THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

Gave reasons why the colonists demanded independence from Britain. Listed the grievances of American colonists against the British king.

Argued the purpose of the government was to protect citizens’ unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

Justified the overthrow of a government if it abused people’s rights.

July 4, 1776

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

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EARLY AMERICAN HISTORY FOUNDING FATHERS George Washington - Commander of the Continental Army during the

American Revolution. President of Constitutional Convention, 1787. He was also the 1st President of the United States.

John Adams – Co-author of the Declaration of Independent and 2nd President of the United States.

Thomas Jefferson - Author of the Declaration of Independence and 3rd President of the United States. Negotiated Louisiana Purchase.

Samuel Adams - Founded the Sons of Liberty, who protested against British taxes; signer of the Declaration of Independence.

Benjamin Franklin – Signer of the Declaration and the Constitution; scientist; founder of University of Pennsylvania

Jonathan Trumbull – Colonial governor who sided with the colonists against the British.

John Peter Muhlenberg – Clergyman who recruited soldiers to fight against the British

John Hancock – President of the 2nd Continental Congress; 1st signer of the Declaration.

Benjamin Rush – Father of American Medicine; signer of the Declaration.

John Witherspoon – Signer of the Declaration; President of New Jersey College (Princeton).

Charles Carroll – signer of the Declaration; helped the struggle for the acceptance of Catholicism in America.

John Jay – Helped write Federalist Papers; first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; negotiated a boundary treaty with the British.

U.S. CONSTITUTION Replaced the Articles of Confederation & established a new government.

Created three branches of government: Legislative, Executive, & Judicial.

Provided a set of principles to ensure the federal government would not be too powerful: Federalism, Limited Government, Checks & Balances & Popular Sovereignty.

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BILL OF RIGHTS – the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Designed to define individual rights that the government cannot take away.

1st Amendment - Freedom of speech, religion, and press; right to assemble; right to petition. [The constitutional guarantees of free speech and free press are important to a free society because they ENCOURAGE AN OPEN EXCHANGE OF IDEAS.]

Other Bill of Rights Amendments:2nd - Right to bear arms 6th - The right to a fast and public trial3rd - No quartering of soldiers during

peace time 7th - Trial by jury

4th - No unlawful search & seizure 8th - No cruel or unusual punishment5th – Due Process 9th - Rights reserved to the people

10th - Powers that have not been dealt with are reserved for the states.

AMERICAN EXCEPTIONALISM – theory that the American Revolution helped create a uniquely American way of thinking that makes it significantly different from other nations.

Alexis de Tocqueville – French political thinker & historian who visited the U.S. in the 1830s and helped develop the concept of American Exceptionalism. Historians have identified five values that he found crucial to America’s success.

o Egalitarianism – a society of equals; in America while there may be differences in wealth, power & intelligence, everyone is equal socially.

o Populism – the participation of the common people in political life – popular sovereignty.

o Liberty – protection from tyrannical government, including the “tyranny of the majority.”

o Individualism – in the U.S., the government does not direct individual activity; thus Americans are free to act and believe that anyone can rise in society.

o Laissez-Faire – a government “hands-off” approach to the economy; reflects that the best economic decisions will be made if they are left to individuals.

E Pluribus Unum – Latin for “out of many comes one;” refers to the idea that the strength of the nation comes from the individual states.

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GILDED AGE INDUSTRIALIZATION (1877-1898)

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Steel Production – the Bessemer process allowed higher quality steel to be

produced more quickly at a lower cost.

o The greater steel production allowed an increase in the number of factory machines.

Petroleum Products – oil replaced coal as a fuel to power steam engines

o Later, oil refining would allow it to be used in lighting, machine lubrication, and as gasoline.

Telephone – Alexander Graham Bell’s invention allowed people & businesses to quickly communicate over great distances.

Electric Power – Thomas Edison’s research laboratory invented the light bulb as well as motors and machinery.

o Electric lights and motors greatly increased factory output, and by the early 20th century.

GROWTH OF RAILROADS The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 combined with

trunk lines in the east to create transportation links between the different regions of the country.

These new links allowed businesses to sell goods in more areas, creating a national market for goods.

THE FREE ENTERPRISE SYSTEM An economic system that tries to answer basic questions about the free

actions of producers & consumers, with limited government interference.

Laissez-Faire :

o French for “hands off,” this refers to the idea that government interference in the economy is detrimental to the common good;

o Thus, government should have a limited role in the economy.

The free enterprise system allows investors & business owners to put their resources where they would have the greatest effect for the common good—and the overall economy.

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ENTREPRENEURSHIP & GROWTH OF BIG BUSINESS An entrepreneur is a person (or group of people) that start a business. During the 1870s, entrepreneurs used efficient large-scale production and

new national markets to create immense wealth for themselves. These wealthy industrialists—sometimes called “robber barons” or

“captains of industry”—also practiced philanthropy.o Philanthropy is the donation of money to good causes to promote

the general welfare of others.o Andrew Carnegie “captained” the steel industry, and over his

lifetime donated $350 million to establish libraries and universities.

o John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company achieved a virtual monopoly; Rockefeller’s philanthropic efforts include the Rockefeller Foundation & the University of Chicago.

THE PROS AND CONS OF BIG BUSINESS Pros Cons

They are more efficient They can hire more workers They can produce goods in large

quantities They have resources to support

research & product development These factors mean they can offer

goods at lower prices.

They have an unfair competitive advantage over smaller businesses.

They sometimes exploit workers They aren’t concerned with where

they do business & often pollute the area

They have unfair influence over the government policies that affect them.

PRIVATE BUSINESS & THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Initially, the federal government adopted a laissez-faire policy toward

business regulation.o This is the belief that a free-market economy works best when

there is little-to-no government intervention.o However, some of the anti-competitive practices of big business

were so glaring that reformers called for federal legislation to correct them.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887) – created the Interstate Commerce Commission to enforce a prohibition of unfair railroad pricing practices.

o Marks the first time Congress attempted to regulate business in the United States.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) – designed to stop monopolies from engaging in unfair practices that prevented fair business competition.

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GILDED AGE INDUSTRIALIZATION (1877-1898)

THE GROWTH OF LABOR UNIONS Several factors led to discontent among industrial workers during the

Gilded Age, including: long hours, low pay, poor working conditions, poor job security & child labor.

To fix these issues, there were attempts to create national labor unions.

o Knights of Labor, est. 1869 – joined skilled- and unskilled-laborers into one union.

Some sklled workers resented being in the same union as unskilled works, and after a series of failed strikes, the Knights of Labor dissolved.

o American Federation of Labor, est. 1881 – founded by Samuel Gompers, the AFL limited membership to skilled laborers.

The limited membership and limited goals made the AFL a more successful union, but less than 5% of U.S. workers were unionized in 1910.

The federal government held an anti-union bias through this time period.

o Many in government felt that unions drove up the cost of goods.

o Big business held more influence in government.

o Incidents like the Haymarket Affair (1886) and the Homestead Strike (1892) made the public feel like unions were promoting violence.

URBANIZATION – the movement of people from countryside to towns & cities. Causes – both “push” & “pull” factors brought people to cities.

o New farm machinery meant fewer farm workers were needed.

o Factory growth meant more workers needed in cities.

o Immigration & cultural opportunities brought people into the cities.

Effects o New transportation systems, like subways, were needed to

transport workers to & from work.

o Overcrowded living conditions created social tensions among different cultural groups.

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o Cities lacked the ability to deliver adequate public services, like garbage collection, street cleaning, schools & hospitals.

POLITICAL MACHINES – sometimes corrupt groups running city governments Led by political “bosses,” machines gave jobs & other services to the poor

& immigrants in exchange for votes.

Machines often used this to dominate voting and gain support of local business leaders.

IMMIGRATION “New Immigrants” from southern & eastern Europe came to the US in

greater numbers starting in the 1880s.

Difficult times in Europe (“push” factors) and optimism of immigrants for a better life in America (“pull” factors) triggered this wave of immigration.

“Push” Factors “Pull” Factors”*Oppression / War

*Poverty

*Religious / Ethnic Persecution

*Freedom

*Economic Opportunity

*Cultural Ties

Since most immigrants settled in cities like New York, they had to deal with the problems of urbanization.

The majority settled in ethnic neighborhoods with other immigrants who shared common language and customs.

“Americanization” is the assimilation of people into American culture.

o Children of immigrants adopted their new culture through school attendance and by adopting American customs.

Nativists were US citizens that wanted to limit immigration in some way.

o They believed that immigrants were competing for American jobs.

o They felt that the flood of new immigrants was changing what it meant to be “American.”

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) – the first federal law restricting immigration, the law specifically targeted Chinese immigrants coming to California.

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THE FRONTIER & THE GILDED AGE (1877- 1898)

THE SETTLEMENT OF THE FRONTIER The frontier pushed into the Great Plains during the Gilded Age, as more

Americans migrated into previously unsettled areas.

This western expansion and the resulting changes in demographic patterns were supported by government efforts and the growing economy.

The Homestead Act (1862) gave citizens 160 acres of free land to “improve” the land by settling & growing crops.

The Transcontinental Railroad gave more transportation opportunities for Americans to settle on the Great Plains.

The shift in demographics led to the cattle industry boom in the 1860s-70s.

o Cowboys & ranchers used the new railroad lines to transport cattle to meat markets for national distribution.

o Western music developed as a way to celebrate the cowboy life.

By 1890, so many Americans had settled on the frontier that the US government declared that the frontier was closed.

IMPACT ON NATIVE AMERICANS Native American populations had been on the Great Plains for generations,

and western expansion led to competition & conflict.

Competition between various groups of settlers led to the destruction of the natural environment that Native Americans depended on.

U.S. Government policy forced Native American tribes to settle on reservations, restricting their movement on the Plains.

Reformers pushed for the “Americanization” of Native Americans.

o However, Americanizing laws like the Dawes Act also helped destroy Native American cultures.

The American Indian Citizenship Act (1924) extended equality to Native Americans by granting them immediate U.S. citizenship.

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ORIGINS OF PROGRESSIVE REFORM (1877- 1898)

THE AGRARIAN MOVEMENT Economic Problems of the Farmers

o Farmers often went into debt to buy the machinery needed to produce more crops.

o Overproduction of crops led to falling crop prices.

o Farmers had to pay high railroad rates to get their crops of market.

The Grange Movement was founded in 1867 to reduce rural isolation.o Later, they turned to demands for economic & political reforms.

o Their efforts helped get the Interstate Commerce Act passed.

THE POPULIST PARTY The Grange movement developed into the national Populist Party.

The Populist Platform several reforms:o Economic – free coinage of silver, immigration restrictions, & the

income tax.

o Political – direct election of Senators, secret ballots, term limits

Never got a candidate elected president, but they still had a major impact.

o Many reforms were later adopted.

o Typical of other 3rd parties, they gave a way to generate new ideas and give minority groups a way to voice grievances.

ROOTS OF URBAN REFORM Social Gospel Movement led by church leaders in major cities

o Asked Christians to work to help their fellow man.

o Included groups like the Salvation Army and the YMCA.

Jane Addams led the settlement house movement; founded Hull House.

Frances Willard fought for prohibition of alcohol, prison reform, women’s suffrage, and increased workers’ rights.

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM Corruption in government was traced to the “spoils system,” which

sometimes gave government jobs to unqualified individuals.

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In 1883, Congress passed the Pendleton Act, creating a system of civil service tests to ensure that only qualified people received government jobs.

THE PROGRESSIVE ERA (1900-1920)

GOAL – to correct the social, political & economic problems of the era

MUCKRAKERS – group of investigative reporters, writers & social scientists Exposed government corruption & industrial abuses to large audiences

Upton Sinclair ’s book The Jungle exposed many abuses in the meat-packing industry.

POLITICAL REFORMS - to increase political power of individual citizens Initiative – voter-introduced bills in a state legislature

Referendum – citizens can vote on a piece of proposed legislation

Recall – elected officials can be removed from office by special election.

17 th Amendment – direct election of US Senators

ECONOMIC REFORMS Pushed states to pass laws regulating urban housing & child labor.

Pure Food & Drug Act (1906) – in response to The Jungle, Theodore Roosevelt pushed for legislation to help protect public health.

o An example of federal regulation of private business.

16 th Amendment – gives Congress the power to tax personal income

Trust-Busting

o President Roosevelt used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to break up “bad trusts.”

o Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914) Woodrow Wilson pushed Congress to increase federal power to regulate big business

Federal Reserve Act (1914) allowed the federal government to better regulate the amount of money in circulation & encourage economic growth.

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SOCIAL REFORMS Pushed states to pass laws regulating urban housing & child labor.

18 th Amendment – prohibition of alcohol

Civil Rights – limited progress during this era

o Ida B. Wells – African-American writer; worked to end lynching.

o W.E.B. DuBois – African-American leader; co-founded the NAACP

CONSERVATION OF LAND & RESOURCES Roosevelt created the National Conservation Commission to protect the

nation’s natural resources.

Wilson helped establish the National Park Service to conserve natural scenery, historic objects for the enjoyment of the American people

The federal government used eminent domain—the power to take private property for public use—in establishing the parks. This impact property rights that are protected in the 5th Amendment.

WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE Susan B. Anthony – Leader in the women’s suffrage movement.

19 th Amendment – women’s suffrage

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THE U.S. AS A WORLD POWER (1898-1914)

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898 Causes: “Yellow journalism” heightened U.S. concerns over human rights in Cuba. The U.S. also wanted to protect its economic interests in Cuba. The sinking of the U.S.S. Maine led to anti-Spanish protests.

Effects: The U.S. acquired Guam, Puerto Rico & the Philippines. Cuba became a U.S. protectorate.

As a Turning Point: Ended the Spanish colonial empire in the Americas Gaining new territories marked the emergence of the U.S. as a world power.

AMERICAN EXPANSIONISM Reasons for Colonial Expansion Need for raw materials and markets for finished goods

Alfred Thayer Mahan argued for a strong navy to protect its colonial economic & strategic interests.

Missionaries wanted to expand American influence to convert native peoples to Christianity.

Some felt that overseas expansion was a way to show America’s strength as a nation.

America in the Pacific Expansion in the Pacific was designed to connect the U.S. to Asian trade.

After the Spanish-American War, the Philippines rebelled against American colonial rule until 1902.

Hawaii was ruled as a kingdom until the 1890s.

o In 1893, American landowners led by Sanford B. Dole attempted to overthrow the queen’s rule.

o After the U.S. acquired Hawaii during the Spanish-American War, Dole served as Governor of Hawaii.

Guam, Samoa, & Midway also provided refueling locations for American ships embarking on Asian trade.

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America in East Asia Trade with China had been a long-standing goal for the U.S.

By the 1850s, European nations had established individual “spheres of influence” containing exclusive trading rights.

In 1899, the U.S. issued the “Open Door” Policy, which gave equal trading rights to all foreign nations in China.

America in Latin America & the Caribbean Panama Canal

o Reasons to build the canal:

The Spanish-American War showed the need to be able to quickly send ships between the Atlantic & Pacific Oceans.

The canal would also provide a shorter trade link between the east coast cities to the west coast and to Asia.

o With U.S. assistance, Panama declared its independence from Columbia, then granted the Panama Canal Zone to the U.S.

o Challenges of Building the Canal

To overcome the challenges of the elevated terrain, engineers designed a series of locks in the canal route.

To prevent the spread of yellow fever, Dr. William Gorgas ordered all swamps drained, vegetation cut & oil sprayed on standing water.

This was to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes, which spread the disease.

Monroe Doctrine (1823): prevented Europeans from establishing new colonies in the Western Hemisphere.

“Roosevelt Corollary” to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)

o Theodore Roosevelt declared that the U.S. would intervene in the Caribbean to protect the Panama Canal and America’s other economic interests.

o Nicknamed the “Big Stick Policy,” it was used to justify sending U.S. troops to the Caribbean and Central America.

Dollar Diplomacy: President Taft’s plan to encourage bankers to invest in Central American nations, further building American economic interests.

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WORLD WAR I, 1914-1918 CAUSES OF THE WAR IN EUROPE Nationalism : rivalries over the balance of power in Europe grew between

several European nations.

Imperialism & Economic Rivalries : competing colonial claims added to these rivalries as national economies grew & competed against each other.

Alliance System : By the 1890s, Europe was split into two alliance designed to establish a sense of protection from other, antagonistic nations.

o Triple Alliance : Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire

o Triple Entente : Russia, France, Britain

Militarism : European nations built up their militaries in hopes that the show of force would prevent a war; but it would also make them ready in case a war began.

The Spark : In June 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand was murdered by Serbian nationalists, triggering a conflict in Southeastern Europe.

o Because of the Alliance system, the conflict soon went from a local crisis to a total war involving every European nation.

REASONS FOR U.S. ENTRY INTO WORLD WAR I In 1914, the U.S. declared its neutrality in the conflict

Close ties with the Allies, especially Britain & France, made neutrality difficult.

In 1915, a German u-boat sank the Lusitania, killing 1,000+ passengers, including 128 Americans.

Allied propaganda portrayed this and other German acts as murderous & evil.

In 1917, Germany sent the Zimmerman Telegram to Mexico, encouraging them to declare war on the U.S.

Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare attacked U.S. merchant ships in 1917, finally pushing President Wilson to ask for a declaration of war.

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TOTAL WAR Both sides in the war mobilized all of their national resources for the war

effort, including new technological innovations.

o Machine guns made it easier to defend positions than attack.

o Trench warfare became the general tactic as soldiers dug into deep, fortified trenches.

o Airplanes were used to see the layout of enemy trenches.

Glenn Curtiss was an early aviation pioneer, who designed seaplanes and is considered the “father of naval aviation.”

o Poison gas and artillery cannons were used to try to force troops out of the trenches.

The result of these innovations was to create a stalemate in the war in Western Europe.

Tanks were used to try to advance over enemy trenches, but were effective until the last phase of the war.

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE WAR American Expeditionary Force (AEF): U.S. forces in Europe during World

War I, totaling over 1-million men.

o Led by General John J. Pershing.

Battle of Argonne Forest (Sept. – Nov. 1918): Last major battle of the war.

o U.S. forces help stop the German offensive in northern France and push them back into Germany.

o Alvin York killed 25 Germans and captured 132 prisoners. For his valor, York received the Congressional Medal of

Honor.

o At the end of the battle, Germany agreed to an armistice.

THE HOME FRONT Selective Service Act (1917): created the military draft, and registered

millions of Americans for military service

Espionage Act of 1917: made it a crime to criticize the war effort, limiting constitutional rights of free speech.

o Schenk v. U.S. (1918): ruled that the Espionage Act did not violate the First Amendment

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Schenk protested and encouraged others to resist the draft.

WORLD WAR I, 1914-1918 THE FOURTEEN POINTS (Jan. 1918): Woodrow Wilson’s proposal to establish peace in Europe It demanded freedom of the seas and an end to secret alliances

It also promoted national self-government in Europe and the creation of the League of Nations.

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES, 1919: The agreement that ended the war. Broke up Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empires to create new nations

in Eastern Europe

Forced Germany to accept the blame for starting the war & pay reparations to the Allies.

Created the League of Nations to serve as a mutual defense organization against aggressor nations.

U.S. SENATE REJECTION OF THE TREATY, 1919-1920: Congressmen led by Henry Cabot Lodge felt that the treaty would drag the

U.S. into unnecessary military commitments.

o Membership in the League of Nations could possibly limit the freedom of action for the U.S. in global matters.

Wilson refused to accept any compromises regarding the treaty.

Even though the treaty was accepted by many other nations, the U.S. would not ratify it or become a member of the League of Nations.

IMPACT OF WORLD WAR I: Even though the U.S. took a strong role in the war, there was a move back

toward isolationism at the start of the 1920s.

Wartime production efficiency would spark an period of business growth through the 1920s.

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THE “ROARING TWENTIES” SOCIAL ISSUES Immigration

o Red Scare - the fear that foreign Communists were going to take over the United States in the 1920’s.

o Nativism – a dislike of foreigners increased in the 1920s for various reasons, including competition for jobs.

o Immigration Quota Acts : designed to keep out immigrants from SE Europe & keep America’s current ethnic makeup.

Race Relationso The Great Migration – The mass migration of African-Americans

to Northern cities started by the demand for workers in northern factories during World War I.

o Resulted in racial tensions in new parts of the country including race riots in many cities and the growth of the Ku Klux Klan

o Marcus Garvey – political activist & founder of the United Negro Improvement Association. His goal was the total liberation of African people around the world. He advocated that African Americans should return to Africa.

CULTURAL VALUES IN CONFLICT Prohibition – Reform movement that banned the sale and consumption of

alcohol. It also increased organized crime.o 18th Amendment – Prohibition is enacted and alcohol is illegal.o 21st Amendment – repealed18th Amendment & ended Prohibition

The Scopes Trial – The famous “Monkey Trial” that pitted creationism against Darwin’s theory of evolution. The trial represented the clash between science and fundamentalist religion.

o William Jennings Bryan – prosecutor in the Scopes Trial. He supported creationism in school. He is also famous for the “Cross of Gold” speech that argued against using the gold standard to back money.

o Clarence Darrow – Defended John Scopes during the Scopes Trial he argued that evolution should be taught in schools.

Social Darwinism & Eugenicso Social Darwinists believe humans compete for economic & social

survival just as different species compete in the natural world.o Eugenics is a pseudo-scientific belief that the human race could be

improved through selective breeding—superior parents would have even better children.

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THE “ROARING TWENTIES” EMERGENCE OF NEW VALUES Women’s Issues in the 1920’s

o 19th Amendment – (1920) Women given the right to vote. o Flappers embraced urban attitudes and fashions.o Women demanded more freedom & assert their independence;

however, a double standard between men & women still existed. Lost Generation – literary trend that rejected desire for material wealth Tin Pan Alley – a section of New York City where song-writing and

musical ideas mixed together to form American popular music. Ex: blues, jazz, & ragtime

Jazz – A popular form of music. Famous jazz composers include Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington.

The Harlem Renaissance –Period of African-American cultural creativity in music, art, and literature during the 1920’s, centered in Harlem. Ex: poet Langston Hughes.

Popular Heroes o Baseball player Babe Ruth; boxer Jack Dempseyo Charles Lindbergh – American pilot who made the first non-stop

flight across the Atlantic Ocean.

ECONOMIC ISSUES : Causes of Prosperity during the 1920’s Warren Harding’s “Return to Normalcy”

o Reduce America’s emphasis on foreign policy and focus instead on business production & prosperity at home.

o Teapot Dome Scandal – The prime example of corruption during Harding’s Presidency, staining his reputation as president

Government policies that reduced govt. interference in businesso High protective tariffs to limit foreign competitiono Lower taxes on businesses and wealthy Americanso Loose enforcement of anti-trust laws.

Efficient production techniques such as the assembly line The growth and use of the automobile industry

o Henry Ford – Automobile manufacturer who created the Model T and began to mass-produce the automobile. He used the assembly line to speed up production and satisfy demand. This lowered prices to make the car more affordable for an average American

Mass consumerism from the American public18

Overconfidence of American consumers led to the widespread use of credit.

GREAT DEPRESSION, 1929-1940 CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION Overproduction of consumer goods. Consumer overconfidence & buying goods on credit. Unequal distribution of income. Tariffs & World Trade

o While tariffs protected American businesses, they also resulted in higher prices for imports & exports, making it tougher to sell goods via international trade.

Stock Market Speculationo Many people bought stocks hoping to get rich quick. In several

cases they bought stock “on margin,” making a down-payment and borrowing the rest to buy their stock.

Bank failureso Some bankers in the 1920s invested deposited money in unsound

investments, leading to the instability of some banks. The Federal Reserve failed to regulate these banking practices, causing the

nation’s money supply to fluctuate in the 1920s.

1929 – The Stock Market Crash -- known as “Black Tuesday;” the spark that began the Great Depression

ECONOMIC & SOCIAL EFFECTS OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION Business Closures & Bank Failures : caused economic crises for millions.

o Unemployment –rose as high as 25% during the Great Depression.

o “Hoovervilles” – Shantytowns on the outskirts of the cities of homeless and unemployed people.

o Bread lines and soup kitchens – Methods by which the needy could obtain free or low-priced food.

Deportation & Repatriation o High unemployment meant there was an excess of potential

workers.

o Many immigrant workers were deported to lessen job competition in the weakened economy.

o Mexican Repatriation Act (1929) : forcibly sent over 500,000 Mexican-American immigrants back to Mexico during the Great Depression.

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Dust Bowl – Term used to describe the area of the Great Plains where heavy droughts had dried up the farmland. This forced many residents of the Great Plains to relocate.

GREAT DEPRESSION, 1929-1940 GREAT DEPRESSION PRESIDENTS Herbert Hoover (1929-1933) : President when the Great Depression began.

Hoover is criticized for allowing the Depression to deepen. He was defeated when voters looked to the federal government for help.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) : Defeated Hoover in1932. Implemented the New Deal to help with the Great Depression. Gave fireside chats on the radio to communicate with the American public.

o Eleanor Roosevelt – First Lady, who offered leadership to women during the depression, calling on them to help pull their families through the crisis.

THE NEW DEAL : Roosevelt’s program to fight the Great Depression; focused on the 3 Rs: Relief to suffering Americans, economic Recovery, and Reform to prevent a repeat of the depression.

Government Programs during the Great Depression

o Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – Public works program that gave jobs to young men. The workers planted trees, fought forest fires and built public parks.

o Works Progress Administration (WPA) – Created jobs by hiring writers and artists.

o Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) – Law that attempted to raise crop prices by lowering production.

New Deal Programs still in effect today :

o FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) – Provided insurance for people’s bank accounts.

o SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission) – Govt. agency that regulates the stock market.

o Social Security Act -- Social Security provides unemployment insurance, aid to the disabled, old age pensions, and insurance for families.

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GOLD STANDARD AND FIAT MONEY Since the origins of civilization, gold (& silver) have provided two accepted

forms of monetary exchange.

In 1933, Roosevelt outlawed the ownership of gold, except for jewelry.

He did this, so people would have to rely on fiat money (paper currency) in order to expand the money supply and stimulate economic activity during the depression.

REACTIONS TO THE NEW DEAL Opponents criticized New Deal programs and wanted a different approach

to solving the Great Depression.

o The Liberty League felt that the federal government went too far in regulating businesses.

o Huey Long promoted a general redistribution of wealth, promising to tax the rich and give each American family $5,000 a year.

The Supreme Court –

o The Supreme Court had declared several New Deal programs unconstitutional.

o In order to get his programs passed, FDR tried to add more members to the Supreme Court, a tactic known as court-packing.

o Congress didn’t approve of FDR’s plan, but over time the Court generally stopped opposing New Deal legislation.

Through the New Deal, the power of the federal government increased dramatically.

o It now took the role of making sure the national economy ran smoothly.

o While the role of state governments didn’t shrink, Americans became accustomed to increased involvement from the federal government.

WWII brought the U.S. out of the Depression by creating jobs in industry and the military

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WORLD WAR II, 1939-1945 IMPORTANT DATES 1939 – Adolf Hitler invades Poland. WWII begins. 1941 – Japan attacks Pearl Harbor in Hawaii -- U.S. declares war. 1945 – Germany is defeated to end the war in Europe. The atomic bomb

(the Manhattan Project) is dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to end the war in the Pacific.

Allies Axis Powers United States Germany Great Britain Italy France Japan Soviet Union (USSR)

CAUSES OF WORLD WAR II Harsh treatment of Germany after World War I. The rise of dictators and aggressive totalitarianism in Europe & Asia.

o Italy – Benito Mussolini took power shortly after WWI. He glorified action, obedience to the leader and violence. His goal was to create a new Roman Empire. Invaded Ethiopia (1935)

o Japan – military leaders took power with the support of the emperor. Invaded Manchuria (1931), China (1937), Indochina (1940), and Pearl Harbor (1941).

o Germany – Adolf Hitler came to power because of a shaky democracy and high unemployment in Germany. Invaded Poland (1939), staring WWII.

AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR Neutrality Acts (1935-1937) – during the Great Depression, these laws were

designed to keep the U.S. out of all overseas conflicts. “cash-and-carry” – in 1939, Americans could sell non-military goods to the

British & other allies. Lend-Lease (1941) – FDR proposed the sale, lend or lease of war materials

to any country whose defense was vital to the defense of the U.S. Pearl Harbor (12/7/1941) – Japan attacked the United States naval base at

Pearl Harbor, as a result, the U.S. entered the war. Gen. George Marshall – Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army during World War

II. He oversaw all military operations in the War in Europe. After the war, he was responsible for the Marshall Plan.

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The United States would have to fight WWII on multiple military fronts: Europe & the Pacific.

THE HOMEFRONT Entering WWII helped the United States end the Great Depression.

High Levels of Military Enlistment – thanks in part to government appeals for Americans to serve their country during the time of crisis.

Volunteerism – the willingness of millions of Americans to assist with the war effort.

Purchase of war bonds – citizens contributed to the war effort by buying $185-billion of bonds.

Rationing – regulation on the amount of goods that a consumer could buy; to promote the idea of sharing the sacrifices of wartime.

Victory Gardens – vegetable gardens in neighborhoods to make sure that an adequate food supply was available for troops & civilians.

Office of War Information (OWI) – government agency responsible for controlling the content & imagery of war messages.

o It created propaganda movies & posters, promoting various ways that Americans could contribute to the war effort.

Internment of Japanese-Americans, Italians and Germans: Forcing over 100,000 Japanese-Americans to relocate to crowded prison camps during WWII.

o Executive Order 9066 – permitted the relocation of Japanese Americans to camps in the central U.S., away from Western coastal regions.

o Korematsu v. U.S. – the Supreme Court upheld the relocation & internment of Japanese-Americans.

During the war, women and minorities played a large role at home. Women and minorities were asked to fill the jobs that were left behind by soldiers going overseas.

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WORLD WAR II, 1939-1945 THE WAR IN EUROPE Two-front war – Germany was forced to fight British and American troops

from the West and Russia from the East. This divided Germany’s army in two and helped the Allies gain the advantage in Europe.

George Patton –popular commander of U.S. forces in the invasion of North Africa & Sicily. He later led the Third Army in Western Europe.

Tuskegee Airmen – African-American fighter group that distinguished themselves in providing air-support for bombing missions into Germany.

Invasion of Normandy (D-Day) – On June 6, 1944, Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower led an Allied attack on German-controlled France. The Allied forces won the battle, causing German forces to retreat.

Gen. Dwight Eisenhower – U.S. general in Europe during World War II. He was in charge of the Invasion of Normandy (D-Day).

Gen. Omar Bradley – U.S. general who led the U.S. 1st Army during the Invasion of Normandy (D-Day).

Vernon J. Baker – Congressional Medal of Honor recipient; one of the first African-Americans to see combat in the war. He received his medal for extraordinary heroism in combat in northern Italy.

The Holocaust – The mass murder of 6 million Jews and others in Nazi concentration camps.

o Liberation of concentration camps – in the last months of the war, Allied forces moved into Germany and freed the surviving camp prisoners, revealing the true extent of Nazi brutality.

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THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC Pearl Harbor – December 7, 1941. Japan attacked the United States naval

base at Pearl Harbor, as a result, the U.S. enters the war.

Flying Tigers – American pilots who volunteered to work for the defense of China against Japanese aggression from December 1941 to July 1942.

Bataan Death March – April 1942. Japanese forces forced American POWs to undertake a 60-mile march through the Philippine jungle.

Battle of Midway – June 1942. The turning point in the war in the Pacific. This pivotal battle dealt a severe blow to the Japanese navy.

Adm. Chester Nimitz – commander of the U.S. Pacific fleet. Led U.S. forces at Midway

Island-hopping – Allied naval strategy to reach Japan by taking one island at a time.

Navajo Code Talkers – Native American soldiers used the Navajo language as an undecipherable military code in the Pacific.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur – U.S. general in charge of the Allied forces in the Pacific Ocean.

The atomic bomb – Powerful weapon dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Harry Truman made the decision to drop the bomb in an effort to reduce American casualties. As a result, WWII ends.

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POST-WAR AMERICA, (1945-1969) CAUSES OF 1950S PROSPERITY After the rationing of World War II, the demand for consumer goods

reached an all-time high in the 1950s. GI Bill – The Servicemen’s Readjust Act of 1944; gives military veterans

financial and educational benefits. The Baby Boom – The period from the end of World War II through the

mid-1960s marked by unusually high birth rates.

BILLY GRAHAM – Christian preacher & advisor for several US Presidents. Graham was well known for his strong position against Communism and for desegregation in the 1950s.

THE BEAT GENERATION – 1950s literary movement that rebelled against the conformity of their era. This movement represented an early form of what would later become known as the counter-culture.

ROCK AND ROLL – musical style that became popular in the 1950s. By the 1960s, artists used their music to promote the counter-culture,

protest the Vietnam War, or celebrate the psychedelic experience. Through global diffusion, it spread in popularity around the world.

“IN GOD WE TRUST” – national motto adopted by Congress in 1956; In part it was adopted because of Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union,

which promoted state atheism. The courts have ruled that its meaning is ceremonial, not religious.

THE CONTINUING SPACE RACE In 1961, President Kennedy placed greater emphasis on NASA and the US

Space Program. In 1969, The US became the first country to land two men on the moon—

Neil Armstrong & Buzz Aldrin. Later, space exploration & satellite placement have improved our quality of

life through global communication, GPS tracking, and weather prediction.

GREAT SOCIETY - Lyndon B. Johnson’s program that addressed America’s social problems including health care, civil rights, and urban decay. Barry Goldwater – Republican challenger for Johnson in the 1964 election.

Goldwater argued that the reach of Great Society programs brought the federal government too far in our lives. Goldwater lost the election in part because many thought him an extremist who could begin a nuclear war against the Soviet Union

Despite these programs, many Americans stayed in poverty, and the costs of the Vietnam War required de-funding of several Great Society programs.

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THE EARLY COLD WAR, (1945-1973) COLD WAR -strained relations between the U. S. and U.S.S.R. with competition often in non-military ways.

Ideological Differences – The USSR was communist; the US was a democracy based on the free enterprise system

Soviet Occupation of Eastern Europe – The Soviet army occupied Eastern Europe at the end of WWII and set up local Communist governments.

“Iron Curtain” – The Soviets cut off Eastern Europe from Western Europe, Germany into East and West.

CONTAINMENT – The policy in response to Soviet aggression that the US should prevent communism from spreading to other nations.

Truman Doctrine (1947) – U.S. policy that gave military and economic aid to countries threatened by communism.

Marshall Plan (1948) – Program, proposed by Gen. George Marshall, to help European countries rebuild after WWII. The United States offered economic aid to the war-torn countries.

Berlin Airlift – U.S. operation that flew food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviet Union set up a blockade in 1948.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (1949) – A military alliance formed between the United States, Canada, and ten western European countries.

THE COLD WAR AT HOME

The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) – Congressional committee that investigated people in the government and entertainment industries about their possible Communist sympathies. People who cooperated with the committee were often asked to inform on others.

Joseph McCarthy - Senator from Wisconsin who, in the 1950’s, became famous by accusing people of being Communists without providing evidence. His technique was called:

o McCarthyism (1954) – Witch-hunt of suspected Communists.

Venona Papers – secret government documents released in 1997. They provided evidence of several Americans who spied for the Soviet Union in the early 1950s, including Julius Rosenberg.

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THE EARLY COLD WAR, (1945-1973) KOREAN WAR (1950-1953) After WWII, Korea was divided between North and South at the 38th

parallel. North Korea (Communist) invaded South Korea (Democratic) in 1950,

challenging the Containment policy in Asia. As a result, the United States sent troops to help the South Koreans. In 1953, the war ended in a stalemate but South Korea remained a

democracy.

ARMS RACE – In 1952, the U.S. successfully detonated the H-bomb, the first nuclear weapon. The Soviet Union exploded a nuclear weapon in 1953. The arms race followed as both countries amassed more nuclear weapons.

SPUTNIK (1957) – The first man-made satellite to be launched into outer space. Sputnik was a success for the Soviet Union and a symbolic success for communism. This caused the United States to increase interest in its space program and a space race developed between the United States and the Soviet Union.

CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS (1962) A standoff occurred between the US and the Soviet Union when it was

discovered that the Soviets had installed missiles in Cuba. President Kennedy chose to avoid a direct confrontation and pushed for a

peaceful resolution to the crisis. The United States pledged not to invade Cuba when the Soviet Union

removed the missiles.

THE VIETNAM WAR, 1954-1973 A war between the Communist Vietcong with North Vietnamese & Chinese support and the non-communist armies of South Vietnam who were supported by the United States. DOMINO THEORY –belief that if a nearby nation becomes communist,

surrounding nations will follow suit; used as a rationale for containment.

TONKIN GULF RESOLUTION – Congressional approval that gave President Lyndon B. Johnson the power to escalate the war in Vietnam.

ESCALATION OF FORCES – President Johnson ordered bombing raids over North Vietnam and sent more combat troops to South Vietnam. By 1968, there were about 500,000 US soldiers in Vietnam.

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TET OFFENSIVE – massive Vietcong offensive throughout South Vietnam in January 1968. Marked a turning point in the war. The American public believed that victory was far away, and President Johnson stopped the escalation of forces.

ROY BENAVIDEZ – Congressional Medal of Honor recipient. In May 1968, he saved 8 members of his platoon as they faced constant enemy fire.

RESPONSES TO THE VIETNAM WAR Role of the Media – TV news coverage allowed Americans to see the

destructiveness of the war while sitting at home.

Credibility Gap – the term for the loss of faith that Americans felt with their government. The rhetoric from President Johnson that the US was winning the war didn’t match media reports, thus Americans started to question the credibility of the government.

Anti-War Movement – Mass anti-war protests occurred throughout the country from 1965 onward. By 1968, millions of young people were protesting the War. The protests continued into Nixon’s Presidency.

The Draft – Many protested the draft as more 18-20 year-old Americans were drafted into service without being able to vote in American elections.

o 26 th Amendment – ratified in 1971, it lowered the voting age to 18.

Silent Majority – the term given by President Nixon to those Americans who still supported the war effort, but usually did so without vocalizing their beliefs, unlike the anti-war protesters.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) – after students were suspended from school from wearing black armbands to protest the war, the Supreme Court ruled that their suspension was a violation of their 1st Amendment right of free speech.

VIETNAMIZATION – Nixon’s 1969 war policy of reducing American forces and turning over control of military operations to the South Vietnamese army.

In 1973, U.S. negotiators worked out a cease-fire with the North Vietnamese. Nixon pulled out all remaining U.S. troops from Vietnam.

WAR POWERS ACT (1973) – Law that set limits on Presidential power in conflict without a formal declaration by Congress. If Congress doesn’t approve the use of overseas forces, the President must withdraw them within 60 days.

FALL OF SAIGON – In April 1975, North Vietnamese forces captured the southern capital, marking the end of the Vietnam War.

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THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, 1950S- 1960S

ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 13 th Amendment – Abolished slavery.

14 th Amendment – Gave all U.S. citizens equal protection under the law regardless of color.

15 th Amendment – Gave African-American men the right to vote.

Jim Crow laws – Southern segregation laws that encouraged discrimination against African-Americans

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – Supreme Court decision that upheld segregation and said that “separate but equal” facilities were legal

Desegregation of the Armed Forces (1948) – President Truman issued Executive Order 9981 that ended segregation in the armed forces and discriminatory hiring practices in the federal government

Sweatt v. Painter (1950) – Supreme Court ruling that struck down the “separate but equal” doctrine specifically in regards to the University of Texas Law School.

BROWN V. BOARD OF EDUCATION (1954) - Supreme Court decision that made segregation illegal in public schools. Thurgood Marshall – NAACP lawyer that argued the case. Later, he will

become the first African American Supreme Court Justice.

The Court ruled that segregated school created unequal educational opportunities that violated the rights of African-American children.

It overturned the Plessy decision & marked a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement.

THE MARCH TO EQUALITY Rosa Parks - Refused to give up her seat to a white passenger. After she was

jailed, the Montgomery bus boycott was organized.

Civil Rights Act of 1957 – designed to increase African-American voting in the South, the law created the Civil Rights Commission and the Civil Rights Division of the Justice Department.

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Martin Luther King, Jr. - Civil Rights leader during the 1950’s and 60’s.

o He helped organize the Montgomery bus boycott to protest segregation on buses.

o After being arrested for protesting in Alabama, he wrote a “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” explaining why African-Americans had to protest and could no longer wait for their constitutional rights.

o He organized the March on Washington where he delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech, which described his vision of racial unity in the United States

o King was assassinated in 1968.

Several Southern governors pledged to resist desegregation & maintain the status quo, claiming the federal government was interfering in state matters.

o Orval Faubus tried to block the “Little Rock Nine” from desegregating an Arkansas High School in 1957. President Eisenhower responded by ordering federal troops to ensure that they could attend school.

o George Wallace unsuccessfully tried to block segregation of the University of Alabama in 1960.

o Lester Maddox confronted African American protesters with an ax handle in 1964 to prevent them from entering his “whites only” restaurant. He would later be elected Governor of Georgia.

SUCCESSES OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 24 th Amendment (1964) – eliminated poll taxes in federal elections.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Made discrimination based on race, religion, or national origin in public places illegal and required employers to hire on an equal opportunity basis.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 – Ended all poll taxes and literacy tests, which were used to prevent African-Americans from voting. Led to a major increase in the number of African-American voters.

Affirmative Action – requires schools and employers to actively recruit minorities candidates to correct the inequalities created by decades of institutional discrimination. Over time, many affirmative action programs have been phased out as the US has become a more pluralistic society.

As a consequence of these actions, African American voting rates and employment opportunities increased substantially.

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THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT, 1950S- 1960S

INCREASING MILITANCY IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT Malcolm X – Black Muslim leader who argued for separation, not

integration, and influenced the Black Power movement. He changed his stance but was assassinated in 1965.

Black Power – the idea that African-Americans should control their own communities and patronize their own businesses to free themselves of the domination of whites.

Black Panthers – originating in Oakland, CA, they claimed their right to carry weapons and protect their own neighborhoods from the police.

As demands for equality continued, racial violence in cities grew with several riots in the late 1960s.

The assassination of Dr. King in April 1968 sparked over 100 race riots across the country, and marks what many call the end of the Civil Rights Movement.

“OTHER” CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENTS THE AMERICAN INDIAN MOVEMENT (AIM) – founded in 1968; focuses on the sovereignty & improving living conditions of Native Americans in the USA.

THE WOMEN’S LIBERATION MOVEMENT Focused on the economic rights of women to work outside the home for

equal pay as men.

Betty Friedan – wrote The Feminine Mystique (1963), challenging the belief that suburban housewives must be happy in only taking care of their homes.

National Organization of Women (NOW) – formed in 1966; the main voice of the women’s rights movement.

Title IX (1972) – banned sex discrimination in educational institutions. It guarantees girls in school the same opportunities as boys, including participation in high school and college sports.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) – proposed constitutional amendment that would have guaranteed equality of rights under the law regardless of gender. It fell three states short of ratification.

Phyllis Schlafly – outspoken critic of the Women’s Liberation Movement; she felt the ERA would reduce the rights of wives and harm family life.

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THE CHICANO MOVEMENT Focused on the economic & political rights of Mexican Americans.

Mendez v. Westminster School District (1947) – federal court ruling that Mexican-American children in California could not be segregated in schools unless required by a specific state law. California later repealed its school segregation laws.

Delgado v. Bastrop ISD (1948) – Segregation of Mexican-American children in schools in Texas is declared illegal.

Hector P. Garcia - early leader in the Chicano Movement. After a Mexican-American soldier had been refused burial by a funeral home in his Texas home town, Garcia arranged for his burial at Arlington National Cemetery.

Hernandez v Texas (1954) – Mexican Americans cannot be systematically excluded in practice from juries.

Cesar Chavez - organized mostly Spanish-speaking farm workers into the United Farm Workers of America. The union’s success union led to other civil rights reforms for Hispanic Americans, including bilingual education.

Chicano Mural Movement – Artists began painting murals on building in Southwestern barrios in the 1960s. The murals soon became an important medium to support identity & justice within the Latino community.

Edgewood ISD v. Kirby (1984) – The Supreme Court ruled that Texas must revise its school funding system because there were differences in the funds available between rich and poor districts violating the state constitution’s promise of a “fair and efficient” public school system.

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THE 1970S FOREIGN POLICY ISSUES

Normalizing Relations with China – o In 1972, President Richard Nixon visited Communist China. o Even though he was a strong anti-Communist, this step was

important in restoring diplomatic relations between the two nations.

Détente with the Soviet Union – o In 1972, Nixon also visited Moscow and signed an agreement

(SALT) limiting the development of defensive missile systems. o This helped bring in an era of détente—a relaxing of tensions—in

the Cold War.

End of the Vietnam War

OPEC Oil Embargo (1973) – o The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Nations (OPEC) used oil

as a political weapon by imposing an oil embargo on the U.S. and Western Europe for siding with Israel in the 1973 war.

o Oil prices shot up overnight, and after the embargo, higher energy costs would have a long-term impact on the American economy.

Camp David Accords (1977) – o President Jimmy Carter helped negotiate this treaty between Israel

and Egypt. o The agreement ended years of warfare, and Egypt established

diplomatic relations with Israel.

Iran Hostage Crisis (1979-1981) – o Fifty-two Americans were held hostage for 444 days after a group

of Iranian students supporting the Iranian Revolution took over the US Embassy in Iran.

o Iranian revolutionaries resented America for helping the Shah—the former ruler of Iran—and for supporting Israel.

o Negotiations led to the release of the hostages on the day that Ronald Regan became President.

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POLITICAL / CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUES Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) – The Supreme Court ruled that a Wisconsin law

requiring Amish children to attend school beyond age 8 violated the parents’ freedom of religion since the state’s secondary education conflicted with the Amish values and beliefs and was contrary to their way of life.

White v. Regester (1973) – The Supreme Court ruled that multi-member House districts were unconstitutional. Thus Bexar and Dallas Counties must split into single-member districts to allow local minority groups to elect their own representatives.

Watergate – A political scandal involving abuse of power and bribery and obstruction of justice; led to the resignation of Richard Nixon in 1974. As a result, Americans began to feel less trust in their government officials.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Created in 1970 under President

Nixon, the EPA sets air and water pollution standards for cities and engages in monitoring and enforcement of standards. Private citizens can sue against polluters under the EPA.

Endangered Species Act (1973) – Signed into law by President Nixon, this law requires the Fish and Wildlife Service to list species of plants and animals that are threatened with extinction and then to take steps to protect them.

SOCIAL / ECONOMIC ISSUES The economy of the 1970s was stagnant—unemployment rates were high.

In addition, inflation was high, due to increased energy costs (thanks to the OPEC Oil Embargo) and increased defense spending (thanks to the Cold War). The combination of high unemployment and inflation is called stagflation.

Community Reinvestment Act of 1977 – o Required banks to make credit available in poor communities,

preventing the decary of low-income neighborhoods in inner cities. o Signed into law by President Carter.

The Sun Belt vs. the Rust Belt – o Starting in the 1960s, more Americans moved from the

Northeastern U.S. to the southern & western states—called the “Sun Belt.”

o During that time, California & Texas have become the nation’s largest states.

o By the 1970s, the population decreases in the Northeast led that region to be called the “Rust Belt” because of the economic slowdown in these coal & iron producing regions.

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CONSERVATIVE RESURGENCE – 1980S CONSERVATIVISM – modern conservatives believe the federal government’s role has grown too large since the New Deal. This philosophy was promoted by Barry Goldwater in the 1960s, and new groups promoted conservatism and supported Ronald Reagan’s election in 1980.

Heritage Foundation – a think-tank organization with a stated mission to promote policies based on the principles of “free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, traditional American values, and a strong national defense.”

Moral Majority – American political organization associated with Fundamentalist Christians; founded in 1979 and dissolved in the late 1980s

National Rifle Association – originally begun to promote rifle shooting and marksmanship skills, the NRA became more politically involved when it endorsed Ronald Reagan in 1980.

REAGANOMICS – economic program promoted by Reagan to correct the problem of stagflation; also referred to as “supply-side” economics.

Tax Cuts and Domestic Spending – cutting taxes would allow wealthy Americans to invest more money in business.

Deregulation – made it easier for new companies to enter the market and compete.

Increased military spending – even though the government borrowed money to pay for increased defense budgets, the spending increase stimulated the overall economy.

SANDRA DAY O’CONNOR – first female Just on the U.S. Supreme Court; nominated by Reagan in 1981.

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REAGAN FOREIGN POLICY ISSUES Peace Through Strength – “Let he who desires peace prepare for war.”

o Reagan felt the best way to prevent war was to make America’s enemies feel that the U.S. had both the means and will to take action to stop aggression.

o Thus, he increased military spending and took a stronger stance in the Cold War and in the Middle East.

Marines in Lebanon (1983) –o A suicide bomber attacked American and French barracks, killing

241 U.S. Marines and 58 French paratroopers.

o Marines were stationed as a part of a multinational force to restore order during the Lebanese Civil War.

o Shortly after the bombing, President Reagan withdrew U.S. forces from Lebanon.

IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR (1986) – Government officials violated the policy of refusing to negotiate with

terrorists by secretly selling weapons to Iran in exchange for the release of American hostages in Lebanon.

Profits from these sales were secretly sent to support anti-Communist “Contra” rebels in Nicaragua.

Congress had specifically prohibited supporting the Contras.

Investigations cleared Reagan of any wrongdoing, but several officials were convicted of lying to Congress.

END OF THE COLD WAR – 1985 : Mikhail Gorbachev became head of the Soviet Communist Party and

introduced economic reforms and allowed peaceful changes to occur in Eastern Europe.

Reagan’s policies and increased defense spending may have placed enough economic & military pressure on the Soviet to force these reforms.

1989-1991 : Eastern Europe moved from Communism to Democracy; the Berlin Wall was torn down & Germany reunited.

1991 : The Soviet Union dissolved and was replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States. President Bush recognized Russia and the other new nations and offered them economic assistance. The end of the Cold War made the U.S. the world’s only “superpower” and forced the nation to redefine its foreign policy goals.

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MODERN AMERICA: 1990S & THE 21 ST CENTURY

THE GEORGE H.W. BUSH PRESIDENCY, 1989-1993 Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) –

o Civil rights legislation that prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment and public accommodations.

Persian Gulf War (1990-1991) – o After Saddam Hussein & Iraq invaded Kuwait, UN forces, under

U.S. leadership, intervened, forcing the removal of all Iraqi troops.

o President Bush refused to complete remove Hussein from power. This enhanced American prestige in the Middle East.

After the Cold War, the U.S. economy slowed into a recession due to reduced consumer spending by consumers, corporations & the government. Bush faced criticism that he wasn’t doing enough to fight the recession.

Election of 1992 – o Democrat Bill Clinton defeated Republican Bush.

o Reform Party candidate Ross Perot further weakened Bush’s authority.

o Perot received 20% of the popular vote, making him one of the most successful third-party candidates in U.S. history.

THE BILL CLINTON PRESIDENCY, 1993-2001 Hillary Clinton –

o As First Lady, she became a leading advocate for health-care reform.

o Later, she would become a U.S. Senator, Secretary of State, and presidential candidate.

Contract with America – o 1994 document of the Republican Party containing reforms

promising to reduce the size & scope of the federal government.

o It was written by Newt Gingrich and Richard Armey and many of its ideas originated with The Heritage Foundation.

Economic Recovery occurred in the 1990s as computer-related industries grew quickly. Clinton also reduced military spending and balanced the nation’s budget by 1999.

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Balkans Crisis (1998-1999) – o U.S. forces were sent as part of a NATO coalition to halt “ethnic

cleansing” (genocide) against Muslims in the Kosovo War.

o President Clinton’s intervention led to a compromise peace.

Clinton Impeachment (1999) – o A special prosecutor discovered that President Clinton had an

affair with a White House intern and had lied about it under oath.

o As a result, the House of Representatives filed formal charges against him—called impeachment.

o The Senate failed to get enough votes to remove him from office.

o Still, as a result, Americans felt they couldn’t trust their leaders.

THE GEORGE W. BUSH PRESIDENCY, 2001-2009 Election of 2000 –

o Republican George W. Bush defeated Democrat Al Gore.

o The election came down to disputed election results in Florida.

o Gore pushed for a statewide recount, but the Supreme Court ordered the recount to stop, saying there were not consistent standards for reviewing the ballots.

o As a result of the court’s order, Bush won the election.

Hurricane Katrina (2005) –o Striking the Louisiana Gulf Coast, Katrina is the costliest hurricane

in American history.

o The storm caused several levees around New Orleans to fail, leading to the evacuation & flooding of 80% of the city and other parts of the Gulf Coast.

o Rescue efforts were slow to get to some areas, leading to criticism of the Bush Administration.

Financial Crisis of 2008 – o Overproduction in the housing industry led to a crash in real estate

markets.

o This created such a sharp economic decline that several large investment firms showed signs of collapsing.

o The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (2008) allowed the government to spend $700 billion to help prevent banks & firms from closing.

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MODERN AMERICA: 1990S & THE 21 ST CENTURY

THE WAR ON TERROR 9/11 Attacks –

o On September 11, 2001, Islamic Fundamentalist terrorists hijacked four U.S. airliners.

o Then they flew the planes into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.

o A fourth plane crashed in Pennsylvania when passengers resisted the terrorists.

o The attacks killed more than 3,000 people, making it the worst attack in U.S. history.

o Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda took credit for the attacks.

The attacks led President Bush to launch a “War on Terror” against any nations that harbored terrorists.

In October 2001, U.S. forces entered Afghanistan to destroy al-Qaeda bases that were supported there.

USA PATRIOT Act (2001) – o Federal law that promoted national security after 9/11.

o It allowed law enforcement officials and intelligence agencies to conduct sweeping searches and surveillance, detain immigrants, and monitor bank accounts.

o It also allowed the National Security Agency to wiretap suspects’ calls with obtaining a warrant.

o Many felt that the provisions in the law gave the government too much power and violated individual rights to privacy.

o The “warrantless” wiretaps were later deemed unconstitutional by federal courts.

In 2003, the U.S. led coalition forces to invade Iraq amid concerns that Saddam Hussein possessed “weapons of mass destruction.”

o The war toppled Hussein’s government and placed a new, democratic government in its place.

o Conflicts between ethnic groups in Iraq lengthened the war, increasing its unpopularity with some Americans at home.

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THE BARACK OBAMA PRESIDENCY, 2009-PRESENT Election of 2008 –

o Democrat Barack Obama defeated Republican John McCain.

o Obama was the first African-American to be elected President.

o His election was also significant because of his campaign’s length, cost and use of the Internet to gather supporters.

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (2009) – o Spent over $700 billion to further assist with the economic

recovery after the 2008 Financial Crisis.

o It included direct spending in infrastructure, education, health, and energy, federal tax incentives, and expansion of unemployment benefits and other social welfare provisions.

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LIVING IN A GLOBAL AGE LEGAL & ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION Legal Immigrants – those who apply for and receive visas for permanent

residence, known as green cards.

Illegal Immigrants – people who cross America’s borders without officially entering the country.

Immigration Reform & Control Act of 1986 – “legalized” illegal alien s who had lived in the United States continuously since 1981.

Some estimates show that there are as many as 15 million immigrants now in the United States.

This continues to be a concern some illegal immigrants may receive social services while not paying taxes.

COMPUTER REVOLUTION – has revolutionized American production & marketplace. In the Workplace

o Time-study Analysis – a trained observer records how long it takes a worker to perform a task. This information helps managers improve production methods and become more efficient.

o Robotics – using high-tech machinery to assist in more efficient manufacturing.

o Computer Management – allows for better control of the production process, and allows JIT production (which requires precise communication) to take place.

o “Just-in-time” (JIT) inventory management – parts arrive at the precise time in the manufacturing process they are needed by workers. This benefits the manufacturer by eliminating the need for a large inventory of parts.

In the Marketplace o In the free enterprise system inventors pay close attention to

consumers’ needs and demands.

o As producers move to meet the technological demands of consumers, new products constantly are being developed, like new models of computers, cellphones, GPS products, etc.

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AMERICA’S PRESENCE IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY Notable American Entrepreneurs

o Bill Gates – Microsoft founder, and one of the first to recognize the global potential of the personal computer.

o Sam Walton – Founder of Wal-Mart, the five-and-dime department store that grew into a worldwide chain.

o Estée Lauder – Founder of one of the world’s largest cosmetic lines.

o Robert Johnson – African-American entrepreneur. Founder of Black Entertainment Television (BET).

o Lional Sosa – Hispanic advertising genius who saw the enormous potential of the U.S. Hispanic market.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) –o T rade association formed in 1994 between the U.S., Canada &

Mexico, gradually phasing out tariffs and creating a free-trade zone between the three countries.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) –o Formed in 1947 to expand global trade by reducing tariffs on many

goods.

o In 1994, it was replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO).

o Formation of the WTO has accelerated of globalization.

Multinational Corporations have contributed to economic globalization with a serious impact on government policies.

o Multinationals have the ability to move their operations to countries with more favorable labor and regulatory policies.

o The Internet and satellite communications allow multinational corporations to become much more efficient in their production & marketing techniques.

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Don’t think that these are really covered in here … or maybe they are, but they are worded in such a way that they are kind of spread out in various locations!History– (1B) analyze and evaluate the application of these founding principles to

historical events in U.S. history; and (3C) analyze social issues affecting … Women, Minorities, Children (5C) evaluate the impact of third parties, including … Progressive party. (10C) compare the impact of energy on the American way of life over time; (10F) describe significant societal issues of this time period. (11B) identify significant social and political advocacy organizations,

leaders, and issues across the political spectrum; (12A) analyze the impact of physical and human geographic factors on …

the Klondike Gold RushGeography – (14A) identify the effects of population growth and distribution on the

physical environment;Economics, Science, Technology & Society– (17B) identify the effects of prosperity in the 1950s such as … the growth

of agriculture and business; (18B) identify the impact of the following on the 21st century economy…

international events … government policies,

Government & Citizenship– (19B) explain constitutional issues raised by federal government policy

changes during times of significant events, including the 1960s; (21B) discuss historical reasons why the constitution has been amended;

and (23A) identify and analyze methods of expanding the right to participate

in the democratic process, including … lobbying, non-violent protesting, litigation, amendments to the U.S. Constitution;

(23C) explain how participation in the democratic process reflects our national ethos, patriotism, and civic responsibility as well as our progress to build a "more perfect union."

I’m also thinking that there are some TEKS that I don’t have on this list that probably should be. Any assistance in tracking them down is appreciated.

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