A Diachronic Comparison ofthe English Translations

The Society of English Studies

NII-Electronic Library Service

The Society ofEnglish Studies

97

Tve*'.}Z:{t:1 42,97-118(2012)

ISSN: 0917-3536

A Diachronic Comparison ofthe English Translations

of Hayao Miyazaki's Animated Works

ADACHI Reito

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to identify any trends in the English translations of Hayao

Miyazaki's recent animated works from a diachronic peint of view. Six of Miyazaki's

animated works have been translated into English two or more times. Quantitative and qual-itative researches are performed on the different translated versions of these animated

works. A metrical comparison between the initial and subsequent translated versions shows

a shift in emphasis from liberal to litera] translation around the year 2000. However, severa]elements such as pauses and silences, figures of speech, and taboos remain culture bound

and, thus, defy literal translation. FinaEIy, the subsequent translated versions appear to be

more faithful than the injtial ones to the source text and the multimodal situations, such as

screen images and sounds, thus maintaining the sense-fbr-sense equivalence as an audiovis-

ua] entertainment.

* This paper is an expanded and revised version ofthe pqper,

"Miyazaki

Hayao Sakuhin no Saihonyaku

ni Miru Saikin no Nippon Animeshon no Eiyaku Keiko [The Recent Tendency of the English

Translation ofJapanese Animation: A Perspective through the Re-translation efHayao Miyazaki's

Animated Films,]i' read at the 63rd Annual General Meeting ofthe English Literary Society ofJap an:

The Regional Branch of the Chugoku and Shikoku District on October 30, 2010, at Shikoku

University.

**

My special thanks are due to the anonymous referees. This paper owes much te their thoughtfu1 and

helpfu1suggestions.'"'

This research was supported by Grant-in-Aid fbr Scientific Research (C) (No. 23520355), Japan Society for the Promotion efScience,




98 TfitiCscIt,1 42 (2012)

1. Introduction

This paper examines the effects of audiovisual translation ofHayao Miyazaki's animated

works into English by analyzing the different translated versions from a diachronic point of

v{ew. As more Japanese animated works find a larger market abroad, hopes have been raised

that American audiences are gradually becoming better prepared to adjust their mindset so as

to accept the "otherness" ofJapanese animated works. The recent trend involving the retrans-

lation of Miyazaki's animated werks supports this expectationi, in this paper, I focus on

those six animated works directed by Miyazaki that have been recently translated into English

at least twice. My objectives are to identify any trends in the English translations of

Miyazaki's recent animated works and to determine whether the translational attitude toward

Japanese animated works has changed-and ifso, in what ways has it changed, Specifically,

the fbl]owing three questions direct the study: (1) As far as a metrical phenomenon is con-

cemed, how do the original English translations of Miyazaki's animated works differ from

these ofsubsequent versions? (2) Compared with the original English translations, in what

ways do subsequent translated versions shift their emphasis, in terms of linguistic and cul-

tural aspects? (3) In correlation with visual and auditory components, what elements defy

direct translation in subsequent versions?

2. Background and Preliminary Studies

It has been approximately thirty years since the terms "anime"

and "Japanimation"

were

first defined in major English dictlonaries 2. Initially, Americans and Europeans were troubled

by, er simply disapproved ot imported Japanese animated works because they contained

what was considered violent or sexually explicit material. As a consequence, Japanese

animated works were eften drastically edited so that they would be as nonviolent and inopt

fensive as possible. Japanese animated works eventually gamered more and more public and

critical acclaim, as evident frorn the success of the fo11owing: Pokemon; Zhe First Movie,

SipiritedAway, and Atamayama [Mt. ffead]3. Poke'mon: 7;Vie First Movie was such a box-

othce success that, according to Box Oence Mojo, it grossed approximately 85 million dollars

in America, a record that no other Japanese animated work has since broken. spiritedAway

was honered with both the Golden Bear (the highest prize awarded for the best film at the

Berlin International Film Festival) and the Academy Award fbr Best Animated Feature in

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ADACIIIReito TranslationsofHayaoMiyazaki'sAnimatedWbrks 99

2002. It was the first time in history that the Golden Bear had been awarded to an animated

film. Atamayama was the winner of the 2003 Annecy Crystal Award (known as the Grand

Prix until 2002) at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival, which is one ofthe most

prestigious festivals celebrating artistic animated films. The breakthrough successes ofthese

Japanese animated works occurred at the turn ofthe miltennium. Lycos, a search engine and

web portal, announced that the most popular search term of 2001 and 2002 was t`Dragon

Ball." Although rnany other prominent news events happened in 2001 and 2002 (e.g., the

terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, on the WOrld Trade Center; the circulation of the

euro; and the 2002 FIFA World Cup KorealJapan), "Dragon

Ball" was the term that peopie ail

over the world were the most curious to learn about (Hamano 155).

In analyzing the multiple codes (Delabastita) ofMiyazaki's animated works, Yamada took

an.important step by examining EPiritedAway and lt,ly AJeig. hbor 7btoro as audiovisual rnedia.

By giving attention to cinematographic language (Chaume), fbr example, [lamura developed

this idea a little further in her research on the addition of words in the process of voice dub-

bing. Moreover, in an analysis oftranslation techniques based on the categery ofculturemes

(Nord 34), Gonzalez compared the original Japanese subtitle ofPrincess Mononoke with its

two English and three Spanish subtitles, including fansubs (subtitles provided by fans). In

addition, Adachi investigated the changes in quantity and function of pauses and silences in

Japanese animated works that occur during the translation process compared with American

movles.

With regard to the diachronic approach to trans1ated Japanese animated works, some schol-

ars, including Yamada, suggested that comparing old and new translated versions could be

illuminating (Eigo-ban Anime Sakuhin ni miru Honyaku no Mondai 2). However, limited

attention has been given thus far to this approach, One reason for this limited attention is that

animation has long been identified and labeled as a subculture by critics and scholars. An-

other reason is that the research materials necessary fbr examining diachronic changes were

scarce until Miyazaki's animated works started being retransiated in the 1ate 1980s. Accord-

ing to Toury, translation norrns can vary considerably, depending on the specific characteris-

tics ofthe given cultural, social, and historica] situation in which a translation is done (211).In this paper, I explore another possible aspect of this study area, which to the best of my

knowledge has neyer been fu1ly examined. The works under examination in the present paper

are presented in Table 1.




1OO rxtic Jc:{k]42 (2012)

fable l Titles

into English

of Miyazaki's animatedworks that havebeentranslated two ormore times

Japancsc version 1st English ycrsion 2nd English version 3rd English version

Kariosutoro no Shiro

(1979)KZ]ze no nini no

Naushika(19g4)

71inku no shiro

Rcuo,uta(1986)

7bnari no 7btoro

(l988)Mbijo no 7inkkyubin

(1989)Ktirenai no Buta

(1992)

T)Cie Castle ofCagtiostiv ( 1 99 1 )vaZirriors ofthe va'ind(1985)Laputa;

T7ie ]FZ},inglsland(l989)

taJ Neighbor 7btoro(1993)Kiki

's

Detivei:y Service

(1989)Pofco Rosso (1992)

71he Castte qf'Cagliostro(2006, recerded in 2000)

Alausicaii ofihe P'alle.y ofthe "lind(2005)

Laputa,' Castie in theS)ty (2003, recorded in

1998)?L{b7

iN'eig. hbor 7btoro

(2006)Kikii Delivery Siervice

(1998)Poreo Rosso (2005)

Kiki 's DetiveT:}J Service

eelo)

3. Quantitative Research and Discussion

The purpose ofthis section is to obtain an overall picture ofthe difTerences between the

first and second translated versions of Miyazaki's animated works, based on a quantitative

comparison ofthe translation techniques used. 'Ib

analyze how equivaience in translation

functions, I haye decided to adopt the method ofclassifying translation techniques into fbur

categories (three liberal translation categories [interpolation, deletion, and replacement] and

one literal translation category) and to count the number of each type of adaptation that is

used during the first twenty minutes ofthe afbrementioned animated works4. The definitions

efeach type of translation technique, which are based on and adapted from those put fbrth by

Molina and Albir (509-11), are presented in "fable

2.

I do net discuss Molina and Albir's "linguistic extension" and

"linguistie compression"

here because both ofthese techniques are based on the increase or decrease ofthe number of

words between an original sentence and its translation. Making a direct comparison ofthe

number ofwords between English and Japanese does not work because these two languages

diff'er censiderably from each other in grammar and syntax.

The fo11owing Table3 provides examples of Japanese words and phrases from My

Aieighbor 7btoro. Their translation into English (two different versions) and their classifica-

tion into one ofthe ten categories oftranslation techniques used are presented.




ADACI'IIReito TranslationsofHayaeMiyazaki'sAnimatedWOrks 101

fable 2 Translationfechniques

LargerCategories Smaller Categories Definitiens

Liberal Interpolation a)Amplification

b) Substitution

Deletion c) Deletion

Replacement d)Adaptation

e) Descript]on

D Discursivc creation

g) Generalization

h) Particularization

i) '1'ransposition

Litcral j) Literal translation

a) The term "amplification"

meansto add detailed information. It includes Molina and Albir's compen-

sation technique, which is dcfined as recreating the source Ianguage (SL) effect by strategieall>, using

target language (TL) linguistic deyices or reproducing the effect in a difTerent part of the text

(Palumbo 2I), It also includes creation, which means adding a whole new sentence to fiH in pauses

and silences, I use this technique to supplement Molina and Albir's classificatien,

b) Thc term "`substitution"

refors to replacement between linguistic clcments and paralinguistic ele-

ments, including verbalized paralanguage,c) The term

"deletion"

includes Molina and Albir's "reduction;' which means to

"suppress

an ST

[source text] infbrmation item in the TT [target text]" (5 1O). Howeyer, the present study expands the

idea further te encompass the omission ofa whole sentence.

d) The term "adaptation"

means to replace a cultural word in the source language with one ftom the

target language. For exaTnple, in iLly IVreighbor 7btoro, the Japanese term LÌVM,"

which means

"fUton,"5

is translated into English as "bed."

e) The term "description"

means to substitute a word or phrase sarith a dcscription of its form or func-

tion.

D The teiin "discursive creation" means, according to Molina and Albir,

"to

establish a tcmporary

equiyalence that is totally unpredictablc out ofcontext" (51O). For example, in the first translatcd vcr-

sion ofKiki s' Delivet), Service, the Japanesc tcrm for "witch" is transiated into English as t`princess,"

g) The term "generalizatien"

means to use a broader and more general term than its original context to

refer to a specific object.

h) The term t`particularization,"

which is thc opposite ofgeneralizatlon, means to use dctails or specific

examples of a more general and neutral idea. For examplc, the Japanese term `LN,"

which means

C`country,"

is translated jnto English as "America"

in Porco Rosso.

i) The term "transposition" means to chaiige a grammatical attribute, In this paper, I deal mainly with

verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. For linguistic reasons rather than those oftranslation, I

exclude the fbllowing parts of speech: articles, prepositions in English, and nominal adiectives in

Japanese.

j) The term "literal

translation," in this paper, refers to the technique in which a phrase or a sentence is

translated word for word to express in another language the exact meaning ofa word, or the form of

words, of the source ianguage rather than to convey the sense or function of the original. Literal

translation includcs Molina andAlbir's calque, or loan translation.



The Society ofEnglishStudies

102 rpt}xs itm42 (2012)

Table 3 The English Translations of Some Example Words and Phrases

Tbtoro and Their Ciassification Based on the Translation lechnique Used

from 7bnari no

CharacterJapaneseEnglish (lst version)CategoryFnglish (2nd version)Catcgor}J

Kanta

SatsukiSatsukiSatsukiNannyKanta

Kanta

NannyFather

SatsuklSatsuki

NannyFatherSatsuki&Mei

abi, N 't ip iV abt,

e'D E? Ml,

ul: ?k,

M. crD(oZ iiL tpt 1:)tr )i Y 7bli L･i ?J[)

th Vi.

ts tft k s"', ,tsitetEtw

de >s !

?bv)5a),ts3d"A.t:SSkabs' th. 4 lt.

escD:]i, finVts.è

6, trs ee '4 iig

A,aa) 0di 3 [, IF

tD-(sa]g.

kiV･ttshabtb

L'Stif es t

<Silence>

It's fbr Grandma.

Grandma?

IIey, wait up.

"'here are you going?

Kanta, don't be silly.

Hey, haven't youhcard?Ybu're

living in ahaunted house,

Ge away!

Well, 1 rememberdoing the very samc

thing when [ was hisage,I

hate boys.

But I tQve Nanny'sfbod better thananything else in thewhole wlde world.

Eat alfyou want.

Thanks fbr your help.

Bye!

Deletion (c)

Rep]acement (e)Litcral ti)Replacement (DInterpelation <a)Interpolation (a)

Replacement (i)

Replacement (Drnterpolation(a)

Literal g)Rcplacement (g)Replacement Ce)

Literal ti)Replacement (d)Intevpolation (b)

Eh ,,. Mv .,. morn '

said to give this to

Granny,

Oh, What is it?

Hey, wait!

What is this?

Is that Kanta`?

Hey, you in there.

Your heuse ishaunted,

Kanta!Satsuki,

I actedjust

boy.like

that when I was a

l hate boys.

But I'm glad hebrought this cake youmade, It's great,Grannv.

Eat all you like.

Thanks, moying man!

Thanks, moving man!

InterpolatiQn (a)

Literal ")Literal G)LiteraL Cj)Literal a)Interpolation (a)

Literal ti)

Litera1 G)Replacement (e)InterpolaiLon (a)

I.itera] OReplacement (g)Replaeement (e)Interpelation (a)

Literal (i)Replacement (d)Interpolation (b)Interpelation (a)

Tlable 4 shows the number of liberal (interpolation, deletion, and replacernent) and literal

translation techniques used in two translated versions of the six animated works under inves-

tigation in this study.

When analyzing these results, I decided to divide the six animated works into two groups

based on when they were translated: films that were translated twice befbre 2000 and those

that were retranslated after 2000. Two films, 7lenku no Shiro Rapyuta and the second version

of Mojo no 7lrkdyubin6, were retranslated in the l990s before Japanese animated works

stepped into the limelight around 2000. The other fbur films, along with the third version of

,N4injo no 7inklp?ubin, were retranslated in the 2000s against the backdrop ofa growing interest

in, and recognition oC Japanese animation.

7lenku no Shiro Rql?yuta and the second translated version of Mojo no 7bkkyubin share




ADACHIReito TranslationsofHayaoMiyazaki'sAnimatedWorks 103

lable 4 The Number of Translation Techniques Used in the First and Second Translated

Versions of the Six Animated Films

Translation

Technique

Kariosutoro no

S]{liro

Kurenai no

Buta

Ktize no 7lrni no

A,raushiha

7bnari no

7btoro

Interpolation

Deletion

Replaccment

Literal

1st462864492nd

19

7

36110

1st3041

87109

2nd

45

27

95109

lst277494432nd

29

8

56136

1st511264992nd

26

6

47!30

fenku no Shiro

Rop),'utadefo no 7inkdyubin

Interpolation

Deletion

Replacement

Literal

1st171643942nd52

77268

1st43

971137

2nd106

15110106

3rd

62

17107105

something in common in that the number of liberal translation techniques, such as interpola-

tion and replacement, used markedly increased between the first and second translations,

whereas the number ofliteral translation techniques used decreased sharply. By contrast, the

number of liberal translation techniques, such as deletion and replacement, used dropped

between the first and second translations ofthe other four animated films, whereas the number

of litera] translation techniques used soared, except in Kburenai no Buta7.

To illustrate these trends more ciearly, I included interpolation, deletion, and replacement

under the general category of liberal translation techniques. In so doing, I can establish an

overall comparison of changes in the number ef liberal and literal translations between pre-

and post-2000 groups. The results are depicted in Figures 1 and 2.

Befbre 2000, the number ofliberal translation techniques used sharply increased, whereas

the number ofliteral translation techniques used was on the decrease. However, this situation

became reversed afier 2000, Around the turn ofthe millennium, the type oftranslation tech-

nique used in Miyazaki's animated works changed from liberal to literal, as clearly illustrated

in Figures 1 and 2, This finding concurs with the fbllowing remark made by Cindy and

Donald Heiwitt, translators and adapters ofthe post-2000 versions eflVausicadi ofthe P2illqy

ofthe }vand, My IVeighbor 7btoro, and Por:co Rosso: "It

Ltranslation] starts with us receiving




104 Ml'pt*scM 42 (2012)

400

300

200

100

o

l:･ll..um{Sgeitini･,....

'"',',i,ilL

pt Liberal

- .,tm,,tv"u,dy Literal

lst 2nd

Fjg. 1 Number of Translation fechnjques

before 2000

700600500400300200100

o

ve

1- m'T:le:Iti'lt"i･mtwixlg'Lm--ummrm.m-.mmnd

{gpmajge Liberal

ct.ime.･-･ww.;t･ Literal

lst 2nd

Fig. 2 Number of Tran$lation fechniques

after 2000

a direct translation of the script (I think it's always done by Jim Hubbert)." Translating

Miyazaki7s animated works is always conducted in collaboration with their co-translators,

Studio Ghibli, and distribution companies in America. Their translations are primarity based

on the source Japanese version, thus supportlng the view that the post-2000 transtations are

evidently source language oriented.

4. Qualitative Research and Discussion

The quantitative results show that a shift occurred at the turn of the millennium in the

translational attltude toward Miyazaki's animated works in America from a target language

orientation to a source language orientation. In this section, I further investigate specific difi

ferences between the pre- and post-2000 translations by fbcusing on the five animated works

that were retranslated iffto English in the 2000s: Kliriosutoro no Shirv, ktrenai no Buta, Ktrze

no 7lrni no 7Vbushika, Meg'o no 7Zxkdyubin (third version), and 7bnari no 7btoro. The different

translations ofthese works are examined in terms ofthe fo11owing features:

(1) Pauses and silences

(2) Patterns ofconversation (call-and-response style dialegue, fragmented dialogue)

(3) Figuresofspeech

(4) A]1 things Japanese

(5) Taboos

(6) Time- and culture-bound visual images

(7) Innerdepiction

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ADACHIReito TranslationsofHayaoMiyazaki'sAnimatcdWbrks 105

4.1 PausesandSilences

A previous study ¢ ornparing eleven Japanese animated works and eleven American ones

showed that the number efpauses and silences in the Japanese animated works significantly

decreased in the process oftranslation, whereas those in the American animated works did not

show such a tendency (Adachi). As Figure 3 shows, this tendency is true of the first trans-

lated versions ofMiyazaki's four animated works released after 2000. The original animated

works had 87 pauses and silences in total, but the number fe11 by more than 209,6 to 68 in the

pre-2000 translations. 'The

number ofpauses and silences remained almost at the same level

in the second translated versions released after 2000, increasing only slightly from 68 to 72.

This research suggests that it might be useful to examine further some ofthe important fea-

tures ofthe changes in the treatment ofthe original pauses and silences between earlier trans-

lated versions and current translated versions.

Excessive interpolation has disappeared from the post-2000 dubbed versions. A compari-

son of the pre- and post-2000 translated versions ofa passage from May'o no 7inkkyubin pro-

vides support for the preceding statement.

A comparison of the difTerent versions of this passage makes c]ear that a one-to-one

corregpondence exists between the number of lines of dialogue in the original and that of

the current translation. Many other examples can be cited that seem to support the view

that heavy editing in the English versions of the 1 990s has given way to a more appropriate,

Fig,

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

o

orig preL2000 post-2000 trans trans

3 Change in the Number of Pauses and Silences in Four of Miyazaki's Animated Works




106 mnxscttl42 (2012)

lable5 Comparison between Different Versions of Atfajo no 71iikkyubin

Characters Japanese Version Pre-2000Translation Post-2000 Transl ation

Friends

JijiJljiJijiMotherKikiKikiFather

Father

rf- tf- 1 #-}

NS ib 6 -9S

.x S 22x ft.

'lt ]st iJz li. ft. .$ e: 3-T D

k*b ).iS

Ge, Kiki! Ge, Kiki!Go, Kiki! Go!

Bear right,

Go left! Go lefi! Go left!

Okay.Aim

your broomstick!

Goed-bye, everybedy.

I'll miss you.

She's okay.

May our little baby be

well and have a safe trip,

Go, Kiki! Go, Kiki!Go, Kiki! Ge!

Aim your broomstick!

May our little baby be

well and have a safe trip.

ifnot faithfu1, translation.

Despite the aforementioned change, the number of pauses and si!ences in the post-2000

translations remains a]most at the same level as that ofthe pre-2000 versions. '1'he

main rea-

son is probably that the interpolation ofshort extra words occurs more frequently in the mo-

ments ef silence, especially in action scenes ofthe currerrt translation. They include exclama-

tiens, which are rarely written in scripts. Some typical examples found in 77ie Castle ofCagliostro are inteejections, such as

"hey,"

"oh,"

and "ha

ha," whieh are repeatcdly inserted

into long, fast-paced action scenes that lead up to the climax. In this manner, pauses and si-

lences are also skillfu11y avoided in the post-2000 translations.

Whereas the pre-2000 English translations include large and extreme modifications te fill

in pauses and silences in the original Japanese scripts, the post-2000 English translations

include the frequent use of fi11er words and inteejections to fu1fill the same objective. As a

result, the numbers ofpauses and silences in current translations remain practically equal to

those in previous translations. This finding suggests that, despite the growing popularity of

Japanese animated works in America, pauses and silences in scripts are not yet fully accepted

by the American audience.

4.2 Patterns ofConversation

4.2.1 Call-and-responseStyleDialogue

In iN{ly IVeighbor 7btoio, there are two consecutive scenes inwhich call-and-response pat-




ADACHIReito TranslationsofHayaoMiyazaki'sAnimatedWbrks 107

terns are observable in the brief exchange ofgreetings between Satsuki and the postman and

between Satsuki's father and Kanta, respectively. In the original Japanese version, both the

postman and Kanta respond silently with a gesture, However, in the 1993 English translation,

they express themselves through words, fbllowing the interactional conversation pattern of

call and response. In the 2006 dub, this pattern is lost, and the original silent gestures are

included. There are many more similar examples.

These changes reflect a difference in translational attitude between the two translated ver-

sions. As is often the case in Japanese animated works, convcrsation relies heavily on factors

other than explicit speech to convey messages, including nonverbal and shared cultural mean-

ings. In the earlier translated versions, these examples ofhigh-context communication were

one of the obvious targets for serious modification. However, the post-2000 translations

show that the trend has shifted back to the pattern of high-context communication in the

Japanese original,

4.2.2 Fragmented Dialogue

The unique features ofthe high-context dialogue in the original Japanese versions include

not only the incomplete pattern of call and response but also fragmented sentences. In the

fbllowing dialogue in Table 6, the repetition of fragmented sentences generates an escalating

rhythm ofthe girls' excitement about moving into a different home.

This conyersation is about a ramshackle house and a tall camphor tree growing behind it,

but the words "X"

C`house") and `L*"

("tree") are not uttered in the dialogue ofthe Japanese

version or the 2006 translation. Yet, these words are used in conversation in the l993 transla-

tion. Hence, the identities ofthe onscreen objects in the 1993 version are clarified by not only

pictures but also words, As the camera takes a tilt-up shot ofthe tall camphor tree in the sun,

fbr example, Satsuki's voice can be heard offscreen, saying, "Wow,

what a tree!" The earlier

translation, with its precise contextual messages, attempts to reproduce the structure of the

original and spell out the infbrmation explicitly in the dialogue so as to make up fbr the lack

of shared meaning.

By contrast, the 2006 translated version fbcuses more on the texture ofdialogue. Each line

ofdialogue is as short and crisp as the original version and has few rhetorical embellishments.

The 2006 version is basically an exact line-for-line translation of the original dialogue and

maintains the exact timing ofspeech. However, it is subject to some exceptions. In the source

Japanese text, for example, Mei gleefu11y echoes Satsuki's words, like "

[･ ge6" ("shabby") and

"af6tte3"' C`ghost"), Whereas the 1993 translated version omits these repeated words and




108 rec;ic'Jvatt,g42 (2012>

-lable6 Comparison between Different Versions of 7bnari no fotoro

Character Japancse Version Pre-2000Translation Post-2000Translation

Satsuki

MeiSatsuki

Mei

SatsukiMei

Satsuki

MeiSatsuki

2)EE}, lX75e

i'ge5ckS,ft]tJ-,edw,B4rt:Li.

ti6Ittr?

aso(koavtLZ).

zat'L4opt i rz

'( l" 6Le

5 ,k. ?el

oj .

Jit gg v>ta.

What a lot ofneat old

junl<.

Do you think it'shaunted?

Maybe Lt is!

Oh bQy! vCome

on,IbetIcan bcat

you around the house!

Hey, wait a minutel

It's completely rotten.

Uh-oh, it's going to fa1l

down.(Mei)

It's collapsing!

Wow, Mei, look up.

VVhat?Up

there, look.

Wow, what u tree!

It's giant!

Wl)xN'! It's creepy.

Creepy!

It looks Iike it could behaunted,

What?Haunted?･

Whoa, whoa.

Loek. It's rotten.

(Satsuki) It's collapsing!

Mei look at that! 'Huh?Look,

Wow! It's huge, isn't it?

phrases, the 2006 translated version enhances this reiteration feature ofthe conversation pat-

tern by increasing the number ofrepetitions from two to three times ("creepy," "haunted,"

and

"It's collapsing"). The 2006 version places greater importance on expressing the rhythm and

structure ofthe originai than on communicating its content verbatim.

4.3 FiguresofSpeech

A figure of speech, such as a simile, a metaphor, and an ironic expression, is a word or a

group of words that is used in a nonliteral sense to create rhetorical or vivid effect. Its use

defies literal translation. Among Miyazaki's animated works, rhetorical expressions are used

most frequently in Kurenai no Buta, The fbllowing conversation between Gina and Porco in"I}tble

7 is a notable examp]e:

Most of this phone conversation is one sided, with Porco, who is overwhelmed by the

power of Gina's remarks, speaking up only near the end. Gina's and PorcoTs lines contain

four figures of speech in all: "YEv e fi=dith"Nh"t .W. o ( 6 O ? "

C`YOu think 1'm your



The 　Sooiety 　of 　English 　Studies

ADACHI 　Reito　’1’ranslations 　ofHayao 　Miyazaki’s　Animated 　Works 109

Table　7　Comparison　between　Different　Versions　of 尸orco 　Rosso

Character Japanese　Version Pre−2000　Translation Post−2000 　Translation

Gina

Porco

Gina

人を伝言板か何かと

思ってるの？

いくら心配してもあん

た達飛行艇乗りは，女

を桟橋の金具くらいに

しか考えてないんで

しょう

今にロー

ストポークに

なっちゃうから

私イヤよそんなお葬式

飛ばねえ豚はただの豚

だ

バカ

What 　do　you　think　l　am ？

Your　answering 　scrvice

or　somothing ？

You 　never 　think　ofme 　as

anything 　more 　than　adoormat．

Keep　up 　the　way 　you’

re

going　and 　you　are 　goingto　be　a　roasted 　pork．

And 　I　don，

t　want 　that　to

happen．

A 　pig　that　doesn’t　fly　is

nothing 　but　a　groundedpork．

Jcrk．

The 　Italians　have　a

warrant 　out 　fbrvour　　　　　　　　　　　ゾarrest ，　remember ？

ldon ’t　care　how 　greatvour 　mechanic 　is　overげthere．

IdQn ，

t　wanna 　yell　at　you ，

but　ifyou　keep　acting 　so

pigheaded，　you’rc　gonna

end 　up 　dead．

Ican ，t　bear　to　go　to

anQther 　pilot’s　fUneral．

Come 　home，　will 　you？

Sorry，　baby．　Gotta　H》孔

Youjerk ！

bulletin　board　or　somethingl”

）；“

あんた達飛行艇乗りは，女を桟橋の金具くらいにしか

考えてないんでしょう”

（“ You 　flying　boat　pilots　only 　regard 　women 　as　nails 　in　a　landing

pier”

）；“

今にローストポークになっちゃうから

”

（“ Ybu ’

re　going　to　end 　up 　as　roast 　pork

someday”

）；and“

飛ばねえ豚はただの豚だ”（“A 　pig　who 　doesn’t　fly　is　just　an 　ordinary

pig”

）．　Gina　and 　Porco　engage 　in　circumlocution 　as　ifto　disguise　their　innermost　feelings．

　　The　first　English　translated　version 　is　based　on 　literal　translation．　 As 　in　the　original 　ver −

sion，　Gina　and 　Porco　speak 　figuratively，　but　modifications （e．g．，　the　metaphor 　of 　a　

t‘bulletin

board”　is　replaced 　with 　that　of 　an“answering 　service

，

”and 　the　simile 　of

‘‘nails　in　a　landing

pier” is　changed 　to　that　of 　a

“ doormat ”

）are　made 　because　the　original 　figurative　expressions

are　not 　the　same 　in　Engllsh．　 Although　some 　figures　of 　speech 　are 　modified，　the　 forms　of

rhetoric 　are　preserved　faithfully　 as　they　are ，　By　 contrast ，　 the　second 　English　translated

version 　shifts　emphasis 　to　fUnctional　translation　for　dynamic　equivalence 　by ‘ ‘dropping” alI

ofthese 　figures　ofspeech，　to　quote　Eugene　Nida．　 Gina　does　not 　mention 　a　

‘‘bulletin　board”

and 　c‘

nails 　in　a　landing　Pier，”

nor 　do　she 　and 　Porco　express 　themselves 　through 　the　rhetoric 　of

a‘‘

roasted 　pork”

and 　a‘‘flying　pig．

” They　instead　say 　what 　they　really 　mean，　using 　straight一

N 工工一Eleotronio 　Library 　




110 rptti(tlltS 42 (2012)

fbrward, unambiguous words and phrases, such as "dead,"

"funeral,"

and "Gotta

fly,"

The reason for this change in translational attitude, from literal to liberal, is to bridge the

gap between words and images. While Gina is talking on the phone, the camera shows her

tense body language and worried facial expressions, which indicate that she is desperate to

persuade Porco to come back. Figurative expressions containing words and phrases such as

"bulletin board," "nails

in a landing pier," and L`roasted

pork" not enly make it diMcu]t to

convey the meaning ofthe source text through translation but also are likely to put a damper

on the tense atmosphere created by the visual information.

The same is true of Porco's closing line: "ftejrJicL

JIHX(･g7k: f:iO)EXf:il." lt conveys the

impression of both a masochistic humor and the esthetics of dandyism, The first English

translated version ef this line reads, "A

pig that doesn't fly is nothing but a greunded pork."

This version is essentially a word-fbr-word translation. However, the code ofconnotation is

read diflerently from culture to culture and across time. The English translation ofthis sen-

tence has multiple layers ofmeaning, In its literal sense, this line refers to pigs in general.

Based on the context, Porco wants to keep flying, and his remarks are actually aimed at him-

self This line also brings to mind the English phrase "pigs

might fly." The negative connota-

tion of this English phrase can overshadow the ironic humor ofthe original sentence.

By contrast, the second English version makes a liberal translation without employing

rhetoric. It stresses function over meaning and is straight to the point. Moreover, it adds

another connotation to Porco's remark so that it works better as a closing line. The relation-

ship between Porco and Gina, as well as his parting words to her, "Gotta

Hy," cal]s to mind

the 1927 musical, S7iow Boat. One ofthe numbers in the musical is "Can't Help Lovin' Dat

Man," which includes the fo11owing lyrics: "Fish

got to swim, birds got to fly. I got to love

one man till I die. Can't help lovin' dat man ofmine." In the denouement ofthe musical, the

heroine, who retains her enduring and devoted love fbr her lover despite his ill-use, accepts

him after all. The connection between them corresponds exactly with that between Gina and

Porco. Hence, it may not be merely coincidental that the stories ofKurenai no Buta and Show

Boat are set in the 1920s.

4.4 All Things Japanese

The phrase "all

things Japanese" refers to any aspect oflife that is uniquelyJapanese. The

inclusion ofJapanese elements has increased in recent translations ofMiyazaki's animated

works. As a consequence, these translations adhere more closely to the original material. For

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example, Japanese elements are fbund in the fbllowing phrases: "Mptfttt)i<Ù"

("rice-

planting ho)iday") and `'ts

X o 8 re i g "(S"

(`Sust around the corner") from 7bnari no

7btoro and "UUN

UK t Ctrt]" C`member ofthe generation born in the first nine years ofthe

Showa peried") and "ts

g e t" oU g g" ("Sorry to have kept yeu waiting") from Kdriosutoro

no SZziro. In the pre-2000 version, the phrase "Hitas

J?. ilCJ5it" is translated into English simply

as "We

got off today from scheol," and no reference to rice planting is made. By contrast, this

phrase in the post-2000 version is more directly translated into English as "It's

a rice-planting

day"; it carries the connotation that there is no school on that particular day. Another example

is the difference in the translations fbr the phrase " E> s o L e t Si V(}." ln the initial trans-

lated versien, this phrase is translated as "Going

to get some fiowers," whereas in the current

version, it is translated as "I'mjust

offto run some errands," The vagueness of"run some

errands" is much closer to the sQurce Japanese than the specificity of "get

some flowers."

Whereas the line "H"fN

UL 8 }tk" is omitted in the pre-2000 translation, an attempt is made

in the post-2000 version to express the content of this line by transiating it as "devoted

old

type ofJapanese worker." An explanation ofthe cultural implication is provided in the post-

2000 version because equivalent words do net exist in English. Finally, the phrase "iBlli

e5

2t' 5 " k" in the pre-2000 version is translated into English as "Eajoy

your meal," a com-

mon phrase that a waiter or waitress uses when serving fbod. By contrast, this phrase is

translated in the post-2000 version as "Sorry

for the wait." The translation used in the post-

2000 version more closely adheres to the original source. When an individuaL working in a

restaurant or shop in Japan utters the phrase "

Bff e ti" 5 g g ," it is not meant as a sincere

apology but rather as a routine expression ofcourtesy,

4,5 [laboos

Oijbnt Dictionat:y ofEnglish (second edition) defines the word "anim6"

as `LJapanese

film

and television animation, typically having a science-fiction theme, and sometimes including

violent or explicitly sexual material." A comparison of pre- and post-2000 translations of

Miyazaki's animated works reveals that little has changed in terms ofthe translation oftabeo

expressions-that is, taboo expressions used in Miyazaki's works continue to be modified

considerably in English translations.

Some examples include the fbllowing: the Iine "7tfth"6l((･awt)k

iLE" ("That's why I

dislike women") is completety edited out because ofits sexist language; the racist term "

ct o

< J5 < 6 'll-

t'i" ("Pitch-black Blackie") is deraciaiized and translatcd into English as "soot




112 ree)RIS[{kl 42(2012)

gremlins"; the line "tii} )t;:V" t E H! E lg D < k E"' CCIfyou don't come out, we'11 pick out

your eyeballs") is cut fbr its violent language; and the line "ts

Lo ll ? -E`

eDiZ!-(F L ):it

3

V>" C`Pee-pee? Do it over there") is reversed in meaning and translated as "Put

your clothes

back on,"

Other topics considered taboo that undergo an even greater degree of modification in the

translation process include references to certain substances (e.g,, alcohol, tobacco, illegal

drugs, caffeine) and entertainment facilities fbr adults. For example, the question "

S A = al

Zei) 6 thi ? " ("You got a cigarette?") in Kurenai no Buta was initially translated word fbr word

as "De

you have a cigarette?" However, in the new English version, the reference to tobacco

is omitted, and the line is changed to "Ybu betcha." The Motion Picture Association of

America (MPAA) announced in 2007 that it would be more rigid about smoking in movies.

This group considers all types of smoking as part of its ratings criteria. For example, the

MPAA awarded Tim Burton's Alice in VVbnderland with a PG rating partly because a charac-

ter (the caterpillar) in the movie smokes tobacco from a hookah (tobacco pipe). Another

example ofa reference te a taboo substance is the use of the word "coffee"

in Mojo no

72ikklyubin. Osono offers coffee to thirteen-year-old Kiki in the original version, but the term

"coffee" is substituted with the term "het

chocolate" in later translations. This type ofrewrit-

ing seems to refiect the firm belief among some parents that children should not be given

beverages containing caffeine. Yet another example ofa reinforcement oftaboos in the media

is the incident that occurred during the Super Bowl halftime show in 2004 when Janet Jack-

son exposed her right breast (Davidson). This event was broadcast on CBS, a non-cable free

channel, where censorship is pushed to the extreme,

The growing trend in Western society toward the strict regulation ofcontent aimed at chil-

dren is also refiected in the recent translations ofMiyazaki's animated works. This trend to-

ward strict regulation, however, seems to be at odds with the trend toward faithfulness in the

translation of original Japanese animated works.

4.6 Time- and Culture-bound Visual Images

There are various e]ements in Miyazaki's animated works that are likely to be incompre-

hensible to an American audience because they are out ofdate or culture bound. In this case,

the problem is not with thc words being spokcn but rather with the onscreen images. This

type of situation raises the fbllowing question: How do time- and culture-bound visual im-

ages fbund in Japanese animated works affect the translation process?

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A good example is the scene in My Alaighbor 7btoro showing Satsuki's drawing ofMei as

a crab that is waiting fbra persimmon seed to grow. This scene is based on the Japanese

fblktale, "Saru

Kani Gassen" ["Monkey-Crab Baule"], which is about a crab that grows a

persimmon seed in the garden and watches over it every day. In 7bnari no 7btoro, Mei acts

exactly like the crab. So Satsuki draws a picture ofa little crab, that looks like Mei, in her

letter to her mother and names it "Mei Gani" ("Mei Crab"). The moment that the dra";ing of

the crab appears in closeup, fi11ing the screen, Satsuki narrates the scene in the original film,

stating "g

6 v("aJ'

]V de =AWdi fi =eC ij D ktskVi" ("She's just like the crab of the

monkey-crab fable"), Needless to say, this allusion to a Japanese fblktale would make a di-

rect translation ofthis line unac ¢ eptable to an American audience. A proper understanding of

this line depends on intertextuality, which I use here in the sense that texts acquire meaning

through referencing or evoking other texts, Hence, this line in the 1993 translated version of

this animated work was drastica]ly revised. In 1993 version, Satsuki says, "Oh

yes, Mei

sends her tove, and wanted to make sure you saw her drawing." The l993 dub explains in

passing that the picture ofthe crab was drawn by Mei but neglects to mention the meaning of

the crab, The Problem with this version is evidently that it makes no sense to the audience

why the crab looks like Mei. The closeup shot of the drawing further increases the audience's

confusion,

On the other hand, the 2006 translation adopted a ditferent method, making Satsuki speak,

"It's starting to make her crabby. Here's a picture ofMei as a crab." Although the 2006 ver-

sion does net mention the Japanese folktale, Satsuki's words do correspond with the images.

The pun on the word "crabby"

works well here: Just like the crab in the old story, Mei hovers

over the seeds every day, waiting in a crabby, or impatient, manner fbr them to sprout, Sat-

suki's description ofthe illustration-"Here's a picture of Mei as a crab"-helps make sense

ofthe cEoseup shot ofthe draNaJing. The Iiberal translation ofthis line ofdialogue in the 2006

version reestablishes the functional connection between the verbal and visual elements,

which is severed in the 1993 translation.

There are several other instances in the first sequence ofthe same film in which visual ele-

ments, such as characters' behavior and obiects on the screen, are difTicult fbr an American

audience to understand without any additional explanation oftheir cultural features. For ex-

ample, the scene in which Satsuki crawls on her knees across the fioor probably looks strange

te American children but is not to a Japanese audience, who is well aware of the Japanese

custom oftaking off one's shoes at the door. In both the 1993 translation and the Japanese




114 li'ec*J]Z ･iEtM

42 (2012)

original, Satsuki's father al]ows her to act in this way, without commenting on her behavior.

However, in the 2006 version, Satsuki's father says, "Don't

fbrget to take your shoes ofii;

girls." This interpolated line is intended to function as a reminder to the audience of the

Japanese custom. This line explains why Satsuki crawls on her knees across the Hoor and

why Mei troubles herselfto kick offher shoes before going into the house. Aithough the ad-

dition of this line is a minor change, it exemplifies the translational attitude ofthe post-2000

version, in which closer attention is paid to specifying visually unldentified, or pessibly

misidentified, elements.

4.7 lnnerDepiction

In animation, objects are depicted from the outside. Therefore, movement is depicted first

rather than psychology. Words are used te describe a character's state ofmind in greater

depth. Ifa gap exists between the verbal and visual images, it often becomes evident through

the process of translation. The text of the pre-2000 translated versions of Miyazaki's ani-

mated works tends to be edited rather heavily, with greater importance placed on the initia-

tive, independence, and selfLsuff:iciency ofv}'ords, whereas a literal translation style is used in

the post-2000 translated versions. However, the post-2000 translations often adapt the source

dialogue rather freely to provide the best combination of words and ether codes, inc]uding

pictui'es, The fbllowing are a few examples. In Kurenai no Buta, several girls on a sightsee-

ing ai rplane noti ce Porco and scre am, " li" fi' p

N7

EX .k I EX 25 A.･ .]z I Eat 25 v- !L ! 7b ts lp V i

V'" ! "

C`Look at that. Apig. Mr, Pig. Mr. Pig. How cute!"). In the original Japanese ver-

sion, their words sound like they are making fun og or even jeering at, him, but their actions

and body language suggest that they havejust run into a celebrity. In the first version trans-

lated into English, the girls say, "Look,

a flying pig. Look this way. We're gonna take your

picture." This version essentially retains the comical disparity ofthe message in the Japanese

version. Although it is not a word-fbr-word translation, it is a kind ofa sense-fbr-sense trans-

lation of the original dialogue. 'lhe

reference to Porco Resso as a "fiying

pig," fbr instance,

is an exaggeration ofthe humorous aspect ofthe source text. By contrast, the second trans-

1ated version eliminates the mocking tone. The girls do not call him "a

pig" but instead ad-

dress him by his actual name: "Porco

Rosso! I can't believe it! I lovc you, Porco Rossol"

The second English version emphasizes Porco Rosso's heroic side, In other words, the sec-

ond translation is more fliithfu1 to the visual message ofthe animated work as a type of mul-

timodal media.




ADACHIReito TranslationsofHayaoMiyazaki'sAnimated"larks 115

5. Conclusion

In this paper, 1 use quantitative and qua]itative approaches to compare the various transla-

tions ofMiyazaki's six animated works. Based on the study's findings, I am now in a position

to answer the three questions posed in the Introduction section,

The first question fbcuses on how the original English translations ofMiyazaki's animated

works di ffer from subsequent versions. As Japanesc animated works have gained recognition

in America during the 2000s, their translations, which used to underge varied degrees of

modification in the 1980s and 1990s, have become more faithfu1 to the originals as a whole.

A metrica] comparison between first and subscquent translated versions that were available

befbre and after 2000 shows that modifications such as interpelation, omission, and replace-

ment increased in number, whereas word-fbr-word translation was on the decrease in the

1980s and 1990s. By contrast, the situation has reversed itselfin the 2000s, with the number

of literal translations soaring lately.

The second question addresses the linguistic and cultural aspects of subsequent transta-

tions. According to the qualitative research ofthe post-2000 translations, multimodal factors

are involyed, revealing hovvr specific features ofMiyazaki's animation in particular are trans-

lated. The general trend toward faithfu1 translation is reflected in some ofthe verbal features,

such as patterns of conversation and the discussion of uniquely Japanese aspects of life, as

well as theme and characterizatlen in general. However, some elements such as pauses and

silences, figures of speech, and taboo tepics remain in the culture-bound category and defy

literal translation.

The third question deals with the visual and auditory components in the subsequent transla-

tions of Miyazaki's animated "'orks. Attempts to be faithfu1 not only to the source text but

also to the multimodal situations (e,g., screen images and sounds) are detected in the subse-

quent translations. When an obvious conflict exists between the verbal and visual messages,

current translated versions prioritlze the visual message, thus maintaining the sense-for-sense

equivalence as an audiovisual entertainrnent.

The results ofthis study show that the pre-2000 translations adopted a method that is con-

sistent with a "low-context"

culture ofAmerica-that is, infbrmation and meaning are likcly

to be explicitly stated in the message or communication. Until Japanese animated works

started gaining recognition from the American public, such a process of adapting them to the

American market from a linguistic and cultural point ofview is considered to have been nec-




116 rlijll*JZM 42 (2012)

essary as entertainment and effbctive in promoting these animated works throughout Ameri-

can society. However, problems arise when the importance of independence and selflsuth-

ciency ofdialogue is canied too far in the process oflocalization: One such problem is the

discrepancy between verbal and visual messages (e.g,, Satsuki's drawing ofMei as a crab),

Because the functional transiation ofdialogue is heavily restricted by specific visual images,

translations have displayed a tendency to swing between excessive interpolation (too many

words) and excessive deletion (too few vLTords).

At the turn ofthe millenniurn, there was a shift in the translational attitude toward faithfu1

translation ofthe high-context communication ofthe source Japanese dialogue in Miyazaki's

films in which characters are supposed to share the same knowledge and assumptiens. The

post-2000 translated versions attempt to be faithfu] not only to the original dialogue but also

to the source images. There appears to be a grewing acceptance ofJapanese animated works

among eager anime fans, ifnot by the general public, in America3.

The post-2000 translations are so high context that they are dependent on the entire set of

codes, including screen images, Animation is one type ofmedia in which moving images and

sound effects are wcd together in collaboration with vvords. Its distinctive feature is the direct

influence ofvisual appea] on human emotions. Concrete words ereate mental images in the

minds ofaudience members. Through inner images, words arouse emotions. However, ifthe

mental images do not coincide "rith the concrete images that are displayed on the screen, lines

of dialogue are adj usted to reconcile the contradiction. This dilemma is one of the major fac-

tors defying literal translationL Here, a struggle fbr adequacy oecurs between the transla-

tional attitucles toward the original screen images and the original Japanese text. This strug-

gle is expected to bring fresh and illuminating insights into the concept of audiovlsual

translation.

Notes

1 Though there is no space tbr an extended cunsideration, it is irnportant to discuss here -'hy Miyazaki

could epen a niche market in consumer culture and gajn popularity on a global basis. I would like to

mention briefiy here that the discussion should eover a widc range oftopics, such as a broad fati base,

visual aestheties, techno-orientalism, complex stories with mature characters, statelessness, and mar-

keting strategies.

2 According to 0xford Dietionat:y ofEngiish, both -'ords appeared fbr the first timc in the 1980s,




ADACHIReito TranslatiensefHayaoMiyazaki'sAnimatcdWorks 117

3 I use Romanized characters fbr original Japanesc titles.

4 The data fbr the present study is taken from the first twenty minutes of each of the six films by

Miyazaki, so it seems reasonable to suppose that acertain degree ofhomogeneity in the data is en-

sured, Depending on the diversity of films selected, hewcvcr, it is highLy possible that data can be

biased due to the uneven distribution ofwords in a film. One way to solve this problem is, fbr exam-

ple, to take twenty-minute samples randomly from at ]east three differcnt parts ofa film and calculate

thc mean.

5 Word-fbr-word translations of original Japanese into English are provided within parentheses, and

English titles ofjapanese animated works are shown in italics in the text as they are or in square

brackets,

6 iLdbj'o no 7lrkkyubin occupies a unique posltion in the study of differences in translational attitude

because three different translated versions (1989, 1 998, and 201O) of it exist; however, it cannet be

discussed here fbr want of space.

7 The only cxception is Kutenai no Buta, which is intended fbr an adult audience, I would ]ike to dis-

cuss this issue further on another occasion,

8 lt would be too much to say that the same observation applies to Japanese animation as a whole. To

discuss the entire Japanese anirn ation is beyond the scope ofa briefpaper, it calls for further consid-

eratlon.

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(2004): 195-205.

- . "Eigo-ban

Anime Sakuhin ni miru Honyaku no Mondai 2: Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi no

Baai," TProblem ofTranslation Seen in English-Translated Animations: In the Case of,l`ly AJeighbor

7btoro], fournal ofthe haculty qfGlobal Communication, Siebold Uhiversity qfA"agasaki 6 (2005):

273-84.

Documents

A Diachronic Comparison ofthe English Translations