A Field Guide to Mining Machine Application

A FIELD GUIDE TO MINING MACHINE APPLICATION

Version 1.05 October 2002

Caterpillar Global Mining

Equipment Management

Scope: This document is primarily intended for use by Caterpillar and CAT dealer Project Managers as a ready reference for the assessment of machine application and haul road conditions on their project sites. It may also prove useful to other Caterpillar and CAT dealer personnel, in need of a concise reference tool. It contains practical Benchmarking data that is achievable with correct and well-managed machine application. It is also intended to provide guidance on assessing haul road design and maintenance that supports sound industry practices. Contents: Basic Application Benchmarks and Operating Techniques Page

Loading Tools 1 Trucks 2 Graders 2 Track-type tractors 3 Scrapers 3 Drills 4

Basic Haul Road Design and Maintenance

Design 5 Maintenance 6

Miscellaneous

Management Strategies 7 Hauling System Application Zones 7 Support Equipment 8 References / Further Reading 8

BASIC APPLICATION BENCHMARKS and OPERATING TECHNIQUES Loading Tools

A Field Guide to Mining Machine Application – V1.05 October 2002 Page 1

Machine Type Rope Shovels Hydraulic Front Shovels

Hydraulic Backhoes (ME) Wheel Loaders

Optimum Bench Height Top of boom sheaves Just above

boom/stick pivot

Length of stick, or Between truck side-rail and duck-tail

Bucket hinge pin height at maximum

lift

Cycle Times 28 – 32 seconds (Av. 31 secs)

26-28 seconds (Av. 27 secs)

24 – 26 seconds (Av. 25 secs)

35-42 seconds (Av. 40 secs)

Bucket Fill Factor in well shot Rock 100 – 105 % 90 – 100 % 80 – 110 % 90 - 110 %

Most Efficient Pass Match 3 – 4 passes 4 – 6 passes 4 – 6 passes 4 – 6 passes

First pass must be a good pass (operator has entire truck exchange to get it FULL) Ensure truck is correctly 'spotted' by loader (with first pass, or the horn)

Watch for …

70 – 90 degree maximum swing

Efficient support

machine activity to keep floor clean

Power cable maintenance

Never operate a

bare edge

First two passes: Upper half of face 3rd / 4th passes:

Load out the centre Final passes: Clean up floor

Keep work area as tight as possible;

as for Backhoe

Excessive prying or corner loading; don't swing into

pile

Maximise GET tip contact & minimise bowl contact (i.e. boom up and curl

bowl through material)

Never operate a

bare edge

Tight work zone; (ideally dig no more than 45

degrees either side of centre line, i.e. work over

idlers) and (swing no more than 60

degrees to truck)

Poorly blasted toe

Maximise GET tip contact & minimise

bucket contact (i.e. enter face with tips at the

correct angle, and curl bucket through

material)

Never operate a bare edge

Enter pile straight-on, with floor of bucket parallel to pit floor Frame straight when digging Lift bucket before crowding Bucket full by the time lift arms are horizontal Keep time in face below 0.2 minutes (12 seconds) 1½ wheel turns only from face to truck Never operate a bare edge

Favourable Site Conditions

Working a Single Face of the correct

height

Stable / Level Floors

Wide benches (to facilitate truck maneuverability)

Well shot material

Selective Digging: can also

efficiently mine multiple targets

Tight Load Area,

with tight material

Can work in Poor Floor Conditions

Angle tracks

slightly to face

Define dig pattern: L to R or R to L

and maintain pattern

Bench height (worth 10 to 15% extra production over too high)

Truck Below HEX

(worth 15-20% over same level loading)

Tight Load Area,

with tight material

Short swing - 60o (worth 5% over 90o)

Well shot material

Remove farthest

pass during truck exchange

Maintain key-cut

Level, Dry, Smooth, Firm

Floors

Sufficient crossfall and

drainage in high rainfall areas to

minimise tyre damage

Well fragmented materials that

minimise crowding time, particularly in the toe-area of

the cut

Lower face profile

Multi face loading

Adverse Site Conditions. Avoid …

Poor Underfoot

Excessive tramming

Low benches

High Benches

Excessive Tramming Unstable benches

Low Angle of Repose material

Poor/Wet Underfoot Tight Load Areas

Tyre damage due to poor clean-up

Trucks Exchange Time* Good (target) 0.7 minutes (42 seconds) Acceptable 0.9 minutes (54 seconds) * (Elapsed time from when loaded truck first moves until next truck receives its first load) Load Placement Lateral Centre load above Hoist Cylinders Longitudinal Centred about centreline of body Target a 66% / 33% load split rear / front. General No substantial amount of material on headboard.

Enough Freeboard to minimise spillage from sides through corners and from the rear on grades.

Watch for… Truck Position Spotted in correct position by loader operator, rather than where truck operator decides to stop. Can be spotted by horn, or by first pass. Positioned to help facilitate faster cycles

at 45 degrees for wheel loaders depending on loading technique for shovels

and backhoes Not parked with rear tyres up on foot of pile. No excessive Queuing or Waiting for loading tool. Safety Truck parked with Parking Brake ON, Trans. in 'N'

(Retarder may be applied in addition to Parking Brake, but Parking Brake must be applied whenever truck is stopped more than momentarily).

Body Watch for wear-through of liner plates:

Dual Slope bodies typically wear the front 'triangle' of the rear slope, and rear corners. On Flat Floor bodies, wear is typically even across the r orear 1/3 of the flo .

Also ensure correct alignment of body pads.

Tyres Tyres offer a valuable insight into road and pit conditions. Look for sidewall cutting, impact and cutting in the tread face, erosion and cracking in the bead/flange area, etc.

Check TKPH (TMPH) for all chosen haul profiles. Visit the tyre 'graveyard' and look for scrapped tyres with significant tread % remaining. Ask why, identify causes and work to improve life and tread utilisation.

Graders Watch for … General Grade in 2nd or 3rd gear (6–11 km/h / 4-7 mph).

Maintain 1st gear for all ripping. Ensure cutting edges maintain protection of moldboard; change ahead of moldboard damage. Keep edges sharp for improved penetration

Blade Position Top of moldboard should typically be 50-100 mm - Tip Angle (2-4 inches) ahead of the cutting edge; i.e.

blade tipped forward and edge at 90o to road. Maintaining a constant tip angle in operation

minimises cutting edge wear. - Blade Angle Use widest possible pass width, but increase

angle if material flows around leading edge. When using the Graderbit system or a serrated edge, use a blade angle of 10 degrees maximum.


(For further information consult 'H-series Motor Grader Application Guide' AEGQ0945)

Track-type Tractors Watch for… General Operation Excessive tramming between jobs. Loose or missing track hardware.

Ripping General Rip downhill wherever possible. When ripping for scrapers, rip in the same direction as the scrapers will load. Generally, speeds of 1.5-2.5 km/hr (1-1.5 mph) at 2/3 throttle will give the most economical production, with reduced speeds in shock/impact conditions.

Ripper Position Begin pass with ripper tip rearward, then pull

tip forward / under the tractor after tip penetrates ground… ripper shank should always be lying backwards when ripping. Excessive track slippage, and blunt tips are good indicators that ripper position is not correct.

Dozing General Use slot dozing wherever possible, and start doze

from the front of the cut. Work to the rear, moving back 1½ to 2 machine lengths each additional pass. Slot depth to be a maximum of 2/3 blade height.

Take advantage of any available slope.

Steer with the blade when dozing, not the steering clutches; track slap in the middle of a cut is a good indicator that the clutches are being used rather than blade controls. Minimise Corner loading & Prying, and Impact; Maintain a steady dozing pressure.

Blade Position On Dual Tilt machines, begin cut with blade

tilted forward for better penetration, then begin to lay blade back when about ½ full. Continue to fill blade whilst laying back until blade is full, and racked fully back.

GET Penetration ripper tip reinforcing ribs must face

upward; they ship on the shank with the rib down. Ensure GET pins, retainers and bolts are installed correctly, and are not missing. Never operate a bare shank. For further information consult publication; 'The Handbook of Ripping' AEDK-0752

Scrapers Loading Time Good 0.4 – 0.5 minutes (24 – 30 seconds)* Average 0.6 – 0.7 minutes (36 – 43 seconds)* * Open bowl / push-loaded WTS (shorter time for tandem, longer for single powered) Consult publications for self- loading (elevating/auger) and push-pull machines.

For further information consult publications; 'Making the most of Scraper Potential' – AEGQ2380


'Optimum Scraper Load Time' – AEGC0195

Drills The primary controls of a drill rig are Pulldown force and rotational speed. Rates of penetration and rotation torque are functions of ground conditions and these ttings. se

Typical Size Classes

(25000–40000 lb) 110 – 180 kN Pulldown

(40000-60000 lb) 180 – 270 kN Pulldown

(60000–125000 lb) 270 – 570 kN Pulldown

Track Drills

Typical machines in this class

Driltech DK25, DK40 Ingersol IR25, IR45 Reedrill SK30, SK45

Driltech DK55 Ingersol IR60 Reedrill SK50

Driltech DK75, DK90, DK1190

Ingersol DM-M3, DM-H, DM-P

Pit Viper 351 P&H 250XP, 100XP

Driltech Gator Ingersol

LNEAC 500, 600 Tamrock (most

models)

Depths Up to 40 m (130 feet)

multi-pass 10-12 m (30–40 feet)

single pass

Up to 60 m (200 feet) multi-pass

12-20m (40-66 feet) single pass

Up to 100 m (330 feet) multi-pass

14-20 m (15-22 yd) single pass

Up to 50 m 165 feet) multi-pass

8-10 m (26–35 feet) single pass

Hole sizes (generic)

100 – 200 mm (4–8 inches)

150 – 250 mm (6–10 inches)

200 – 350 mm (8–14 inches)

Up to 150 mm (Up to 6 inches)

Rotation speeds : Coal

120 – 150 rpm 100 – 130 rpm 80 – 110 rpm 80 – 120 rotary

Rotation speeds : Hard Rock

100 – 120 rpm (up to 40 rpm

hammer) 80 – 110 rpm 70 – 90 rpm Up to 40 rpm

hammer

Penetration Coal *

40 – 60 m/hr (130-200 ft/hr)

40 – 80 m/hr (130–260 ft/hr)

40 – 100 m/hr (130–330 ft/hr)

30 – 50 m/hr (100–165 ft/hr)

Penetration Hard Rock +

10 – 30 m/hr (30–100 ft/hr)

10 – 40 m/hr (30–130 ft/hr)

10 – 50 m/hr (30–165 ft/hr)

10 – 30 m/hr (30–100 ft/hr)

Watch for… #

Excessive vibration (except for hammer drills) Drill “plunging” Excessive pulldown pressures Excessive rotation speeds Bailing velocity Chip/cutting size Correctly leveled machine, and level floors

Favourable Site

Conditions

Level floor Unbroken ground from rework or back break Minimal water ingress Regular pattern spacing Minimal fracturation of ground Limited tramming Adequate maneuvering space

Table notes: * Penetration rates in Coal can vary significantly depending upon rotation speed, drill bit

used, pulldown pressure applied and intact rock strength. Penetration rates in coal are more affected by operator skill level than down-hole conditions or rock type.

+ Penetration rates in Hard Rock are almost directly proportional to intact rock strength… rule of thumb: the harder the rock, the lower the penetration rate.

# Excessive vibration : the drill bit is bouncing off the bottom of the hole, which may knock out the carbide tips on the cones and causing excessive wear.

Drill “plunging” occurs when the pulldown hydraulics enter into an oscillation, and can be eliminated by better control of pulldown pressure.

Excessive pulldown causes damage to the drill bit by overloading, and wears items such as pulldown chains/ropes/cylinders/motors, the mast structure, and rotation motors.

Excessive rotation speeds can cause premature wear of the drill bit from overheating. Bailing velocity is often incorrect; should be set at 1500–2500 m/min (5000-8250 ft/min). Low bailing velocity causes cuttings to fall back, blocked drill bits, and collapsed holes

behind the drill bit. Chips don't eject far enough from the hole collar. High bailing velocity causes excessive wear of the drill bit, drill steels, and the under

side of the drill deck, and wastes energy that is not required to adequately do the job. Chip/Cutting size gives the best indication of drilling function. Cuttings may vary from

pea to golf ball size, depending on drill size and rock type. Fine powder indicates grinding rather than cutting.


A Correctly Leveled drill, and a flat floor are vital to ensure all holes are drilled parallel, and collar elevations are maintained. Every one degree of tilt/roll moves the toe of the hole by 1 m per 10 m (3 ft per 30 ft) drilled; over a 50 m (150 ft) hole, the toe can be out by up to 5 m (15 ft). This has a huge effect on fragmentation when blasted, particularly in the toe area, which can seriously affect ease of digging, GET wear and machine productivity.

BASIC HAUL ROAD DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE

Design Horizontal and general To maximise safe working, corners and crests must Vertical Alignment be designed such that machine operators are

capable of seeing and avoiding hazards when travelling at normal operating speeds. These calculations must be completed using worst case scenarios; i.e. smallest obstacle, longest stopping distance, highest expected speeds, wet roads, etc.

Cross-slopes On Flats Apply the minimum slope to maintain drainage for

expected rainfall conditions on site. If conditions permit, consider a 2% constant crossfall, with loaded trucks running on the 'uphill' side of the road. This is recommended ahead of centreline 'crowning' to help optimise tyre load sharing across the rear of the truck. Otherwise, a crown with minimum slope angle.

On Grades Minimal cross-slope required unless rainfall is very heavy, as drainage is provided by downgrade.

Grades General Smooth, and of constant grade to minimise

transmission shifts, and maintain higher average grade speed. This also allows more constant braking effort on return journey.

Corners Radii Use maximum practical radius.

Keep as constant and smooth as possible. Super-elevation Employ if speeds exceed 15 km/h (10 mph)per

Performance Handbook (PHB) recommendations (Tables section). Super-elevation greater than 10% should be used with caution due to the danger of sideways slippage in wet conditions.

Road Width 1 way Straights/Corners A minimum of three truck widths is recommended. 2 way – In Straights A minimum of 3.5 truck widths. - In Corners A minimum of four (4) truck widths. Bench Width General Truck to clear loader under full acceleration. Min. width = machine turning radius + safety berm Drainage General Must be able to adequately carry away maximum

expected rainfall, with a minimum of puddling or pot- holing, or entry of water into the road base.

Safety Berms All locations Berm should be a minimum ½ wheel height at the (windrows) dump edge, and along all haulroad / highwall

edges. Check against local mining regulations.

Rolling Resistance For Off-Highway trucks running radial-ply tyres, assume a minimum RR (rolling resistance) of: 1.5% for hard, well-maintained, permanent haulroads 3% for a well maintained road with little flexing 4% for a road with 25 mm (1”) tyre penetration 5% for a road with 50 mm (2”) tyre penetration 8% for a road with 100 mm (4”) tyre penetration 14% for a road with 200 mm (8”) tyre penetration


In practice, a 5% increase in rolling resistance can result in up to a 10% decrease in production, and a 35% increase in production costs.

Maintenance Rules of Thumb Can you travel comfortably at 60 km/h (35 mph) on haulroad in a

light vehicle (ute/manhaul/pick-up truck)? Does the haulroad begin at the loading face and end at the dump? i.e. Can you travel at a reasonable speed up to the dump zone?

Soft / Wet Areas It is far more practical to fully remove wet/soft spots in the

haulroad completely and refill, than to continually try and maintain. Fix it once, fix it right!

General Dust Watering to remove the hazard of dust also helps maintain

Compaction (and strength) of the road base. Consider using 'checker board' or ‘spot’ intermittent watering pattern on slopes to reduce the risk of slippage during braking.

Analysis Tools ASA Use ASA analysis to assess machine application severity:

to identify locations / features on the road for improvement to quantify the severity of the haul from strut pressure data to illustrate transmission shift frequency & gear on grade to identify brake / retarder application (frequency & location)

FPC Use FPC to compare actual cycle times with theoretical values: are trucks achieving predicted speed on grades? are trucks cycling in predicted cycle times? Are truck wait times at the loader in the predicted range? If not, investigate possible causes:

rough / slippery roads causing operators to slow higher rolling resistance than planned / expected tight corners forcing machine to slow poor visibility due to dust or obscured views Pinch points, STOP signs at intersections, etc.

VIMS Use VIMS to help manage machine application: Datalogger data (export to ASA) to quantify haulroad conditions Better Payload management to optimise speed on grade Check Event Logs for high brake temps., engine overspeeds, etc.

Visual Inspections while driving the haul road. Watch for… Loading Zone A smooth floor, with adequate water removal, kept clear of debris

fallen from the face, and from trucks as they leave the zone. Watch trucks are not backing onto rocks fallen from the face, or driving over rocks spilled during loading, as this damages tyres and powertrain components, and adversely affects payload accuracy.

Avoid tight, high speed turns as trucks return to the load area. Can the truck leave the loading zone under full and continuous acceleration, or is the loading zone too tight, too rough or too congested with other machines to allow this to occur?

Main Haulroad A well maintained, smooth haulroad, with sufficient drainage, free from potholes, ruts and gullies, with smooth/constant grades, adequate passing room (road width), adequate corner radius (super-elevated if necessary) etc., that allows safe and reliable operation at the highest possible road speed.

Is spillage that falls from moving trucks removed quickly? Are there signs of rubber being deposited on tight or rocky turns? Are operators applying high braking forces to negotiate corners? Can the truck achieve expected road speeds for all segments?

Dump Zone A smooth floor that allows trucks to maintain speed until they reach dump zone, entering parallel to edge and braking in a straight line he dump. before turning and stopping to reverse to tSafety berms of regulation height along the entire edge.


Ensure dump is stable, or dump short and push off.

MISCELLANEOUS Management Strategies Presenting Machine Application issues to Mine Management in a language they understand; i.e. Productivity (lost or gained), and Cost per Tonne. Identify the potential to improve productivity:

Better bucket fill factors through; Improved fragmentation Correct bucket selection, GET selection and GET maintenance Correct bench heights Correct loader orientation to face

Faster loader cycle times through; Correct orientation to face Correct Truck Placement Improved Material condition Improved floor conditions

Higher average OHT road speeds through; Smoother Roads (including loading and dump zones) Use VIMS/TPM with ASA

Minimise Rolling Resistance Minimise truck queuing time at the loader Better haulroad designs that: reduce switchbacks remove cross-overs with STOP signs allow constant speed / gear on grades

Better Payload control to ensure highest possible gear on grade Use of VIMS/TPMS and VIMS Supervisor

Use CAT Software Tools (FPC, EMF, DOZSIM, etc.) to:

Compare Theoretical with Actual Grade Speeds / Cycle Times Fuel Consumption Total Machine / Fleet Productivity

Model the Effects on Total Productivity through changes to: Average road speeds higher on-grade speeds reduced Rolling Resistance reduced corner severity removal of speed limits

Improved Bucket Fill Factors and Truck / Loader match Reduced Truck Exchange and Waiting Times Reduced Fuel Consumption Improved Component Life and Machine/Fleet Availability Improved Tyre Life / Reduced Tyre Costs

Hauling System Application Zones Consider whether the most economic earthmoving system is being used. The following distance values are rule of thumb, and vary with underfoot conditions, material type, required production rate, and operator skill requirements:

Dozers 0 to 100 metres (0 to 350 feet) Load and Carry 50 to 120 metres (150 to 400 feet) Scrapers 120 to 1200 metres (400 to 4000 feet) Artic. Trucks 120 to 1200 metres (400 to 4000 feet) Rear Dump Truck 120 to 1500 metres (400 to 5000 feet)


Wagon / Hauler 1200 to 10 000 metres (4000 to 35 000 feet)


Support Equipment Dozers Consider the benefits outlined in 'Management Strategies' when Wheel Dozers correct use of support machines allows optimum loader Graders productivity, maximum grade speed, minimum impact of major Water Carts component lives, maximum tyre life, maximum haulroad life, and most

importantly, maximum Operational Safety. Also consider that Wheel Dozers are typically more cost effective

than Track-type Dozers in lighter applications such as haul road and shovel clean-up, and offer greater speed for better coverage and improved flexibility.

References / Further Reading Caterpillar Performance Handbook (PHB) FPC - Fleet Production and Cost software EMF - Earthmoving Fundamentals software Load Study Forms; available on request Literature:

Handbook of Ripping; AEDK0752 5130 / 5230 Applications Guide; AEDK0128 H-series Motor Grader Application Guide; AEGQ0945 994 Bucket Selection Guide; AEDK0268 Making the most of Scraper Potential; AEGQ2380 Optimum Scraper Load Time; AEGC0195 GET Inspection and Maintenance Guide; PEXT8033 GET Service Guide; PEGP7030

Videos: 24H Grader Introduction; TEVN3797 24H Operating Techniques; AEVN4741 / AEVP4741* 5130B/5230 Front Shovel Application Techniques; AEVN4380 / AEVP4380* 5130B/5230 ME Application Techniques; AEVN4381 / AEVP4381* 994 Operating Tips; AEVN2947 GET Operating Tips; PEVN4009 / PEVP4009* Managing Pit Operations: Becoming a Pro; AEVN5042 / AEVP5042*

* Denotes videos in PAL system format. Others are available in NTSC only.

Editor's Note : Every effort has been made to ensure that the information in this document is correct, and represents practical and realistic advice, and achievable benchmark targets. This document is Version 1.05 and includes changes in several key areas. All changes are shown in RED to aid identification from version V1.04. These changes will appear in the Reference Guide to Mining Machine Applications (AEDK0391) at a later date. Global Mining welcome corrections, comments and suggestions for future revisions. Please send submissions to: Jim Davey and/or Matt McLeod Equipment Management Caterpillar Global Mining [email protected] [email protected]

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A Field Guide to Mining Machine Application