A COMPANION TO THEHISTORY OF THEMIDDLE EAST

Edited by

Youssef M. Choueiri

A Companion to the History of the Middle East

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A COMPANION TO THEHISTORY OF THEMIDDLE EAST

Edited by

Youssef M. Choueiri

� 2005 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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A companion to the history of the Middle East / edited by Youssef M. Choueiri.p.: maps; cm.— (Blackwell companions to world history)

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN–13: 978–1–4051–0681–8 (hardback : alk. paper)ISBN–10: 1–4051–0681–6 (hardback)1. Middle East—History. I. Title: Title on CIP data view: Companion to the Middle East.

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Contents

List of Illustrations viiiList of Maps ixList of Tables xNotes on Contributors xiPreface and Acknowledgments xv

Introduction 1Youssef M. Choueiri

PART I THE FORMATIVE PERIOD OF ISLAM

1 The Rise of Islam 9Gerald R. Hawting

2 The Islamic Conquests 28Fred M. Donner

3 The Caliphate 52Hugh Kennedy

PART II CULTURAL TRADITIONS AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

4 The �Ulama � : Status and Function 71Zouhair Ghazzal

5 Shı � ism 87Robert Gleave

6 Historiography of Sufi Studies in the West 106Alexander Knysh

PART III IMPERIAL STRUCTURES AND DYNASTIC RULE

7 Military Patronage States and the Political Economy of the Frontier,1000–1250 135Michael Chamberlain

8 The Mamluk Institution 154P. M. Holt

9 North Africa: State and Society, 1056–1659 170Michael Brett

PART IV A NEW MIDDLE EASTERN SYSTEM

10 Ottomans and Safavids: States, Statecraft, and Societies, 1500–1800 191Metin Kunt

11 Urban Life and Middle Eastern Cities: The Traditional Arab City 207Andre Raymond (translated James McDougall)

PART V THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE NEW WORLD ORDER

12 A Different Balance of Power: Europe and the Middle East in theEighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 229Abdul-Karim Rafeq

13 Colonialism, the Ottomans, the Qajars, and the Struggle forIndependence: The Arab World, Turkey, and Iran 248Peter Sluglett

PART VI INDEPENDENCE AND NATION BUILDING

14 Zionism and the Palestine Question 269Emma C. Murphy

15 Nationalisms in the Middle East: The Case of Pan-Arabism 291Youssef M. Choueiri

16 Turkish and Iranian Nationalisms 313Ioannis N. Grigoriadis and Ali M. Ansari

17 Political Parties and Trade Unions 334Raymond Hinnebusch

18 Political Life and the Military 355Gareth Stansfield

19 Political Economy: From Modernization to Globalization 372Simon Murden

PART VII MODERN ISSUES AND CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES

20 Islamic Urbanism, Urbanites, and the Middle Eastern City 393Michael E. Bonine

21 Oil and Development 407Paul Stevens

22 Modernizing Women in the Middle East 425Valentine M. Moghadam

vi CONTENTS

23 Politics and Religion 444Beverley Milton-Edwards

24 Ethnonational Minorities in the Middle East: Berbers, Kurds,and Palestinians 462Lise Storm

25 Civil Society in the Middle East 486Tim Niblock

26 The States-system in the Middle East: Origins, Development,and Prospects 504Simon Bromley

Bibliography 534

Index 582

CONTENTS vii

Illustrations

Plates

5.1 �Ashura, one of the most poignant anniversaries in the Shı � ite calendar,commemorating the murder in 681 CE of Husayn, the Prophet’sgrandson 90

13.1 Sa � d Zaghlul, anti-colonialist Egyptian leader 25213.2 Mustafa Nahhas, Egyptian Prime Minister and founder of the

Arab League 25314.1 Yassir Arafat, leader of the PLO and President of the Palestinian

National Authority (d. 2004) 27715.1 Shukri al-Quwatly, first President of independent Syria 29915.2 Nasser: Egyptian President and charismatic symbol of Arab nationalism 30022.1 Queen Rania of Jordan: representative of a new generation of

Arab women 435

Figures

21.1 Sources of world oil exports, 1965–2000 40921.2 Middle East and North African share of OPEC production,

1960–2000 41021.3 Per capita income and development: a regional comparison, 2000 41521.4 Oil dependence in the Middle East and North Africa 41621.5 Oil export revenues in the region, 1960–2000 41721.6 Foreign direct investment: a regional comparison 41924.1 Gurr and Harff’s framework for explaining ethnopolitical violence 465

Maps

2.1 The Middle East and the expansion of Islam from AD 634 to 800 513.1 The Middle East under the Umayyad Caliphate 679.1 Modern North Africa 188

10.1 Middle East ca. 1600 20613.1 Central lands of the Middle East 26526.1 The Middle East: a region of nation-states? 533

Tables

21.1 A history of oil agreements in the Middle East 40822.1 Female economic activity rates, by region, 2000 42922.2 Women’s political participation: MENA in comparative perspective 43024.1 Berber demography 46624.2 Kurdish demography 47124.3 Palestinian demography 47726.1 Formative influences on Middle East state formation 518

Notes on Contributors

Ali M. Ansari is Reader in the Modern History of the Middle East, University ofSt Andrews. He is the author of Modern Iran Since 1921, London, 2003, and Iran,Islam and Democracy, London, 2000.

Michael E. Bonine, Ph.D., University of Texas at Austin, is Professor of Geographyand Professor and Head of Near Eastern Studies at the University of Arizona inTucson, Arizona. He has written extensively on urbanism and urbanization in theIslamic Middle East, originally focused on Iran from fieldwork in the early 1970s. In1982–9 he also served as Executive Director of the Middle East Studies Association ofNorth America. His publications include: Population, Poverty, and Politics in MiddleEast Cities (ed.) (1997); with E. Ehlers, T. Krafft, and G. Stober, The Middle EasternCity and Islamic Urbanism: An Annotated Bibliography in Western Languages(1997); and M. E Bonine and N. R. Keddie (eds), Modern Iran: Dialectics ofContinuity and Change (1981).

Michael Brett, BA Cantab, Ph.D. London, is Emeritus Reader in the History ofNorth Africa, School of Oriental and African Studies, London. He is author of TheMoors: Islam in the West, London (1980); The Berbers (with Elizabeth Fentress),Blackwell, Oxford (1996); Ibn Khaldun and the Medieval Maghrib, Aldershot(1999); The Rise of the Fatimids: The World of the Mediterranean and the MiddleEast in the Fourth Century of the Hijra, Tenth Century CE, Leiden (2001). He iscurrently engaged upon contributions to the New Cambridge History of Islam, and ahistory of Africa.

Simon Bromley is Senior Lecturer at the Open University. His research interestsinclude theoretical developments in the field of international political economy andinternational relations. His publications include Pacific Studies (1994), RethinkingMiddle East Politics (1991), and American Hegemony and World Oil (1991).

Michael Chamberlain is Associate Professor of History at the University of Wiscon-sin–Madison and the author of Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus,Cambridge (1994). He is interested in problems relating to the social and culturalhistory of Egypt and Syria between 1100 and 1350.

Youssef M. Choueiri is currently Senior Associate Member, St. Anthony’s College,University of Oxford. His publications include Modern Arab Historiography, London(2003), Arab Nationalism: A History, Oxford (2000), and Islamic Fundamentalism,

London (1997, 2001). He is currently working on a new project entitled AHistory ofDemocracy in the Arab World.

Fred M. Donner is Professor of Islamic History, the Oriental Institute and Depart-ment of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University of Chicago. Hispublications include The Early Islamic Conquests, Princeton (1981) and Narrativesof Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing, Princeton (1998)(Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, 14).

Zouhair Ghazzal is Associate Professor of Middle Eastern History at Loyola Uni-versity Chicago. He published The Political Economy of Damascus in the NineteenthCentury (in French, 1993), and completed a study on the Ottoman Syrian � ulamaand judiciary, The Grammars of Adjudication (forthcoming). He is now working onthe contemporary Syrian legal system.

Robert Gleave is Reader in Islamic Studies in the Department of Theology andReligious Studies, University of Bristol, specializing in Shi � ism and Islamic Law. He isauthor of Inevitable Doubt: Two Theories of Shi � i Jurisprudence, Leiden (2000) andeditor of Islamic Law: Theory and Practice, London (1996), and Religion and Societyin Qajar Iran, London (2004).

Ioannis N. Grigoriadis holds an MIA degree from the School of International andPublic Affairs, Columbia University. He is currently a Ph.D. student in TurkishPolitics at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

Gerald R. Hawting is Professor of the History of the Near and Middle East, SOAS.Among his publications are The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam, Cam-bridge (1999); The First Dynasty of Islam, 2nd edition, London (2000); and twovolumes (17 and 20) of the translation of The History of al-Tabari, Albany, NY (1989and 1996). He is currently writing a chapter on Muslim rituals for an edited volumeto be published by Ashgate as part of the Formation of the Classical Islamic Worldseries (general editor, Lawrence I. Conrad).

Raymond Hinnebusch is Professor of International Relations and Middle EastPolitics at the University of St Andrews, Scotland. He has authored numerousbooks and articles on Syria, Egypt, and the international relations of the regionincluding Syria: Revolution from Above, London (2000) and The InternationalPolitics of the Middle East, Manchester (2003).

P. M. Holt,M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon), Emeritus Professor of the History of the Near andMiddle East, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, haspublished a number of articles on aspects of Mamluk history and institutions aswell as Early Mamluk Diplomacy (1260–1290)/Treaties of Baybaras and Qalawunwith Christian Rulers, Leiden (1995). He has also translated Peter Thorau’s SultanBaibars I. von Agypten as The Lion of Egypt? Sultan Baybars I and the Near East in theThirteenth Century, London (1992).

Hugh Kennedy is Professor of the History of the Islamic Middle East at theUniversity of St Andrews. His main publications include The Prophet and the Age ofthe Caliphate (1986), Crusader Castles (1994), Muslim Spain and Portugal (1996).

Alexander Knysh is Professor of Islamic Studies and chair of the Department of NearEastern Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. He obtained his doctoral degreefrom the Institute for Oriental Studies (Leningrad Branch) of the Soviet Academy of

xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Sciences in 1986. Since 1991 he has lived in the United States of America. Hisresearch interests include Islamic mysticism and Islamic theological thought in his-torical perspective as well as Islam and Islamic movements in local contexts (especiallyYemen and the Northern Caucasus). He has numerous publications on these sub-jects, including three books.

Metin Kunt is Professor of History at Sabanci University, Istanbul. Previously, hetaught at Bosporus University, Istanbul, Cambridge University and, as visiting lec-turer, at Leiden, Harvard and Yale. He is author of The Sultan’s Servants and co-editor (with Christine Woodhead) of Suleyman the Magnificent and his Age.

Beverley Milton-Edwards is Reader in Middle East Politics at Queen’s University,Belfast. Her main area of research has concentrated on two interrelated themes:dimensions of politics in the Middle East and Islamic politics. Recent publicationsinclude being co-author of Conflicts in the Middle East (2001), co-author of Jordan:A Hashemite Legacy (2001), Contemporary Politics in the Middle East (1999), andCitizenship and the State in the Middle East (1999).

Valentine M. Moghadam is Chief of Section, Gender Equality and Development,Division of Human Rights and Fight against Discrimination, UNESCO, Paris. Herprevious position was Director, Women’s Studies Program and Associate Professor ofSociology, Illinois State University. Among her publications areModernizing Women:Gender and Social Change in the Middle East (1993/2003); Women, Work, andEconomic Reform in the Middle East and North Africa (1998); Patriarchy andEconomic Development: Women’s Positions at the End of the Twentieth Century (1996).

Simon Murden received his doctorate from the University of Exeter in 1993 forwork on international relations and political economy in the Gulf. He specializes inthe study of contemporary globalization in the Middle East, as well as security issuesin the region. He has been a lecturer in International Relations at the University ofPlymouth and University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, and is the author of Emer-gent Regional Powers and International Relations in the Gulf 1988–91, Ithaca (1995)and of Islam, the Middle East and the New Global Hegemony, Boulder (2002). He isnow a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Strategic Studies and InternationalAffairs at Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth.

Emma C. Murphy is a Senior Lecturer at the Institute for Middle Eastern andIslamic Studies, University of Durham. Her publications include: Israel: Challengesto Identity, Democracy and the State (co-authored, 2002) and Economic and PoliticalChange in Tunisia: From Bourguiba to Ben Ali (1999). Current research interestsinclude the contemporary political economy of North Africa and the history of thePalestine Mandate.

Tim Niblock is Director of the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies at the Universityof Exeter, and Professor of Arab Gulf Studies. He has written widely on the politics,political economy and international relations of the Arab world. Among his booksare: Pariah States and Sanctions in the Middle East: Iraq, Libya and Sudan (2001);Class and Power in Sudan (1987), Iraq: The Contemporary State, ed. (1982); State,Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia, ed. (1981).

Abdul-Karim Rafeq is William and Annie Bickers Professor of Arab Middle EasternStudies and Professor of History. He received his Ph.D. from the University of

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii