A Corpus-based Study of Discourse Features in Learners ’ Writing Development

A Corpus-based Study of A Corpus-based Study of Discourse Features in Discourse Features in

Learners’ Writing Learners’ Writing DevelopmentDevelopment

Yu-Hua ChenYu-Hua Chen

Lancaster Lancaster University, UKUniversity, UK

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BackgroundBackground

Ellis (1994: 44) identified four major Ellis (1994: 44) identified four major approaches in describing learner approaches in describing learner language:language:

the study of learners’ errorsthe study of learners’ errors the study of developmental patternsthe study of developmental patterns the study of variabilitythe study of variability the study of pragmatic featuresthe study of pragmatic features

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Ellis (1994: 44) identified four major Ellis (1994: 44) identified four major approaches in describing learner approaches in describing learner language:language:

the study of learners’ errorsthe study of learners’ errors the study of the study of developmental patternsdevelopmental patterns the study of variabilitythe study of variability the study of pragmatic featuresthe study of pragmatic features

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BackgroundBackground Studies on ESL/EFL writing Studies on ESL/EFL writing

developmentdevelopment

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BackgroundBackground Studies on ESL/EFL writing Studies on ESL/EFL writing

developmentdevelopment

Generally focusing on Generally focusing on fluency, accuracy fluency, accuracy and complexityand complexity

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Studies on ESL/EFL writing Studies on ESL/EFL writing developmentdevelopment

Generally focusing on fluency, accuracy Generally focusing on fluency, accuracy and complexityand complexity

Usually based on Usually based on small-scale datasmall-scale data

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Studies on ESL/EFL writing Studies on ESL/EFL writing developmentdevelopment

Generally focusing on fluency, accuracy Generally focusing on fluency, accuracy and complexityand complexity

Usually based on small-scale dataUsually based on small-scale data

Not much attention being paid to the Not much attention being paid to the developmental patterns of developmental patterns of discourse discourse featuresfeatures

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My HypothesisMy Hypothesis

In addition to fluency, In addition to fluency, accuracy and complexity, accuracy and complexity, there are there are developmental developmental patternspatterns at the at the textual textual levellevel of learners’ written of learners’ written language.language.

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Previous FindingsPrevious Findings

For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007)For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007) IELTS writers at levels 4/6 use IELTS writers at levels 4/6 use lexico-lexico-

grammatical markersgrammatical markers (e.g. (e.g. howeverhowever) ) more frequently. Level 8 writers rely more frequently. Level 8 writers rely on them less and appear to be nearer on them less and appear to be nearer to native speaker use in this respect.to native speaker use in this respect.

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For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007)For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007) IELTS writers at levels 4/6 use lexico-IELTS writers at levels 4/6 use lexico-

grammatical markers (e.g. grammatical markers (e.g. howeverhowever) more ) more frequently. Level 8 writers rely on them frequently. Level 8 writers rely on them less and appear to be nearer to native less and appear to be nearer to native speaker use in this respect.speaker use in this respect.

EnumerativeEnumerative markersmarkers ( (firstly,firstly, etc) are etc) are used twice as much by level 4/6 writers as used twice as much by level 4/6 writers as level 8 writers. level 8 writers.

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For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007)For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007) SubordinatorsSubordinators are used slightly less by are used slightly less by

level 8 writers than by levels 4/6.level 8 writers than by levels 4/6.

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For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007)For example, Kennedy & Thorp (2007) SubordinatorsSubordinators are used slightly less by are used slightly less by

level 8 writers than by levels 4/6.level 8 writers than by levels 4/6.

Lower level scripts (4/6) are more Lower level scripts (4/6) are more categoricalcategorical and content is less modified by and content is less modified by hedginghedging. Expressions of (dis)agreement . Expressions of (dis)agreement and opinion tend to be and opinion tend to be more directly more directly expressedexpressed ( (I agree/disagree/in my opinionI agree/disagree/in my opinion etc) at level 4.etc) at level 4.

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Provisional Research Provisional Research FocusesFocuses

Bottom-up ApproachBottom-up Approach Discourse MarkersDiscourse Markers, , e.g. e.g. however, however,

hence, first, then, hence, first, then, etc.etc.

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Bottom-up ApproachBottom-up Approach Discourse MarkersDiscourse Markers, , e.g. e.g. however, hence, however, hence,

first, then, first, then, etc.etc. Hedging DevicesHedging Devices, e.g. , e.g. modal auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries,

modal lexical verbs (modal lexical verbs (seemseem, , appearappear, , suggestsuggest, , indicateindicate, , assumeassume, etc.), modal , etc.), modal adjectives (adjectives (possiblepossible), modal adverbials ), modal adverbials ((perhapsperhaps) )

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Bottom-up ApproachBottom-up Approach Discourse Markers, Discourse Markers, e.g. e.g. however, hence, first,however, hence, first,

then, then, etc.etc. Hedging DevicesHedging Devices, e.g. , e.g. modal auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries,

modal lexical verbs (modal lexical verbs (seemseem, , appearappear, , suggestsuggest, , indicateindicate, , assumeassume, etc.), modal adjectives , etc.), modal adjectives ((possiblepossible), modal adverbials (), modal adverbials (perhapsperhaps)) ))

Top-down ApproachTop-down Approach Lexical bundlesLexical bundles: recurrent word combination: recurrent word combination

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DataData

The Longman Learner CorpusThe Longman Learner Corpus A large collection of documents written by A large collection of documents written by

learners of Englishlearners of English Comprising mainly essays and exam Comprising mainly essays and exam

scripts from students throughout the scripts from students throughout the world between 1990 and 2002world between 1990 and 2002

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DataData

The Longman Learner CorpusThe Longman Learner Corpus A large collection of documents written by A large collection of documents written by

learners of Englishlearners of English Comprising mainly essays and exam Comprising mainly essays and exam

scripts from students throughout the scripts from students throughout the world between 1990 and 2002world between 1990 and 2002

Only written samples from Only written samples from L1 Chinese L1 Chinese learners of L2 Englishlearners of L2 English are included in are included in my project.my project.

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DataData

The Longman Learner CorpusThe Longman Learner Corpus A large collection of documents written by learnA large collection of documents written by learn

ers of Englishers of English Comprising mainly essays and exam scripts froComprising mainly essays and exam scripts fro

m students throughout the world between 1990 m students throughout the world between 1990 and 2002and 2002

Only written samples from L1 Chinese learnOnly written samples from L1 Chinese learners of L2 English are included in my project.ers of L2 English are included in my project.

Only Only argumentative/expository essaysargumentative/expository essays are are selected.selected.

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A LLC SampleA LLC Sample<RF> 00706<RF> 00706<CO> USA<CO> USA<LA> CHC<LA> CHC<LE> AD<LE> AD<EN> INT<EN> INT<TT> 1<TT> 1

<PA> Culture shock<PA> Culture shock

<PA> Culture shock occurs as a result of when you are suddently <PA> Culture shock occurs as a result of when you are suddently immersionimmersion

in a new different culture. It's due to your own feeling how to dealin a new different culture. It's due to your own feeling how to deal with the differences in food, clothing, and other things.with the differences in food, clothing, and other things.

<PA> When I arrived at the L.A airport on Aug 3. The first thing is to<PA> When I arrived at the L.A airport on Aug 3. The first thing is to meet the I.N.S. inspector. I found the Americas are very open-meet the I.N.S. inspector. I found the Americas are very open-

mindedminded and kindness to give me more assistance. They judge everyone justand kindness to give me more assistance. They judge everyone just built in a Truth. If you are honest, it is easy to pass. Then I wokedbuilt in a Truth. If you are honest, it is easy to pass. Then I woked out the gate of airport I saw it is marvolous that has so manyout the gate of airport I saw it is marvolous that has so many terminals and complex cross-freeway system just a high technologyterminals and complex cross-freeway system just a high technology architeture there.architeture there.

It is argued that the judgment on learners’ profiIt is argued that the judgment on learners’ profi

ciency should be made based on their linguistic pciency should be made based on their linguistic p

erformance, as opposed to ‘extralinguistic factoerformance, as opposed to ‘extralinguistic facto

rs’ such as years of learning English or programrs’ such as years of learning English or program

me levels. In addition, most learners are not equame levels. In addition, most learners are not equa

lly competent in terms of reading, listening, speally competent in terms of reading, listening, spea

king, and writing; therefore, it is necessary to ratking, and writing; therefore, it is necessary to rat

e the LLC scripts if only the written performance e the LLC scripts if only the written performance

is the target to be analysed.is the target to be analysed.

The Need to Rate the LLC The Need to Rate the LLC ScriptsScripts

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Rating ScaleRating Scale

the written assessment criteria grid in the written assessment criteria grid in Manual for relating Language Manual for relating Language Examinations to the Common Examinations to the Common European Framework of ReferenceEuropean Framework of Reference (p.82)(p.82)

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Rating ScaleRating Scale

the written assessment criteria grid in the written assessment criteria grid in Manual for relating Language Manual for relating Language Examinations to the Common Examinations to the Common European Framework of ReferenceEuropean Framework of Reference (p.82)(p.82)

Due to the large number of samples Due to the large number of samples needed in this project, a needed in this project, a holistic/impressionistholistic/impressionist rating scale is rating scale is adopted.adopted.

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Expected Project ScaleExpected Project Scale

Level Level Pilot StudyPilot Study Main InvestigationMain InvestigationNo. of No. of samplessamples

No. of No. of wordswords

No. of No. of samplessamples

No. of No. of wordswords

C2C2 ---- 20,00020,000 ---- 100,000100,000

C1C1 ---- 20,00020,000 ---- 100,000100,000

B2B2 ---- 20,00020,000 ---- 100,000100,000

B1B1 ---- 20,00020,000 ---- 100,000100,000

TotalTotal 300300 80,00080,000 1,5001,500 400,000400,000

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Expected ContributionsExpected Contributions

Collaboration between SLA and Collaboration between SLA and Language TestingLanguage Testing

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Collaboration between SLA and LanguCollaboration between SLA and Language Testingage Testing

SLASLA Shed light on learners’ language Shed light on learners’ language

development development Provide insights for ELT writing Provide insights for ELT writing

pedagogy pedagogy

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Collaboration between SLA and Language Collaboration between SLA and Language TestingTesting

SLASLA Shed light on learners’ language Shed light on learners’ language

development development Provide insights for ELT writing pedagogy Provide insights for ELT writing pedagogy

Language TestingLanguage Testing Facilitate the design of a common band Facilitate the design of a common band

scale of writing assessment scale of writing assessment Help develop a computer automated Help develop a computer automated

marking systemmarking system

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A Corpus-based Study of Discourse Features in Learners ’ Writing Development