,689,322 9.6 4.8

Notes: Sussc cm s k 2 p h. A c ccu h s sussc cm um us 1680s pcs s 2.07. Wm ch cu suvv smwh w mu, h m s cu h.

L csss cus h vus s, m, cy, pcs sccs s.Bus cus mchs, c hs, wys, h ss wh cms 200 p y, h v my cs.Cmmc cus shpkps, sm, mucus.Fms cus ms hs.

Wks cus s, h u s, ms, msc svs, cmm sm ss.Cs, p cus cs, pups, vs.

Sources: L Wms (1982). I hv h us wy: Wh K p hush whm h 4.5 pp, I ssum h xcss w svs y hm m h wks. I s ss 9 cm ch sv uc m h cm h ps hy wk . Ths s h s ccus m yL hs ws.


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sh pp. I Tk, mj My c-, sc, hh sus m v170 cms h y cssc pu 300 ad, wh w sus m w162 cm. By h cssc p u800 ad, h hh sus m w y 164cm. , wh h w sus m w 157cm. (B Kp 1998). Scs kh Tk cc Cks h pus pps w v smss v h w w v h sussc m (p. 6).

I cmps wh Tk, Eshm h y hh cuy wh mhh v 170 cm. w vy ps-

pus. Ths ccus s sh whw cz h h Esh hh s s-m m my cu cs, h my ws w vwhmy mh m us scy. Ms cusw s, ms, u wks, msc svs. T 1, whch s vm Gy Ks mus sc E 1688, vs sm hw hy scy.4 Th ps up w hcs, pups, vs whmK ss cm 2 p ps py. As hpps, h s suss-c sk us u 1 cs jus v 2p y s m 1688, s pp h m 1 y w suss-c. Ck s py h h hy wv h p pp m. Bu cs, pups, vs

4 L Wms (1982) vs h ccup-

su h cm vs h vc v K, h vss us h. Ihv m uh vs: K cu svs smy mms (.., mp s h v m-y sz y v u cm 6060).I sp h svs h ssump h msh 4.5 u mms (s ch mp mpy35.5 svs) ss h svs wk css

wh cm 9 p y. Th um pp h mp s cy ws uc ccy h cm ws w 5750.5 p y. Thsvs s h s ccus m y L hs ws.

y cmps 18 pc Esh sc-y, h 82 pc w muchm pspus. Th wks (cumucu cuu s,u csm, ms, ss, ss, msc svs) ms hms sussc, hy w h p-m suc my cus. 47 pc h ppu w ups wh vhh v cms. Th hhs sh csss h ushv cms wy ms hsussc.5 Thy y cmps 8 pc h ppu, hwv. Th shpkp-s, mucus, ms (39 pc

h ppu) v ms suss-c. Th v cm ws s msv ms sussc ms wc hcm s

Cks vw pus E svsmp. I cs 1, hms p w vy ch vy p. Th chs w w hpch cs h msss . . . ThDcys w w, h p pu (p. 2).Ths vs s h mpc humcp h pus w h- msss h pspy h ms pus E. Ih m s ms vk much h m h cmc wh. Thpspy h m s ws u xsv vs wh w ms hh wm c sks whch pus ch-y p. Hum cp ws ss

cmc wh h pus jus s cm .

Th hh s v pus- E ws ms h us h cmy. Hhs us pmyu csump u chh,

5 Ths u xcus h vu h svs,wh s wks whs cm hs uc m h h mpys.


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u mucu s w h spc v ss. Th csum vu- s mp hm y msc hsy, ps h mc mss mk mp muc-us (Chs pc, I ccs) Eup puc s mks ms ccky wchs(Shmms 1990; McKck, Bw, Pum 1982; Vs 1993; Fchs 1993;Wh 1996; B C 1999;B 2005). Th ws m css mk hs s, u v h wk csscsum hm. Pp v m , h s v mus

w ccy.Lsu s h spc h s

v. Ck pcvs h h sy ws sup h y mEups h h hus hswk w hus p y. Ou s -m u wk sy h mshc hc s sk sc p phys-c cvy s ms hs, - js, h mss s, h sz musc chms. Ths vcshws h c w -s cuuss cs h hm m m physc vs.F sc, cmpss w hu-h m ppus mchc ss c p cs h mss -shs musc chm ss, whchpsumy fcs c physcm wk w ssm

(Ls 1995, p. 201). As wh h ssus,Ck cs hs cmpss m. Thscus msss much h mpc cu-u wks sc m scycs h wks wm, wh c h wk m m hu cuv whu c h cvys much.

Ev w u h s wkss, why hy wk ss s mp

ssss h w mpcs. Lss wkmy smpy ps h sc ch-s puc mucu s. Thus,h vs h csum vu wsh usus vu: h sv-h hh cus, pp w-y wk m hus p y hmy uy h wy v csums ( Vs 1994). Ths hv vsh h csump mucus wswh m pp h h su pmv scy, h w wshh h svh cuy h h .

Cy Ck, u s w

jy uc G E.Ecmc wh h IusRvu ws p, u hh s v ms pph h jy y c s y ms. I s h v h MFs wu hv wy pcswh cv wm. Ths s w swmp y Mhus cs.

4. Do Institutions Explain EconomicGrowth?

My cmss w v csus pm cmc wh. W- ppy hs, m m xp-p, ump mks, mmvm cmm cp suc-css (G 2006; M Shy 2005;Acmu, Jhs, Rs 2005).As h msm, Ck jcs su-

s s xp cmc wh.Ck cks h sus

sv ps Farewell to Alms. H shussc u h um h -c sus c pss sc vy cu m mhm. Svy sm hs xmps: hs sus w c h hsvs ss shu hv uyu h mss. Isuss wu


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sp (cc Ck) h wu mpcc, h m svws cu cc h mcppyms . Oy cuch ppy hs wu s-m svy.6 Cks ps hs s hsvy h Rm mp sm mv E, c, spp wh-u sc su. S hsy shws hsus sp mk cs cs hm. Hc, cc Ck, sus c xp pcmc pmc.

Th u wh Cks ps s hhs cuxmps mk hs p.

Svy h Rm mp h sc cuy. Pvusy, h u sysm xm wk, cpushms, my . Th svppu ws psh y cpvs mh pvcs wy x h Emp.Wh h Emp spp xp 116 ad, h suppy w svs up,h pc s, ss w -z s h svs wu m ms m svs. Ths w h servicasati, h z ws much kh mv ss. A h sm m hcs svs w mpv, my pss w h sm- ms. Th Rm svyws h sm m.Th ch ws cm-s -z h p sv ws c h svy wu vv m muuy -

c mpvms (Js 1956; As1974).

Esh sm ks m pms Ck, spp w 1350

6 Th ccy vy svy hs c- qus Amc cmc hsy, .., Phps(1918, 1929), C My (1958), Ysu (1971),Such (1965), F Em (1974), Dv .(1976).

1500. Muuy c xch ws mj m, hwv. Th pcp- v ws h Bck Dh 134849,whch puc shs.

Dc s ws uc pv ws m s, h smc . Ck sys h s-m whu y mcp mv-m, u h Fch psy v h Jcqu 1358 h Esh ps-y 1381. I, cs hsu u css cfcs hv fu xp cs c-mc vpm css Eus (B1976, 1989; B Is 2002). Th

Esh v mps suppssws pv my. Th,pss mv w ms ss wh h ws w sp s ccp h u-wy sss pp. Wh ss c cmp, s mk h h sums Eshvs csy 1500 mwh hy h cuy h -. L sccy uv h sm. Ppu uv,hwv, ws h sm s sc sus (A 1992; Hch By 2001).

I, mv E s Cks mcuum h suss, h us h h s- sus y chv m cmcwh. H s sus ms hs h Wsh cssus.Ths sus cu, sc, w

xs, , h Esh cw xy y c Esh GDP. Scuppy hs w h mp s-u, Ck cms h Hy IIs ms c m sysm ppyhs. Sc mv E h such sus w, Ck ccush sus xp wh.

Th um s hk, u mm-y ss us. Fs, ccp


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h mm Cks ssssm mvsus, h ms h h umsshs s h sus w suc cmc wh. Th u-m s shw hy w ucssy.Hss hv p my v-pmsh Rm, h SccRvu, h s cmys cu h Ius Rvu.Th mpc my hv qu s-us h sc u h MAs my xp why h mvsus cus wh.

Sc, Ck s hhy scv hsssssm mv sus. H

cms h mv E wu kmuch hh h m hh-cmcms s sc us h cypcy pp y h IMy Fu h W Bk(p. 147). H ss z c mphsz- w xs, s my, scu ppyhs, mks ccus hmv E s usupss spcs xcp, phps, h sc p sysm.

My Cks scs ucvc,hwv. H us h ppy ws scus smpy cus h ms fucu ppy vus v m. Psumyhs s h ppy h h sm y much h ppu.Th ppy hs w m scu.Th um h xs w w y c-ss y x ccs s hcm k y s m h pss.

Sc h s pm puc ucs(h my css khs, sc),h cm c ssssh u h s. A scc y cm wu puc hy x. Cuusy, Ck cs h psscuy ws hh sp shw h mu- s w s ms hy (p. 126). Th hh mv hmcs w , hwv, such h hy

wu wh h p c-mc cvs (p. 160).

Cks pmsm s y pss cush s sm hs sc mvsus. F ms h M As, mjy h Esh w ss h v (sv u). Wh h ppu cu s wshp h y cmm w cus, hss cu y h huss m cus ps v y h s.Thy h cus y cus hs v h hs. Thy cu s scu puc pc h p-ss s vc y h s. Thy

w sujc vy ssssms huc cmc cvs. Why mpvh quy yu vsck wh h cu k h s m wh h h- ws h? L cu c-vy whu y s v h sc. Ths cs puc mky m su h h m hppy c y h s. Lmy ws h sc s cu v h s whu pmss hws hy v sc s s cuspp. Th cm h x ws w mp cmc cvs s y h y s mps -y ssssms h pss. Ts cs p. Iy, ws ssss-m v spc pupss smh , sc, h w cpu cus. T ws such cv

sc vu suc, hwv, h cm u. I s h v hhs ms chck h wh h mv cmy.

Th, Cks s cmc s(p. 148) s qu yss sus (Sz 2002). Ss m mycussm y, hs cmc vpm (Ch 2002;R 2007). I h hh cuy, h


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Bsh s c mp, whch sus- h m Bsh mucu pv cp c , pvcs upks, p sysm p h mpv h up us c (Ik 2002; S1995; OB 2005). I h h c-uy, vms Eup NhAmc u sucu, c mssuc, c s h pmcmc vpm (ORuk 1995).Jp vp huh h whs m-z s sus h Mjs. Th ps w hs -vs mv E s mms.

5. Did Natural Selection Give the BritishBourgeois Values?

I sus xp cmcwh, wh s? Cks sw s chc-h mc m m (p. 166).Th Ius Rvu ws h puc h u pss s scs w m , cm-cy ms (p. 231). Ews h pm xmp hs sc-s h w cm csymiddleclass h s. Th, puc,, h wk w cmvus cmmus h pvusy h sph, mpusv, v, -su v (p. 166). Th ch chcws ms w s s, cy umcy, wk y, ss vc (huh h mpc

h s uc v Cks jum h mv vs vcw hh uh uc cmccvs).

Why ws E cm m mcss? A pus suc hs ppvu hum pcs s h su-vv h chs h s v p-us E (p. 167). Th p h w suvv ch puc

hmsvs. Th ch, h h h, hm h uh. Gv h sc u h Mhus cmy, h supu- ch h ch h , v,mv w h sc hchy wk (p. 7). Dww sc m-y sp h vus pc, h wk,uy, vvss, [] uchuhu scy. Th c wh ch p h um suvvch ws m mk E hswh, h xps why Ek h cmc wh.

Ths um ss my ssus. Ths h c s h cus w

ks chs. O s hv: h h s h s cy, sc. Th h s u: h,puc, c. Th ch u cu pcp xp h ch hv-, u h my h cs h. B ccp Cks cm hh ch u cus h ch hv, h xps h hvchs cs.

Th w ssh vxps h hv chs.Cs cy. Th v h p- pss cu h pc ks, whch wuhv uc s cy whv hpcs (v Z 2005). I ,h m cy ws wys hh ws h h cuys. I Vc Fc, sc, u h hm w u h Rssc(G 1989), wh y 2 pc h

pss P cu (Wyczsk1974). I E, h pp ppv ws h 5,000 s m7 pc 1500 29 pc 1800(A 2000), h m cys wh . Sm css uu-y pp umcy. Lkws, h su xps h s s. I s mp h E h h c h c


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s s, whch pp m 20pc 6 pc c m-chs h h sxh cu-s. Th csp p ccu E y h h h-h (Eps 2000). Th usu xp- h s h vpm mc sums mks hm.Th c vu ws y c- vms wh h c w, whch ws vy xpsv. B, s, ws vy s mEup pcs c my chs, s c susm uvp. I ws y wh

Pm v Wm My ssum h h 1689 h h such. Wm h Pc O Sh ms h Duch pu-cs, hy uh wh hm mc c sus s w svvm Eup ws. Th Bk E ws c, sc, s w s u puc whch ccs hmc c mks. Is sh E (N 1990).

Th sp m css vus cs s s h su scchs. O ppch mpus h wu chs h m s.I Ws (1930) hss, h Rmmusy h Ps Ehc ,hc, h Sp Cpsm (Ruck2005). Rc cmss wh c mus sm ch h m s cu Mky (2002) wh us

h ws w ppch hsuy chy h hh c-uy cs hs h Ehm, umy, h Scc Rvu h svh cuy.

Ah ppch xp h s m m s s hs mcs su chs h cmy hy m p. Ths hm hs ppu wh s w s Mxs hk-

s. I hv y sv h h s cy umcy, sc, c u h m hs sks - y cmmc hc hsp c u h wh ws cs. Th sm s u h -us h Ck sscs wh my, hy cu succss h sms. As Jh Su M (1840) sv,Th sp cmmc usy s h s sums y cv-z h ws, u mpvm cuu h ws ss: , scsquc, w w y h v-usy sushs h ps p

m h M As (p. 48). Ths v-s cu h m css vus hCk chmps.

Wh hs v c xp-s h , Cks cm h mm ws h puc cy ssh pcs c ccp wh-u m jusc h h s. I,m jusc wu cssysc ky ppss h um s. Ths cu h w:

TherichinthelaterMiddleAgesexem-p m css vus.

Thepoor inthe laterMiddleAgesdid xmpy m css vus.

Bytheeighteenthcentury,thepoorhadcm xmpy m css vus.

The rich passed their values on toh ch h cy yup.

The rich hadmore surviving childrenh h p.

Englandwasunusualinthisregard.

Cs hm u:

The rich in the later Middle Agesexemplifed middle class values.

Ths s vy uu. Th cmc m-m scc ss m


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hx cps pcc. L ws vm cusmy s, sc, qu sz hs h mxmz hvu . H (1962) msu sv-s s Esh mv ss u hm ss h 5 pc. Thidea -vs p h pups cs puc sms hv ps w ms y. I practice hmmum h h h mxmum sms hv sp hs s whch ws cp m (H 1962, p.67) Is usss ms,h Esh khs w h ms pcusws Eup. Th Esh uuh

h Fch ms h Hu YsW (13371453). Wh h Esh khsw y , hy u chh h Ws h Rss (145589).Th Esh sccy h M Asw hy, p-usssm.

Ms Esh hss hv vw - m Ck u h shp wh upp csss h s scy. Thss s h m h sxh c-uy w, h csss w uhu pc y mchs wh mus L h cmmccvs. Th w ws w ssum m css vus wh hm, h jc us us h s k y sm h cus u z cs ccy(Twy 1941; S 1965; Hkkuk 1994;Cs Hv 2005). Th ww ss hs chs w hpp-

. O ws h h ws wpu wh h w w-s w ch h vus whch Ckppvs. A sc s h h sccy hv uh ch pucs. F ms h y m p, qu h ws Esh ss whu suvv s, h p-c cs ms h h svh hh cus (S

S 1984, p. 101) Cks m h shp w h upp hw csss s cc y h sus h shp wh sccy h s Bsh scy h y m p.

The poor in the later Middle Ages did notexempliy middle class values.

W hv c vc u hus h p h MAs. Ms hm w ps ms, w shu c h Cks cm s sm h vw h pss . Ths vw ws cu v-

pm cmcs h 1950s 1960swh ws s jc mps scs (By C 1979,Bh Suum 1985). Wh w c- pm sphsc ss hcuy E, h s cs v-c h sm sc ms w cu-u vs. Cpp ps c csuc m p vs, hy shw h ps s w p w sc h p s y smsc ms h h sxhcus (Hsks 1950, 1963). I msw vv pucs, why wu wssum h hy w hy -w k?

By the eighteenth century, the poor hadcome to exempliy middle class values.

Th hsy ppu cuu s vsujc sc hss. Th s c-

ssus hw ppu us ch.Buk (2006) us w s.Th s s jcvs wy h h us ms. R hs s c mc ,cvsy, cc uscxps. Th sc s -s pcs. Ths ws csy hsp wspp . O h hh, Shp (1997) us h


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wchs mc c much qus-s whh Nwsm sp mh ppu . Nh pvs ysupp Cks h m cssvus sp w h sc sc hs c smss mchsm.

The rich passed their values on totheir children either genetically or

by upbringing.

Ck v sys cy whh h vsvus pss m ps ch yscz y cs, huh h s-us h cs pys . Scys such sus cs ps h

shu ss h swh Ck y ms.

Th pm wh h cs scz s h hy s s wy h ch h Cks mch-sm cu sp m css vushuh Esh scy. Lh (2005)u h h c- psy s ws y 0.13. I w ssus ssv m h us h Esh scy ws sfu s Ck cs, h h c- psy s w m hs s wu y 0.017 = (.13)2.Lc psy h s wu smpy w smss (Fm, O, Chss 2000; Bws Gs 2002;Bws 2007).

The rich had more surviving childrenthan the poor.

Ck s py h u hs s s pps h y scy.A mp xcp, hwv, w hEsh csss. Ths s h u s-cc Cks c h Mhuss u. Th y sccyw puc h p-sh huh h upw mvm m-chs, s . Cks m s w h p Esh scy.

Wh w h p k hscy m mchs wws? I hwy, w c s ssum h h px hm css vus. Hwv w mus wc h sc shs h Eshcmy. Th u, cmmc cmyws w py, s mchs w p-. Bw 1500 1800, h pp-u L, sc, w my hus m. Mv, c-s h y m p w hps y m h ppus( w) huh mssv mm- m h cuys. U hs c-cumscs, h ch usssm

ss w c w h sc. Thy w pc hps h w um js h sm s ( ) h w c-. Cks ssump h sc u h Mhus cmy s ppy.I, h u h csssm h h ch mchs cus h h .

England was unusual in this regard.

Ths s u. Th w- suh- Gm, Aus, Fc, Sw, Swz h m suvv chh h p, jus s E (Ck2007; Hsh 2003; Lw 1991; Pu1975). Th Esh, h ws, w kvy s.

Wh As? Th y vc Ckucs cs swh hums suvv ch h Chs

y my h Jps smu, u wu h m ms hw ss psv h hs. Thsccus s supp y svh Ck mks swh A Farewellto Alms: I pus Ch, hwv,ss y m hh-sus ups h Bj y ws wh pss L. T m- y ws hh h w-sus


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cmmuy, h pc wmmy ws smwh hh (p. 89).Th p sum Ch ks sm h p sum E, whch cuy puc s. By h sm k,v y Ch c m h mp , s Cks cm-pss w hm h Esh ms.

I, h cs v m uk Cks hss. Th cmps Bjy L pss s w mL Ws (1999) suvy Chsmphy, whch, u, s s vy vs ppu

L y L Cmp (1997). IL, m h my s w um h s-c - s, whch sc h ms . Ivus ccups w s, s h y c cmpcss ccup ups. Hh sus, hhcm ccups h h ms suvvss: sc, ss 4650 h v 2.57 suvv ss, ss h2.42 ss, cs h 2.17 ss. I c-s, m 4650 wh w cmm-s h y 1.55 ss v. Th wks whch Ck s hs scuss Chs mphy u hs hss hh supp .

6. Why Did Productivity Growth Rise inthe Industrial Revolution?

Ths qus pss Ck wh

mm. O h h, h ws xp why h Ws s ch, hIus Rvu s uv p h sw. Th Ius Rvu, m w hu ys , ch vh psss m csump(p. 2). O h h h, h s, s wys,h enant terrible ws u hh Ius Rvu ws us:Nh much y hpp w

1760 1860. A mu, u sw h Mhus m c-ms k pc E u 1800.Rp pucvy wh s uy qu hs m cms ppu h h cuy (p. 242).Hs w vws cu cc.

Ms schs h h s hIus Rvu u ck hus ys wh cc u-y. Cks wpy h IusRvu ss w s cm sms h c csyw s GDP pucvy whh h ssh sms Cs

Hy (1992).Msum GDP s cu u

h wksss h . Cs Hy sm GDP wh y - upus. Th pm hy c s cm-p cv h chc whs.Ck (2001, 2007), h h h, s up cms. Ths qus kw- h qus h vus cs h pcs, h ucs wh cm ppch h wh u-pu . Th s y whchh s cu sm h cp scks 1760 (Fs 1978), s ps ys cjcus. Ev 1760, hwh cp us s usmcus h s m h cm ucp ussss. Th suu sc ussss h hh wys w ch s kh Es I Cmpy w ucp-

, h cm ws h ms pys cmp ps: Th IusRvu p cpss whps. Esms cm s h ppu wh vc mpym s h su mpym css s csss. I hcs , Cks sms s vcsy m hs h schs(Tu, Bck, A 1997), h


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cs , mw, psu hshu vu my ssh.N sch cu u h Cks sms mpvm v hs Cs Hy.7

Lw h upu wh hIus Rvu s h quswhy h Ius Rvu pps mc (p. 242) wh ws such csqu ? Cks sw s hh Ius Rvu cc wh cc ppu wh 1750h cs h Bsh ppu cm v h pws (..,Fc) hus cs Bs pw h

w. Ck scs h wh ppu- xus s y hh h cmc xps.8

Lw h upu wh hIus Rvu s ws s scp.Whs hss c huh h much h cmy ws vuz uh Ius Rvu, Cs Hy(1992) hv u vuy sm-

7 Th ssssm Cks cm smss hmp cus h hs cmp h ppCk (2007), whchA Farewell to Alms cs s hsuc h cm sms. I y Ck(2001), whch pss sm ss.

8 Ck (pp. 24345) cms h y scus m wm m w, h, sk pcy. I hs vw, m s cscus c hs m pcy. Thsppss uu. Fs, h h s -y h hh cuy ws u mhs pm pcs: -m sx ws h s (Wy 1981). Sc, Ck hs m hs m pcy. H ssums h hs

wm 2049 w u pcycy sssump. Gu (1997) su h c h ch h h cuy I Iy,h cus wh y ws hh, ccu hch h ws h mj cus h wm.Tucuss w m my s cus h (Gu 1997, p. 119). Th, h sc p h hs m pcy ccu 1800, whchs xp h s y h s 1750.Th sp cuu w mpym hhh cuy ( wh c h pvvchck) ks much m pus xp h s h h (Gs 1986).

ws c w scsxs,, sp, c, cuu.Us xp , Tm (1997) hs uh ch ws v . Ck ksh vw Cs Hy v uh:By squz y m pucvy whu h mc c, Ck ps h s vuz uss w v m mphszs xs. Txs w hfshp usy h Ius Rvu(p. 233).

A cuy wh hs vw s h mks h xp why IusRvu ccu E, why sus s h cmc

wh. Cks mccmc scuss sh m h h pmc ssu xps, pcuy hs ps. Ck s sus wc us wh hpp usyy scuss cuu wh pucv-y ws s s. Thuss vucuvs Ius Rvu Esmhw cmy mh-s m h hs m h wsvs. Thy hs sp h ch h mv cuss, wh h smcvs, w u pss (p. 239).Ths w sm hv hhh cuy cm m vus.

Bu cuy, w m cus xp-s h upsu v . Bh hm xp why h IusRvu s h hh cuy,whch s smh Cks hy c .O xp s h Scc Rvu

h svh cuy. I cump scvs such s h c hh msph hs wh h smc cs m vcuum. Thss w h ss h sm v y Thms Nwcm h yhh cuy. Th Scc Rvus ch ws cuu mk mhmc mpc. Th ppc hs us h suy chy,


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whch Mky (2002) cs h IusEhm, cs h ch-c pss. Mky s cxuzvs Cks mc mm wh pus xp.

Th sc xp s uc ch-c ch sps h uususucu ws pcs B h hh cuy. Bsh ws wmky hh y ws mkychp. Fu 1 shws hw Bsh ws

w hh v h pc csums. Bsh ws w s hh v h pc cp svcs s shw u 2. Th y vpm h cusy m h y ws vy chp h ws B hc s. Ths sucu pcs mh ws p vp mch-y B h susu cp y , whs h sm R&D

pjcs w up swh h w. Th mus vs hIus Rvu k h sm h sp jy w s ch-c chs h cu css Bsh cpcs u y. Ths w ch-qus w k up y mucus h c y sc v huh hy w w kw h.Th cs us h sp jy Fc, sc, ws sps

h sv s h chy h cs c pcs. Th wchy h m h Bsh IusRvu ws wh us h c-, s ws s wh v h: Th w s cmps h R&D css. Th s h IusRvu ws Bsh ws cus wsp v h mus vs B whs ws p

Figure 2. R W R h Pc Cp Svcs

England France Austria

2

1.5

1

0.5

1630 1680 1730 1780

Wage/ratecapitalservice


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h cssy R&D ywh s (A2007c, 2007, hcm-, By Gup hcm).

Bs hh w, chp y c-my ws s h su Bs succss h cmy h y mp. Gw , py u succss-u mpsm, cus L w my hus 1500 m 1800.Oh cs w py h hhcuy. Ths m ws h mm cus h hh w cmy. As L w,s h m u. Iy, wsw. By 1585, s pc h s uh mk p m c hs-

E shp L. Th m c c h chp y cmy h E. Th vy chpu up h hh w cmy ys y us uss h uph w .

Ck s h ssc hs vws w-ssh cssus h h s h Bsh Ius Rvu u ck 1500. Th qus hs wys hwusz p vs.Pc vpm k h GusRvu 1688 (Nh Ws1989) hs pssy, Ck spy h scu h hyphss.Th s m scc h wh h cmy hv wys k m mp h Cks cmchsms xp h IusRvu.

7. Who Gained rom the IndustrialRevolution?

A Farewell to Alms s sh cms, h s s h su-y, usk hs p m sh y h up (p. 272) m hIus Rvu. Nss sy, hsws h vw cmps, whvh pc psuss, hs

h vw ms hss. Th usu vwhs h h w w swy, , m h hh cuy hsc qu h h, wh u-pu p wk vc scy. Ck,hwv, s m h m 1760 1860 ws E s s h upu p ps (p. 272).

Ck chs hs ccc ccus h ss () hs w sm GDP, whchws ss py h h CsHyss, () hs w ss, whchws m py h h ms wyccp ss csuc y Fs(1998). Cm h CsHy

Fs ss shws h w 1780 1840 upu p wk s 46pc wh h w y cs12 pc. Fu 3 shws h c shs( pcs h 1850s) h su m cm- h CHy GDP ss wh vs Fss w ss sms h qus , , cp h pcs. Cpssw h s (spcy 1800),wh wks w ss. Th sh h cm pp m 60 pc 45 pc (A 2007, 2007).

Shu w p h spy u 3 Cks pmsm? E I vsm ss scu Cks GDPss. I s wh u h c hCk hs sms h ps msussss ssums h us cp vs h mucu sc- w h sm s h w

cm whch h c msu. Hs cjc-u s cc y h cmccus k D C (1979)whs sms, s cm x ,c s ps h s s css- wh u 3.

Cks w x s sus msus wksss. O s ssus s whs. Cmp Fs, sc, Ck pcs u pc


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ps ss wh wh h -c spk v vy muxuus s k s, spcs, h,sp, svcs, cc. Ck chsh w sh y y spcusccus push pmc pm-ph h 1730s. Cks sh s

css wh m vc xpus, sm whch h cs, wh cmpss h suppy wh vum k. Ah s ssus s h pcs hs pc x. Ck ucs vy w ss, sm whch mpv-ms hs whch . Hs pc ss, sc, cks h p-uc pc (xcu xcs us)

h h h csum pc cusv us, whch s v quss w-. Pcuy s s hs us hpc wh pxy h pc pcuy cuus chc sc w hv vy w m u pcscss B hs p (Ps

1995). Wh w chs h ms spc ss m hs us y Fs y Ck wh w hmwh whs h s spvc, w ch csum pc xmuch cs Fss h Cks(A 2007). Ths x supps h s-u sy u 3. Cpss wksw h s u hIus Rvu.

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

1770 1790 1810 1830 1850 1870 1890 1910

Year

Proportionofnationalincome

labor prot land

Figure 3. Fc Shs 1850 Pcs


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8. Why Isnt the Whole World Developed?

I h sc h k, Ck ksup h qus h G Dvc:Why hv ch cus w s hp cus?

Pcy, Ck vs hs qus pxc ws y u h ch-y sus shu hv ccwh p cus h hcuy. Rs, sm shps, hph cu h cs cuc us-ss w As L Amc B. Pc ms k hBsh Emp pv pc pp-

y w sc css. Dsp hsv su vpms, As w.

Ck , hwv, ppch hs p-m m quum pspcv.Is, h cuss pu qums c puc cus. Hvs h I uh hv s up c ms h wu hv cmpsuccssuy wh Bsh ms y mpBsh mchy p wh ww I . I, 1870, hsws Bmy. Th usy w p-y, huh succ wsh w mk m B. Ck ysh m squy I wks. Thpm pss ccy us p cus k I ws h m h sp h chs h Ius Rvu (pp. 34546).

Thus, As uvpm, pvs

h xmp hs c xp cmc succss. Th mphc sys-m h hs scs [Ch, Jp psumy s I, huh Ck hs ] v ss pucv v hwhy h E. As su, Ash m css vus w wy -us, h ppu ws zy ups. Ck (p. 354) qus cmm 1930 h L I

s uuy vy w p, py cms x Chs ccy,wsuss, ck scp. Ck (p.354) qus sv svs hs c,whch h ss (p. 357), huhh mks h sm hs u wsvy cs (p. 354). A s wu smwh Cks m css vus ssum h pps s.

Cks yss h c usy s mu hs w kw ppWhy s h Wh W Dvp?Lsss m h C Ms (1987). Hsmwk hs cvs, whmy schs h xps

cs pucvy(Ams 2001, Wks 1987, Hs 1988,Wc 1994). Cks um s s pcu chcz chy,my, h cp us x pps. Ths vw s pmp yhs sucs, whch mm psw h y wh cuy. Thcus s wy h um wk-s mpy cjuc wh pcu- ks mchs. Ck ssums hh mpy pcu m B h U Ss cs h cssy p h mch. I, xmp, m wks w sscwh mch I, h x ws s supfuus. Th s s hms w-w cus m u-pu p mch y mpy hs sup-umy wks (p. 340); h ws,h m puc ws z. Th

ssump h x pps s cc ups hs cm h cpsusu s . . . v xp hxcss m h w-w cus(Ck 1987, p. 156). F Ck, -sv usz s us, huhh schs s s h xp As succss (Suh 2007).

S Ahu Lws (1954) m hs pu- y cm h h m puc


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ps cuu ws z.Ths c hs cc,hwv, y umus puc ucsus h shw h h m p-uc ws psv. Ck s uh h pm uvpm s h m u h cy wh,h vs, h m puc ws z. A puc ucsus pv s, whch Ckccps: F h pcss [ cpsusu] puc h sv cspuc pcsss mus w h CDus puc uc (p. 357, . 8).I s Cks pcp xmp, s

s cuy whs c x us-y hs much su cmcy.Sm sus hv sm h scy susu w cp , us u hv cs , sCk qus (Sk 1970; Bj 1974).M sus hv sm CDuspuc ucs s w s m fx- ms, hy cm h h m- puc ws psv (Muy Ssy 1957; Sk 1970; Bj 1974;M 1999). Sus h uss mucu s wh p hsm ccuss c qus hwh c um h Ckcs hs ssumps u x p-ps c ms.

Fuhm, Ck hs ch hsxp m h hs c. IA Farewell to Alms, hhm vs m h wks:

Th vs p cus sspcpy h wks (p. 359). I 1987,hwv, h ccu: Whv msh ccy wks w-w cu-s sms ch h c v-m, h wks hmsvs (Ck1987, p. 168). Ths ccus ws s yss mm wks mpy Amc h cus. I NwE 1911, mms m p

cus wh upucv x us-s wk Amc ss -ccy s much s y s.Ck cms h scvy c xphs. I , h pucvy mm- p h cuy hyw h h h cuy hy cmm. Gm ms mpy ums m Ps, Swss ms mpy mI wks, h Puv msmpy Chs wks, whmshw h xy pucvy mms h Amc ms (Ck1987, p. 167). A Farewell to Alms sms, hs vw, cmp sw

Ck (1987).S h ssu s, why wks

p cus w quy? H Cksum uvs, h s h c-cy xps. Th s s h -c um py swh hk. Th sc s su um,my, h h wks sk sps m ucs m sh ccy s huh hh ws. Thscus h s m z, u hwh wks such pw w wcuy wh mus uv s c (Ck Wc 1999; Wc 1994;Buch 1934). Th h s xp . R h uy cus h cs quy, h s sscy hy. Ecms sm, us, m ss my wvy c phss phss smc (p. 370). Succss u

w pu w chc v -y ms.

Ths cu--sc shws h ms Cksvw vpm. T vc, w py m sus cu-u. Cks scp h c msshws h s zss cpcy h h p js u h s s w wks, mms hms h cmmus m whch


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hy cm, h ws ms hms, v h vm whs vs-s pv s much h m mk Cks cs. By yz h -ss ppus, w mh ush s ps sv y Ck.

O u uy h j sh- h Ck scs s suy h ws v h vp w, h mus , s p, cs-quc h p wh ppu.Dmphy s mss m Cks -ss h s h h w, h scuus v h mphss h pc h s p h k. H v mps

xp why y s pp hWs. Hw h vp w w c y s s su mpc ssss s uu pspcs (cuh v m x ms). Hcuu s pcy py s. Ckmphsz h vpm qus hmc m m, u qush mc m wm s smuch. I s wm wh hv ch, h kh h s cs shy uc wk us h hm(Schuz 1997; D M v Z2005). Euc wm s m spcy, v h c pcu-y cv.

9. Conclusion

A Farewell to Alms s cus s swp sws s up ps-

mus hy cmpx quss u u cmc wh. Cks swss wh ys hs, h hsw cmc hsy h wh s h cup h csh cv-zs. I, hs c ums h supy AAmc cu-u mk h cs w h Ws h Rs u suc ppu cfc. Nmy, s sss

h h c hss k cc y w-kw vc, u hs cs s v h pssmscpspc h A Farewell to Alms hs u h uu h w.

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