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A hoard of Nilotic nacreous shells from Egypt toJericho (Early Bronze II, 3000–2800 BCE): Theirfinding, content and historical archaeologicalimplications

Lorenzo Nigro, Daria Montanari, Francesco Mura, Jehad Yasine & TeresaRinaldi

To cite this article: Lorenzo Nigro, Daria Montanari, Francesco Mura, Jehad Yasine & TeresaRinaldi (2018) A hoard of Nilotic nacreous shells from Egypt to Jericho (Early Bronze II, 3000–2800BCE): Their finding, content and historical archaeological implications, Palestine ExplorationQuarterly, 150:2, 110-125, DOI: 10.1080/00310328.2018.1425957

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00310328.2018.1425957

Published online: 14 Jun 2018.

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A hoard of Nilotic nacreous shells from Egypt to Jericho (EarlyBronze II, 3000–2800 BCE): Their finding, content andhistorical archaeological implicationsLorenzo Nigro , Daria Montanari , Francesco Mura , Jehad Yasine andTeresa Rinaldi

ABSTRACTThe Tell es-Sultan, ancient Jericho, is amongst the earliest “cities”that rose in the Southern Levant between the end of 4th and thebeginning of the 3rd millennium BCE. The site is being excavated,studied and rehabilitated for tourism by Sapienza University ofRome and the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquitiessince 1997. In 2017, during the 13th season of excavation, anunexpected discovery occurred: five Chambardia rubens shellshave been found piled up in a dwelling unit dating back to theEarly Bronze Age IB-II. The discovery is a tangible evidence oftrade and cultural interconnections between the Southern Levantand Egypt, as these shells belong to a species that is only beenfound to live in the Nile. Moreover, chemical analysis, andthorough Scanning Electron Microscopy examination revealedthat the shells contained Manganese Dioxide, an inorganiccompound used as make-up ingredient in ancient Egypt, andavailable in the ores of the Sinai. These findings strongly supportthe existence of a link between the urban rise in EB IB-II throughinternational trade of luxury goods, and are suggestive of theemergence at Jericho of a ruling elite that was influenced by Egypt.

KEYWORDSJericho; Egypt; Early Bronze II;Chambardia rubens;urbanisation; trade;Manganese dioxide

1. Introduction

Excavations at Tell es-Sultan, ancient Jericho (Palestine; Figure 1), located at the core of thehomonymous oasis near the spring of ‘Ain es-Sultan (a 5000 litre × minute water resource:Nigro 2014c), are being carried on by the joint Italian-Palestinian Expedition of SapienzaUniversity of Rome and the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (henceforth MOTA) ofPalestine since 1997 (Nigro 2016). They were focused on the exploration of the BronzeAge city (c. 3400–1200 BCE), one of the oldest and more resilient urban sites of the SouthernLevant (Nigro 2014a, 68–72).1 These initial explorations allowed the reconstruction of thecity plan with its double-line city-walls and the identification of the city palace, its templeand the main street leading to the dense dwelling quarter on the northern plateau of thetell (Nigro 2016, Figure 8). Moreover, they made it possible to describe over a broad timelinea peculiar example of the urban rise and flourishing of a city as well as its final collapse anddemise (Nigro 2013, 4–5; 2017).

© Palestine Exploration Fund 2018

CONTACT Lorenzo Nigro lorenzo.nigro@uniromaI.it Department of Oriental Studies, Sapienza University of Rome,Italy

PALESTINE EXPLORATION QUARTERLY2018, VOL. 150, NO. 2, 110–125https://doi.org/10.1080/00310328.2018.1425957

During the 2017 season, a hoard of five nacreous shells (Figure 2) was uncovered whilecleaning a dwelling unit in the northern quarter of the town. The identification of themussels’ species (Chambardia rubens) and the analysis of their content made it possibleto establish a theory about their usage within their archaeological context and to hypoth-esize the significance of this finding in a much broader horizon of Jericho at the dawn of itsurban experience.

The mussels were carefully removed along with their contents and the soil lump in whichthey were buried and safely transferred to the Museum of the Near East, Egypt and Med-iterranean (www.lasapienzatojericho.it/Museo) at Sapienza University (see D. Montanari;§ 3.). This transfer was made possible thanks to the kind courtesy of the MOTA. Theshells content was sampled (T. Rinaldi) and analysed (F. Mura) by the CNIS (Center forNanotechnology Applied to the Engineering of University La Sapienza; § 4.), suggesting

Figure 1. Satellite map of Southern Levant with the location of Tell es-Sultan/ancient Jericho inPalestine.

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historical-archaeological reflections (§ 5.). After sampling, they have been carefully restored(S. Tricoli) and temporarily displayed in the Museum before they will be shipped back tothe MOTA in Ramallah, Palestine.

2. The find spot: the stratigraphy, pottery and chronology of L.135

The shells were carefully recovered from a burnt collapse layer inside Locus 135, a roombelonging to a dwelling unit (House D) ascribed to initial Early Bronze Age II (c.3000–2900 BC), on the basis of its stratigraphy: it lay about 1 m underneath the overlyingstone foundations of the Early Bronze IIIA city-walls (Nigro 2006, 363, fig. 22). The date ofthis context is corroborated by pottery finds from both Loci 135–136 (Nigro 2010, pl.XX:7–9), as well as by the stratigraphy of nearby Area F (Nigro 2010: 83–104). HouseD has a simple plan with two juxtaposed rooms (L.135, L.136) and a corridor/staircase.It is markedly different from the other nearby multiple-room houses (Figure 3). Due to

Figure 2. The Chambardia rubens shells. Shells discovered at Tell es-Sultan during Italian-Palestinianexcavations in 2017.

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its location at a turn and bifurcation of the main street (Figure 4), it has then been sur-mised that it may have been a shop. The house was excavated by John Garstang, resumingan area previously explored by the Austro-German Expedition in 1908–1909 (Nigro 2010,75, fig. 4.45).2

2.1. The hoard of nacreous shell in Locus 135

The shells were found within a small cache (Figure 5), consisting of 0.2 m wide hollow infloor L.135, buried by the destruction layer of the EB IIA. Inside the cache, the five nacr-eous shells were carefully piled up with the largest specimen broken at the bottom and thesmallest on top.

3. The shells

The five shells found stacked one on top of the other are (Figure 6), from the top:TS.17.F.1, consolidated, outer shell partially preserved, length 10.2 cm, width 6.1 cm,

thickness min 0.1 cm max 0.4 cm, weight 25.83 g;

Figure 3. The finding spot. Plan of the Early Bronze II northern dwelling quarter, reconstructed fromexcavation plans of the four archaeological expeditions which worked at Tell es-Sultan/ancient Jericho.

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Figure 4. The main street and the EBII-III northern dwelling quarter at Tell es-Sultan, where the shellswere found; from north-west.

Figure 5. Italian-Palestinian excavations. The EBII-III northern dwelling quarter at Tell es-Sultan, wherethe shells were found; from south-east.

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TS.17.F.2, restored, outer shell partially preserved, length 11.1 cm, width 6.2 cm, thick-ness min 0.15 cm max 0.4 cm, weight 38.19 g;

TS.17.F.3, restored, outer shell partially preserved, length 12 cm, width 7.3 cm, thick-ness min 0.12 cm max 0.45 cm, weight 40.78 g;

TS.17.F.4, restored, outer shell partially preserved, length 11.95, width 8.35 cm, thick-ness min 0.1 cm max 0.5 cm, weight 51.69 g;

TS.17.F.5, fragmentary, outer shell not preserved, length (reconstructed) 11.9 cm, width(reconstructed) 8.2 cm, thickness min 0.18 cm max 0.5 cm, weight (preserved) 39.52 g.These shells possibly constituted a set of increasing dimensions. The biggest specimenwas at the bottom and the smallest on top.

3.1. Species identification

The five bivalve shells have been identified as specimens of Chambardia rubens arcuata(Cailliaud 1823), of the Mutelidae family, previously known as Aspatharia rubens and

Figure 6. The cache of five shells. Chambardia shells at the moment of discovery in L.135 at Tell es-Sultan, piled up in the cache.

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Aspatharia rubens niloticus (Daget 1998; Reese, Mienis andWoodward 1986; Reese 2008),also called, at the beginning of the twentieth century, Spatha rubens (this is relevant forquotation in archaeological literature). Chambardia rubens is an aquatic bivalve shellspecies occurring in the Nile river and southwards deep into Africa south of the Sahara(Mienis 2004; van Damme and van Bocxlaer 2009, table 2). There is no evidence thatChambardia rubens has ever lived in the rivers of the Levant (Sharvit et al. 2002, 162).The presence of these shells in Tell es-Sultan/Jericho may, thus, constitute an indirectproof that they were imported from Egypt.

Figure 7. The five Chambardia rubens shells (TS.17.F.1-5) retrieved in Tell es-Sultan/ancient Jerichoafter restoration in the Museum of the Near East, Egypt and Mediterranean of Sapienza Univerisityof Rome.

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Even though it has been suggested that Nilotic species such as Chambardia were onlyavailable during the 5th and 4th millennium BC, when the Pelusiac branch of the Nilereached northern Sinai (Tchernov 1988, 231–232; Butzer 2002; Stanley 2002; Bar-YosefMayer 2006), nonetheless, they may have been distributed throughout the SouthernLevant over an extensive trade network used for distributing items or goods comingfrom Egypt (Braun and van den Brink 2008, 649; Mączyńska 2013, 199; Sala 2014, 66–67).

3.2. Chambardia rubens in Early Bronze Age Palestine

Importation of Chambardia rubens in Palestine dates back from the Natufian period(Mienis 1987), although regular arrivals started from the Chalcolithic Period in associationwith other Egyptian precious or symbolic items (carnelian beads, schist palettes, calcite ormarble maceheads), with finds from several sites such as Abu Matar (Perrot 1955, 84),Horvat Beter (Dothan 1959, 31), Arad (Amiran 1978: pl. 118: 2; pl. 67:1) and Tulaylatal-Ghassul (Lee 1973, 307). During the Early Bronze Age I (3400–3000 BC), Chambardiaunworked shells reached several sites of Southern Levant, showing a revival of the Egyp-tian connection during the Pre-Dynastic period: ‘Atlit (Chalcolithic-EBI; Sharvit et al.2002); Tell el-Khuweilifeh/Tel Halif—Site H (MacDonald 1932, pl. XXVI), Azor(Ben-Tor 1975, 24, 28, pl. 24:3), Tell el Far’ah North (de Vaux and Steve 1949, pl.6b:4–5; de Vaux 1951, pls. 26a:3, 27b:l; 1952, pl. 17:3, 8), Tell el-‘Areini and Palmahim(Bar-Yosef Mayer 2002, tab. 7.1). This kind of imported items did not fade in EarlyBronze II, with specimens from ‘Ain Assawir (Tomb 40: Bar-Yosef Mayer 2002, table7.1), Arad (Amiran 1978, pls. 118:3–6, 119:2), and Bab edh-Dhra’ (Wilkinson 1989:456, fig. 262:1), mainly found in tombs.

The largest number of Chambardia rubens, more than 20 specimens, was found in theMegiddo temple area in Early Bronze IA/Level J-2 (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2000, 480), EarlyBronze IB/Level J-3, and in Early Bronze II/Level J-4 (Bar-Yosef and Baruch 2006, 501),and Early Bronze IIIA/Level J-6 (Bar-Yosef and Baruch 2006, 501; Ktalav 2013, 1216),where a cache Egyptian-style pottery vessels was also found (Ussishkin 2015, 86), witha noticeable concentration of mother of pearl shells (Unio, Pinctada, and Chambardia)in the back corridor of the Early Bronze II/Level J-4 Great Temple (Bar-Yosef andBaruch 2006, 503).

Chambardia rubens shells were considered luxury goods, due to their iridescent innersurface (mother of pearl/nacre), and they were used as containers for cosmetics, mainlykohl (mixed with animal fat), and in the manufacture of various precious personalitems, such as combs, spoons, and pendants (Bar-Yosef Mayer 2002, 129–131). A specificand very interesting use in Egypt is as an ink palette for writing (Petrie 1927, 64); however,this cannot be proven for the Palestinian finds. Furthermore, nacreous shells may havealso had an intrinsic value and it has been suggested that they were used as medium ofpayments analogous to money (Braun 2014, 224–225).

3.3. Chambardia rubens at Jericho

At Tell es-Sultan, ancient Jericho, Chambardia rubens, before the 2017 discovery, werefound only in Tomb F4, an Early Bronze IB-II family tomb. Kenyon excavated severallayers within this tomb, accounting for a very rich assemblage, characterised by the

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presence of bone items (amulets, beads), and by a distinguished group of cult flutes madeof pierced goat metacarpals (Kenyon 1960, 145–146, fig. 49, pl. VII: 273).

4. Sampling and analysing inside the shells

Black spots were visible on the inner side of all five specimens. The original content ofshells, preserved in incrustation visible at naked eye inside them, was sampled from twoshells (TS.17.F.1–2). On shell TS.17.F.1 (Figure 8), under a light grey-brownish micro-layer (0.3 mm thick) of sediment, a dark stratum (0.01 mm thick) was identified(Figure 9), identical to the black spots recognised in all of the mussels. Samples of bothstrata were taken in sterile conditions, and were observed under the Scanning ElectronMicroscopy (SEM micrographs and EDX spectra have been obtained using a FESEMZeiss Auriga equipped with Bruker Quantax detector; for improving samples conductivity,they were coated with a 50 nm layer of chromium using the Quorum Q150 T ES sputtermachine). The composition of both layers was, thus, identified (see below § 4.1).

4.1. Powdered manganese dioxide (MnO2)

Elemental analysis of the upper micro-layer in shell TS.17.F.1 showed a composition ofearth mineral like sulphates and silicates, i.e., dust constituting the surface of the incrusta-tion. The lower black stratum, however, contained Manganese (Mn) and, directly over themother of pearl surface (the black spots visible to the naked eyes), pure manganese dioxidewas identified (MnO2) (Figures 10–11). This substance, obtained from malachite/azurite/oxidized copper, was a basic pigment for several cosmetics and also for paint and ink. Inassociation with vegetal or animal ointments, lead, and ash it was used in Egypt to producekohl for eyes embellishment (Lucas 1930, 42).

Figure 8. Shell TS.17.F.1. The shell after cleaning and consolidation processes showing its nacreousvbody.

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5. The nacreous shells from Jericho: their historical-archaeologicalmeaning

Analyses demonstrated that the five shells were imported from Egypt and that they wereused as cosmetic containers, even though the fact that they had been piled up may indicatethat they were to be reused or refilled. Manganese dioxide found inside them was

Figure 9. Dark incrustations as visible inside shell TS.17.F.1 through magnification.

Figure 10. Manganese dioxide from shell TS.17.F.1 (Sapienza—CNIS).

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presumably quarried from mines in the Sinai (Umm Bogma, Serabit el-Khadim:el-Sharkawi, al-Aref and Abdel Motlib 1990; Segev, Beyth and Bar-Matthews 1992; Haupt-mann 2007, 62; Beyth, Segev and Ginat 2013). This, of course, does not imply that theshells came from the same route (Tallet and Maruard 2012; Nigro 2014b, 41) (Figure 12).

The presence of imported Egyptian goods in Early Bronze IB and II Jericho, i.e., duringthe late Pre- and Early-Dynastic period in Egypt, is well known and evidenced — beforeour discovery—by calcite or marble mace-heads and schist cosmetic palettes (Sala 2012,284–285). Our shells broaden the panorama of Egyptian imported goods at Jericho.Such Egyptian luxury items can be connected to the emergence of a sophisticated elite,which chose eye make-up (both for men and women) as a means of demonstratingrank. This phenomenon is also witnessed by finds of palettes (Greenberg, Wengrow,Paz 2010) and in Early Bronze II might be also related to the emergence of the “city”, asocio-economic system which accumulated wealth and invested it in international tradeof precious goods (on this definition see note 1). The arrival at Jericho of such Egyptiacastarts in the incipient urban period (Early Bronze IB) and continues in the Early Bronze II,when the walled town was established, and the imitation of Egyptian status symbols alsobegun (Sala 2012, 284). The use of kohl-emphasised eyes, imitating high Egyptian officials,showed that the ruling elite was able to procure this precious material, thanks to long-distance trade practiced back and forth on the “Copper Route” to the Sinai (Nigro2014b), where manganese bioxide ores were located (Figure 12). This was a major achieve-ment of the urban economy and of its ruling class.

Mapping other Chambardia found in Southern Levantine sites (§ 3.2; not often takeninto the account in old excavations) may thus provide further evidence not only about the

Figure 11. Manganese dioxide at SEM from shell TS.17.F.1 (Sapienza—CNIS).

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Figure 12. The “Copper Route”. Map illustrating supply points of manganese, copper, gemstones, andother precious stuff, and trade routes in the 3rd millennium BC, between Egypt and Levant, passingthrough the trade trigger site of Jericho.

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geographic extent of the connection with Early-Dynastic Egypt (de Miroschedji 2002), butalso the chronological duration of Egyptian cultural influence over the rising urban systemof Southern Levant in the Early Bronze II-III (Nigro 2010, 4–5, 329).

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Sapienza University of Rome and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs andInternational Cooperation of Italy.

The authors would like to thank the Center for Nanotechnology Applied to the Engineering ofUniversity La Sapienza (CNIS) for their support and the SEM analysis.

Notes

1. The terms “city” and “urbanism”, the phenomena occurring in Jericho, as well as in severalother sites in Southern Levant (Mazar 1992, 91–150), has been long debated and variouslyinterpreted (these locations have been alternatively called “walled towns” or “walled commu-nities”: Harrison and Savage 2003; Savage, Falconer and Harrison 2007; Chesson 2015; contraKafafi 2011; Nigro 2016, 9–10). What seems clear is that the social complexity, economicfoundations and technological achievements of such Early Bronze Age II-III societymarked a change in Southern Levant, even though they remained small-scale and did notdeveloped in a way comparable with those found in Mesopotamia, Egypt and Syria (Weip-pert 1988, 155–181).

2. The British archaeologist who excavated the Early Bronze III dwellings inside the northernstretch of the Main Inner Wall deepened his sounding in a square area just to the east of thislocation. A century later, erosion had largely destroyed Early Bronze III structures, and eventhe Early Bronze II layers had been badly consumed. The Italian-Palestinian Expedition,thus, resumed cleaning all around the city-walls, and at the edge of Garstang’s North-EastTrench uncovered the floors of L.135.

ORCID

Lorenzo Nigro http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3262-315XDaria Montanari http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9194-2380Francesco Mura http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8490-9438

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