A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman ... · Project Title: A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Program prepared by : CEN Integrated

A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah

Baartman District Municipality

January 2020

Project Title:

A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality

Program prepared by:

CEN Integrated Environmental Management Unit

36 River Road

Walmer, Port Elizabeth. 6070

South Africa

Phone (041) 581-2983 • Fax 086 504 2549

E-mail: [email protected]

For:

Sarah Baartman District Municipality

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 3

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 8

List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality - Overview................................................................. 11

Scope of the CMPr ............................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Spatial Aspects of the Coastal Zone ..................................................................................................................................................... 13

Defining the Coastal Zone of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality used in the CMPr ................................................................... 15

Structure of the CMPr ........................................................................................................................................................................... 16

Summary Description of the Biophysical and Socio-Economic Environment of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 20

Key Pressures / Risks to the Coastal Zone ........................................................................................................................................... 35

Principles and Values, and a Vision for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone .......................................................... 41

Priority Areas, Objectives and Recommendations for Coastal Zone Management ............................................................................... 45

Identifying ‘priority areas for management’ ........................................................................................................................................ 45

Objectives per priority area ............................................................................................................................................................... 50

Management Recommendations and Implementation Strategies ..................................................................................................... 51

Appendix 1: The Public Participation Process .......................................................................................................................................... 52

Approach to Public Participation ........................................................................................................................................................... 52

Public Workshops and stakeholder meetings .................................................................................................................................... 53

Stakeholder engagement throughout the process ............................................................................................................................. 53

Review of the Draft Coastal Management Program .......................................................................................................................... 54

Appendix 2: Description and Assessment of the Coastal Zone with Management Recommendations – Methodology and Approach .... 55

Identifying ‘priority areas for implementation’ ........................................................................................................................................ 55

Recommendations and Implementation Strategies .............................................................................................................................. 58

Appendix 3: Koukamma Local Municipality .............................................................................................................................................. 59

Overview of the coastal zone ................................................................................................................................................................ 59

Segment 1A: Bloukrans River mouth to the Groot River mouth (Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area) ................................................ 61

Segment 1B: East of Groot River mouth to south-east of Tsitsikamma River mouth ............................................................................ 79

Management Recommendations for the Koukamma LM Coastal Zone ................................................................................................ 92

Appendix 4: Kouga Local Municipality .................................................................................................................................................... 117

Overview of the coastal zone .............................................................................................................................................................. 117

Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management ...................................................................................... 117

Coastal Pollution ............................................................................................................................................................................. 131

Coastal Development ...................................................................................................................................................................... 131

Segment 2A: East of the Tsitsikamma River mouth to the western border of the Cape St Francis Settlement .................................. 134

Segment 2B: The western border of Cape St Francis Settlement to Romazini Valley ........................................................................ 147

Segment 2C: Romazini Valley to the south-western edge of Paradise Beach .................................................................................... 156

Segment 2D: Western edge of Paradise Beach to north of Marina Martinique ................................................................................... 172

Segment 2E: North of Marina Martinique to Noorsekloof Road .......................................................................................................... 184

Segment 2F: Noorsekloof Road to south-western edge of Kabeljous estuary mouth ......................................................................... 198

Segment 2G: South-western edge of Kabeljous estuary mouth to western edge of Gamtoos River mouth ....................................... 209

Segment 2H: Western edge of Gamtoos River mouth to Van Stadens River mouth .......................................................................... 216

Management Recommendations for the Kouga Local Municipality .................................................................................................... 225

Appendix 5: Sundays River Valley Local Municipality ............................................................................................................................ 267


Segment 3: Sundays River mouth to the western border of Cannon Rocks ....................................................................................... 269

Management Recommendations for the Sundays River Valley Local Municipality Coastal Zone ....................................................... 288

Appendix 6: Ndlambe Local Municipality ................................................................................................................................................ 307


Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management ...................................................................................... 307

Coastal Pollution ............................................................................................................................................................................. 318

Coastal Development ...................................................................................................................................................................... 320

Segment 4A: Western border of Cannon Rocks to Bushmans River mouth ....................................................................................... 324

Segment 4B: Bushmans River mouth to the eastern edge of the Kariega River mouth ...................................................................... 340

Segment 4C: Eastern edge of the Kariega River mouth to eastern edge of Kasouga settlement ....................................................... 354

Segment 4D: Eastern edge of the Kasouga settlement to the western edge of Port Alfred settlement .............................................. 363

Segment 4E: Western edge of Port Alfred settlement to the eastern edge of Port Alfred (Hallier Street) ........................................... 370

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Segment 4F: Eastern edge of Port Alfred (Hallier Street) to the western edge of the Kleinemonde West estuary ............................. 389

Segment 4G: Seafield (Kleinemonde West and East) ........................................................................................................................ 398

Segment 4H: East of Seafield to Great Fish River mouth ................................................................................................................... 411

Management Recommendations for the Ndlambe Local Municipality ................................................................................................ 420

Appendix 7: References ......................................................................................................................................................................... 464

List of Figures

Figure 1: Spatial aspects that comprise the ‘coastal zone’ of South Africa (Celliers et al., 2009). ............................................................ 18

Figure 2: The four local coastal municipalities in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality. .................................................................... 19

Figure 3: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipalities. ................................... 21

Figure 4: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipalities. ............... 22

Figure 5: Headland bypass dunefields in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay area. ................................................................................. 23

Figure 6: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipality coastline. ........................................................................................... 24

Figure 7: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipality coastline. ....................................................................... 25

Figure 8: The distribution of stromatolites along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality and Nelson Mandela Bay Municipal coastline (Perissinotto et. al., 2014). ........................................................................................................................................................................ 26

Figure 9: Important Bird Areas along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality’s coastline (BirdLIfe South Africa). ................................ 27

Figure 10: View of the Storms Estuary mouth in the Garden Route National Park. .................................................................................. 28

Figure 11: View of the Seekoei Estuary mouth in the Kouga Local Municipality. The causeway inhibits tidal action, causing premature mouth closure. The health category of the estuary is on a trajectory to ‘E’ (Wooldridge et. al., 2018). .................................................... 28

Figure 12: View of the Kleinemonde West and East Estuary mouths in the Ndlambe LM. ....................................................................... 28

Figure 13: Strategic Surface Water Source Areas in the coastal area of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality. ................................ 30

Figure 14: Locality plan of the Koukamma Local Municipality coastal zone, showing the 2 segments (1A and 1B) and the extent of the study area in this CMPr. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 60

Figure 15: Google Earth image of Segment 1A (outlined in red). ............................................................................................................. 61

Figure 16: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ................................................................................................................................ 62

Figure 17: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ......................................................................................................... 62

Figure 18: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ................................................................................................................................. 62

Figure 19: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ..................................................................................................... 62

Figure 20: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1A (western extent). ................................................................................................ 65

Figure 21: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1A (eastern extent). ................................................................................................ 66

Figure 22: Aquifer Classification – the western part of Segment 1A is a major aquifer (DWS, 2012). ...................................................... 67

Figure 23: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1A (west). .................................................................................................................................... 68

Figure 24: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1A (east). ..................................................................................................................................... 69

Figure 25: Coastal Ecosystem Types (NBA, 2019). ................................................................................................................................. 70

Figure 26: Coastal ecosystem type threat status – Segment 1A and 1B (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................ 71

Figure 27: Restricted Zone, and Coastal Control Zones (TCCZ1 to 3) in the Tsitsikamma National Park MPA (Regulations for the Management of the Tsitsikamma National Park Marine Protected Area, DEFF 2016). ............................................................................ 72

Figure 28: Veldfire Risk Areas (DEFF, 2010). .......................................................................................................................................... 73

Figure 29: Pollution risk areas in Segment 1A based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................................. 75

Figure 30: Land Cover map for Segment 1A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 78

Figure 31: Google Earth image of Segment 1B (outlined in red). ............................................................................................................. 79

Figure 32: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 1B. ........................................................................................................................... 82

Figure 33: Aquifer Classification – most of Segment 1B is a minor aquifer, becoming a major aquifer in the Huisklip Nature Reserve (DWS, 2012). ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 83

Figure 34: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan), and Forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory) in Segment 1B. ............................................................................................................................................... 84

Figure 35: Veldfire Risk Areas (DEFF, 2010). .......................................................................................................................................... 85

Figure 36: Pollution risk areas in Segment 1B based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................................. 87

Figure 37: Land Cover map for Segment 1B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 90

Figure 38: Google Earth image showing coastal development and access issues at Eersterivier. .......................................................... 91

Figure 39: Estuaries in the Kouga LM coastal zone. .............................................................................................................................. 118

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Figure 40: Aquatic features in the Kouga LM coastal zone. ................................................................................................................... 118

Figure 41: The Kouga LM coastal zone is part of a ‘major aquifer’ (DWS Aquifer Classification, 2012). ................................................ 119

Figure 42: Notable coastal dunefields in the Kouga LM (Illenberger, 2009). .......................................................................................... 121

Figure 43: Threatened ecosystems in the catchment of the Kouga LM coastal zone (National List of Threatened Ecosystems, 2011). 122

Figure 44: Vegetation types in the Kouga LM coastal zone (VEGMAP, 2018). ...................................................................................... 122

Figure 45: DEFF Forest areas, CREW threatened/protected plants, stromatolites and Important Bird Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 124

Figure 46: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone (Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan). ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125

Figure 47: Protected Areas in the Kouga LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018). ............................................................................................... 126

Figure 48: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Kouga LM west) (NBA, 2019). ................................................................................................... 127

Figure 49: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Kouga LM St Francis Bay to Jeffreys Bay) (NBA, 2019). .......................................................... 128

Figure 50: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Kouga LM Jeffreys Bay to Van Stadens Estuary) (NBA, 2019). ............................................... 129

Figure 51: Coastal Ecosystem Type threat status (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................................................ 130

Figure 52: Locality plan of the Kouga Local Municipality showing the 8 segments (2A to 2H) and the extent of the study area covered in this CMPr. ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 133

Figure 53: Google Earth image of Segment 2A (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 134

Figure 54: Overview of the mobile headland bypass dunefields between Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay. ........................................... 137

Figure 55: Overview of some of the existing informal footpaths (A to N) to the beach in the village of Oyster Bay. Sand management measures have already been put in place near ‘A’ and between ‘L’ and ‘M’. ......................................................................................... 139

Figure 56: Pollution risk areas in Segment 2A based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ............................................................................................................................................... 141

Figure 57: Land Cover map for Segment 2A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 144

Figure 58: Aerial images of Oyster Bay in 2013 and 2018 showing changes in dune and estuary dynamics in the area that was flood damaged by the Slang Estuary in 2011/2012, and after dune rehabilitation measures used. ................................................................ 145

Figure 59: Aerial images of Oyster Bay in 2013 and 2018 showing dune advancement in a NE direction. ........................................... 146

Figure 60: Google Earth image of Segment 2B (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 147

Figure 61: Pollution risk areas in Segments 2B to 2E based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 151

Figure 62: Land Cover map for Segment 2B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 154

Figure 63: Some identified coastal development issues in Segment 2B. ............................................................................................... 155

Figure 64: Google Earth image of Segment 2C (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 156

Figure 65: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2c. ........................................................................................................................ 160

Figure 66: Land Cover map for Segment 2C (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 164

Figure 67: Extract from the Kouga SDF (2015) showing the recommended development setback line on the Kromme River (pink dashed line). ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 165

Figure 68: Coastal development issues between Romazini Valley and Harbour Road. ......................................................................... 166

Figure 69: Coastal development issues between Nevil Road and the Golf Course. ............................................................................... 167

Figure 70: Coastal development issues between the Golf Course and the canals. ............................................................................... 168

Figure 71: Coastal development issues in the vicinity of the Kromme estuary mouth. ........................................................................... 169

Figure 72: Google Earth image of Segment 2D (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 172

Figure 73: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2D. ........................................................................................................................ 174

Figure 74: Development south of the Seekoei Estuary within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and the estuarine functional zone (blue). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 176

Figure 75: Development within and north-east of the Seekoei Estuary within dunes (yellow – Illenberger, 2009) and the estuarine functional zone (blue) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 177

Figure 76: Land Cover map for Segment 2D (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 181

Figure 77: Footpaths over dunes to the beach identified in a Google Earth image (2019) in Segment 2D. ........................................... 183

Figure 78: Google Earth image of Segment 2E (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 184

Figure 79: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2E. ........................................................................................................................ 186

Figure 80: Some examples of areas in Segment 2E where pollution from sewage and solid waste are problematic. ............................ 188

Figure 81: Land Cover map for Segment 2E (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 190

Figure 82: Parking and Access to beaches in Segment 2E. ................................................................................................................... 191

Figure 83: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between the southern extent of the Segment and Woltemade Street. The parking area near Pellsrus that needs to be upgraded, and the launch site with safety risks is shown. .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 193

Figure 84: Coastal development issues at the beach near Pellsrus. ...................................................................................................... 194

Figure 85: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between Drommedaris Street and Myrtle Road. .................................................................................................................................................................................... 196

Figure 86: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and pedestrian access path markers between Petunia Avenue and Noorsekloof Road. .................................................................................................................................................................................. 197

Figure 87: Google Earth image of Segment 2F (outlined in red). .......................................................................................................... 198

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Figure 88: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2F. ........................................................................................................................ 200

Figure 89: Pollution risk areas in Segments 2F to 2H based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 202

Figure 90: Land Cover map for Segment 2F (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 205

Figure 91: Public recreational areas, Parking and Access to beaches in Segment 2F. .......................................................................... 206

Figure 92: Coastal development issues near the Kabeljous Estuary Mouth. .......................................................................................... 207

Figure 93: Development within dunes (yellow - Illenberger, 2009) and markers showing areas where informal access over dunes and/or access from private residences occurs................................................................................................................................................... 208

Figure 94: Google Earth image of Segment 2G (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 209

Figure 95: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2G. ....................................................................................................................... 212

Figure 96: An aerial image (2018) of the Papiesfontein wetlands on the eastern side of the Kabeljous Estuary mouth. ....................... 213

Figure 97: Land Cover map for Segment 2G (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 215

Figure 98: Google Earth image of Segment 2H (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 216

Figure 99: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 2H. ........................................................................................................................ 219

Figure 100: Gamtoos Estuary Zonation Plan, showing the proposed sanctuary areas, the conservation area inclusive of the 100 m riparian buffer zone, wake zones (including a preliminary skiing zone) and priority rehabilitation sites (Gamtoos Draft Estuarine Management Plan – Enviro-Fish Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2008)......................................................................................................................... 220

Figure 101: Land Cover map for Segment 2H (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 223

Figure 102: Resorts, structures and infrastructure in the Gamtoos Estuary (Gamtoos Draft Estuarine Management Plan – Enviro-Fish Africa (Pty) Ltd, 2008)............................................................................................................................................................................. 224

Figure 103: Locality plan of the Sundays River Valley Local Municipality coastal zone, showing the extent of the study area in this CMPr. ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 268

Figure 104: Google Earth image of Segment 3 (outlined in red). ........................................................................................................... 269

Figure 105: Important aquatic features in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................ 270

Figure 106: Important terrestrial biodiversity features in Segment 1. ..................................................................................................... 270

Figure 107: Ecological process areas in Segment 1. ............................................................................................................................. 270

Figure 108: An overview of benthic and coastal habitats and their thre ................................................................................................. 270

Figure 109: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 3. ......................................................................................................................... 273

Figure 110: Aquifer Classification (DWS, 2012). .................................................................................................................................... 274

Figure 111: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan) and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009), and forests (DEFF National Forest Inventory). ............................................................................................................................ 275

Figure 112: Protected Areas in Segment 3. ............................................................................................................................................ 276

Figure 113: Zones in the AENP MPA as per the Regulations for the management of the MPA (published in terms of the Protected Areas Act on 23 May 2019) (SICZ: Sundays inshore Controlled Zone, SERZ: Sunday’s River Estuary Restricted Zone, SECZ: Sunday’s River Estuary Controlled Zone, SIRZ: Sundays inshore Restricted Zone, StCORZ: St. Croix Island Offshore Restricted Zone, SOCZ: Sundays Offshore Controlled Zone, CPICZ: Cape Padrone inshore Controlled Zone, CRICZ: Cannon Rocks inshore Controlled Zone, CROCZ: Cannon Rocks Offshore Controlled Zone, BIORZ: Bird Island Offshore Restricted Zone). .................................................................... 277

Figure 114: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Sundays River Valley LM) (NBA, 2019). .................................................................................. 278

Figure 115: Coastal ecosystem type threat status (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................................................ 279

Figure 116: Pollution risk areas in Segment 3 based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ............................................................................................................................................... 283

Figure 117: Monitoring stations in the AENP MPA operated by SAEON and SAIAB. ............................................................................ 284

Figure 118: Land Cover map for Segment 3 (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 286

Figure 119: Various zones identified in the AENP Management Plan that have relevance to development planning in areas outside the Park (AENP Management Plan, 2015-2025). ......................................................................................................................................... 287

Figure 120: Estuaries in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (note the Old Womans River is indicated for reference purposes and is not within the Ndlambe LM). ......................................................................................................................................................................... 308

Figure 121: Aquatic features in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone. ............................................................................................................. 309

Figure 122: Aquifer Classification of the Ndlambe LM (DWS, 2012). ..................................................................................................... 310

Figure 123: Vegetation types in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (VEGMAP, 2018). ................................................................................ 312

Figure 124: DEFF Forest areas and Important Bird Areas in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone. ................................................................ 313

Figure 125: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas in the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (Sundays River Valley LM Biodiversity Sector Plan). ....................................................................................................................................................................... 314

Figure 126: Protected Areas in the western section of the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018). ..................................................... 315

Figure 127: Protected Areas in the eastern section of the Ndlambe LM coastal zone (NBA, 2018). ...................................................... 316

Figure 128: Coastal Ecosystem Types (Ndlambe LM) (NBA, 2019). ...................................................................................................... 317

Figure 129: Coastal ecosystem type threat status (NBA, 2019). ............................................................................................................ 318

Figure 130: Locality plan of the Ndlambe Local Municipality showing the 8 segments (4A to 4H) and the extent of the study area covered in this CMPr. ............................................................................................................................................................................. 323

Figure 131: Google Earth image of Segment 4A (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 324




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Figure 136: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4A. ...................................................................................................................... 327

Figure 137: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009). ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 328

Figure 138: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4A and 4B based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 330

Figure 139: Land Cover map for Segment 4A (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 333

Figure 140: Desired spatial form of Cannon Rocks (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ........................................................................................... 334

Figure 141: Desired spatial form of Bokens (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ....................................................................................................... 335

Figure 142: Coastal development issues in Segment 4A. ...................................................................................................................... 336

Figure 143: Sections of Cannon Rocks and Boknes villages that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 339

Figure 144: Google Earth image of Segment 4B (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 340





Figure 149: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4B. ...................................................................................................................... 343

Figure 150: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), and dunefields (Illenberger, 2009). ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 344

Figure 151: Protected Areas in Segment 4B (NBA, 2018)...................................................................................................................... 345

Figure 152: Land Cover map for Segment 4B (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 350

Figure 153: Desired spatial form of Bushmans and Kenton-on-Sea (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). .................................................................. 351

Figure 154: Coastal development issues in Segment 4B. ...................................................................................................................... 352

Figure 155: Sections of Bushmans and Kenton-on-Sea villages that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 353

Figure 156: Google Earth image of Segment 4C (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 354



Figure 159: Watercourses and Wetlands in Segment 4C. ...................................................................................................................... 357

Figure 160: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4C. .............................................................................................................................. 358

Figure 161: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4C and D based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution ................................................................................................................................. 360

Figure 162: Land Cover map for Segment 4C (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 362

Figure 163: Google Earth image of Segment 4D (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 363





Figure 168: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4D. ...................................................................................................................... 366

Figure 169: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4D. .............................................................................................................................. 367

Figure 170: Land Cover map for Segment 4D (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 369

Figure 171: Google Earth image of Segment 4E (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 370





Figure 176: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4E. ....................................................................................................................... 372

Figure 177: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4E. .............................................................................................................................. 373

Figure 178: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4E and 4F based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 376

Figure 179: Land Cover map for Segment 4E (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 379

Figure 180: Desired spatial form of Port Alfred (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ................................................................................................. 380

Figure 181: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the area between Freshwater Road and Shelley Beach parking. .............. 382

Figure 182: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the area between Kelly’s Beach and West Beach Pier. ............................. 383

Figure 183: Coastal development issues in Segment 4D in the Kowie estuary and area to the east. .................................................... 384

Figure 184: Boreholes, electrical and water infrastructure in the dunefields at East Beach. .................................................................. 385

Figure 185: Sections of Port Alfred (Kowie Estuary and CBD) that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 386

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Figure 186: Sections of Port Alfred (west of the Kowie Estuary) that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 387

Figure 187: Google Earth image of Segment 4F (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 389



Figure 190: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4F. ....................................................................................................................... 392

Figure 191: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4F. ............................................................................................................................... 393

Figure 192: Land Cover map for Segment 4F (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 396

Figure 193: Coastal Development issues in Segment 4F. ...................................................................................................................... 397

Figure 194: Google Earth image of Segment 4G (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 398




Figure 198: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4G. ...................................................................................................................... 401

Figure 199: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4G. .............................................................................................................................. 402

Figure 200: Pollution risk areas in Segment 4G and 4H based on land cover type and anticipated pollution risk, and known (based on available data) point sources of potential pollution. ................................................................................................................................ 404

Figure 201: Land Cover map for Segment 4G (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 406

Figure 202: Desired spatial form of Seafield (Ndlambe SDF, 2012). ...................................................................................................... 407

Figure 203: Coastal development issues in Segment 4G. ...................................................................................................................... 408

Figure 204: Sections of Seafield that fall below the 20 m contour are at risk of sea-level rise associated with climate change. ............ 409

Figure 205: Google Earth image of Segment 4H (outlined in red). ......................................................................................................... 411




Figure 209: Watercourses and wetlands in Segment 4H. ...................................................................................................................... 414

Figure 210: Critical Biodiversity Areas and Ecological Support Areas (SRVM Biodiversity Sector Plan), dunefields (Illenberger, 2009) and forest (DEFF Forest Inventory) in Segment 4H. .............................................................................................................................. 415

Figure 211: Land Cover map for Segment 4H (note that cattle rangelands are included under ‘natural areas’, and ‘bare ground’ is dunes). ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 418

Figure 212: Coastal development issues in Segment 4H. ...................................................................................................................... 419

List of Tables

Table 1: Pressures/risks and impacts in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality coastal environment (applies to the catchment area, and not just the immediate coastal zone). Red = high, Orange = medium, Green = Low......................................................................... 37

Table 2: Principles and Values for coastal management in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, with reference to those in the Eastern Cape Provincial and National CMPr ............................................................................................................................................ 43

Table 3: Comparison of priority areas identified in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) CMPr with those of the approved Provincial CMPr ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 47

Table 4: Project Steering Committee members ........................................................................................................................................ 52

Table 5: Timeframes for implementing recommended actions ................................................................................................................. 58

Table 6: Management Recommendations for the Koukamma LM coastal zone ....................................................................................... 92

Table 7: Management Recommendations for the Kouga LM Coastal Zone ........................................................................................... 225

Table 8: Management Recommendations for the Sundays River Valley LM coastal zone ..................................................................... 288

Table 9: Management Recommendations for the Ndlambe LM Coastal Zone ....................................................................................... 420

9

List of Acronyms

AENP Addo Elephant National Park

AIP Alien Invasive Plant

BGIS Biodiversity Geographic Information System

CBA Critical Biodiversity Area

CDC Coega Development Corporation

CMPr Coastal Management Program

CREW Custodians of Rare and Endangered Wildflowers

CWDP Coastal Waters Discharge Permit

DEDEAT Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism

DEFF Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries

DM District Municipality

DWS Department of Water and Sanitation

EAP Environmental Assessment Practitioner

ECBCP Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan

ECO Environmental Control Officer

ECPTA Eastern Cape Parks and Tourism Agency

ECHRA Eastern Cape Heritage Resources Agency

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

EMF Environmental Management Framework

EPIP Environmental Protection and Infrastructure Programmes

FOSTER Friends of St Francis Nature Areas

GDP-R Gross Domestic Product by Region

GRNP Garden Route National Park

HDI Human Development Index

IBA Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas

ICMA Integrated Coastal Management Act

IDP Integrated Development Plan

IDZ Industrial Development Zone

Km kilometer

10

LED Local Economic Development

LM Local Municipality

MEC Member of Executive Council

MPA Marine Protected Area

MSL mean sea level

NBA National Biodiversity Assessment

NEMA National Environmental Management Act

NFEPA National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Area

NGO Non Government Organisation

NMU Nelson Mandela University

OSMP Open Space Management Plan

PA Protected Area

PES Present Ecological State

PSC Project Steering Committee

REC Recommended Ecological Condition

REI River-Estuary Interface

RO Reverse Osmosis

SAEON South African Environmental Observation Network

SAHRIS South African Heritage Resources Information System

SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute

SANCCOB Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds

SANParks South African National Parks

SAWIC South African Waste Information Centre

SBDM Sarah Baartman District Municipality

SDF Spatial Development Framework

SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment

SRV Sundays River Valley

SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

SWSA Strategic Water Source Areas

TNPA Transnet National Ports Authority

WESSA Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa

WUA Water Use Authorisation

11

A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah

Baartman District Municipality - Overview

In line with the requirements of Section 48 to 50 of the National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal

Management Act 24 of 2008 (ICMA), the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) has developed a Coastal

Management Programme (CMPr) to guide integrated management of the coastal zone within the District Municipality’s

jurisdiction. Our coast is a national asset where many people live, work and interact. Pressures from increasing

development in the coastal zone and associated habitat modification, unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, point

source and diffuse pollution to the coastal zone, amongst others, impact on the functioning of coastal ecosystems and

processes, and diminish the provision of natural goods and services. Poor management of the coastal environment makes

communities that live and work in proximity to the coast more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and sea-level

rise.

The ICMA was developed to facilitate holistic and integrated management of the coast that allows for conservation of the

coastal environment as well as equitable access to, and sustainable use of, coastal resources. CMPrs are effective tools to

give effect to the principles of the Act. Section 48 of the Act specifies the need for municipalities to prepare CMPrs to

facilitate management of the coastal zone, and to review these every 5 years.

The need for a CMPr is defined in NEM: ICMA:

‘To establish a system of integrated coastal and estuarine management in the Republic including norms, standards and

policies, in order to promote the conservation of the coastal environment, and maintain the natural attributes of coastal

landscapes and seascapes, and to ensure that development and the use of natural resources within the coastal zone is

socially and economically justifiable and ecologically sustainable’.

A CMPr is a policy directive and includes strategies and plans that enable organs of state to plan for coastal management

and development and address problems and user-conflicts arising from the variety of activities and uses of the coast. A

CMPr is also an important tool to integrate various spheres of government, private sector and community activities in the

coastal zone. The ICMA emphasises the importance of shared responsibility for coastal zone management. For effective

implementation of the ICMA, development and use of natural resources in the coastal zone must be done with consideration

of the public and economy, and ecological sustainability.

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Scope of the CMPr

The ICMA indicates that CMPrs must be developed at National, Provincial and Municipal levels. Across all levels, the

primary objective is to provide strategies that facilitate a co-ordinated and integrated approach to coastal management and

include strategic (broad themed and long-term) and operational (specific to an areas biophysical and socio-economic

features) programmes. Municipal CMPrs, by their nature at the lowest tier, are designed to focus on operational aspects and

provide more site-specific goals that have immediate to short-term effects on the environment and people’s livelihoods.

The National CMPr for South Africa and a Provincial CMPr for the Eastern Cape were gazetted in 2014. The CMPr for the

SBDM has been developed to be in line with these programmes, and other guideline documents (e.g. the National Guide to

Developing Coastal Management Programs (2012)). The CMPr has been structured to meet the following key requirements

of Section 49(1) of the ICMA:

The CMPr must be a coherent municipal policy directive for coastal zone management in the district municipality’s

area of jurisdiction

The CMPr must be consistent with relevant legislation and available programs and policies (e.g. Integrated

Development Plans, Spatial Development Frameworks, Biodiversity Sector Plans, Bioregional Plans etc.)

In accordance with Section 49(2) of the ICMA, the CMPr includes (as a must):

A Vision for the management of the coastal zone within the jurisdiction of the municipality, including the sustainable

use of coastal resources

Coastal management objectives for the coastal zone within the jurisdiction of the municipality

Priorities and strategies:

o to achieve the coastal management objectives of the municipality;

o to assist in the achievement of the national and provincial coastal management objectives as may be

applicable in the municipality;

o to address the high percentage of vacant plots and the low occupancy levels of residential dwellings;

o to equitably designate zones as contemplated in Section 56(l)(a)(i) for the purposes of mixed cost housing

and taking into account the needs of previously disadvantaged individuals

o to address coastal erosion and accretion; and

o to deal with access issues

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Performance indicators to measure progress with the achievement of those objectives

Spatial Aspects of the Coastal Zone

The ICMA provides a definition and legal status of the various spatial aspects that make up the coastal zone of South Africa

(see Figure 1). These are important to understanding the context of coastal of management issues identified in the SBDM

coastal zone, and management responsibilities by organs of state and other parties.

Coastal zone: The area comprising coastal public property, the coastal protection zone, coastal access land and

coastal protected areas, the seashore, coastal waters and the exclusive economic zone (200 nm offshore) and

includes any aspect of the environment on, in, under and above such area.

Coastal waters: Marine waters that form part of the internal waters or territorial waters (12 nm offshore) of the

Republic and any estuary.

Admiralty reserve: means any strip of state-owned land adjoining the inland side of the high water mark of the

sea, and includes land designated, on official plans, deed of grant or title deed, or other document that

demonstrates title or land use rights as “government reserve”, “beach reserve”, “coastal forest reserve” or other

similar reserve owned by the State.

Coastal public property includes several components such as coastal waters and land below coastal waters,

islands, the seashore, and other state land (e.g. the Admiralty Reserve). Ownership of coastal public property vests

in the citizens of South Africa, however the State is the trustee on behalf of all citizens. The intention of this zone is

to prevent exclusive use of the coast by facilitating access to, and sustainable use of productive coastal resources

for the benefit of all South Africans (Celliers et al., 2009).

High water mark: the highest line reached by coastal waters, but does not include a line reached as a result of

abnormal floods or storm events (1:10 year storm) or estuaries that are closed to the sea. This line approximately

coincides with the highest normal spring tide and is officially surveyed and proclaimed as such. The position of the

high water mark is not static over extended periods as a result of dynamic coastal processes (e.g. erosion and

accretion) (Palmer et al., 2011). The determination of the position of the high water mark is important as its

alignment has bearing on the extent of other coastal areas as defined in the ICMA. The high water mark is also

referenced in the listed activities under the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations (2014 as

amended) and certain activities in this area would require an environmental impact assessment prior to

commencement.

Low water mark: The lowest line to which coastal waters recede during spring tides.

Seashore: The area between the low- and high water mark of the sea.

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Coastal protection zone technically includes land falling within 100 m of the high water mark of the sea in urban

areas and within 1 km in rural areas, unless otherwise determined by the Member of Executive Council (MEC). It

has been established to:

o Protect ecological integrity, natural character, and the economic, social and aesthetic value of coastal

public property.

o Avoid increasing the effect of severity of natural hazards.

o Protect people, property and economic activities from the risks and threats which may arise from dynamic

coastal processes (e.g. wave and wind erosion, coastal storm surges, flooding and sea-level rise).

o Maintain the natural functioning of the littoral active zone.

o Maintain productivity of the coastal zone.

o Allow authorities to perform rescue and clean-up operations (Celliers et al., 2009).

Littoral active zone: any land forming part of, or adjacent to, the seashore that is

o unstable and dynamic as a result of natural processes; and

o characterised by dunes, beaches, sand bars and other landforms composed of unconsolidated sand,

pebbles or other such material which is either unvegetated or only partially vegetated.

Estuary: A body of surface water that is:

o that is part of a water course that is permanently or periodically open to the sea,

o in which a rise and fall of the water level as a result of the tides is measurable at spring tides when the

water course is open to the sea, or

o in respect of which the salinity is measurably higher as a result of the influence of the sea part of a

watercourse that is permanently or periodically open to the sea in which a rise and fall of the water level as

a result of the tides is measurable at spring tides when the water course is open to the sea or in respect of

which the salinity is measurably higher as a result of the influence of the sea. The upper limit is measured

as a line 100 m above the upper extent of the River-Estuary Interface (REI)

Coastal access land: Strips of land designed to secure public access to the coastal public property, and which are

subject to public access servitudes in favour of the local municipality within whose area of jurisdiction it is situated

and in terms of which members of the public may use that land to gain access to coastal public property.

Coastal management lines: the ICMA defines coastal management lines as ‘a line determined by the MEC in

accordance with Section 25 in order to demarcate an area within which development will be prohibited or controlled

in order to achieve the objectives of this Act or coastal management objectives’. The establishment of these lines

will assist in controlling development along ecologically sensitive or vulnerable areas, or any area that poses a

hazard or risk to humans – i.e. they are there to protect the natural environment and coastal properties from

15

damage caused by sea-level rise and storm surges. The establishment of these lines is a provincial responsibility1,

however the MEC can only declare it after consultation with municipalities and interested and affected parties.

Coastal management lines have not yet been developed for the Eastern Cape, or for any of the local municipalities

in the SBDM. Note: Coastal management lines should not be confused with ‘setback lines’ as defined in the EIA

Regulations and listed activities. While these two lines may co-incide in the coastal zone once setback lines have

been developed and adopted by the MEC, legally they are two separate lines referred to in different Acts. Ideally a

coastal management line should only be determined and applied based on scientific understanding and local

knowledge, and must take into consideration natural processes, landscape values, public use and accessibility. It

must be noted that once the coastal management lines have been regulated, these will not replace any other line in

the coastal zone, but will be applied only as indicators of the risk area.

Defining the Coastal Zone of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality used in the

CMPr

The coastline of the SBDM is ~320 km long, and includes 4 coastal LMs – Koukamma, Kouga, Sundays River Valley and

Ndlambe LMs from west to east (see Figure 2). For the purposes of this CMPr, the 1 km buffer of the high water mark of the

sea (using the landmass boundary data compiled by the DWS in 2011 as a proxy for the high water mark) is used as the

landward boundary of immediate study area for the coastal zone. This extent is indicative only, and where features that

would have influence on the coastal zone occur beyond the boundary (e.g. inflow from the catchment of rivers, dune

process areas), they are included and described. Further, a catchment management approach has been adopted in this

CMPr, where a catchment area has been designated for each LM considering topography, land cover and physical

boundaries (e.g. roads). The intention is to incorporate activities within the catchment that have bearing on what happens at

the coast (for e.g. poor waste management in urban areas, obstructions in watercourses, groundwater abstraction etc.) and

to consider these in integrated coastal management planning. The designated catchment area is shown in maps in

Appendices that deal with each LM (i.e. Appendix 3 to 6). The seaward extent of the study area is 500 m seawards of the

high water mark of the sea, however where important attributes occur beyond this distance (e.g. coastal islands), they are

included in the program.

The SBDM coastal zone is an area of exceptional physical, biological and social/cultural diversity. This is important to reflect

in sufficient detail to highlight the value of the coastal zone, where a broad overview of the biophysical and socio-economic

1 Note: The establishment of coastal management lines in National Parks (in this instance the Garden Route National

Park in the Koukamma LM, and the Addo Elephant National Park in the Sundays River Valley LM within the SBDM

coastal zone) is the responsibility of the National Minister.

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characteristics of the coastal zone would be an under-representation. It is also critical to understand the relevance of this

diversity and the varying physical processes in relation to coastal management decisions and priorities. Risks and priorities

on sandy beaches would be different to rocky or mixed shores for example. Land cover and development pressures in the 4

LMs are also vastly different along the coastline. The coastal zone of the Koukamma and Sundays River Valley LMs are

mostly included in a Protected Area (PA) and/or are agricultural in nature (apart from coastal resort developments/nodes in

the Koukamma LM); while Kouga and Ndlambe include more coastal development nodes and urban areas. Risks and

impacts of the different development types are different, and management recommendations will differ accordingly.

Therefore, a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach cannot be applied across the 4 LMs. To facilitate the development of an

implementation-based program, the coastal zone in the 4 LMs has therefore been divided into segments/management units,

where the environment is described with supporting maps, and risks and opportunities are identified for each. These are

described and illustrated in Appendix 3 to 6.

Structure of the CMPr

This Overview Chapter serves as an introduction to the CMPr, and explains the purpose and contents of the document in

line with the requirements of the ICMA. Definitions of the coastal zone (as per the ICMA) are provided for the reader to

understand terminology used in the document, and to set the context for implementation responsibilities. The extent of the

SBDM coastal zone referred to in this document is described, and the concept of designating ‘management segments’ and

following a ‘catchment management approach’ explained. A summary description of the biophysical and socio-economic

environment of the SBDM coastal zone is provided, and key risks and impacts are highlighted. Note that these are

discussed in detail in the Appendices under the relevant segment of each LM. Principles and values elicited in stakeholder

workshops necessary for setting a Vision for the coastal zone and CMPr are described and compared to those in the

Provincial and National CMPr. A Vision and Mission Statement is provided, and management objectives listed. Priority

Areas for management are identified and placed in context with the Provincial CMPr.

Appendix 1 describes the public participation process followed in developing the CMPr.

Note: Management of Protected Areas (i.e. the Garden Route National Park and the Addo Elephant National Park in the

Koukamma and Sundays River Valley Local Municipalities respectively), is not within Sarah Baartman District

Municipality’s jurisdiction.

This CMPr promotes a catchment approach to the coastal zone, and a co-ordinated and integrated management system

by the various authorities. However, operations in Protected Areas are governed by the NEM: Protected Areas Act and

Park Management Plans, and the National Minister is the competent authority. Specific management measures related to

Protected Areas can therefore not be made a requirement of the District or Local Municipality, and are therefore not listed

as performance indicators in the CMPr.

17

Appendix 2 explains the methodology and approach that was used to develop the CMPr.

Appendix 3 to 6 are detailed sections that deal with the coastal zone and catchment area of each of the Local

Municipalities. A table of recommendations for the different priority areas is given for each LM.

Appendix 7 is a reference list.

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Figure 1: Spatial aspects that comprise the ‘coastal zone’ of South Africa (Celliers et al., 2009).

19

Figure 2: The four local coastal municipalities in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality.

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Summary Description of the Biophysical and Socio-Economic Environment of

the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Coastal Zone

The SBDM has a diverse coastline, comprised of different regions each with its own physiographic attributes; forming

different coastal habitats. Physical features and natural processes on land and in the sea largely determine the nature

and functioning of coastal ecosystems and habitats, and their species composition. The interplay of geology, substrate

type, landform, climate, tides, currents etc. and the impact that humans have had on the natural environment need to be

considered for holistic and integrated coastal zone management.

The SBDM coastline is flanked by the Indian Ocean. The warm Agulhas Current moves in a southerly direction along

the East Coast, shifting further away from the coast west of Cape Padrone where the continental shelf widens and the

current meanders, limiting the direct influence of the current on the coast compared to the region north-east of the Cape

where the continental shelf is narrow (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).

Coastal habitat types include rocky headlands with promontories, rocky shores with wave cut platforms, sandy

beaches (coarse and fine- grained), and pebble / shingle beaches. In the area between Storms River and Cape St

Francis, substrate types of coastal habitats are predominantly rocky coast, with an increase in the amount of mixed

shores and sandy shores in an easterly direction between Oyster Bay and Cape St Francis. Rocky cliffs are more

common along the southern stretch of coastline. Beaches are limited in extent, and where they do occur, these are

mostly pebble or shingle beaches. The St Francis Bay coastline between the town of St Francis and the Van Stadens

Estuary near Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality is predominantly sandy beach, with some mixed shores around Jeffreys

Bay. The Sundays River Valley Municipality coastline comprises sandy beaches, while Ndlambe LM coastline is a

combination of sandy beaches and mixed shores with localised sections of rocky coast (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).

See Figure 3 and Figure 4.

21

Figure 3: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipalities.

22

Figure 4: Overview of the substrate type in the coastal zone in the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipalities.

23

A series of half-heart bays occur along the southern section of the SBDM coastline to Woody Cape, with rocky

headlands that protrude into the sea. Sand accumulates on the northern and eastern section of these bays, forming

extensive dunefields such as those found in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay areas (although these systems have

been significantly impacted by human influence that has disrupted and altered natural sand movement patterns). The

deposition of sand from the marine environment along the northern shores of Algoa Bay led to the formation of the

extensive Alexandria Dunefield in the Sundays River Valley LM. North-east of Cape Padrone, the coastline becomes

more straight with a narrower continental shelf. Wide dunefields are common. Prominent dune rock (aeolinite)

headlands occur at Woody Cape, Kwaaihoek, Kenton-on-Sea and Three Sisters in the north-eastern section of the

Sundays River Valley LM area, and Ndlambe LM (Lubke and de Moor, 1998).

Figure 5: Headland bypass dunefields in the Oyster Bay and St Francis Bay area.

The diversity of habitats and physico-chemical conditions results in a high diversity of marine species, making the

area of significant conservation importance and simultaneously providing economic opportunities (e.g. fisheries and

tourism). The Tsitsikamma and Addo Elephant National Park (AENP) Marine Protected Areas (MPA) protect large areas

of the coastal / marine waters adjacent to the Koukamma and Sundays River Valley (SRV) LM (i.e. 67% of the

Koukamma LM coastline is within the Tsitsikamma MPA, and 100% of the SRV LM coastline is within the AENP MPA).

24

The Tsitsikamma MPA includes a variety of mammals (dolphins, whales and seals), birds (gulls, terns, gannets and

penguins), fishes (reef an migratory species) and invertebrate reef fauna (sponges, ascidians an crustaceans); providing

an important feeding ground and/or nursery area. Spawning grounds for commercially exploited chokka squid and all life

stages of 17 fish species which are commercially and/or recreationally exploited have been recorded in the Park (Sauer,

1995; Wood et al., 2000 in Garden Route National Park (GRNP) Management Plan, 2012)). The AENP MPA was

gazetted in October 2018 and protects a wide range of ecosystems, including sandy beaches, rocky shores, reefs, the

Sundays Estuary and islands. Protection of the Sundays Estuary and reefs in the MPA are important for the recovery of

valuable fisheries resources such as abalone and kob. The MPA increases the ‘Big Five’ in the AENP to the ‘Big Seven’

through the protection of great white sharks and whales (brydes, minke, humpback and right)

(https://www.marineprotectedareas.org.za/addo-elephant-national-park-mpa). Bird Island forms part of the AENP MPA

and is comprised of four islands that support the largest Cape gannet breeding colony in the world (~60 000 pairs). It is

also important to several marine bird species (e.g. African penguins and Roseate terns) and serves as a breeding

location (Vromans et al, 2012).

Figure 6: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Koukamma and Kouga Local Municipality coastline.

25

Figure 7: Protected Areas (gazetted under the Protected Areas Act) within 1 km of the high water mark of the sea, and the marine environment along the Sundays River Valley and Ndlambe Local Municipality coastline.

Stromatolites or ‘layered rocks’ are primordial reefs, formed by cyanobacteria as they layer calcium carbonate. These

typically occur in intertidal pools, at the interface between freshwater seepage points and the marine penetration and

date back in the fossil record at least 2.7-3.5 billion years. Modern stromatolites are rare on a global scale, because the

ocean’s chemistry has changed and is no longer rich in calcium carbonate, as well as competition between animals and

algae and the bacteria that form the stromatolites. Less than 12 modern living stromatolites occur in the world, 1 of

which is in South Africa in the area between Cape St Francis and Oyster Bay on the SBDM coastline. The stromatolites

found along the SBDM coastline are therefore unique systems, sustained by calcium-carbonate rich groundwater inflow

into the pools which recreates a similar environment to what have occurred 1.5 billion years ago. Studying these

systems provides insight into the evolution of life. Modern stromatolites are under threat by climate change and human

impacts, notably changing water quality and increased groundwater abstraction. The importance of these systems on a

global scale warrants their protection in South Africa (Perissinotto et. al., 2014; Rishworth, 2016).

26

Figure 8: The distribution of stromatolites along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality and Nelson Mandela Bay Municipal coastline (Perissinotto et. al., 2014).

Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs), as defined by BirdLife International, constitute a global network of over

13 500 sites, of which 112 sites are found in South Africa. IBAs are sites of global significance for bird conservation,

identified nationally through multi-stakeholder processes using globally standardised, quantitative and scientifically

agreed criteria. Essentially, these are the most important sites for conserving (https://www.birdlife.org.za/what-we-

do/important-bird-and-biodiversity-areas/).

Important Bird Areas (IBAs) as listed by BirdLife South Africa occurring in the SBDM include the Tsitsikamma-

Plettenberg Bay IBA in Koukamma LM, the Maitland-Gamtoos Coast IBA in the Kouga LM (extending into the Nelson

Mandela Bay Municipality), and the Woody Cape Section: AENP IBA in the Sundays River Valley LM and extending into

the Ndlambe LM.

27

Figure 9: Important Bird Areas along the Sarah Baartman District Municipality’s coastline (BirdLIfe South Africa).

Twenty-nine estuaries occur along the SBDM coastline, 5 of which are classified as ‘unknown’ estuaries. Eleven of the

estuaries have a Present Ecological Status (PES) of A, B or A/B, 9 have a rating of B/C or C, 2 C/D or D, and 1 has a

rating of D/E2. All estuaries in the Koukamma LM have a PES rating of A or A/B, while only the Tsitsikamma Estuary in

the Kouga LM has a PES rating of B (the remainder range between B/C, C, C/D, D and D/E). This is largely attributed to

estuaries in the Koukamma LM being partly protected in the Tsitsikamma MPA and/or Garden Route National Park, and

the Huisklip Nature Reserve. Majority of estuaries in the Ndlambe LM have a PES rating of B or C (Van Niekerk et. al.,

2019).

2 Note that PES scores are not provided for unknown estuaries nor the Klein Palmiet estuary in the Ndlambe LM.

28

Figure 10: View of the Storms Estuary mouth in the Garden Route National Park.

Figure 11: View of the Seekoei Estuary mouth in the Kouga Local Municipality. The causeway inhibits tidal action, causing premature mouth closure. The health category of the estuary is on a trajectory to ‘E’ (Wooldridge et. al., 2018).

Figure 12: View of the Kleinemonde West and East Estuary mouths in the Ndlambe LM.

29

The interaction between rivers, wetlands, groundwater and coastal/marine waters must be considered in coastal zone

management. Estuaries and some coastal/marine waters rely on freshwater pulses via river and/or groundwater inflow

for their functioning, diversity and health. Freshwater inflow may also carry risky pollutants from land-based sources into

the coastal / marine environment. Some species live out their lifecycle between the marine and freshwater environment,

and connectivity is key.

Strategic Water Source Areas (SWSAs) are the country’s most important water sources, comprising surface and

groundwater supply areas. SWSAs include areas that (a) supply a disproportionate (i.e. relatively large) quantity of

mean annual surface water runoff in relation to their size and so are considered nationally important; or (b) have high

groundwater recharge and where the groundwater forms a nationally important resource; or (c) areas that meet both

criteria (a) and (b). Surface water areas have high runoff that can support nationally important economic centres; and

groundwater areas have high recharge rates and support high levels of groundwater use, often being the sole supply to

towns, and supporting nationally important economic centres. Recently, 22 priority surface water and 37 groundwater

source areas have been delineated in the country that capture ~50% mean annual runoff from ~10% of the land.

SWSAs in the SBDM include the Tsitsikamma SWSA in the Koukamma and Kouga LMs and the Alexandria SWSA in

the SRVM LM.

The western part of the Koukamma LM coastal zone to the Sanddrif area is classified as a major aquifer. These are

high yielding systems of good water quality. Most of eastern part of the Koukamma LM coastal zone is classified as a

minor aquifer, becoming a major aquifer in the Huisklip Nature Reserve. Minor aquifers are moderately-yielding aquifer

systems of variable water quality. The entire Kouga LM coastal zone is classified as a major aquifer. The aquifer in the

Sundays River Valley LM coastal zone is classified as poor to minor. In the Ndlambe LM, the coastal zone between

Cannon Rocks and Kenton-on-Sea is part of a ‘poor aquifer’, and the remainder is a ‘minor aquifer’ (DWS, 2012).

30

Figure 13: Strategic Surface Water Source Areas in the coastal area of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality.

Various biodiversity plans and maps are available at a national, provincial, and/or regional scale across the SBDM

coastal area. These classify vegetation types, provide critical biodiversity area (CBA) maps that identify critical

biodiversity areas and ecological support areas, and indicate an ecosystem threat status rating. A CBA map is a spatial

plan for ecological sustainability indicating where biodiversity priority areas are located within the landscape, including

terrestrial and aquatic elements. Priority areas are configured to be spatially efficient, so that targets can be met in the

smallest possible area, and to avoid conflict with other land and resource uses where possible. South Africa’s first List of

Threatened Ecosystems was published in terms of the Biodiversity Act in 2011 (G34809, Government Notice 1002, 9

December 2011). The list of threatened ecosystems in terms of the Act will need to be updated based on the current

NBA ecosystem threat status revisions (i.e. 2019). Sites identified as threatened ecosystems on this list can be a trigger

for environmental authorisation in terms of the EIA Regulations under NEMA. Plans that cover the entire District include

those recently published with the National Biodiversity Assessment updates (2018/2019) (i.e. the National Marine and

Coastal Ecosystem Types Map with threat status, National Vegetation Map and threat status, National wetlands and

watercourse inventory), the list of threatened ecosystems (2011) published under the Biodiversity Act, the National

Forest Inventory, and the East Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan (2007) (note this is currently being updated, but the

final version was not available at the time of writing this CMPr)). The Garden Route Biodiversity Sector Plan covers the

Koukamma LM and extends to the Seekoei Estuary in the Kouga LM. The Sundays River Valley Municipality

31

Biodiversity Sector Plan covers the SRV LM and the Ndlambe LM. Refer to Appendices 3 to 6 for detailed biodiversity

information for each LM on a Segment basis to determine the location of biodiversity priority areas in the landscape, and

whether threatened ecosystems occur.

Forest occurs across the DM coastal zone, with relatively large areas in the Koukamma LM and in the eastern side of

the SRVM LM. Forest is protected under the National Forest Act and may not be removed without consent from the

Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries (DEFF).

The SBDM coastal zone is rich in archaeological, heritage and historical sites of importance. While these have not

been well documented (other than in specialist studies done as part of development applications and on the South

African Heritage Resources Information System (SAHRIS) website)), the value of the coastal zone from this perspective

to both the community and from a tourism perspective has been highlighted by stakeholders and specialists. A few of

the documented sites are listed below. This is a significant under-representation of the archaeological and heritage

value of the SBDM coastal zone, and compiling a comprehensive inventory of sites should be a priority in the District to

enable protection of these resources and enhance eco-tourism opportunities.

Koukamma LM:

The Tsitsikamma area has significant natural heritage value, and associated socio-cultural value especially related to

fishing and harvesting of coastal resources by local communities for generations (until the GRNP was declared a ‘no-

take’ zone in 2000). The GRNP includes various cultural heritage sites, ranging from Khoisan cultural heritage sites

such as caves, shell middens and rock art to the more recent historical sites such as the ruins of small fishing

settlements, remnants of the past forestry and mining industries, railway lines, shipwrecks and grave sites (GRNP

Management Plan, 2012). Klasies Caves is a National Heritage Site. These are a series of caves located to the east of

the Klasies River mouth . The three main caves and two shelters at the base of a high cliff have evidence of middle

stone age-associated human habitation from approximately 125 000 years ago.

Kouga LM:

The coastal zone between Klasies River in the west and Krom River in the east has been highlighted as one of the

richest and most significant archaeological cultural landscapes in South Africa. The headland bypass dunefields

between Oyster Bay and the Kromme River mouth are underlain by ferricretes, calcretes and fossilized dune sands

which are situated on top of Table Mountain Sandstones. Due to the continuous movement of the dunes, many

archaeological and paleontological sites are exposed while simultaneously others are covered (Binneman and Reichert,

2017). Relatively large piles of marine shells (referred to as ‘strandloper middens’) dating back 600 years are found in

the Kouga LM coastal zone, mostly within 300 m of the high water mark of the sea but can occur up to 5 km inland.

Middens are found mainly opposite rocky coasts, but also occur along sandy beaches if there was a large enough

source of white mussel. Archaeological research shows that places like the Kabeljous Estuary were popular areas for

32

hunter-gatherer and pastoralists to live because of a diversity of food resources in close proximity. Studies done in the

area between New Papiesfontein farm and the Kabeljous River revealed 37 archaeological sites, including two KhoiSan

skeletons.

Sundays River Valley LM:

Hundreds of shell middens are found along the coast in the AENP. Chief Chungwa Grave Site occurs in the Woody

Cape Section of the Park (AENP Management Plan). Historic sites identified on SAHRIS website in the catchment area

(Provincial Heritage sites):

Farmerfield Methodist Church: established by Rev. William Shaw to provide for 3 separate displaced communities

speaking Xhosa (Fingo and Gqunukwebe), Dutch (emancipated slaves), and Tswana (refugees of Mfecane). Built

in 1844 and designed by the Rev. Thornley Smith in the neo Gothic style. When the Farmerfield Estate was

disbanded due to the demarcation of the Group Areas Act in 1961, the property was subdivided and portions sold.

A servitude on that portion of the Estate allows access to the church property which are still being used for worship

by the local farm labourers and their families

Dutch Reformed Church

Ndlambe LM:

The area is well known for its rich cultural and historical heritage, however few heritage sites are documented on

available databases (i.e. SAHRIS website). The Environmental Management Framework (EMF) done for the coastal

zone between Cannon Rocks and the Great Kei River includes an assessment and ranking of areas of heritage value.

The coastal zone in the Ndlambe LM is scored as being of ‘least heritage value’ in the EMF (SRK Consulting, 2008), but

this is due to the lack of documented sites. The Ndlambe Spatial Development Framework (SDF) (2012) highlights that

the area has significant heritage resources that are either unknown or have not been enhanced.

Landcover in the Koukamma LM is predominantly natural areas, with plantations and agriculture especially in the

eastern sector of the LM outside the GRNP. Formal coastal resort developments occur in the greater Eersterivier area,

comprising the Oubos Shareblock Ltd, Eersterivier Strand Shareblock Ltd, Konkiebaai, Eersterivier Holdings Pty Ltd,

Kammabaai (Hengeltrots Shareblock Pty Ltd), Skuitbaai, Fynbos Golf Estate, Fynbos Ridge, Silver Leaf Estate,

Heidestrand, and Heidehof; representing ~370 owners/shareholders. The catchment area is mostly plantation and

agriculture, interspersed with natural areas and small residential/urban nodes. In the Kouga LM, the coastal zone on the

western side of Cape St Francis is largely natural areas. Land cover from Cape St Francis to the Kromme Estuary is

mostly built up residential areas (i.e. the villages of Cape St Francis and St Francis Bay), interspersed with natural

areas. The catchment includes some cultivation (especially around the Kromme estuary) and a golf course at St

Francis. The coastal zone between the Kromme and Kabeljous estuaries is built up: residential, with some natural

areas. Large areas of cultivated land occur in the catchment. The coastal zone (and most of the catchment) from the

Kabeljous Estuary to the Van Stadens Estuary is natural area. Some cultivated areas occur in the catchment. A small

33

residential node occurs on the eastern side of the Gamtoos Estuary. The coastal zone of the Sundays River Valley LM

is natural area, with the full extent being part of the AENP. The catchment is a combination of cultivated area / grazing

lands and natural areas. The Ndlambe LM coastal zone is largely natural area outside of coastal nodes/villages/towns

which are a combination of built-up residential and commercial areas. These include Boknes, Cannon Rocks,

Bushmans River Mouth, Kenton-on-Sea, Kasouga, Port Alfred, and Seafield. The catchment area is mostly natural

areas and agriculture, except for the catchment of Bushmans River Mouth, Kenton-on-Sea and Port Alfred where the

urban area extends beyond the coastal zone.

The Socio-Economic Environment:

The socio-economic profile below is extracted from the SBDM Integrated Development Plan (IDP) (2017 – 2022), the

Sarah Baartman District Municipality. Socio Economic Review and Outlook (2017), and the Provincial Profile: Eastern

Cape. Community Survey, 2016 (StatsSA, 2018):

The SBDM population size has increased by 6.5% between 2011 and 2016 (in comparison to the Eastern Cape

at 1.5%). Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM experienced the greatest increase in population (2.9% annual

average growth rate), followed by the SRV LM (2.7% annual average growth rate).

The projected annual average population growth rate in the SBDM between 2016 and 2021 is 1.4% which is

higher than that for the Province or Country.

Population numbers by local municipality in the Eastern Cape are amongst the lowest for the 4 LMs in the

SBDM, with the Koukamma LM having the lowest population numbers in the DM.

Most people in the SBDM are between the age of 15 and 34 years (34.8%), followed by the 0 – 14 years age

category (30.1%). Sarah Baartman DM and Nelson Mandela Bay had over 9% of persons aged 65 years and

older, the greatest percentage in the Province

Eighty-five percent of households in the SBDM have access to safe drinking water, the third highest percentage

in the Province.

Fifty-four percent of households in the SBDM have toilets in their houses, which is the second highest

percentage in the Province (after Nelson Mandela Bay). Forty-one percent have toilets in their yard, and 5%

outside their yard. Eight percent of these are either the bucket system or ‘other’ form of facility, while 3% have

no facility whatsoever.

Eighty-four percent of people in the SBDM have their refuse removed by the local authority / a private company

/ a community member; while 2.1% (2845) of people dump their rubbish.

In the Province, Buffalo City (8.1%), Nelson Mandela Bay (7.5%) and Sarah Baartman (7.1%) reported the

highest number of households that experienced crime in the 12 months preceding the 2016 Community Survey.

In the SBDM, Kouga LM had the highest number of crime reports, and Koukamma LM the lowest (Statistics

South Africa, 2018).

Gross Domestic Product by Region (GDP-R) represents the value of all goods and services produced within a

region, over a period of one year, plus taxes and minus subsidies. The GDP of the SBDM was R34.2 billion in

34

2016 (an increase of 64% from 2011), and contributed 10.14% to the Eastern Cape GGP in 2016 (ranking

fourth relative to other regional economies in the Province).

Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM had the highest average annual economic growth, averaging 4.39% between

2006 and 2016, followed by the Sundays River Valley LM at 4.25%.

In 2016, Sarah Baartman employed 170 000 people which is 11.66% of the total employment in Eastern Cape

Province (1.46 million), 1.08% of total employment in South Africa (15.7 million). Employment within Sarah

Baartman increased annually at an average rate of 1.74% from 2006 to 2016. Most people in the DM are

employed in the trade sector, followed by the community services sector. Between 2006 and 2016, the SBDM

experienced an average annual increase of 1.98% in the number of unemployed people, which is worse than

that of the Eastern Cape Province which had an average annual increase in unemployment of 1.65%. Within

the SBDM, the Sundays River Valley LM had the lowest unemployment rate of 9.7% in 2016.

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite relative index used to compare human development

across population groups or regions. In 2016 the SBDM had an HDI of 0.627 compared to the Eastern Cape

with a HDI of 0.596 and 0.653 of National Total as a whole. Within the SBDM, the Kouga LM has the highest

HDI, with an index value of 0.654.

Population density measures the concentration of people in a region. The population density of the SBDM in

2016 was 8.48 persons per km2, which is less than that of the Eastern Cape (41.5 persons per km2). The DM

had the highest average annual growth in its population density of 1.65% per square kilometre per annum.

Within the DM, the Kouga LM had the highest population density at 42 persons per km2, followed by Ndlambe

LM at 36.31 (Eastern Cape Socio Economic Consultative Council, 2017).

Population concentrations are in Makana, Kouga, Ndlambe and the Beyers Naudé, with more than 50% of

residents in the District residing in these LMs. The remaining Municipalities all have less than 60 000

inhabitants per municipality. This can be explained by the variation in land types, agricultural practices and

associated income generating opportunities that are characteristic of the DMs inland and coastal areas

Coastal areas in the SBDM are characterized by higher population densities primarily due to the prevalence of

intensive agricultural practices which are encouraged by the higher coastal rainfall and associated fertile soils

and the increased tourism potential of seaside-towns. These areas portray an urban bias which serve to attract

residents from the lesser populated ‘rural’ areas in the search of economic opportunities and improved access

to services.

The acquisition and provision of water resources in the Sarah Baartman District is a challenge. The District

depends predominantly on ground water for human consumption and agricultural activity. Along the coastal

areas, in Ndlambe and Kouga LMs in particular, there is a seasonal demand that doubles the normal demand

over the holiday seasons. This has resulted in water shortages in the tourist towns of Port Alfred, Kenton-on-

Sea (Ndlambe LM) and in Jeffreys Bay and Cape St Francis (Kouga LM). The District has embarked on a

Rainwater Harvesting project where it is envisaged that all low income households within the District will be

35

equipped with rainwater tanks and gutters so as to harvest rainwater in order to substitute municipal supply.

This will hopefully alleviate increasing demand on municipal supply.

The SBDM is the third largest economy in the Eastern Cape, the largest economy outside the mostly “urban

economies” of the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality and Buffalo City Municipality. The predominant sectors in

terms the District’s economy are agriculture and tourism, contributing approximately R690 million and R680

million respectively to the Gross Geographic Product (GGP) of the District. Agriculture dominates the economy,

contributing 28% of all value added and amounting to 41% of formal employment. The establishment of game

farms and the expansion of the AENP has replaced stock farming to an extent, where game reserves are now a

major industry within the district contributing to tourism with economic spin-offs in terms of retail,

accommodation, hospitality etc. Commercial forestry is established around Tsitsikamma and Grahamstown. A

small fishing industry operates from St Francis, centred on rock lobster. Tourism attractions in coastal

municipalities include the GRNP, the AENP and the coastal resorts of Jeffrey's Bay and Port Alfred. Wind

generation initiatives are also expanding in the District. Other economic activities include honeybush tea

harvesting, flower farms, beekeeping, and aquaculture (SBDM IDP, 2017 – 2022).

Other important economic activities in the SBDM not referenced in the above reports include the chokka industry in the

St Francis Bay area, and large-scale sporting events and festivals in the coastal zone.

Key Pressures / Risks to the Coastal Zone

Key risks and pressures on coastal and marine waters are deteriorating water quality from land-based pollution (e.g.

sewage effluent discharge, stormwater runoff), reduced water security with an increase in the number of desalination

plants (and brine discharge) and groundwater abstraction (impacting on aquifer yields and chemistry) to provide water to

communities, poor solid waste management, an increase in the incidence and extent of harmful algal blooms, sea-

based aquaculture, seismic surveys and increased shipping activities (pollution, noise and vibrations), unsustainable

over-abstraction of natural resources, and reduced freshwater inflow into coastal waters (which may impact on the food

web and productivity, nutrient cycling, nursery function, cues for fish that move between estuaries and marine waters

etc.). Climate change exacerbates these risks, with impacts such as ocean acidification, increasing temperatures,

change in microalgal species composition, increase in storm surges, coastal erosion etc. being experienced.

Risks to the landward section of the coastal zone are:

Modification of natural systems to accommodate coastal development and infrastructure, especially in coastal towns

that are popular tourist destinations (e.g. in St Francis Bay, Cape St Francis, and Jeffreys Bay in Kouga LM, and in

Boknes, Cannon Rocks, Kenton-on-Sea, Bushmans River Mouth, Port Alfred and Seafield in Ndlambe LM); and/or

where population size is increasing with a growing need for housing and services.

36

Modification of natural systems for agricultural expansion and or plantations (i.e. most of the Koukamma LM that is

outside the GRNP is owned by private farmers where grazing land extends to the edge of the coastal plateau)

and/or plantations.

Ongoing coastal erosion and loss of coastal properties and damage to infrastructure placed in dynamic coastal

areas and in close proximity to the high water mark of the sea – this is a particular risk in the St Francis Bay and

Paradise Beach area and parts of Jeffreys Bay in the Kouga LM, and Boknes/Cannon Rocks and parts of Port

Alfred in the Ndlambe LM. Significant effort and monies have been spent on trying to protect landward structures

and to nourish the beach in St Francis Bay. The bridge across the Sand River that is a main thoroughfare to St

Francis is also subject to flooding. High seas and storm surges have damaged tourist accommodation and

infrastructure at the Storms River rest camp in the GRNP.

Sand inundation of public amenities, residences, roads and infrastructure – this risk extends across most urban

areas where development is within sand process corridors / dunes, and within proximity to the high water mark of

the sea. It is a significant management issue for local municipalities where ongoing maintenance and sand removal

is needed – e.g. Port Alfred, Bushmans River mouth, Kenton-on-Sea, Boknes, Seafield in Ndlambe LM; Jeffreys

Bay, Paradise Beach/Aston Bay in Kouga LM

Coastal flooding: flooding of the Seekoei Estuary creates access problems in Paradise Beach/Aston Bay in Kouga

LM, large areas of Port Alfred are within low-lying areas that are part of the greater Kowie River floodplain and

estuarine functional zone and are frequently subject to flooding.

.

Key risks to estuaries include modification of the estuarine functional zone by urban and agricultural activities; changes

to estuarine hydrodynamics especially reduced freshwater inflow and obstructions in the catchment, unsustainable use

of natural resources (e.g. overfishing, exceeding bag limits, targeting threatened species, and bait collection), and land-

based sources of pollution. Climate change, and associated change in rainfall patterns, temperatures and wind

conditions, and an increase in storm events, exacerbates these risks; impacting on the condition and functioning of

natural ecosystems and placing humans and infrastructure/development under increasing threat. Understanding

hydrodynamics and sediment dynamics under current (and future) climate conditions in individual estuarine systems is

an important factor for making robust decisions on estuarine management. Estuary Management Plans have been

developed for the Seekoei and Gamtoos Estuaries (Draft) only.

Pressures and risks to the coastal environment are identified on a Segment basis for each LM in Appendices 3 to 6. The

table below summarises the key pressures and risks in the SBDM coastal zone as identified by stakeholders in public

workshops, a review of available literature, and observations. The relative severity of the risk is indicated (by means of

red: high risk, orange: medium risk, green: low risk).

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Table 1: Pressures/risks and impacts in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality coastal environment (applies to the catchment area, and not just the immediate coastal zone). Red = high, Orange = medium, Green = Low

Risk/Pressure Impact Koukamma LM

Kouga LM

Sundays River Valley LM

Ndlambe LM

Inappropriate development in ecological process areas/dynamic areas, with sand management issues and coastal erosion

Beach erosion Degraded coastal ecosystem, with loss of functionality Sand inundation of public facilities and property Expenditure on maintenance Reduced resilience to climate change

Inappropriate development in proximity to the high water mark, the estuarine functional zone, and wetlands

Flooding of properties Damage to properties and infrastructure by storm surges Expenditure on maintenance Loss of important aquatic habitat and species Reduced provision of ecosystem services to the surrounding community Impact on recreational use, aesthetics, and tourism potential Reduced resilience to climate change

Inappropriate development in terrestrial biodiversity priority areas, important coastal habitats, and areas of archaeological/cultural importance (e.g. critical biodiversity areas, forests, threatened ecosystems, natural areas which host threatened species, important archaeological sites etc.)

Loss of important natural habitat Loss of diversity Loss of important archaeological and cultural areas Less resilient ecosystem Impact on aesthetic quality of the area, and tourism potential

Poor management of water in the catchment area of estuaries (e.g. over-abstraction, physical manipulation of riparian areas, obstruction by roads and infrastructure, pollution, alien invasive vegetation)

Hydrodynamics and sediment processes of estuary altered, which changes the functioning and condition of the estuary. Change in estuarine species composition. Impact on recreational use, and tourism potential. Impact on connectivity between the freshwater environment (surface and groundwater), and coastal waters – impact on species, processes and habitats that require freshwater input (e.g. stromatolites, diatom accumulations, certain fish species etc.). Reduced freshwater flow into coastal waters may impact on the

38


Kouga LM


Ndlambe LM

food web and productivity, nutrient cycling, nursery function, cues for fish that move between estuaries and marine waters etc.

Land-based sources of pollution and from ships at sea – runoff via overland flow, stormwater outlets, leachate into groundwater, solid waste. For example from sewer systems (bacteria and other pathogens, high nutrient levels), agriculture (pesticides, inorganic fertilisers), brine discharge from increasing desalination plants, and solid waste from dumping, poorly managed/lack of waste sites, littering etc.

Reduced water quality in estuaries and the marine environment Impact on natural biota Increase in harmful algal blooms Impact on recreational use, tourism potential, and economic activities related to harvesting of marine species (e.g. fisheries) Impact on human health

Unsustainable use of natural resources (e.g. over-fishing, exceeding bag limits, harvesting threatened species, bait collection, seaweed harvesting). Recreational, small-scale, and commercial harvesting; and poaching.

Impact on coastal ecosystems and species Reduced potential for sustainable harvesting, with impacts on livelihoods and economy

Uncontrolled and unregulated activities in the coastal zone, especially process areas / dynamic areas. For example, vehicle use, pedestrian foot traffic over dunes, events, illegal developments, unplanned/ad hoc attempts to stabilise eroded areas, irresponsible recreational activities (e.g. boats speeding in no wake zones, illegal launch sites and jetties) etc.

Coastal erosion Bank destabilization Loss of coastal habitat, and deteriorated coastal ecosystems Impact on water quality

Lack of services / poor maintenance of services Pollution of coastal environments Impacts on coastal development and tourism potential Impact on community health and well-being The current drought in the Eastern Cape places more strain on the provision of water, especially in peak season in coastal resort towns where population numbers often double.

Increasing need for economic activities in marine waters

If unregulated, placed in incorrect area, or poorly maintained/managed, this potential positive aspect can lead to ecosystem degradation or reduced eco-tourism potential of an areas. For example, sea-based aquaculture

39


Kouga LM


Ndlambe LM

has possible impacts of pollution, diseases, inter-breeding etc. Shark-cage diving may conflict with existing tourism branding of an area if there are safety risks (e.g. surf culture in Jeffreys Bay). Seismic surveys for gas exploration impact on marine mammals, and other species Increased boating/shipping activity increases the changes of oil spills

High levels of poverty and unemployment Less resilient community Socio-economic impacts, with knock-on effect on coastal ecosystems Reduced safety, and impact on community well-being as well as tourism potential

Poor awareness on the value of coastal ecosystems, and integrated coastal management

Ineffective coastal management and administration Reduced potential for a collective and integrated approach to coastal management Cumulatively adds to degradation of coastal ecosystems, with lack of accountability

Lack of coastal access, and access for disabled persons

Not all members of the community have equal access to the coastal zone, with reduced potential to enjoy and sustainably utilise coastal resources. Impacts on livelihoods, cultural and spiritual values and enjoyment. Tourism impact.

Lack of resources/manpower/funds in state departments responsible for coastal management, and unclear/overlapping roles and responsibilities

Poor enforcement of available laws Ineffective monitoring Impacts on administration and participation in the land use planning process, relevant to modification of coastal environments Inability to implement a CMPr and other policy/guideline documents

Lack of coordination among the local government departments; and the three spheres of government. Results in a fragmented approach to coastal

Ineffective coastal management and administration

40


Kouga LM


Ndlambe LM

management

Legislation is not always applicable / effective for management, compliance etc. at a local level. Need for appropriate municipal by-laws

Ineffective policing/compliance monitoring, and follow-through

Climate change Increase in frequency and severity of extreme weather events, storms, floods etc. Prolonged droughts and water security issues. This has resulted in an increase in groundwater abstraction and the number of desalination plants in the coastal zone, impacting on aquifers (sustainable yields and quality) and water quality in receiving coastal waters (i.e. from brine discharge) Ocean acidification and change in microalgal species composition Less resilient community Damage / loss of properties, infrastructure, and sometimes lives Expensive interventions required for protection of coastal properties

41

Principles and Values, and a Vision for the Sarah Baartman District

Municipality Coastal Zone

Setting a vision for coastal zone management is necessary to articulate the desired state of the coast; to help guide the

development of priority areas and management objectives for its implementation; and provide a common frame of

reference to unite a diverse range of stakeholders. It is important that all recommendations are aimed at achieving the

stated vision, principles and objectives. Stakeholder workshops were used to elicit a set of ‘principles’ and ‘values’ to

inform a vision for the coastal zone. Nine principles were identified for the SBDM coastal zone:

Approach coastal zone management holistically, using a ‘catchment’ approach that considers the inter-relationships of

people and ecosystems

Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural and heritage resources

Prevent pollution and maintain a clean, healthy environment

Promote sustainable and responsible economic development and natural resource utilisation

Create an informed and resilient community and place, where people have consideration for one another and their

environment

Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where the unique character and its intrinsic value is appreciated

Promote collective responsibility for coastal zone management by the public and government,

Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone and freedom of movement for the whole community

Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all people

Table 2 compares the principles and values with those of the Provincial and National CMPrs.

The Provincial CMPr for the Eastern Cape (2014) has a comprehensive vision that was presented at each workshop. It

is important that the District’s vision does not conflict with that of the Province. The general consensus at workshops

was that the Provincial vision was all encompassing and captured the community’s desired state of the coast for the

next 5 to 10 years. The vision for the SBDM is largely based on the Provincial vision, but has been structured in 3 parts:

Vision, Values and Mission Statement.

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Vision

We, the people of the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, would like to live and work in, and enjoy a healthy and safe

coastal environment in a cohesive and resilient community, where natural and archaeological resources are sustainably

managed for the benefit of all people.

Values

We recognise the intrinsic value, and appreciate the scenic beauty, and the natural, archaeological and cultural diversity

and richness of our unique coastline.

We respect all people in our community, and consider one another’s well-being in our actions and decisions.

We recognise that we are all accountable for managing our coastal zone, and need to work together for a safe, healthy

and clean environment.

Mission Statement:

We aim to take collective ownership of the coast, fostering a spirit of custodianship and shared responsibility as our coast

is a unique shared asset; which has social, cultural, ecological and economic value.

We aspire to manage the coast in an integrated manner that takes both the spiritual and biological value into account.

We strive to utilise the natural resources of our diverse coastline in a sustainable and equitable manner, which maximises

the benefits for all people of the District and ensures the long term maintenance of biodiversity and ecological integrity of

coastal habitats.

We strive to promote sustainable development and alleviate poverty in an equitable manner that considers the

requirements of all stakeholders, and takes cognisance of the conservation and biological importance of our coastline as

well as national and provincial interests.

We seek to guide the management of the SBDM coast in a way that eliminates the threats of unsustainable utilisation of

the coastal resources and development, while optimising the opportunities that can be derived from the coastal zone

43

Table 2: Principles and Values for coastal management in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality, with reference to those in the Eastern Cape Provincial and National CMPr

National CMPr Principles Eastern Cape CMPr Principles Sarah Baartman District Municipality

CMPr Principles and Values

National Asset: The coast must be

retained as a national asset, with

public rights to access and benefit

from the many opportunities provided

by coastal resources

Retaining the coast as a national

asset

Conserve natural, archaeological, cultural

and heritage resources

Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone

and freedom of movement for the whole

community

Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all

people

Economic Development: Coastal

economic development opportunities

must be optimised to meet society’s

needs and to promote the wellbeing of

coastal communities

Optimising coastal economic

development

Promote sustainable and responsible

economic development and natural resource

utilisation

Social Equity: Coastal management

efforts must ensure that all people,

including future generations, enjoy the

rights of human dignity, equality and

freedom

Ensuring social equity and access

to resources

Ensure equitable access to the coastal zone

and freedom of movement for the whole

community

Prioritise safe use of the coastal zone for all

people

Ecological integrity: The diversity,

health and productivity of coastal

ecosystems must be maintained and,

where appropriate, rehabilitated

Maintaining the ecological integrity

of the coast



Prevent pollution and maintain a clean,

healthy environment

Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where

the unique character and its intrinsic value is

appreciated

Holism: The coast must be treated as

a distinctive and indivisible system,

recognising the interrelationships

between coastal users and

ecosystems and between the land,

sea and air

Managing the coast as a holistic

and indivisible system

Approach coastal zone management

holistically, using a ‘catchment’ approach

that considers the inter-relationships of

people and ecosystems

Assimilative Capacity: Acknowledging

that coastal ecosystems have finite

assimilative capacity to accommodate

development and exploitation in a

sustainable

manner, both in terms of living and

non-living resources

Adopting a risk-aversive and

precautionary approach in terms of

coastal management



Prevent pollution and maintain a clean,

healthy environment

Promote sustainable and responsible

economic development and natural resource

utilisation

Preserve and respect ‘sense of place’ where

the unique character and its intrinsic value is

appreciated

Risk aversion and precaution: Coastal

management efforts must adopt a risk

averse and precautionary approach

44

under conditions of uncertainty

Accountability and Responsibility:

Coastal management is a shared

responsibility. All people must be held

responsible for the consequences of

their actions, including financial

responsibility for negative impacts

Advocating accountability and

responsibility of all people for

coastal management

Promote collective responsibility for coastal

zone management by the public and

government

Duty of Care: All people and

organisations must act with due care

to avoid negative impacts on the

coastal environment and coastal

resources

Advocating duty of care in respect

to the coastal environment by all

people and organisations

Create an informed and resilient community

and place, where people have consideration

for one another and their environment



government

Integration and participation: A

dedicated, co-ordinated and

integrated coastal management

approach must be developed and

conducted in a participatory, inclusive

and transparent manner

Promoting an integrated coastal

management approach supported

by public participation

Create an informed and resilient community

and place, where people have consideration

for one another and their environment



government

Co-operative Governance:

Partnerships between the

government, the private sector and

civil society must be built in order to

ensure co-responsibility for coastal

management and to empower

stakeholders to participate effectively

Insisting on co-operative

governance between all spheres of

society for successful integrated

coastal management



government

Differentiated Approach: Recognising

that the implementation of integrated

coastal management is contextual.

While a generic (standardised)

management

framework is important, mechanisms

of implementation cannot be rigid (fit-

for-all”)

Not listed as a separate principle Not listed as a separate principle, but

principle applied in the design and contents

of the CMPr where varying approaches and

management recommendations are

suggested for different areas of the coastal

zone. The coastal zone is diverse, ranging

from sandy beaches to rocky shores, with

some areas being urban in nature and

others agricultural, and others protected

areas. Therefore the types and severity of

risks vary widely across the Sarah Baartman

DM coastal zone, and a standardised

approach to coastal zone management is

not possible.

Adaptive management approach:

Incrementally adjusting practices

based on learning through common

sense, experience, experimenting,

and monitoring (“learning-by-doing”)

Not listed as a separate principle Not listed as a separate principle, however

the principle is carried forward in the content

of the CMPr and management

recommendations in particular.

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Priority Areas, Objectives and Recommendations for Coastal Zone

Management

Identifying ‘priority areas for management’

To determine what the priority areas for management should be from the community’s perspective, a ‘SWOT’ analysis

of the coastal zone was done by participants at public workshops. Group exercises were used to highlight threats and

opportunities to the coastal zone, and recommendations for management were provided. The information was combined

into a list of ‘priority areas for implementation’ to be included in the CMPr:

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management: sustainable harvesting of natural resources, preservation

of natural, cultural and built environments, rehabilitation and restoration, management of protected and other natural areas,

managing ecological processes, adopting a catchment management approach

Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light,

noise

Safety and security

Promote responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal zone, by improved and equitable access,

amenities and management of open space areas

Promote sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities

Risk averse development planning: risk averse approach to coastal zone development, facilities management and

maintenance, municipal services, open space management, stakeholder participation in development plans, management

of impacts, maintain sense of place, be informed and prepared for future, appropriate development

Resilience to the impacts of climate change

Improve policing and compliance monitoring and enforcement of legislation

Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone, by all spheres of government, the private and public

sectors

Education and awareness and skills development

Funding and capacity building needed for coastal zone management

For ease of description and assessment, the above priorities have been grouped under 3 broad priority area themes;

referred to under each Segment for each Local Municipality in Appendices 3 to 6. These are as follows:

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Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management: refers to the protection of the coastal

zone as our ‘national asset’ and sustainable harvesting of coastal resources. The ‘national asset’ includes the

natural environment, landscapes, ecological processes, and important cultural/archaeological/historical features

Coastal pollution: includes pollution from a variety of land uses in the catchment of the coastal zone, and risks

these create to the natural and socio-economic environment. Pollution covers effluent, solid waste, noise and light

pollution.

Coastal development: refers to existing and planned development in the coastal zone. Recreational and tourism

activities and coastal access are addressed here. The sustainable provision of water to communities is a key issue

that needs innovative and climate-smart interventions in all municipalities.

Note that the concepts of integrated and risk averse development, co-ordinated and integrated coastal zone

management, education and awareness, compliance and enforcement, and building resilience to climate

change impacts fits under each of the 3 broad priority areas. These are discussed where applicable under

each Segment in the various local municipalities.

To determine if these priority areas ‘fit’ into those identified in the approved Provincial CMPr, a comparison was done of

priority areas identified in this review process with those of the provincial document (refer to Table 3).

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Table 3: Comparison of priority areas identified in the Sarah Baartman District Municipality (SBDM) CMPr with those of the approved Provincial CMPr

Priority Area: Provincial CMPr Relevant priority identified in the SBDM CMPr Relevant broad category priority area in SBDM CMPr

Co-operative Governance Features:

• Participation of all stakeholders, coastal governance & co‐responsibility;

• Integrated, co‐ordinated decision making, planning and management;

• Continued learning and practical implementation of programmes and processes; and

• Compliance with International conventions, protocols and agreements

Risk averse development planning Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone Education, awareness and skills development Funding and capacity building.

Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management, coastal pollution and coastal development.

Coastal Planning and Development Features:

• Emphasis on local economic development opportunities and approval procedures;

• Identification and exploitation of sustainable livelihood opportunities; and

• Holistic planning and development processes with emphasis on sustainable and equitable spatial development trends in the coastal zone

Sustainable harvesting of natural resources Preservation of natural, cultural and built environments Responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal zone Sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities Coastal access

Coastal development and natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management

Climate Change and Dynamic Coastal Processes Features

• Responding to dynamic coastal process through increased resilience of natural and social systems; and

• Phased retreat of infrastructure in high risk areas

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Risk averse development planning Resilience to the impacts of climate change

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Development

Land and Marine-Based Sources of Pollution Features:

• Reducing and responding to land and marine based sources of pollution in the coastal zone; and

• Adherence to the waste management hierarchy of reduce, reuse, recycle

Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light, noise Education and Awareness Funding and Capacity Building

Coastal Pollution

48


Estuaries Features:

• Establishing and implementing a strategy to improve the management and protection of estuarine resources; and

• Securing sufficient financial resources to fund and implement identified actions, research projects, initiatives, and advisory forums

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment: air, water, solid waste, sewage, light, noise Risk averse development planning Resilience to the impacts of climate change Education and Awareness Funding and Capacity Building

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Pollution, Coastal Development

The Facilitation of Coastal Access Features:

• Promoting and managing access to coastal public property;

• Promoting and facilitating equitable access to coastal resources and coastal public property;

• Recognising the importance of access preservation; and

• Promoting custodianship and stewardship of the coastal zone.

Preservation of natural, cultural and built environments Promote responsible recreational use and livelihoods of the coastal zone Risk averse development planning Coastal access

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management, Coastal Development

Awareness, Education, Training, Capacity Building and Information Features:

• Facilitation of knowledge production and exchange;

• Promotion of knowledge sharing of coastal issues; and

• Instilling a sense of ownership of the coastal zone amongst all stakeholders

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone Education and awareness and skills development

Funding and capacity building


Compliance, Monitoring and Enforcement Features:

• Facilitation of compliance with applicable coastal legislation; and

• Promotion of the environmental management inspectorate and facilitation of environmental management inspectors

Safety and Security Improve policing and compliance monitoring and enforcement of legislation Co-ordinated and integrated management of the coastal zone Funding and capacity building needed for coastal zone management


Natural Resource Management Features:

• The maintenance of ecosystem integrity and health;

• To assess and effectively manage coastal protected areas , including marine protected areas; and

Natural and archaeological/heritage resource management Pollution control and prevention for a clean, healthy and safe environment Promote sustainable and low impact economic development opportunities


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• To identify and rehabilitate damaged and degraded coastal ecosystems and habitats

Risk averse development planning

Resilience to the impacts of climate change Education and awareness and skills development

50

Objectives per priority area

Broad coastal management objectives necessary to meet the vision have been set for each priority area. Management

recommendations and implementation strategies are designed with these in mind:

Natural, archaeological and cultural diversity and resource management

Adopt a catchment management approach in coastal zone management

Apply a risk-averse approach in development planning, where high risk areas are avoided, and where important

biodiversity areas, unique habitats, ecological processes and other natural areas are protected

Manage the coastal environment and its catchment area to be resilient to the impacts of climate change

Allow ecological processes to function, and avoid disturbance to dynamic coastal areas

Protect archaeological, cultural and heritage resources

Facilitate equitable and sustainable utilisation of natural resources

Promote collective responsibility and co-operative governance in managing the coastal zone, through education

and awareness programmes, capacity building, and skills development

Facilitate information sharing and transparency to allow for participatory management of the coastal zone and

informed decision-making

Coastal Pollution

Maintain good coastal water quality that is safe for recreational exposure and resource use, and that is needed by

natural organisms to persist

Coastal Development

Plan for sustainable coastal development that protects natural habitats and archaeological/cultural/heritage

features and the ecological processes that support these, and enhances the livelihoods and well-being of the local

community

Prioritise low impact development that is suitable to the area, and retains ‘sense of place’

The coast must be developed in a manner that allows for safe access and enjoyment by all people

Coastal development must be designed to build resilience to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise

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Management Recommendations and Implementation Strategies

Management recommendations are provided for each Local Municipality at the end of Appendices 3 to 6, under the 3

broach priority area categories. These include timeframes for implementation, as well as the responsible entity and

supporting parties. Performance indicators are listed to monitor implementation of the recommendations.

Documents

A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman ... · Project Title: A Coastal Management Programme for the Sarah Baartman District Municipality Program prepared by : CEN Integrated