A Canadian Exceptional Ism

8/6/2019 A Canadian Exceptional Ism

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A C a n a d i a n E x c e p t i o n a l i sm ?T r u s t a n d D i v e r s i t y i n C a n a d i a n C i t ie s

A b d o l m o h a m m a d K a z em i p urU n i v e r s i t y o f L e t h b r i d g e

Ca nadian research is seriously scarc e in the fast-g row ing l iterature on socialt rust - -def ine d as the degree to wh ich one can trust o thers wh om one does not kno wpersonally. In this article, w e hav e tried to address this issue by exa m inin g the levelsof trust in various Canadian provinces an d cities. The study s how s that the level oft rust in Canada r ises as one moves a w ay from the centre and tow ard both w est andeast coasts, and that the trust levels are alarmin gly low fo r ci t ies in the province o fQuebec. W e have a lso made an a t t emp t to fu r ther our unders tand ing o f the dynam -ics of social trust, by looking at the de term inants of trust at the ci ty level . The actorsexa m ined are: the city's population, the size o f i ts imm igra nt population, averageincome of residents, the extent of income inequality, and the degree of its ethnicdiversi ty. O ut o f these, the posit ive relationship fou nd between ethnic diversi ty an dsocial trus t-- tha t is, as the for m er rises, the latter increases as well--c ons ti tutes auniquely Canadian trend, which is in contrast to what the exist ing l i terature onsocial trust suggests. Moreover, wi thin Canada, Quebec appears as an an om aly,give n the extremely low levels o f trus t in cities located in this province. Also, w ith inQuebec, Montreal seems to be in a class all by itself, sho win g the unus ual com binationof high d iversi ty and low trust. A lthou gh som e speculative hypotheses are proposedto explain so me o f these trends, the anomalies fou nd wa rra nt particular attention infutu re research.A u Canada, tr~s peu de recherche porte sur le dom aine tr~s dyn am iqu e de Ia confi-ance sociale, c'est h dire, Ia m esu re da ns Iaquelle l"on peut aire confiance aux autresque no us ne connaissons pas en personne. Darts cet art icle, nous exam inons cettequestion en ~tudiant Ies niveaux de confiance dans diverses provinces et villes auCanada. L 'dtude ddmontre que d"une part, le n iveau de conf iance augm ente au fu r e th m esu re que l 'on s'~loigne du centre vers les c6tes est et ouest et que d'au tre part, lesnive aux de confiance sont dton nam m ent bas pou r les vi lles qudbdcoises. N ou s a von sdgalement essayd de mie ux connaftre la dyn am iqu e de la confiance sociale en por-tan t notre attention sur les ddterminants des niv ea ux de confiance dans Ies villes.Les facteurs suiva nts on t ait l"objet de notre d tude: la population de la ville, la taillede la population immigrante, le rev en u m oy en des rdsidents, l 'dtendue de l 'indgalitdde reve nu et le degrd de diversi td ethnique. Pa rm i ces acteurs, le rapport po sit i f en-tre la diversitd ethn ique e t la confiance sociale--c" est-?~-dire, plus la population est

Key words/Mots-clefs: S o c ia l C a p i t a l /C a p i t a l s o c ia l; I m m i g r a t i o n ; C a n a d a ; T r u s t / C o n f i a n c e ;Ethn ic i ty /E thn ic i t6 .

9 2006 by Transaction Publishers. All rights reserved./Tous droits r6serv6s.ISSN : 1488-3473

J IM I / R IM I V o l u m e 7 N u m b e r / n u m 6 r o 2 ( S p r i n g / p r i n t e m p s 2 00 6): 2 1 9 - 2 4 0


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KAZEMIPUR

d i v e r s e , p l u s l a c o n f i a n c e s o c i a le e s t d l e v d e - - c o n s t i t u e u n e t e n d a n c e u n i q u e a uC a n a d a e t v a gz l 'e n c o n t r e d e c e q u e I a i s se co n c l u r e l a d o c u m e n t a t i o n r e l a t i v e fz l ac o n f i a n c e so c ia le . D e p l u s , a u C a n a d a , l e Q u d b e c p r d s e n t e u n d c a r t p a r l es n i v e a u xd e c o n f i a n c e s o c i a l e e x t r ~ m e m e n t b a s d a n s s e s v i l l e s . ] i l ' i n t d r i e u r d e I a p r o v i n c e ,M o n t r g a l s e m b l e f o r m e r u n e c l a ss e ?t p a r t d a n s l e s e n s q u ' e ll e p r d s e n te l a c o m b i n a i -s o n i n h a b i t u e l l e d ' u n e d i v e r s i t d e t h n i q u e d le vd e e t u n f a i b l e n i v e a u d e c o nf ia n ce .N o u s p r d s e n t o n s q u e l q u e s h y p o t h e s e s c o n j e c t u r a l e s p o u r e x p l i q u e r c e r t a i n e s d e c e st e n d a n c e s , m a i s l e s d d v i a t i o n s r g v dl de s m & i t e n t q u e l e s c h e r c h e u r s y p o r t e n t u n ea t t e n t i o n p a r t i c u l i~ r e h l 'a v e n i r .

I n t r o d u c t i o nD u r i n g t h e 1 99 0s, v a r i o u s s o c ia l s c ie n c e d i s c ip l in e s w i t n e s s e d a s u d d e n r is eo f in t e r e s t i n t h e c o n c e p t o f s o c ia l c a p it a l, a n d p a r t i c u l a rl y i n t h e c o n c e p t o ft r u s t a s o n e o f t h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s o f s o ci al c a pi ta l. T h e k e y t o t h is s u d -d e n p o p u l a r i ty w a s t h e s im p l i ci ty a n d i n tu i ti v e ly u n d e r s t a n d a b l e n a t u r e o ft h e c o n c e p t . T h e f o r m a l a n d i n s t i tu t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f a s o c ie ty , t h e a r g u -m e n t g o e s , is u n a b l e t o c o v e r e v e r y c o r n e r o f s o ci a l life , s o m a n y a r e a s r e -m a i n t h a t n e e d a t t e n ti o n b y m e a n s o f in f o rm a l r o u ti n e s a n d i n te r p e rs o n a li n t e r a c t i o n s . M a n y s u c h r o u t i n e s a n d i n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v e r e l a t i o n s h i p sa m o n g p e o p l e o n t h e b a s is o f m u t u a l t ru s t, i ts e lf r e l a te d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f ac o m m o n s e t o f n o r m s , c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e p r i n c ip l e o f r ec ip ro c it y, a n d ac e r t a i n d e g r e e o f d is t a n c e f r o m p u r e l y s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d in d i v i d u a li s m . I n t h ea b s e n c e o f t h is f u n d a m e n t a l b u i ld i n g b l o c k - - t h a t i s, a tr u s t in g r e l a ti o n s h ipa m o n g t h e c i ti z en s o f a c o m m u n i t y - - t h i s i n f o r m a l s tr u c t u re w il l c o ll ap s e,c a u s i n g f o r m a l i n s t it u t i o n s t o m a l f u n c t i o n . It w a s i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s e d y -n a m i c s t h a t in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f Democracy and Trust, t h e p o l it ic a l s c i en -t is t W a r r e n (1 99 9) n o t e d , " w i t h o u t t r u s t t h e m o s t b a s i c a c ti v it ie s o f e v e r y d a yl if e w o u l d b ec o m e i m p o s s i b l e " (p . 2 ). A l so , i n BowlingAlone, n o w o n e o f t h ec la s si cs in t h e s o c ia l sc i e n c e s, P u t n a m (2 00 0) a r g u e d t h a t " h o n e s t y a n dt rus t lub r i ca te th e inev i t ab le f r i c t ions o f soc ia l l if e" (p . 135) .

T h e e n t r y o f t h e e l e m e n t o f t ru s t c h a l l e n g e d t h e c o n v e n t io n a l w a y st h a t m a n y so c ia l p r o c e s s e s w e r e u n d e r s t o o d a n d e x p l ai n e d . N o t h i n g il lu s -t r a t e s th i s p o i n t b e t t e r t h a n t h e n e w c l a ss i fi c a ti o n o f so c i e ti e s s u g g e s t e d b yF u k u y a m a ( 19 95 a, 1 9 95 b ). A c c o r d i n g to h i m , a l t h o u g h t h e t r a d i t io n a l c l a s-s i fi c a ti o n o f c o u n t r i e s o n t h e b a s is o f t h e i r d e g r e e o f i n d u s t r ia l i z a ti o n a n dt h e e x t e n t o f s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e e c o n o m y is n o t w r o n g , n e i t h e r isi t " t h e m o s t u s e f u l w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g g lo b a l e c o n o m i c g e o g r a p h y "( F u k u y a m a , 19 9 5a : 8 9). I n s t e a d h e s u g g e s t e d a d i f f e r e n t g r o u p i n g , t h e low-trust g r o u p c o n s i s t i n g o f c o u n t r i e s s u c h a s T a i w a n , H o n g K o n g , I ta ly , a n d

220 Journal of Internat ional Migration and Integration


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A C A N A D I A N EX C EPTIO N A LI SM? TR U ST A N D D I V ER SITY [ N C A N A D IA N C ITI ES

F r a n c e ; a n d , t h e h i g h - t r u s t g r o u p t h a t i n c l u d e s J a p a n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,a n d G e r m a n y . H e c o n c l u d e s t h a t b o t h s i d es o f t h e o n g o i n g d e b a t e o n t h ea p p r o p r i a t e r o l e o f s t a te i n e c o n o m y - - t h a t is , t h e t r a d i t io n a l l ef t a n d r ig h t,t h e n e o m e r c a n t i l i s t s a n d n e o c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i s t s - - h a v e m i s s e d t h e p o i n tt h a t n o n r a t i o n a l f a c to r s s u c h a s t r u s t w i ll b e c ru c ia l t o t h e s u c c e s s o f m o d -e r n s o c i e t i e s i n a g l o b a l e c o n o m y .

T h is a n d o t h e r s t u d i e s o f t r u s t ra i se d a c o n c e r n a m o n g p o l i c y - m a k e r si n m a n y s o c ie ti e s a s to w h e r e t h e y s t o o d o n t h e g l o b a l m a p o f t r u s t a n d a ls oh o w t h e y c o u l d i m p r o v e t h e t ru s t e n d o w m e n t s i n t h e ir c o u n t ri e s .T h i s c o n -c e r n r e s u l te d i n a l a rg e n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s i n m a n y i n d u s t r ia l n a t i o n s o n t h ed y n a m i c s o f tr u s t, it s c a u s e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s , a s w e l l a s i ts d i s t r ib u t i o n i nt h e c o u n tr y . S u r p r is in g l y e n o u g h , C a n a d a h a s b e e n m o s t l y a b s e n t i n s u c hs t u d ie s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d u e t o l a ck o f i n t e r e s t o n t h e p a r t o f C a n a d i a n r e -s e a r c h e r s a n d p o l i c y - m a k e r s , b u t m o r e d u e t o la c k o f g o o d , r e li a b le d a t a.R e c e n t ly , h o w e v e r , t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h is d a t a s h o r t a g e h a s s u b s i d e d , t h a n k st o th e g e n e r a t i o n a n d r e l e a s e o f s o m e r e l e v a n t a n d r ic h d a t a s e t s b y S t a ti s -t ic s C a n a d a . C y c l e 1 7 o f t h e C a n a d i a n G e n e r a l S o c i al S u r v e y ( G S S ) is o n es u c h d a t a s o u r c e , e n t ir e l y d e d i c a t e d t o c a p t u r i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f s o c ia l c a p i -ta l, o f w h i c h t ru s t is a f u n d a m e n t a l c o m p o n e n t .

I n t hi s st u dy , w e a t t e m p t e d t o e x a m i n e t h e s t a te o f t r u s t in C a n a d a u s i n gt h e r e c e n tl y r el e a s ed G S S 1 7 d a ta . T h e m a i n q u e s t i o n s a d d r e s s e d i n t hi s s t u d ya r e a s f o ll o w s : (a ) W h a t is t h e d i s t r ib u t i o n o f t r u s t i n v a r i o u s C a n a d i a n p r o v -i n c e s a n d c it ie s ? (b ) W h a t a r e t h e e f f e c ts o f s o m e g e n e r a l f a c t o r s s u c h a s p o p -u l a ti o n , i n c o m e , a n d i n e q u a l i t y o n t h e t r u s t le v e l o f v a r i o u s C a n a d i a n c it ie s ?(c) G i v e n t h e s i g n if i ca n c e o f i m m i g r a t i o n a n d m u l t ic u l t u r a l i s m i n t h e l iv e s o fC a n a d i a n s , w h a t a r e t h e e f fe c ts o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s o n t r u s t?

Conceptual FrameworkA n e m e r g i n g t h e m e i n t h e f a s t - g r o w i n g l i te r a tu r e o n s o c i a l t r u s t is t h a t i nt h e l a s t t h ir d o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , t h e l ev e l o f t r u s t p l u m m e t e d i n m a n yc o u n t r i e s , p a r ti c u l a rl y in i n d u s t r i a l iz e d n a t i o n s , w i t h a f e w e x c e p t i o n s ( o nt h e U n i t e d S t a te s , P u t n a m , 2 0 0 0; W u t h n o w , 2 0 0 2 ; o n I t aly , P u t n a m , 1 9 93 ;G a m b e t t a , 1 98 8; o n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , H a l l 1 99 9; 2 0 0 2 ; o n F ra nc e, W o r m s ,2002; on G erm any Of fe & Fuchs, 2002; on Japan , In ogu ch i , 2002; Yam agi sh i ,1 9 8 8; Y a m a g i s h i & Y a m a g i sh i , 1 9 9 4 ; o n S p a i n , P 6 r e z - D f a z , 2 0 0 2 ; o n A u s -t r a l i a , C o x , 2 0 0 2 ; o n S w e d e n , R o t h s t e i n , 2 0 0 2 ; a n d o n C a n a d a , H e l l i w e l l ,1 9 96 ). I n th e s e a n d o t h e r s t u d i e s , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e c h a n g e s i n th e l e v e la n d n a t u r e o f t r u s t o n a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r s o c ia l t r e n d s w e r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d .

R e v u e d e f i n t e g r a t i o n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 2 2 1


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P u t n a m , f o r e x a m p l e , p o i n t e d t o t h e e f fe c t s o f d e c l i n i n g l ev e l s o f t r u s t o nt h e v i t a li ty o f c iv ic e n g a g e m e n t , a n d , t h r o u g h t h is , t h e r o b u s t n e s s o f t h ed e m o c r a t i c n a t u r e o f t h e p o l it ic a l st ru c t u re s . O t h e r s w a r n e d a g a i n s t th e i re c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s ( F u k u y a m a ) ; s o m e f o c u s e d o n t h e c h a n g i n g n a -t u r e o f s o ci al c o n n e c t e d n e s s ( W u t h n o w ) . M o r e r e c e n tl y , a n e w s t r e a m o fe x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h h a s e m e r g e d , t h e m a i n f o c u s o f w h i c h i s t o c a p t u r et h e e s s e n c e o f t r u s t in g b e h a v i o u r a n d t o d i s c o v e r t h e c h a r ac t e ri s ti c s a n dc i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t a r e m o r e c o n d u c i v e t o t r u s t ( S a m p s o n , 2 00 3; S o r o k a,H e l l i w e l l , & Jo h n s t o n , i n p r e s s ; L azza r i n i , M ad a l o zzo , A r t e s , & S i q u e i r a ,2 00 5; F eh r , F i sch b ach e r , v o n R o se n b l ad t , S ch u p p , & Wag n e r , 2 00 2; A sh r a f ,I ri s, & N i k i t a , 20 03 ; G o t o , 1 9 96 ; G l ae s e r , L a i b so n , S ch e i n k m an , & S o u t t e r ,2000) .

D e s p i t e s o m e d i s a g r e e m e n t i n t h e l i t e r a tu r e c i te d a b o v e , a fa i rl y s t r o n gc o n s e n s u s e x i st s a b o u t s o m e b a s ic f e a t u r e s a n d e l e m e n t s o f tr u st , t w o o fw h i c h a r e t h e r i sk an d r ec i p r o c i t y o f t r u s t - b a se d i n t e r ac t i o n s . W ar r en (1 99 9),f o r e x a m p l e , b e l i e v e s t h a t t r u s t " i n v o l v e s a j u d g m e n t , h o w e v e r im p l ic it , t oa c c e p t v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o t h e p o t e n t i a l i ll w i ll o f o t h e r s b y g r a n t i n g t h e m d i s -c r e ti o n a r y p o w e r o v e r s o m e g o o d ' ( p . 1). W h y w o u l d s o m e o n e g r a n t o t h e r ss u c h d i s c r e ti o n a r y p o w e r s o v e r h i m s e l f o r h e rs e l f? O n e p o s s ib l e a n s w e rm a y b e b e c a u s e i t p a y s t o t ru s t ; t h e p a y o f f t o t r u s t r e s u lt s f r o m a r e d u c t i o ni n w h a t e c o n o m i s t s ca ll transac tion costs, w h i c h a r e t h e c o s ts o f m a k i n g f or -m a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t o m a k e s u r e t h a t o t h e r s w i l l r e m a i n f a i t h f u l t o t h e i rc o m m i t m e n t s ( P u t n a m , 20 00 ; F u k u y a m a , 1 99 5 b) . I f t h e s a v i n g s o f t r u s t-i n g o t h e r s o u t w e i g h e d t h e r is k a s s o c i a te d w i t h i t, t h e t r u s t i n g b e h a v i o u rw o u l d t h e n b e c o m e a f e as ib le c h o i c e a s fa r a s t h e c o s t - b e n e f i t a n a ly s i s o fb e h a v i o u r s i s c o n c e r n e d .

I n t h e p i c t u re p r e s e n t e d a b o v e , th e m a i n a c t o r is a n i n d i v id u a l a n d n o tn e c e s s a r i l y a l a r g e r e n t i t y s u c h a s a c o m m u n i t y , c ity , o r c o u n t r y . A l t h o u g hr e la t e d , t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t m a k e s a s o c i e ty l es s o r m o r e t r u s t i n g is c o n -c e p t u a l l y d i s ti n c t fr o m t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t m a k e s a n i n d iv i d u a l t ru s t.W i th r e g a r d t o t h e f o r m e r , f o r e x a m p l e , o n e m a y a s k w h a t c a u s e s f lu c t u a -t io n s i n t ru s t l ev e ls in a c o m m u n i t y o v e r t im e ? O r w h a t f a c to r s a r e a s s o c i a te dw i t h v a r io u s l e v el s o f t ru s t i n d i f f e re n t c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h i n o n e n a t io n ?C l e a r ly th e k i n d s o f fa c to r s re l e v a n t t o a d d r e s s i n g t h e a b o v e q u e s t i o n s v a r yg r ea t l y d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r s t u d y a re n e i g h -b o u r h o o d s , c it ie s , p r o v i n c e s , o r c o u n t r i e s . B e l o w I b r i e fl y d i s c u s s s o m e o ft h e f a c to r s t h a t i n t e r a c t w i t h t ru s t a t t h e c o m m u n i t y le ve l.F i g u r e i i s a d i a g r a m o f s o m e c a u s e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s o c ia l t ru s t.I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e f i g u re d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a p e rf e c t m a t c h w i t h th ec o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . F ir st, i t e n t a i ls s o m e v a r i ab l e s222 .Journal of Inter natio nal Migration and Integ ratio n


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A CANADIAN EXCEPTIONALISM? TRU ST AND DIVERSITY IN CANADIAN CITIES

F i g u r e 1 . Causesand consequences of trust.

tha t are no t par t of the study, such as the effects of social t rust . Sec ond, be-cause the focus i s on the in terp lay o f e thn ic d ive r si ty and imm ig ran t pop u -la t ion wi th t rus t , and no t the p red ic to rs o f t rus t per se , I have del ibera te lyignored some o ther var iab les that cou ld po ten t ia l ly in f luence the level o ft rus t . To demonst ra te th is v isual ly , I shaded the ovals that represen t thevar iab les s tud ied here . Agains t th is background , I inc lude f ive re levan tvariables: p opu la t i on of the c ity , pop ula f ion of imm igra n ts as a perce n tag eof the to ta l c i ty popula t ion , the average i nco me of c i ty dwel lers , the degre eof inc om e inequal i ty in eac h c ity, and f inal ly the ex ten t to whic h the c i ty i sethnical ly diverse. Below, I explain the nat ure of the p ossible rela t ion ship sbe tw een these va r i ab les and t ru s t.Independent VariablesPopulation size. Pu tna m (2000 ), am on g o ther s , has sh ow n tha t w i th an in -crease in popula t ion , the level of t rus t n orm al ly decl ines . Th is is because inalm ost every society , large ci t ies create a structural set t ing th at is radical lyd i f feren t f rom that o f smal l towns. The y have a mo re d iverse o ccupa t ionals t ructure , a h igher popula t ion densi ty , a fas ter l i fe rhy thm, and a morea n o n y m o u s c r o w d - - w h a t W e i s m a n c a p t ur e d i n t h e t e rm h e c o i n e d , "t h elonely crowd. "As fo r trus t, wi th pop ula t ion growth , socia l re la t ionsh ips a nd

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i n te r a ct io n s a m o n g d w e l l e rs t e n d t o b e c o m e s h a l l o w e r a n d s h or te r. T h isd e p r i v e s p e o p l e o f a d e e p a n d r e li ab l e k n o w l e d g e o f e a c h o t h e r, a n d t h u si n c r e a s e s t h e r i s k s i n v o l v e d i n tr u s t i n g o t h e r s . T h e h i g h e r r is k a s s o c i a t e dw i t h t r u s t in t u r n r e d u c e s t h e c it y' s r e s i d e n t s ' p r o p e n s i t y t o tr u s t.Average income. W u t h n o w ( 2 0 0 2 ) a r g u e d t h a t o n e r e a s o n b e h i n d d e -c l in i n g l ev e l s o f t r u s t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is th e d e c l i n e o f th e e c o n o m i c r e -s o u r c e s o f i ts c i ti z e n s . T h e l o g ic o f t h i s a r g u m e n t i s n o t d i ff ic u l t t o g r a s p :t r u s t in v o l v e s ris k , a n d t h o s e w h o a r e in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o s u r v iv e s u c hr is k s m a y b e m o r e l ik e l y t o tr u s t. I n c o n t r a s t, t h o s e w i t h l im i t e d r e s o u r c e sm a y r e fr a in f r o m t r u s t i n g o t h e r s s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e m a t e r i a li z a ti o n o f a n ys u c h r i sk s c o u l d c a u s e a n i r r e p a r a b l e s h o c k i n th e i r li v es .Income inequality . I n th e s a m e s t u d y , W u t h n o w ( 20 0 2) a r g u e s t h at w i t hg r e a t e r a n d m o r e s e r i o u s d i s p a r i ty o f r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b le t o v a r i o u s g r o u p si n a s o c i e t y c o m e s d i f f e r e n t i a l c a p a c i t i e s t o to l e r a t e t h e r i s k a s s o c i a t e d w i t ht r u s t. T h e r i s e o f i n e q u a l i t y c a n a f f e c t t r u s t l e v e l s i n t w o w a y s . I t c a n d i m i n -i s h t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o l o w e r c l a s s e s , h e n c e l o w e r i n g t h e i r t o l e r -a n c e f o r r is k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t r u st ; a n d i t c a n g e n e r a t e i n p e o p l e a s e n s e o fa l i e n a t i o n a n d i n d i f f e r e n c e t o w a r d o t h e r s , w h i c h c a n l e a d t o a n e l e v a t e ds e n s e o f d i s tr u s t . I n g e n e r a l t h e r e fo r e , a n u n e v e n d i s t r ib u t i o n o f m a t e r i a lr e s o u r c e s c a n r e s u l t i n a l o w e r l e v e l o f tr u s t .Ethnic d iversity. E x i s t i n g r e s e a r c h o n t h e p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e nd i v e r s i ty a n d t r u s t i s i n c o n c l u s iv e , i f n o t i r r e le v a n t t o t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i ss t u d y . I t is t r u e t h a t m o s t s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d s o fa r a r g u e i n f a v o u r o f a n e g a -t iv e r e l at io n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o . T h a t is, t h e m o r e d i v e r s e a p o p u l a t i o n b e -com es , t he fu r the r i ts ove ra l l t rus t l evel wi l l dec l i ne (Pu tnam , 2003; Ale s ina &La Fe r ra ra , 2002; Knack , 2001; Knack & Kee fe r , 1997; Zak & Knack , 2001) .H o w e v e r , m a n y o f t h e s e s t u d ie s h a v e i n d iv i d u al s o r e th n i c g r o u p s a s t h e iru n i t s o f a n a ly s i s, r a th e r t h a n e x a m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p a t t h ec o m m u n i t y le ve l. F o r e x a m p l e , i n a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f C a n a d a a n d t h eU n i t e d S t a te s , H e l l i w e l l (1 99 6) f o u n d t h a t Ca n a d i a n s w h o q u a l if ie d t h ei r c i t-i z e n s h ip b y French, English, o r Ethnic h a d l o w e r le v e ls o f t r u st t h a n t h o s e w h oc o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s Canadian f ir s t o r on ly , a t r end he a l so fo un d va l i d fo rU S c i ti ze n s . H o w e v e r , t h is i s a s t u d y o f t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e e t h n i cb a c k g r o u n d a n d t r u s ti n g b e h a v i o u r o f i n d iv i d ua ls , n o t t h e r e la t io n s h i p b e -t w e e n e t h n i c d i v e r s it y a n d t r u s t in a city . A l t h o u g h i t is t r u e t h a t r n e m b e r s o fe t h n i c m i n o r i t ie s t e n d t o d e m o n s t r a t e l o w e r le v e ls o f t r u s t in o t h e r s , it d o e sn o t n e c e s s ar i ly m e a n t h a t a l ar g er p r e s e n c e o f s u c h i n d i v id u a l s i n a c o m m u -n i t y w il l a u t o m a t i c a l l y l o w e r t h e l e v e l o f t r u s t i n t h a t c o m m u n i t y . I t is e q u a l l yp o s s i b l e t h a t s u c h a p r e s e n c e w o u l d r a is e t h e l e v el s o f t ru s t . P u t n a m (2 00 0)h i m s e l f e n te r ta i n s t h is p o s s ib i li ty w h e n h e a r g u e s t h a t p e o p l e w h o j o in c M c2 2 4 , t o u rn a l o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i g r a t i o n a n d I n t e g r a t i o n


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a s s oc ia ti o ns a n d c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r s o f v a r io u s b a c k g r o u n d s a r em o r e l ik e ly t o d e v e l o p w h a t h e c a ll s bridging socia l capi ta l. T h i s t h eo r e t i c a lp o s s ib i li ty s u g g e s t s t h a t i n o r d e r t o c la r if y t h e d y n a m i c s o f d iv e r s it y a n d t r u s ti n c o m m u n i t i e s , w e n e e d a d i f fe r e n t t y p e o f s t ud y .

M a r s c h a l l a n d S t o ll e (2 00 4) t a k e a f ir s t s t e p b y c o m b i n i n g b o t h i n d i -v i d u a l a n d c o n t e x t u a l v a r ia b l e s. I n a s t u d y o f p e o p l e l iv i n g i n D e t r o i t, t h e yf o u n d t h a t " n e i g h b o r h o o d r ac ia l h e t e r o g e n e i t y . . , s ig n if ic a n tl y i n c re a s e [s]b l a c k s ' p r o p e n s i t y t o t r u s t o t h e r s " (p . 1 46 ). A l t h o u g h t h i s s t u d y is a l so d i s -t a n t f r o m w h a t w e a r e e x a m i n i n g h e r e , i t a t le a s t p o i n t s t o t h e p o s s i b il it yt h a t i n c r e a s e d d i v e r s i ty c a n r e s u l t i n a h i g h e r l e v e l o f tr u s t .

I n a s t u d y o f t r u s t in a C a n a d i a n c o n t ex t , J o h n s t o n a n d S o r o k a (1 999 )f o u n d n o s t r o n g e v id e n c e fo r t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t a m o r e d i ve r se p la c e h a sa s m a l l e r s t o c k o f s o c i a l c a p i t a l . I n d e e d , t h e y a r g u e d t h a t i n t h e c a s e o fC a n a d a , " t h e r e v e r se is m o r e n e a r l y t r u e ' ( p . 13 ). A l t h o u g h t h is s t u d y h i g h -l ig h t s t h e p o s s i b i l it y o f a p o s i t iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e t h n i c d i v e r s i ty a n ds o c i al c a pi ta l , t h e f a c t t h a t i t c o n c e p t u a l i z e s t h e l a t t e r in t e r m s o f t h e l e v e lo f civ ic e n g a g e m e n t m a k e s i t in c o n c lu s iv e f or th e p u r p o s e o f t h e p r e s e n ts tu d y , w h i c h f o c u s e s o n t ru s t.Imm igran t popu la tion . S o m e e a r l ie r s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i m m i g r a n t st o a s o c i e t y t y p i c a ll y e x p r e s s a l o w e r l ev e l o f t r u s t t h a n t h e n a t i v e - b o r np o p u l a t i o n ( S o r o k a e t al., 2 00 3; R i ce & F e l d m an , 19 9 7 ). O n e p o ss i b l e r ea -s o n f o r t h is m a y b e t h e i r m i n o r i t y s ta t u s, w h i c h c a n b l o c k o r s l o w t h e i r in -t e g r a t i o n i n to t h e m a i n s t r e a m p o p u l a t i o n . T h is e x c l u s io n w il l r e s u l t inl o w e r l ev e ls o f c o n t a c t w i t h m a j o r i t y - s t a t u s p e o p l e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a l i m i t e dh i s t o ry o f p a s t i n t e r a c ti o n s b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s . T h e p a u c i t y o f p a s ti n t e r a c t i o n s i n t u r n r a i s e s t h e r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t r u s t i n g a n o n y m o u so t h e rs . If t h is h y p o t h e s i s i s v a li d, it w o u l d m e a n t h a t a s t h e i m m i g r a n t p o p -u l a t i o n i n a c i t y i n c r ea s e s , it s o v e r a l l l ev e l o f t r u s t s h o u l d d ec l i n e .

D a t a a n d M e t h o d o l o g yT o a d d r e s s t h e a b o v e q u e s t i o n s , I u s e d s e v e r al d a t a s o u r c e s . T h e d a t a o nt r u s t a n d its d i s t ri b u t io n b y p r o v i n c e a n d c it y w e r e t a k e n f r o m c y c le 17 o ft h e C a n a d i a n G e n e r a l S o c ia l S u r v e y (G S S 1 7) . T h i s s u rv e y , w h i c h w a sh e a v i l y c e n t r e d o n t h e c o n c e p t o f s o ci al c a p it al a n d i ts v a ri o u s d i m e n s i o n s( i n c lu d i n g t ru s t) , w a s c o n d u c t e d i n 20 03 a n d c o n t a i n e d t h e r e s p o n s e s o fa b o u t 2 5 ,0 00 C a n a d i a n s t o a l o n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h e m a s t e r v e r s i o n (a so p p o s e d t o t h e p u b l i c - u s e v e r si o n ) o f t h e d a t a w a s m a d e a v a il ab l e b y th eP r a i r i e R ese a r ch D a t a C en t r e ( R D C ) , a s p a r t o f a j o i n t i n i t ia t i v e b y S t a t i s ti c s

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C a n a d a a n d t h e S o c ia l S c i en c e a n d H u m a n i t i e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c il o fC a n a d a . F o l l o w i n g g u i d e l i n e s s e t b y R D C a n a ly s ts , th e f r e q u e n c i e s o b -t a in e d h a v e b e e n w e i g h t e d a n d r o u n d e d t o e n s u re m a x i m u m r e p re s e n ta -t iv e n e s s a n d a ls o t o p r o te c t t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' a n o n y m i ty . A l s o f or t h e s a m ep u r p o s e , t h e c it ie s w i t h s m a l l f r e q u e n c i e s a r e o m i t t e d f r o m t h e a n al ys is ,w h i c h a l so a d d s t o t h e r e li ab i l it y o f t h e f in d i n g s . T h e r e m a i n i n g d a t a ( in -c l u d i n g t h o s e o n p o p u l a t io n , e t h n i c o rig in , i n c o m e , a n d n u m b e r o f i m m i -g r a n ts ) a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e p u b l i c - u s e v e r s i o n o f t h e 2 0 01 C a n a d i a n c e n s u s( b o t h i n d i v id u a l s a n d c e n s u s t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n ) . A p p e n d i x i c o n t a i n s m o r ed e t a i le d a n d s p ec if ic i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e s e d a t a s o u r c e s .

M o s t o f t h e s t at is t ic a l p r o c e d u r e s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y a re d e s c r i p t iv ep r o c e d u r e s s u c h a s f r e q u e n c y a n d c r o s s - t a b u l a ti o n . T o r e p o r t t h e le v el o ft r u s t b y p ro v i n c e , t h e r e s u lt s w e r e m a p p e d u s i n g t h e G I S s o f tw a r e M a p l n f o .S i m p l e c o r re l a ti o n s a n d m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a r e al so u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h es t r e n g t h o f a s s o c ia t i o n b e t w e e n e a c h v a ri a b le a n d t ru s t, a n d a l so t h e re la -t iv e ef fe c t o f e a c h i n d e p e n d e n t v a ri a b le o n t h e d e p e n d e n t v ar ia b le .

T h e d e g r e e o f e t h n i c d i v e rs i ty w a s c a l c u l a te d u s i n g t h e I n d e x o f Q u a l it a -t iv e V a r i a ti o n ( IQ V ) . T h i s i n d e x m e a s u r e s t h e e x i s ti n g d i v e r s it y o f a c o m m u -n i t y (h e r e a c ity ) a n d r e p o r t s i t b y a n u m b e r t h a t v a r ie s b e t w e e n 0 a n d 1, w i t h0 s h o w i n g t h e s ta te o f n o d i ve r si ty a n d 1 th e s ta te o f m a x i m u m d iv e rs ity( F r a n k f o r t -N a c h m i a s & L e o n - G u e r r e r o , 2 00 6). T h e f o r m u l a fo r I Q V s h o w nb e l o w t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e o v e ra l l n u m b e r o f p e o p l e i n e a c h c it y (N ), t h en u m b e r o f p o s s i b l e c a t e g o r i e s (K ) f o r t h e f e a t u r e u n d e r s t u d y ( h e r e s in g l ee t h n i c o r ig i n ), as w e l l a s t h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e i n e a c h c a t e g o r y (F i a n d Fj) .

K ( K - 2 1)(KN-)2

F in a lly , t h e l e v e l o f t r u s t r e p o r t e d f o r c i t ie s is b a s e d o n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o fe a c h c i ty 's p o p u l a t i o n w h o i n r e s p o n s e t o a n o w s t a n d a r d s u r v e y q u e s t io no n t r u s t - - G e n e r a l l y s p ea k in g , w o u l d y o u s a y t h a t m o s t p e o pl e c a n b e t ru s te d o rt h a t y o u c a n n o t b e t o o c a r e f u l i n d e a l i n g w i t h p e o p l e ? - - h a v e i n d i c a te d t h a tm o s t p e o p l e c a n b e t r u s te d .

Re s u l t sI n o n e o f h i s s t u d i e s o n s o c i a l c a p i ta l i n t h e U n i t e d S t a te s , P u t n a m (2 00 1)f o u n d t h a t s o c i al c a p i t a l a s m e a s u r e d b y th e s o c ia l c a p it al in d e x , im p r o v e s226 Journal of Internationa l Migration and Integration


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A CANADIAN EXCEPTIONALISM? TRU ST AND DIVERSITY 1N CANADIAN CITIES

as one m oves f rom sou th to no rth : "Canad ian s migh t f i nd it i n t e r e s ti ng tonote tha t the bes t s ing le pred ic tor of the level o f soc ia l cap ita l in Ame r icans ta tes i s d i s tance to the Canadian border . Being c loser to the Canadianborde r me ans more soci al cap it a l. '( p . 48 ). H e a l so found tha t t he s a me pa t -t e rn cou ld be seen mov ing wes tward . Us ing Wor ld Va lues Su rvey da t a ,Canadian researcher Hel l iwel l (1996) found a s imi la r wes tward pa t te rn inCanada and a l so tha t t he no r thward pa t t e rn i n t he Un i t ed S ta t e s i s sus -t a ined w he n the bo rde r i s c rossed . U s ing the GSS17 da t a , I de t ec t ed a s im-i la r t rend of r i sing trus t l eve ls as one mo ve s f rom cent ra l C anad a tow ardthe w es t . How ever , as F igure 2 ind ica tes , I a lso foun d a s imi lar t ren d in theoppos i te d i rec t ion ( i . e . , moving eas tward f rom cent ra l Canada) , a l thoughthe l a t te r was l es s p ronou nced . In o the r words , a s one mo ves f rom in l andtow ard e i ther the eas t o r we s t coas ts , the leve l o f t rus t increases . The low es tlevels of t rus t a re repo r ted for On tar io and Qu ebe c , par t icu la r ly for the la t -t e r whe re t he t rus t l eve l i s abo u t ha l f o f t ha t r ep o r t ed fo r t he m os t t r u s t i ngprovinces .

The above t rend i s a l so re f lec ted in F igure 3 , which shows the t rus tleve ls for Can adian c it ies organ ized f rom we s t to eas t. Here aga in we seetha t l ow es t va lues r epo r t ed a r e for c it ie s i n Q ueb ec fo l lowed by On ta r io ,and the h ighes t va lues a re those loca ted near the fa r le f t - and fa r r igh t -han d s ide o f t he g raph. As me n t io ned above , som e C anad ian c it ie s wer ed rop ped f rom th is l is t due to t he sma l l num ber o f ca ses i n t he s ample .W ha t fac tors a re a t wor k in c rea t ing the se va ry ing leve ls of t rus t in var ious

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Fig ur e 2 . The proportion of respondents who reported that people could betrusted (2003).R e v ue d e l ' i n t e g r a t i o n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 2 2 7


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F i g u r e 3 . Trust level by city (2003).

Canad i an c it ie s? As m en t i on ed i n t he hypo t hese s , we exam i ned t he e f fec tof five var iables: po pula t ion s ize , overal l incom e, in com e inequal i ty , e thnicd ivers i ty , and the s ize of the immigrant popula t ion . I address these hy-pothe ses be low.

Hy pothe s i s i a ssu me s tha t wi th the increase in the s ize of the popula-t ion, the level of t rus t in a c i ty decl ines. The gene ral nat ure of the re la t ion-sh ip b e tw een the po pula t ion and the t rus t l eve l o f Can adian c it ies is show nin Figure 4. The t ren d l ine in the g raph i l lus t ra tes a nega t ive correla t ion be-tween these two var iables , that i s , c i t ies wi th smal ler populat ions tend tohave h ighe r l eve ls o f t rus t, a nd as the po pula t ion increases the t rus t levelgene ral ly decl ines . This par t icular re la t ionship is a lso ref lected throu gh thecorrela t ion coeff ic ient ( -0 .19 ) , a smal l yet s ta t is t ical ly ins ignif icant one re-por ted for these two var iab les in Ap pend ix 2 , wh ich a l so conta ins the sam einfo rm at ion for al l o th er var iables .

F igure 5 show s t rus t l eve ls by incom e. As su gges ted in the hypothes is ,the t rus t level r i ses as the average inco m e in the c i ty increases . The correla-t ion coeff ic ient rep or te d for inc om e is posi tive , m od era tel y s t ron g (0.32),an d s ta tis t ical ly s ignif icant . A l tho ug h t he re la t ively smal l n u m b er of c it iesin the analysis a l lows for l it tle em pir ical ly bas ed theor iz ing, i t wo uld beuseful to point to a potent ia l ly interes t ing feature in the dis t r ibut ion of228 Journal of International Migration and Integration


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A CANADIAN E XCE P T IONAL IS M ? T RUS T A ND DIVE RS IT Y IN CANADIAN CIT IE S

80g~o 70"~ ~ 60

~ 4o~ . ~ 30

2 0#.~= lo - -0 i J

0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0Po p u l a t i o n ( th o u san d s)

F i g u r e 4 . Tr ust evel by population, Canadian cities.

5 0 0 0

ci t ies in Figure 5. That is, the t rus t level of c i ties increases onl y as their av er-age incom e r ises f rom a low to midd le leve l. Af te r tha t i t e i ther rem ains thesame o r dec l ine s .Th is may sugges t t ha t t he p syche and cu ltu ra l ou t look o fthose l iv ing in p rosp erou s an d f as t -g row ing c i ti es mig ht b ec om e less t rus t-inc lined , poss ib ly because of the fas t pace o f l ife and pre do m ina nc e of amater ia l is t ic out look.

F igure 6 i l lus t ra tes the re la t ionsh ip be tw ee n t rus t and in com e inequa l -ity . The la t te r is me asu red th rou gh the s tanda rd dev ia t ion (SD) of income ,wh ere a h igher va lue of SD ind ica tes a h igher degree of inco me d ispar i tyand a l ow er va lue a more ho m og en eo us i ncom e d i s t ri bu tion . A l tho ughthe t ren d l ine implies the p res en ce of a posi t ive re la t ionsh ip (i.e ., mo re in-

8 0o 70. = .

= ~ 5 0" 5 ~ 4 08 . a 30~ 20

0

................................................................... ._ ..... # ~ - * . . . . . . . . . ............................................ " .

. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . - . . . . . . . - ._ _ .- . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 2 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 2 6 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 3 6 0 0 0Average Annual Income

* T he data on inco me we re available only for C M A s a.nd not for sma ll er cl, iesF i g u r e 5 . Tr us t evel by income, Canadian cities (only CMAs).

3 8 0 0 0

R e v u e d e [ i n t e g r a t i o n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 9_29


12/22

KAZEMIPUR

o ~ 8 0J~ 708o~ 50

r 40~ - 3 0

20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .P ~ . 1 0~ ' , - o

22000 24000 26000 28000 30000Income inequality (SD of annual income)

The data on income were available only fbr CMA s and not for smaller cities

....................9 .............................................. ~ ..................................................... " "4, 9 9

32000 34000

Figure 6 . Trust level by income inequality, Canadian cities (CMAs only).

equal i ty assoc ia ted wi th m ore t rus t) , cont rary to w hat the l i t e ra ture hadsugg ested, the value of correlat ion coeff icient is s tat ist ical ly nonsignif ican tan d so unrel iable . This is par t ly du e to few er ci ties in the analysis , as thevalues of s tand ard devia t ion could be ca lcula ted only for Can adian CMAs.Also, the coeff icient is heavi ly inf lu enc ed by the pre sen ce o f thre e out l iers;i f these had bee n absent , the coef f ic ien t could have be en e i ther zero ornegat ive .

Figure 7 i l lust rates the relat ionship between t rust level in a ci ty andit s deg ree o f e thn i c / cu l t u r a l d ive r s it y mea su red by t he IQV. The f i gu reindica tes tha t c it ies wi th m ore e thnica l ly d iverse popula t ions t end a lso todem on s t ra te a h igher l evel of trus t. This cont radic t s mos t research on there la t ionship be tw een d iversi ty and t rus t c i ted above , par ti cu lar ly the s tu dy

0 ~ ',-, .m. m

8070 T ............................................................ 9 ......60 9 950 i .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... . * , .............................................................................. 940 ....................................3O *2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .o0.00

F i g u r e 7 .

0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80I n d e x o f E t h n i c D i v e r s i t y

Trust level by ethnic diversity, Canadian cities.

1.00

230 Journal of Internat ional Migration and Integrat ion


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A CANADIANEXCEPTIONALISM?TRUST AND DIVERSITY IN CANADIANCITIES

by Pu t nam, i n wh i ch he f ound a nega t i ve r e l a t i onsh i p be t ween t he t wovar iables in US s ta tes . The correla t ion co eff ic ient rep or t ed for this pai r ofvariable s is 0.75 (see Table 1), a stro ng po sit ive a ssoc iatio n th at is also sta -tistically significa nt.

The une xpec t ed na t u r e o f t he r e l a t i onsh ip b e t w een e t hn i c d ive r si tyan d t rus t leve l in Ca nad ian c it ies wa r ran t s c loser exam ina t ion in ord er toe s tab li sh wh e t h e r t h is is an i nd i ca t i on o f a un i que and genu i ne Can ad i anp he n om en o n or me re ly a s ta t is ti ca l a r te fac t. On e poss ib i li ty is tha t thea b o v e - m e n t i o n e d t r e n d h a s b e e n h e a v il y i n f lu e n c e d b y citi es in Q u e b e cw he re bo th e thn ic d ivers i ty and t rus t l eve l s a re ex t rem ely low, no t icea blylow er tha n tho se for a ll o th er c i t ies (see Figure 8). In ot he r words , i t i s th eo -r e ti ca ll y pos si b le t ha t t he unex pec t e d r e l a ti onsh i p b e t w een t he se t wo va r i -ab les is p rese n t o n ly in Q ueb ec an d no t in the res t o f Canad a . By d is t in -gui sh ing c i ti es in Q ueb ec f rom tho se in the res t o f Canad a , F igures 9 an d 10al low for an e xam inat ion of this possibil ity .

As Figures 9 and 10 show, the n a tur e of the re la t ionsh ip be tw ee n thetwo var iab les in Qu ebe c i s v i sib ly d i f fe ren t f rom the res t o f Canada : ne ga -t ive for the f orm er ( -0 .13 ) an d posi t ive (0.17) for the la tter. I t sh ou ld a lsobe no ted tha t b o th these coef f ic ien ts a re no w s ta t is t ica lly nons igni f i can t , are f lec t ion of a wea ke r assoc ia tion an d few er c it ies in each group . A l tho ug ht h is wou l d i mp l y a d i ff e rence be t w een Qu ebe c a nd t h e r e s t o f Canada , it

1.000.90

._.# 0.80

.~ 0.700.60

" 0.50=.,=.," ' 0.40x 0.30

0.200.100.00

F i g u r e 8. Ethnic diversity for Canadian cities (2001).Revue de [in tegr ati on et de la migr ati on inter natio nale 231


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KAZEMIPUR

e-._~ _e 60 T~ '= = 5 0 ...................................................................... " * ..................................................................................

"5 4 0 -- {- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t , % - * * - - - - - -o.~ 3 00 0.- ,,,0.~ .e = 209 o .m. 1 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .U j ~~ o

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80Index of Ethnic Diversity

Figure 9 . Trust level by ethnic diversity, Canadian cities excluding those inQuebec.

does no t sugge s t tha t the une xpe cted pos it ive cor re la t ion be tw ee n d ivers i tyand t rus t in C anad ian c it ies is inf luenced by a"Quebec except ional ism." I fanyth ing , the negat ive cor re la tion of these two var iables in Q ueb ec is in ac-cordanc e wi th w hat is sugges ted in the exi s t ing l it e ra ture , and the res t ofCan ada cons t i tu tes an excep t ion in th is regard .

A c loser exam inat ion of Figure 9 show s tha t the t ren d for Queb ec c i ti escon tains on e out lier, Montrea l , wi th a relat ively high level of divers i ty but alow leve l of t rus t . Given the d i s tance be tween Mont rea l and the o therQu ebe c c i ti es sho wn in Figure 9 , one can imagin e tha t th e overa l l t rend forQuebec has been undu ly i n f l uenced by t h i s anomalous case . F igure 11show s the re la t ionship be tw ee n the two variables in Qu ebe c c i ti es exc lud-ing Mont rea l . As the t rend l ine shows, wh en M ont rea l is exc luded, the na-

o 100.9 ~ 8 0

~. ~..= 40r 0| ,-, 20r=- 0

* 9 9 ~ ' t t . l .~ "_ ~ - - ~ ~ . o ~ t r - -9 v-9 ~ 9 9

0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00Inde x of Ethnic Diversity

Figu re 10. Trust level by Ethnic Diversity, Canadian Cities excluding Quebec.232 Journa l o f I n t e rna t iona l Migra t ion and In t eg ra t ion


15/22

A CANADIANEXCEPT1ONAL1SM?TRUST AND DIVERSITY IN CANADIANCITIES

=._o 9 60~.~ 5o

4O"5 o ~ 30"E .e = 20.,,~ 8 10o. 0

v 9 9

0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50Index of Ethnic Diversity

Figure 11 . Trus t evel by Ethnic Diversity, Quebec Cities excluding Montreal.

t u re o f t he r e l a t ionsh ip be tw een the tw o va ri ab le s i n Q u eb ec c it ie s changesdrast ica lly f rom nega t ive to pos it ive ( f rom a va lue of - 0 .1 7 to 0 .34 as sho w nin Table 1), ma king i t cons i s ten t wi th the t rend obs erve d for the res t o fCanadian c i t ies .

Because o f t hi s, i t w o u ld mak e s ense t o run t he ana ly s i s aga in fo r allC a n a d i a n c it ie s i n c l ud i n g t h o s e i n Q u e b e c b u t e x c l u d i n g M o n t r e a l a n d t or e - exam ine t he na tu r e o f t he r e l a t i onsh ip be tw ee n d ive r s i t y and t ru s t.F igure 12 sho w s tha t exc lud ing M on t r e a l w ou ld r e su l t in a pos i t i ve a s so -c ia t ion , a cor re la t ion coef f ic ien t as s t rong as 0 .79 , which i s a l so s ign i f i -can t s ta ti st ica lly . This w ou ld s ugg es t tha t the pos i t ive assoc ia t io n be tw ee ne thn ic d ivers i ty and t rus t l eve l in Can adia n c i ti es i s m ore l ike ly to de m -ons t r a t e a un ique Can ad ian t r end d i f f e r en t f rom those ob se rve d in o the rcount r ies .

The t rends on the re la t ionsh ip be tw ee n e thn ic d ivers i ty and t rus t ra isea c lose ly re la ted que s t ion . Given tha t the l is t o f e thn ic g rou ps u sed in the

Table 1Effect of Ethnic Divers i ty on Trust (S ing le Res pons e)Direc t ion Pearson Corre la t ion S ig

Ca na da + 0 .75 0 .00Canad a minus Q u ebe c + 0 .17 0 .33Qu eb ec On ly - - 0 .13 0 .75Q u ebe c minus M on t r ea l + 0 .34 0 .46Can ada min us M ont rea l + 0 .79 0 .00

Revue de [ in tegra t ion e t de la migra t ion in ternat ionale 233


16/22

KAZEMIPUR

80r.o _e- :=8 . t : ~0o ,", ~

t

604020

00.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Index of Ethnic DiversityFigure 12. Trust level by ethnic diversity, Canadian cities excluding Montreal.

calculation of the ethnic diversity index consists of both native-born andimmigrants, how would the immigrant population of a city be related to itstrust level? Figure 13 shows the trust level of Canadian cities by their immi-grant population reported as a percentage of total population. The graphshows that cities with a small immigrant population tend also to have lowerlevels of trust, that with an increase in the number of immigrants the levelof trust also rises. This means that a higher immigrant population is associ-ated with higher trust, a relationship also reflected in the barely significantbut positive value of the correlation coefficient for the two variables re-ported in Appendix 2. The graph also indicates that the nature of the rela-tionship between the two variables is not necessarily linear. With the initialincrease in the proportion of the population who are immigrants, the trust

o 80,r~= .8 7o

6o-~ ~" 50~" ~" ~ 40~ ao0 "~ 20

== 10@o. 00 10 20 30 40 50

Immigrant population percentFigure 13. Trust level by immigrant population (as a proportion o f city pop-ulation), Canadian cities.234 Journa l of Internation al Migration and Integrat ion


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A CANADIANEXCEPTIONALISM?TRUSTAND DIVERSITY N CANADIANCITIES

l e v e l a l so i n c r e a s e s , b u t a f t e r t h e i n it ia l i n c r e a s e , t h e c u r v e f l a tt e n s a n d r e -m a i n s f la t d e s p i t e t h e a rr iv a l o f m o r e i m m i g r a n t s .

T h e f ig u r e s a n d t a b le s s h o w t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t ru s t a n d e a c ho f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b l es d i s c u s s e d , b u t i n is o l at io n f r o m e a c h o t h e r .A l t h o u g h t h i s c a n c o n v e y a n i m a g e o f t h e o v e r al l n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t io n s h i pa m o n g t h o s e v a r i ab l e s , t h is i m a g e is f a r f r o m r e f i n e d o r c le a r, a s t h e r e is ap o t e n ti a l f or o v e rl ap a m o n g m a n y o f t h e v a ri ab le s . T h r o u g h a s i m u l t a n e -o u s i n c l u s i o n o f th e s e v a r ia b le s w e c a n a c h i e v e a m o r e r e f i n e d p ic t u re . T h i sw a s d o n e t h r o u g h a r e g r e ss i o n m o d e l t h e r e s u lt s o f w h i c h a r e s h o w n i nTable 2 ,

T h e r e g r e s s i o n r e s u lt s s h o w t h a t o f a ll th e v a r i a b le s i n c l u d e d i n t h em o d e l a n d c o n t r o ll in g fo r t h e i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n i n e a c h c ity , o n l y t h ec i ty ' s p o p u l a t i o n an d i t s lev e l o f e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y h a v e s t a t i s ti c a l l y s i g n i f i-c a n t e f fe c ts o n t ru s t. B e t w e e n t h e s e t w o , t h e i n c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n is a s s o -c i a t e d w i t h a d e c l i n e i n t r u s t l ev e l, a n d t h e i n c r e a s e i n e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y w i t ha n i n c r e a s e i n t r u s t. A l s o t h e e f f e c t o f e t h n i c d i v e r s i ty o n t r u s t is m u c hs t r o n g e r t h a n t h a t o f p o p u l a t i o n s iz e .

T a b l e 2R e g r e s s i o n M o d e l f o r P r e d i ct o r s o f T r u s t a t C i ty L e v e lC o e f f i c i e n t s ( a ,b )U n s t a n d a r d i z e dC o e f f i c i e n t s S t a n d a r d i z e dC o e f f i c i e n t s

M o d e l B S t d . E r r o r B e t a t S i g .C i t y P o p u l a t i o n - 0 . 0 0 8 0.0 03 - 0 . 1 7 9 - 2 . 1 6 1 0 .0 4 6I m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t io n - 0 . 2 8 3 0 .2 71 - 0 . 0 9 6 - 1 . 0 4 5 0 .3 12

a s a p r o p o r t i o n o f c i typ o p u l a t i o n

Ci ty ' s A ve rag e In co m e 0 ,002 0 .001 0 .993 1 .445 0 ,168C i t y 's E t h n i c D i v e r s i t y

Ind ex ( IQV ) 49 .473 11 ,096 0 .689 4 .459 0 ,000C i ty 's I n c o m e I n e q u a l i t y

( S t a n d a r d d ev i a t i o no f I n c o m e ) - 0 , 0 0 1 0 , 0 0 1 - 0 . 5 4 6 - 0 . 8 2 3 0 . 4 2 3

a D e p e n d e n t V a r ia b le : p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e c it y 's p o p u l a t i o n w h o r e p o r t t r u s t in g o t h e r sb L i n e a r R e g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h t h e O r i g i n

R e v ue d e l ' in t e g r a t i o n e t d e l a m i g r a t i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e 2 3 5


18/22

KAZEMIPUR

D i s c u s s i o n

B e f o re d i s c u s s i n g t h e g e n e r a l i m p l i c a ti o n s o f t h e s tu d y , I s u m m a r i z e t h ef i n d i n g s i n r e f e r e n c e to t h e h y p o t h e s e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . T h e l ev e l o f t r u s ti n C a n a d i a n c it ie s s e e m s t o b e s t r o n g l y b u t n e g a t iv e l y i n f l u e n c e d b y th ep o p u l a t i o n s iz e , a n d m o r e s t r o n g l y b u t p o s i t iv e l y b y i ts d e g r e e o f e t h n i c d i -ve r si ty . A l so t he ave rage i nc om e , inequa l it y , an d pe rce n t ag e o f t he c it y'spo pu l a t i on w ho a re i m m i g ran t s co rre la t e w i t h t he c it y's l eve l o f t ru s t , t h ou ght o a l e s se r deg ree .

T h e s i m u l t a n e o u s i n c l u s i o n o f all t h e a b o v e f a c to r s in t h e r e g r e s s io nm o d e l r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e e f fe c ts o f a v e r a g e i n c o m e , i n eq u a li ty , a n d i m m i -g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d d i s a p p e a r a f te r c o n t r o ll in g f o r p o p u l a t i o n a n d e t h -n i c d iv e rs ity . T h i s m a y i m p l y t h a t t h o s e e f fe c ts a re s o m e h o w c a p t u r e d b yt he l a t te r t w o va r i ab le s . Fo r exam pl e , it i s r ea so nab l e t o a s su m e t h a t l a rge rc it ie s t e n d t o b e m o r e p r o s p e r o u s a n d t h a t it s i n h a b i t a n t s h a v e h i g h e r av -e r a g e in c o m e s , a n d t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e h i g h e r le v e ls o f i n c o m e i n e q u a li tyd u e t o t h e w i d e r r a n g e o f e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s a va il ab le . I t is a ls o p o s -s ib le t o a s s u m e t h a t c i tie s w i t h l a r g e r i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n s t e n d t o b em o r e e t h n i c a ll y d iv e rs e , b e c a u s e i m m i g r a n t s c o m e f r o m a w i d e r a n g e o fs o u r c e c o u n t r i e s a n d e t h n i c a n d c u l tu r a l b a c k g r o u n d s .T w o f i n d i n g s o f t h is s t u d y a r e p a r t ic u l a rl y n o t e w o r t h y a n d w a r r a n t a t -t e n t i o n i n f u t u r e r e s e ar c h . O n e is t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n e t h n i c d i v er s it ya n d t ru s t. T h e p o s i ti v e r e l a t io n s h i p f o u n d h e r e r u n s c o n t r a r y t o m a n y o t h e re x i s t i n g s t u d i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e c o n d u c t e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . W en e e d m o r e s t u d i e s b e f o r e w e c a n a r g u e t h a t t h i s i s a u n i q u e l y C a n a d i a np h e n o m e n o n a n d t h a t it c o n s t i tu t e s a n e x c e p t i o n t o t h e r u le e s t a b li s h e d int h e l i te r a tu r e . S h o u l d t h i s h a p p e n t o b e t h e c a se , i n m y o p i n i o n , t h e p o s s i -b l e e x p l a n a t o r y f a c to r s c a n b e f o u n d i n b o t h t h e g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f e t h n i cd i v e rs i ty i n C a n a d i a n s o c i e ty a n d i n t h e e m p h a s i s p u t o n t h is d i v e r si ty b yc e l e b r a t in g a m u l ti c u l tu r a l C a n a d a . S o c ia l p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h h a s l o n gs h o w n t h a t w i t h i n c r e a se d c o n t a c t b e t w e e n p e o p l e o f v a r yi ng b a ck g r o u n d s ,e x i s ti n g s t e r e o t y p e s s t a r t t o b r e a k d o w n a n d a m o r e t r u s t f u l r e l a ti o n s h i pbe co m es pos s i b l e (Sher if , H a rvey , W hi t e , H o od , & She r i f, 1961 ; A ro nson ,1992; I sa jiw , 1999) . M ore e xpo sure o f C ana dian s to pe op le of o th er e thn icb a c k g r o u n d s m i g h t e n g e n d e r le s s fe a r o f " s t r a n g e r s " a n d a h i g h e r le ve l o ft ru s t. T h e c e l e b r a ti o n o f m u l t i c u l tu r a l i s m m a y a l s o h a v e i n te n s i f ie d s u c hd y n a m i c s .

T h e s e c o n d p o i n t h i g h l i g h t e d in t h is s t u d y h a s t o d o w i th t h e u n i q u es t a tu s o f t h e c it ie s in Q u e b e c r e g a r d i n g s o c ia l t r u st . C o m p a r e d w i t h c itie si n t h e r e s t o f C a n a d a , c i t i e s i n Q u e b e c s h o w n o t i c e a b l y l o w e r l e v e l s o f

236 Journal of International Migration and Integration


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A CANADIANEXCEPTIONALISM?TRUSTAND DIVERSITY N CANADIANCITIES

t ru s t. M o r e o v e r, s u c h u n u s u a l l y l o w l ev e ls o f t ru s t a c c o m p a n y e q u a l l y l o wl e vel s o f e t hn i c d i ve rs i ty . T h i s i s s o w h i l e , a t l e a s t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x i s t i ngl i t e r a t u r e , t h e l a t t e r s h o u l d h a v e a c t e d a s f a v o u r a b l e g r o u n d f o r t r u s t t of lo u r is h . O n e c a n q u i c k l y a t t r ib u t e t h is t o t h e p r e s e n c e i n t h e s e c it ie s o fs t r o n g f e e l i n g s o f a l i e n a t i o n f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y . T h i s m a y b e p a r to f t h e t r u t h , b u t t h e e m p i r ic a l d a t a d o n o t a l l o w fo r a r i g o r o u s e x a m i n a t i o no f s u c h a h y p o t h e s is . O n e p r o b l e m w i t h t h e d a t a is t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d t ru s tq u e s t i o n ( D o y o u t h i n k t h a t m o s t p e o p l e c a n b e t r u s te d , o r t h a t y o u c a n n o tb e t o o c a re f u l? ) d o e s n o t s p e c i f y t h e t a r g e t o f t r u s t ( o r d i s tr u s t) . I n o t h e rw o r d s, t h o s e w h o a n s w e r t h e t ru s t q u e s t i o n m a y h a v e d i ff e re n t p o p u l a -t io n s i n m i n d w h e n t h e y e x p r e ss t h e i r o p i n i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n o t c l e a rf ro m t h e d a t a a t w h o m t h e h i g h e r l ev el o f d i st ru s t a m o n g Q u e b e c e r s isd i r ec t e d : t h e F r a n c o p h o n e p o p u l a t i o n l iv i ng i n t h e s a m e c i t y a n d p r o v in c e ,t h e A n g l o p h o n e s l iv in g i n t h e s a m e a r ea , A n g l o p h o n e s l iv i ng o u t s id e Q u e -b e c, o r o t h e r m o s t l y i m m i g r a n t e t h n i c g r o u p s . D e s p i t e t h e s e u n c e r t a in t i e s,i t is cl e ar t h a t a Q u e b e c e x c e p t i o n a l i s m is p r e s e n t i n t h e p o s s i b l e c o n t e x t o fa C a n a d i a n e x c e p t i o n a l is m .

AcknowledgementsThis research was suppor ted by two grants from the Social Sciences and Humanit ies ResearchCouncil of Canada and the Prairie Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigrat ion and Integra-tion. I also acknowledge access to the master file of the Canadian General Social Survey, cycle 17,~ rovided by Statistics Canada through the Prairie Regional Research Data Centre. The views andndings expressed in this article are those of the author and not Statistics Canada. I also thank myresearch assistants Christopher D. Birrell and Natasha A. Elder, undergraduate students at theUniversity of Lethbridge. Finally, I thank the anonymous reviewers of the early version of the arti-cle for their useful comments and suggestions.

Revue de l'integration et de la migration internationale 237


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of P olitics, 59(4), 1143-1172.Sam pson , E . (2003). Uncond i t iona l k indness to s t r ange rs . Theory and Psychology, 13(2), 147-175.Sherif, M ., Harv ey, O . J. , W hite, B. J. , H oo d, W . E., & Sherif, C . W . (1961). Intergroup conflict andcooperation." T he robber's ca ve expe riment. N o r m a n , O K : U n i v e r si t y o f O k l a h o m a P re ss .Soroka, S. N. , Hel l iwel l , J . F. , & Johnsto n , R. (2003) . M easu ring and m od el l in g trust . In F. Kay &R. Joh nsto n (Eds.), Diversity, social capital and the welfare state. Van couver , BC: UBC Press.Warren , M. (1999) . In troduct ion . In M. Warren (Ed.) , Dem ocracy and trust (pp . 1-21) . Cambridge ,UK: C amb r idge Un ive rs i ty Press.W orm s, J . P. (2002). France: O ld and ne w civic and socia l t ies in France . In R. Pu tna m (Ed.) , Democ-racies in flux: The evolution of social capital in contem porary society (pp. 137-188). Oxford, UK:Oxfo rd Un ive rs i ty Press.W uthnow , R . (1998} . Loose connections: Joining together in Am erica's fragmented com mu nities. C a m -br idge . MA : Harva rd Un ive rs i ty Press.W uthnow , R . (2002). Br idg ing the p r iv i leged and the m arg ina l ized? In R . Pu tnam (Ed. ), Democra-cies influx: The evolution of sociaI capital in contemporary society (pp. 59-102). O xfor d, UK: Ox fordUn ivers i ty Press.Yamagishi , T. (1988). The p rovis io n of a sanct io ning sys tem in the Un ited S ta tes and Japan. SocialPsychology Quarterly. 51, 265-271.Yamagishi , T. & Yamagishi , M. (1994) . Trust and commitment in the United Sta tes and Japan.Motivation and Emotion,/8(2), 129-165.Zak, P. J. , & Knack, S. (2001). Tru st and grow th. EconomicJournal, 1I1 ,295-321 .

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