A LITERATURE REVIEW AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESEARCH

AND PRACTICE I N PEDESTRIAN SAFETY

Linda Shap i ro

and

Rudolf G. Mortimer

HIGHWAY SAFETY RESEARCH INSTITUTE I n s t i t u t e of Sc ience and Technology

The U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan Ann Arbor 48105

Table of Contents

1, Introduction

Page

2. A General Look at Pedestrian Accident Statistics

3. The Highest Accident Risks

3.1 School-Aged Pedestrians

3.1.1 The Role of the Child, His Family and His Physical Environment

3.1.2 The Role of Education in Accident Prevention

3.1.3 The Role of Traffic Control and Engineering

3.2 Middle-Aged Pedestrians Who Have Been Drinking

3.3 The Elderly Pedestrian

4. Other Factors Which Influence Pedestrian Accidents

4.1 Blindness -- A Human Factor 4.2 Night and Winter Walking

4.3 Injury Descriptions

5. Pedestrian Traffic Safety -- The Practical Aspects 5,l Safety Plans and Campaigns

5.1.1 General Safety Plans

5.1.2 Specific Traffic Safety Plans

5.2 Engineering: Intersections and Control Devices

5.2.1 The Pedestrian Bridge

5.2.2 Traffic Lights -- The Phasing Problem 5.2.3 Traffic Lights -- New Designs 5.2.4 Radio Signals

5.2.5 The Zebra-Striped Crossing

5 .2 .6 The Rumble Strip and Other Innovations

5.2.7 The Effectiveness of Marked Cross- walks

5.3 Pedestrian Risk-Taking Behavior

5.3.1 The Jaywalking Controversy

5.3.2 Studies of Risk-Taking

Tab le of Con ten t s c o n t .

5 .3 .3 S t r e e t C r o s s i n g T i m e

5.4 C i t y P l ann ing

6 . Conclus ion

7 . B ib l iog raphy

Page

INTRODUCTION

An e x t e n s i v e review of t h e l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g wi th pedes-

t r i a n s a f e t y y i e l d s two b a s i c types of in fo rmat ion . One ca tegory

i s comprised of s t a t i s t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s of a c c i d e n t vict i ins

and t h e o r i e s cover ing human f a c t o r s i n t h e causes of a c c i d e n t s .

The o t h e r , c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , i n f o r m a t i o n ca tegory i s concerned

wi th va r ious methods of a c c i d e n t p r e v e n t i o n , from t h e p o i n t s of

view of s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n , law enforcement , and t r a f f i c engineer-

i n g . The a r t i c l e s r e a d , publ ished between 1941 and 1968, a r e

mainly from p e r i o d i c a l s and t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s .

The s t a t i s t i c a l ana lyses of a c c i d e n t v i c t i m s c o n c e n t r a t e

on t h r e e main groups--young ( schoo l ) c h i l d r e n , e l d e r l y a d u l t s ,

and middle-aged a d u l t s under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a l c o h o l . Probable

f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a c c i d e n t s i n t h e s e groups a r e d i s c u s s e d .

A r t i c l e s on t h e p e d e s t r i a n haza rds a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n i g h t and

w i n t e r d r i v i n g and o t h e r environmental e f f e c t s a r e a l s o d i s -

cussed . Devices f o r a c c i d e n t p reven t ion a p p l i c a b l e t o s p e c i f i c

groups of p e d e s t r i a n s a r e d e s c r i b e d , a s a r e more g e n e r a l methods,

such a s town s a f e t y campaigns, town eng inee r ing p l a n s , and

i n t e r s e c t i o n c o n t r o l . The q u e s t i o n of where t o p l a c e t h e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c c i d e n t s comes up c o n s t a n t l y and i s d i scussed

from v a r i o u s p o i n t s o f view.

The American Automobile Assoc ia t ion (1964) has pub l i shed a

b o o k l e t p rov id ing a g e n e r a l look a t many of t h e t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d

i n t h i s paper .

2 . A GENERAL LOOK AT PEDESTRIAN ACCIDENT STATISTICS

I n 1967, t h e r e were 9400 f a t a l p e d e s t r i a n c o l l i s i o n s on

U.S. s t r e e t s and highways. Thus, 17.7 p e r c e n t of a l l t r a f f i c

f a t a l i t i e s were p e d e s t r i a n s (Jensen and Ruby, 1968) . Most of

t h e s e c o l l i s i o n s occur red when t h e v e h i c l e was going s t r a i g h t

ahead, r a t h e r than t u r n i n g ; and of t k e former type only 25 per-

c e n t occurred a t an i n t e r s e c t i o n whi le 75 p e r c e n t were noninter-

section collisions (National Safety Council, 1968).

Although pedestrians constitute a large portion of traffic

fatalities they were involved in only 2.2 percent of urban and 0.9

percent of rural collisions. This combination of relatively low in-

volvement and high fatality frequency indicates that pedestrian col-

lisions are severe, producing a higher fatality-collision ratio than

any other type of traffic collision. As would be expected, the proba-

bility that a rural pedestrian-vehicle collision would be fatal to the

pedestrian is three times higher than for urban collisions of this

type because of greater vehicle speed; however, because of tihe greater

density of pedestrians and vehicles in urban settings, urban pedestrian

fatalities are twice as frequent as rural pedestrian fatalities, The

percent of travel on urban and rural roads was about the same.

When accident statistics from various cities are studied, cer-

tain patterns consistently emerge. Three groups of pedestrians, char-

acterized by age and alcohol consumption, clearly run the highest

risks of being injured or killed in a traffic accident. These groups

are young children, the elderly, and adults who have been drinking.

A study in England by Jeffcoate (1957) shows the highest risk

among pedestrians to be for those under 10 years of age and those

over 70 years. The relative risk to pedestrians for different classes

of vehicles on major and minor roads was also shown. Motorc!ycles

were involved in pedestrian collisions three times as frequently as

private cars. Figure 1 shows relative accident rates with pedes-

trians for various classes of vehicle on Class I1 roads and streets.

A study of 50 pedestrians over 18 years of age who were fatally

injured in Manhattan (Haddon, 1966) reveals that the cases comprised

two discrete high-risk groups: the elderly who had been drinking

little or not at all, and the middle-aged who had been drinking heavi-

ly. A study of 448 pedestrian fatalities occurring from 1948 to

1957 in Washington, D.C., (Yaksich, 1957) yields similar data.

Pedestrians represented two-thirds of a11 motor vehicle fatalities in

the city during the ten-year period. Pedestrians 75 years clr older

had the highest population death rate (36.7 per 100,000). Pedes-

trians 65-74 years old had the second highest rate (23.2 per 100,000).

The lowest death rate was for pedestrians aged 11-19 years, who had

AGE GROUPS

Figure 1. Comparison of Pedestrian Accident Rates en Class 11 Roads (1954) for Various Types of Vehicle. Repy:oduced from Jeffcoate, (1957) , by P e r m i s s i o n of the Director of Road Research, England, British Crown Copyright, Reproduced by Permission of the Controller HMSO.

0.5 deaths per 100,000 population. The population death rate of

all the male population (7.9 deaths per 100,000) was 2.5 times the

rate for females. Alcohol was found to be an increasingly import-

ant factor in pedestrian deaths.

A report on accident statistics from many countries prepared

by the World Health Organization (1958) is in general agreement

with the statistics cited. Sullivan (1964) also found that both

very young and elderly pedestrians, as well as drunken pedestrians,

are most likely to be involved in an accident. The same findings

are reported in an article in Public Health Reports (September 1963).

Many articles stress the role of the pedestrian in tra.ffic

safety. Traffic Digest and Review (1961) points out that many

pedestrians are injured or killed while performing dangerous acts

such as crossing against traffic signals, crossing between inter-

sections and/or parked cars, and walking while intoxicated. Yaksich

(1957) states: "Pedestrians were in violation or committed an

unsafe act in 70 percent of all fatal pedestrian accidents." An

article in Public Health Reports (September 1963) states that more

than 75 percent of all fatally injured pedestrians were violating

a traffic or safety law, especially those laws concerning lay-walking.

Siege1 (1961) discusses specific characteristics of the pedestrian

which contribute to pedestrian traffic hazards. These Incl~ude their

slow pace relative to vehicle speeds, their unpredictable behavior,

and their resistance to inconvenience. Another factor, which will

be more fully explored later, is that nine-tenths of the pedestrians

killed were non-drivers.

3. THE HIGHEST ACCIDENT RISKS

3.1. SCHOOL-AGED PEDESTRIANS

Some of the most disturbing injury and fatality statistics

are those concerning children. Research has generated varying

conclusions and suggestions. Everyone agrees that somethiing must

be done to ensure a higher degree of safety for children. However,

writers differ as to whether the responsibility must lie with the

child or the driver, and which type of engineering and education

has the best effect on both children and drivers. Much of the

research concerns the child en route to and from school; m.ost

traffic safety problems arise when the children walk, although

riding a school bus creates certain other problems, Much of

the debate is over which crossing safety measures--patrol boys,

crossing guards, or automatic lights--are most effective.

The first step in improving traffic safety for school.

children is understanding exactly who is most in danger, and

when. Chicago Traffic Safety Review (March, April, 1962)

states that "One out of every 27 Chicago children now five

years old will be struck while crossing a street and injured

by an automobile before reaching his tenth birthday." The

article pinpoints the years between five and nine as the

pedestrian's most dangerous period in life with respect to

automobile accidents. The casualty rate of this age group

is 4.5 times that of all other ages. However, the American

Automobile Association (1965) states that ages four through

seven are the most critical in terms of young pedestrian accidents.

The article suggests that most children are hit after school

hours during the warm months, crossing in mid-block. Chicago

Traffic Safety Review (March, April, 1966) states that more

child pedestrians were hurt in Chicago in 1965 than in any other

year on record. Traffic statistics at the national level are

also disturbing. In 1962 about 2,500 children aged fourteen

and younger were killed in the United States, and another 78,080

were injured (Journal of American Insurance, 1963). It is

emphasized that the large majority of children are struck. when

darting into the streets. The hours of darkness are most

dangerous, and young boys have many more accidents than young

girls.

3.1.1. THE ROLE OF THE CHILD, HIS FAMILY, AND HIS PHYSICAL

ENVIRONMENT. Although carelessness on the part of motorists is

undoubtedly a factor in child-pedestrian accidents, certain un-

safe acts on the part of the children are frequently comrnented

upon. The American Automobile Association (1965) states that

"in the majority of cases, accidents are caused not by the d.river,

but by unsafe acts of the child." The article suggests that the

larger number of accidents to boys than to girls may be part.ially

a result of our cultural value of male daring and aggressiveness.

The young pedestrian, unlike others, is most often struck while

crossing between intersections, after running into the road from

between parked cars.

Marks (1957) notes that children are often injured whil-e

playing in the street. The American Automobile Association

(No. 3, 1965) suggests that one way to keep children from playing

in streets is to provide adequate and interesting play equipment,

either public or private. Bartholomew (1967) investigated the

effect of such play equipment on accident rates of pedestrians

aged five to 14 years. The frequency and location of pedestrian

street accidents in the service areas of selected recreation

facilities, both before and after the dedication of the facilities,

were compared. The study revealed that the development of a

public playground or recreation center in a congested, high-

accident area was followed by a significant decrease in accidents.

The decrease was more pronounced in the quarter-mile zone around

the facility than beyond it, and very few pedestrian accidents

happened in an area immediately adjacent to the recreation

facility.

Many studies have been made of the physical acts of children

and motorists, and of the engineering practices used in construct-

ing roads and traffic controls which affect accident rates.

However, not too much information is available on the social and

psychological factors which influence accident rates. One article

by Backett and Johnston (1959) discusses a study of 101 families

in which a healthy child has survived a road accident; these

families were compared to a control group of families with healthy

children who had not had accidents, The study suggests that a

child's vulnerability was associated with one or more of the

following characteristics: (1) more than an average amount of

serious illness in the family; (2) some kind of maternal pre-

occupation (work, pregnancy, other children) ; (3) family crowd-

ing and lack of protected play facilities. Crowding seems to be

less important than the other factors. Intelligence was not

correlated with vulnerability to accidents. The correlations

described are higher among younger children. A rating of local

schools suggested that accidents to children are found in schools

where parental standards of safety are rather low. Thus, although

many writers warn that overprotection causes the child to be more

vulnerable to accidents by making him unrealistically secure and

incautious (Marks, 1957), it appears that the child who is not

given enough protection is also accident prone.

3.1.2. THE ROLE OF EDUCATION IN ACCIDENT PREVENTION. Many

articles stress the role of education in the protection of school-

aged pedestrians. They emphasize that the solution to thle problem

lies not in strict control of traffic, but rather in the education

of the child as to proper walking habits and the hazards which

exist on every street and highway (State of Indiana, 1964).

Lindquist (1955) states strongly that children can never be

completely safe around cars and that the best protection for them

is education, not traffic gimmicks, The educational procedures

discussed are essentially of two types: The "Safety Town," in

which the children learn traffic rules by participating i.n

simulated traffic situations; and the classroom situation, in

which the children read and memorize rules.

The "Safety Town" type of educational device should be more

effective, because it involves the child more completely. He

learns actively, by reacting within situations, rather than

passively, by reading rules and regulations. A general description

of the "Safety Town" concept appears in American Motorist - (19611, The miniature towns are used for kindergarten-aged children

throughout the country. The towns include miniature houses,

churches, buildings, and realistically painted streets and traffic

signals. The children use miniature automobiles and trucks.

They also learn pedestrian safety. Counting equipment costs,

number of s e s s i o n s h e l d , and s a l a r i e s , t h e expenses f o r t h e f i r s t

y e a r were r e p o r t e d a t $5,000-$10,000. The expenses f o r succeed-

i n g y e a r s have been much lower . Another a r t i c l e ( J o u r n a l of - American I n s u r a n c e , March, A p r i l , 1966) d e s c r i b e s " S a f e t y Town"

i n Mans f i e ld , Ohio. S i n c e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e town i n 1937

t h e r e h a s n o t been an i n j u r y o r d e a t h among Mansf ie ld s c h o o l

c h i l d r e n going t o o r from s c h o o l on f o o t . Var ious methods, a s i d e

from t h e ou tdoor t r a f f i c s i m u l a t i o n , a r e used a t t h i s s c h o o l .

They i n c l u d e games, songs , a r t work, and indoor c lass room i n s t r u c -

t i o n . A modi f ied s a f e t y town program i s used i n t h e s c h o o l

s a f e t y - e d u c a t i o n program i n Nevada ( S a l e , 1 9 6 0 ) . C h i l d r e n ho ld

v a r i o u s t r a f f i c s i g n s and o p e r a t e s i g n a l s , w h i l e o t h e r c h i l d r e n

walk th rough t h e c o u r s e . Each s i g n i s c a r e f u l l y e x p l a i n e d . The

e l emen ta ry s c h o o l s i n B a t t l e Creek , Michigan, a t t e m p t t o i n t e -

g r a t e t h e s a f e t y town i d e a i n t o t h e t o t a l Learning e x p e r i e n c e of

t h e s c h o o l day (Ca rpe r , 1 9 5 9 ) . The p o l i c e depar tment s u p p l i e s

scaled-down d e v i c e s such a s t r a f f i c l i g h t s , a r a i l r o a d s i g n a l

c r o s s i n g , a s t o p s i g n , e t c . , which a r e se t up w i t h i n t h e h a l l s

of t h e s c h o o l s . A l l c h i l d r e n and s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l obey t h e

s i g n a l s . T h i s t echn ique should be f a i r l y e f f e c t i v e i n t e a c h i n g

t r a f f i c s a f e t y . Fur thermore , Yaksich (1964) s u g g e s t s t h a t a

good way f o r c h i l d r e n t o deve lop s a f e t y h a b i t s i s t o walk t o

s c h o o l .

T r a f f i c s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n i n t h e c lass room i s a l s o s t r e s s e d ,

a l t hough s e v e r a l a u t h o r s r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s t y p e of e d u c a t i o n i s

most v a l u a b l e a s a phase of a wider program of t r a f f i c s a f e t y

e d u c a t i o n . The Procedure Manual p repa red by t h e S t a t e of I n d i a n a

(1964) s t a t e s t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem of school -c ross -

i n g p r o t e c t i o n does n o t r e s t e n t i r e l y on s t r i c t c o n t r o l of

v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c , b u t r a t h e r on t h e development of p rope r walk-

i n g h a b i t s . Thus, i n t h e a u t h o r ' s o p i n i o n , a sound s a f e t y -

e d u c a t i o n program i n t h e home and s c h o o l w i l l c o n t r i b u t e much

more toward t h e p r o t e c t i o n of s c h o o l c h i l d r e n t h a n dependence on

p r o t e c t i v e mechanica l d e v i c e s . L i n d q u i s t (1955) a g r e e s s t r o n g l y

that the human factor is the most important in accident preven-

tion and that children must be thoroughly educated in traffic

safety,

Batts (1964) suggests that both protection and education

for the child must be age-graded, with the emphasis on protection

for younger children and education for older children. The

National Safety Council (1960) provides two sets of age-graded

safety lessons for junior and senior high school students. Each

one gives an analysis of the accident rates for various areas

in and outside the school. The lessons include a short quiz

to test the pupils' comprehension of the data, as well as some

discussion questions. While the lessons appear to be designed

for classroom use, they seem too dry to spark lively discussions.

Another, more imaginative classroom device is described by

Coffey (1957). Elementary school children in Pittsfield,

Massachusetts learned about Wandering Willy (a cartoon character

in the local newspaper), who disregarded the most elementary

traffic rules. The children discussed Willy's incorrect antics

and the correct behavior appropriate to the situation, Ladd

(1954) provides a pamphlet designed to aid traffic safety, which

categorizes various pedestrians as "stupid, silly," etc, but

its effectiveness is doubtful.

A list of traffic safety rules for children is provided

by Mills (1960), Family Safety (1962) also provides a list, as

well as suggestions for parents on arranging safe transportation

for their children to and from school.

3.1.3. THE ROLE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ENGINEERING. Several

methods of traffic control and engineering are discussed and com-

pared in the literature studied. A full list of pertinent

references is contained in a recent bibliography by Cleveland

(1969). Many writers agree that it is difficult to decide which

measures to use (patrol boys, pedestrian-operated stop lights,

crossing guards, or school crossing signs), and in what com-

bination. Obviously school-aged children need some protection,

b u t s e v e r a l a u t h o r s a g r e e t h a t o v e r p r o t e c t i o n , which may rnake

t h e c h i l d r e n i r r e s p o n s i b l e , i s a s dangerous a s u n d e r p r o t e c t i o n

(Na t iona l S a f e t y Counci l , 1 9 5 7 ) .

Both L o u i s v i l l e and Chicago r e p o r t t h e s u c c e s s f u l use of

women a s c r o s s i n g gua rds f o r p r o t e c t i n g schoo l c h i l d r e n ( B e u s t i s ,

1950; OtRegan, 1 9 6 5 ) . Peo r i a r e p o r t s u s ing a school t r a f f i c

s a f e t y p l a n which i n c l u d e s s choo l boundar ies based on major

t r a f f i c - f l o w p a t t e r n s , a s well a s p a t r o l boys and a d u l t c r o s s i n g

guards (Davis , 1964) . P a t r o l boys, widely used i n t h e United

S t a t e s and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , seem t o be e f f e c t i v e i n reduc ing

a c c i d e n t s among school-aged p e d e s t r i a n s accord ing t o t h e I n t e r -

n a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y and T r a f f i c Review (Summer, 1955) .

S e v e r a l a u t h o r s f e e l t h a t au toma t i c t r a f f i c s i g n a l s a r e more

e f f e c t i v e t h a n c r o s s i n g gua rds . May (1964) s t a t e s t h a t t . r a f f i c

s i g n a l s a r e cheaper and more r e l i a b l e t h a n gua rds . She d e s c r i b e s

a program i n which s i g n a l s were i n s t a l l e d midblock, a t major

p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . Dunivan (1964) d e s c r i b e s t h e t r a f f i c s a f e t y

system d i r e c t e d a t s choo l c h i l d r e n i n Miami. I n t h i s program

schoo l zones were r e p l a c e s w i t h s i g n a l i z e d schoo l c r o s s i n g s .

T r a f f i c was s topped o n l y when neces sa ry t o a l l o w pedesticians t o

c r o s s t h e s t r e e t . A t a l l o t h e r t imes m o t o r i s t s f aced a c o n s t a n t

g reen s i g n a 1 , t h u s a l l owing them t o ma in t a in a r e a l i s t i c o v e r a l l

speed . The a c c i d e n t r eco rd a t t e s t s t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h i s

system. A committee s tudy ing t h e s choo l c r o s s i n g prob1e:rn i n

F o r t Wayne, I n d i a n a , a l s o recommends t h a t a d u l t guards g r a d u a l l y

be r ep l aced by school c r o s s i n g s i g n a l s ope ra t ed by t h e p e d e s t r i a n

(White, 1960) . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s p e c i a l s choo l zones , marked by s i g n s ,

has a l s o been s t u d i e d , and s e v e r a l c i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g Miami, have

done away w i t h such zones. A t l e a s t t h r e e a u t h o r s a r e concerned

w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v a r i o u s t y p e s of s i g n s marking

t h e s e zones. Dodds (1964) makes a p l e a f o r s t a n d a r d i z e d t r a f f i c

s i g n s near school c r o s s i n g s , on t h e t h e o r y t h a t m o t o r i s t s a r e more

l i k e l y t o obey f a m i l i a r s i g n s . Hartman and Rankin (1962) d e s c r i b e

a study testing this theory, Driver response to various school

signs was measured to determine whether new signs could be

developed with a stronger impact. The experimenters concluc~ed

that there is no radically different response to one sign or

another, but that there is a significant discrepancy between a

driver's response to a sign when he is behind the wheel and his

response when he is questioned away from his vehicle. Away

from the wheel the driver predicted greater sign effectiveness

than was observed when he was behind the wheel. A broader study

by Miller and Michael (1964) revealed that difference in the

combination of signs, direction of automobile travel, time of

day, and presence of children, significantly affected the 85th-

percentile speed at the school crossing. The presence of chiil-

dren at the edge of the roadway significantly lowered the 85t.h-

percentile speed under each sign condition. It was also found

that the use of any of the traffic sign combinations selected

had a rather small effect on the 85th-percentile speed. This

study concludes that the most effective crossing protection

combines a pedestrian-operated signal with an adult school guard.

One study, reported by the Portland Traffic Safety Commission's

Engineering Committee, concludes that "School Boy Sammy" signs

are a good warning sign (Kalinoski, 1964). Another study by

Dier (1955) was conducted to determine the theoretically safe

traffic gap for the critical street width and the average sized

pedestrian group. Actual gaps in traffic at specific locations

can be measured to determine if the locations were "safe" or

not. Proper traffic controls could then be prescribed.

Other aspects of school traffic safety are discussed in

various articles. Harris (1955) considered whether or not

children should cross the street in front of a school bus. This

problem, along with methods for teaching children to handle it

safely, is also discussed by Kralovec (1954). Reaction to actual

accident and traffic situations has proven effective as a learn-

ing experience. For example, students of Baltimore elementary

school investigated an accident involving a first-grader (Horst,

1961). Although the accident was partially the child's fault,

the students discovered that a11 the crossings in the area were

unsafe. They convinced the city of Baltimore to correct the

situation. Also, they suggested that the school set up a

traffic safety education program. Eventually, the students

spurred the mayor into promoting a city-wide pedestrian safety

campaign.

In Carlsbad, New Mexico, students worked with the aid of

police to determine the speed of cars in their school zones.

They sent a form letter to speed-limit violators, and car speeds

in the zones did drop (McCloskey, 1959). A similar program was

carried out in Salinas, California, (McIntyre, 1957) where the

men's club felt that children did not remember safety r'ules

once out of the classroom. To motivate them to follow the rules,

the men observed the children near schools and noted traffic

safety violations. The group of children with the least number

of violations won a prize.

3.2. MIDDLE-AGED PEDESTRIANS WHO HAVE BEEN DRINKING

Adults who have been drinking form another of the three

groups having the highest accident rates, Waller (1966) de-

scribes the application of the epidemiological method to a

study of traffic accidents. Several patterns of nonuniform

accident distribution can be identified in which greater than

average risk is associated with personal (human) factors, as

well as environmental factors. For example, greater than average

traffic-accident risk can be identified in certain groups of

middle-aged drivers having chronic medical conditions and in

drivers and pedestrians who have been drinking, many of wh.om are

1~nidentj.f ied alcoholics. Excessive risk is also associated, with

environmental factors such as poor roads, vehicle construc!tion

or design, and rural environment. It is suggested that sa.fety

programs place the greatest emphasis on early identificati.on

and treatment of alcoho,lism among drivers and pedestrians and

on improvement of crash protection in the vehicle. Gonzal-es

and Alexander (1941) also stress that the effects of alcohol1 on

pedestrians should not be ignored in evaluating the public

health implications of highway accidents. Emphasizing the

importance of this observation is the relatively large number

of pedestrian fatalities compared with driver deaths, and t.he

results of tests indicating that 30.7 percent of the pedestxian

fatalities were sustained by persons under the influence of

alcohol and that 26.2 percent of these had a blood alcohol can-

tent of 0.20 percent or more.

Negligence on the part of the intoxicated pedestrian is

also an important factor. Decreased inhibitions tending to

create a disregard for safety and impaired perceptual and motor

response sensitivity increased the hazard, Kowalski et al, (1967)

discuss the blood alcohol levels (BAL) of individuals killed by

or in a vehicle involved in a pedestrian accident in ILlinois

during 1966, and describe a simple, workable method for obtaining

blood specimens, which is particularly suited to quasi-pro:Ees-

sional personnel. All of the statistics quoted are for people

over 15 years of age. Of the 2,206 fatalities, 1,562 blood

specimens were submitted for alcohol content analysis. Ap-

proximately 42 percent of the pedestrians had measureable

amounts of alcohol in their blood; 32 percent of these had BAL's

over 0.10 percent. The number of drivers killed having appreci-

able amounts of alcohol in their blood also indicates that the

legal limit for "driving while under the influence" should not

be more than 0.10 percent. Education and law enforcement might

reduce fatalities in the under-21 age group.

THE ELDERLY PEDESTRIAN

The third group of pedestrians having one of the high!est

accident rates is composed of pedestrians over 65. The

American Automobile Association (No. 1, 1965) reports that.

persons 65 or older account for 40 percent of all pedestrian

deaths in the United States. This AAA publication gives

guidelines to local communities working to improve the safety

record among older pedestrians. The AAA stresses that safety

programs must convey a realistic image of the elderly, many of

whom are quite active and healthy. However, these pedestrians

tend to suffer greater injury from an accident than younger

people. ~ccording to the AAA, intersections pose the biggest

problem for older pedestrians who become accident victims

despite the fact that usually they are not violating any law.

Nighttime is particularly hazardous for older pedestrians

because of their often impaired vision. On the other hand,

alcohol is not a significant factor in their accidents. Th,e

AAA recommends that certain changes be made in road design and

that older people be consulted as to their needs.

Other writers take slightly different views of elderly

pedestrians. Two articles in Traffic Safety (1957, 1960)

maintain the elderly pedestrian's increased vulnerability is

due largely to perception and motor failings of which he may

not be aware. The articles also stress that many people over

65 may have never driven a car and thus may have unrealistic

expectations about traffic and accidents, as well as about the

drivers' limitations. Both articles recommend special traffic

education for elderly people. Lashley (1960) disagrees with

the AAA's contention that most elderly pedestrians are not in

violation of any law. Lashley states that two-thirds of all

pedestrians, including the elderly, are in violation of some

traffic law. He agrees that two explanations for the high rate

of fatalities among elderly pedestrians are their unfamiliarity

with modern traffic hazards, and physical failings occurring

with advancing age. Lashley also stresses traffic education for

older people, McLellan (1963) describes an actual safety pro-

gram for senior citizens conducted in Ontario. The program

utilizes instruction, entertainment, posters, manuals, and

pamphlets.

Wiener (1968), while discussing the problems of the elderly

pedestrian in great detail, cautioned that there is little

empirical evidence to substantiate the value of either education

programs or judicial sanctions in reducing accident rates for the

elderly pedestrian. Wiener describes a study of these pedestrians

in which the dependent variables were measures of pedestrian be-

havior, principally the percentage of legal and illegal street

crossings. He states: "The relationship between conformity to

walking regulations and pedestrian accidents is unknown. However,

case studies of pedestrian accidents and police accident reports

indicate, at least tentatively, what enforcement authorities may

tend to take definitively, that pedestrian accidents generally

result from unsafe and illegal walking behavior. , . Therefore, it seemed reasonable in the conduct of this study and its inter-

pretation to assume that since one cannot directly reduce pedes-

trian injuries, he can approach the problem as a suboptimization

by attempting to increase obedience to pedestrian traffic laws.

But again the reader is cautioned that the correlation between

behavioral conformity and accident frequency is far from obvious."

Wiener (1968) observed the percentage of legal and illegal

crossings made by elderly pedestrians at selected corners in

Miami Beach, Florida, before, during, and after a heavily publi-

cized anti-jaywalking campaign. The results show that in the

target area there was a dramatic increase in legal crossings

during the campaign, but four months after the campaign the

percentage of legal crossings was the same as before the campaign,

unless a police officer was present on the corner. After the

campaign, the percentage of legal crossings was 50 percent high-

er when a policeman was present than when he was not, but it

was still below the during-campaign level. Interviews revealed

that elderly pedestkians are often confused about traffic control

and base their judgments when to cross on the movement of auto-

mobiles rather than on traffic signals. The interviews also

indicated a favorable attitude among the pedestrians toward anti-

jaywalking law enforcement,

4. OTHER FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE PEDESTRIAN ACCIDENTS

4.1. BLINDNESS - A HUMAN FACTOR

The problems of the blind present special considerations

for traffic safety. "White-cane" laws were considered by

Rodgers and Voorhees (1961) and the editor of New Outlook for the

Blind (1961). The Rodgers article reviews the existing white-

cane laws and the philosophy behind them. This philosophy in-

cludes the assumptions that: (1) the white cane makes the indivi-

dual visible to the motorist and therfore safe; (2) all motorists

are aware of white-cane laws; and ( 3 ) blind persons cannot take

even limited responsibility for their own safety. The authors

advise that white-cane laws be discontinued, as they are not

really useful and tend to encourage the classification of the

blind as a helpless group. Instead, blind persons should be

given thorough safety training, and the most practical, easily

distinguishable canes possible. The editorial in New Outlook for

the Blind (1961) stressed that white-cane laws vary widely from

state to state. The author suggested that these laws should be

reviewed, and that better training be given blind pedestrians.

Special engineering for the blind in Israel is described by

Zahavi (1963); the blind person activates a traffic signal by

inserting a key into a control box. He is then given a go - signal by a bell which rings for 20 seconds. This signal has proven

successful.

4.2. NIGHT AND WINTER WALKING

The two main topics relevant to night walking deal with

reflective clothing and adequate street lighting. The magazine

School Safety (1965) discusses elementary safety rules for school -- children, especially those relating to night walking, and factors

affecting visibility in darkness and twilight. Yaksich (:1964)

reports that 54 percent of all pedestrian fatalities occurred

during hours of darkness. More women were killed during the

day, and more men were killed at night. Several articles discuss

various protective devices that pedestrians can wear at night.

International Road Safety and Traffic Review (1963) discusses

nighttime protection of pedestrians on country or other

unlit roads. The article reports on a study conducted in Ansbach,

Germany, in which various protective devices were worn by pedes-

trians. It concludes that special apparel is essential, and that

the pedestrian is quite receptive to this type of protection.

Until legislation is effected, a large-scale educational program

must be implemented to acquaint the pedestrian with the dangers

involved in walking on country roads at night. Reflectorized

warning markers should be made to seem fashionable so that people

will buy them. Eventually, the article states, legislation must

be passed requiring a11 pedestrians to purchase an effective pro-

tective or warning device to be worn when walking on country roads,

or other dark roads, at night,

Thorsen (1958) discusses night traffic accidents and pro-

tection in Sweden. Almost one-third of all traffic accidents

in Sweden occur during the hours of da.rkness. One reason for

this is that from October to April there is an average of more

than 12 hours of darkness each day. Since about 1950 the pedes-

trian population has been using such protecters as s9cotch-:Lite,"

a reflective material. In 1952 the Swedish National Traffic

Society carried out nighttime demonstrations of reflective

materials in all Swedish provinces, Also, the road authorities

increased the use of reflective materials for road delineation,

traffic signs, and railway crossings. A government report issued

in Sweden in 1955 clearly shows that pedestrians equipped with

reflective material on their outer clothing are considerably

easier to see than those wearing normal clothes. The importance

of reflectorization is particularly significant when motorists

drive with dipped lights. Police Chief (1948) describes the use

of Scotch-Lite in Columbus, Ohio. A five-year old boy was struck

by a car at night, and this incident started a campaign to protect

children from the.hazards of twilight and darkness. In "Opera-

tion Nite-Ray," over 15,000 youngsters were provided with strips

of Scotch-Lite tape to be sewn on their jackets and coats. The

article gives no statistics on the effectiveness of the campaign.

Safety Maintenance and Production (1955) describes another reflec-

tive ma.teria1, This is a new kind of yarn that looks like normal

grey yarn, but which "lights up" at night when headlights i,lluminate

it, Clothing made of this yarn has improved pedestrian visibility.

Haalett and Allen (1968) describe an experiment invest-igating

the effects of ethyl alcohol on the brightness difference t:hreshold

of eight male graduate students, ages 22 to 39. One phase of the

investigation consisted of a series of road tests in which two

of the original eight and two other students served as obse. >rvers.

The tests were designed to investigate the observers' ability to

detect simulations of variously clothed pedestrians at night, and

to study the effects of ethyl alcohol on this detection task.

Pedestrians are difficult to see at night even under the best of

viewing conditions. Alcohol is indicated as further interfering

with the visual mechanism. Pedestrian-visibility distances

could be increased and some of the losses of perception due to

alcohol. counteracted by increasing either the roadway illumination

or the positive contrast of the pedestrian. In the tests, even

a sinall amount of reflectorization was detected within sufficient

stopping time by significantly intoxicated drivers.

Increased traffic lighting is also helpful to night drivers.

Baythe (1956) describes the traffic lighting problem in Indiana.

A five-point program for traffic safety is given, including various

types of law enforcement, education, and engineering practices,

especially highway lighting. International Road Safety and Traf-

fic Review (1956) describes the need for adequate lighting, both .-- by means of street lights and headlights. Controversy exists as

to which types of lighting are most effective. Floodlighting

pedestrian crossings does not seem to be effective, as such light-

ing is not necessary on a dry night and does not work on a wet

night. This article quotes J. M. Waldham, who says: 'Qn a dry

night it [floodlighting] increases the conspicuousness of the

crossing to both driver and pedestrian, but on a dry night good

street lighting is adequate. On a wet night, owing to the re-

flecting properties of wet surfaces, it makes the crossing very

clear and inviting to pedestrians, but far less effectnve in

revealing it to the driver. This is not a safe situation."

The lighting problem is extremely important, because the accident

rate is about three times higher during hours of darkness than

during daylight for fatal and serious accidents.

Another traffic safety problem, discussed by the National

Safety Council (1965) concerns winter walking. The Council

advises slippery surfaces be eliminated by salting, etc. Also,

care and proper personal conduct afford protection against ;slips

and falls. About one-ninth of all pedestrian fatalities occur

in December, particularly in the cities.

4.3. INJURY DESCRIPTIONS

Another group of articles containing more technical descrip-

tions of pedestrian injury has been studied. These articles

discuss various types of injuries, and investigate the relation-

ship between specific cars and types of injuries. McDougall (1960)

describes a 12-month study on morbidity due to traffic accidents

carried out at the Montreal Children's Hospital. Of 389 children

involved, four-fifths were pedestrians and more than one-third of

them were admitted to the hospital. There were two deaths, and

two children sustained permanent disabilities. Head injuries,

the most frequent cause of admission to the hospital, resulted

in the two fatalities and one permanent disability. Most of the

injured pedestrians admitted were boys. Traffic accidents accounted

for about one-tenth of all the traumatic cases treated at the

Montreal Children's Hospital.

Alexander, Myers, and Davis (1961) discuss a review of the

English, German, French, Dutch, and Italian literature on "run-

over" cases. Eleven cases are presented with illustrations.

They maintain that in some instances the head, even of a small

child, may be run over by a slowly moving wheel of a modern auto-

mobile, leaving tire tread marks, but causing only relatively

minor permanent damage. When the thorax or abdomen is simi.larly

compressed, congestion of the small vessels of the head and neck may

result. The brain in such cases is usually spared. Solheiln (1964)

discusses a 10-year study of 168 pedestrians fatally injured in

traffic accidents. Only one-fourth of the victims were women.

Multiple injuries were common. On the average, each patient had

2.4 body areas seriously injured. Head injuries were the principal

cause of death, but thorax-abdominal injuries were frequent and

their importance is stressed. Aspiration of blood or gastric

contents or both into the airways was common. Also, a thorough

examination of the victim is considered necessary to exclude

serious internal injuries. In this study, 20 percent of the

injured pedestrians were found to be intoxicated, and 60 percent

had initiated the chain of events that led to the accident.

Callahan (1966) reviews a study of pedestrian impact and

injury sites conducted by Severy and Brink (1966) using experi-

mental dummies. The study explores the relationships between the

parts of the automobile causing an injury and types of injuries

sustained. It is found that the size of the vehicle is not an

important factor; rather, the relationship of the pedestriam's

height to the car's profile largely determines the pedestrian's

kinematics and injury. Ryan and McLean (1966) analyzed cases of

pedestrian-automobile collisions collected in an on-the-spot

survey of accidents in Adelaide, South Australia. They report

that cars having conventional frontal shape have a different

injury potential than cars having a sloping front, e.g., Voiks-

wagons. The sites and patterns of fracture of the ribs, pelvis,

and femur are related to the direction of the impact forces.

Furthermore, they show how the shapes of fractures of the shaft

of the tibia can be used to determine the pedestrian's orienta-

tion relative to the car at the time of impact. McCarroll (1962)

discusses a similar, intensive, multidisciplinary investigation

of 200 fatal pedestrian accidents, which indicates that the

pedestrian, in most cases, bore much of the responsibility for the

accident in which he was killed. Although multiple injuries were

common, many serious lesions were not recognized before death and

were discovered only at autopsy. Correlations of these occi~lt

injuries with more easily recognized lesions are presented, and

the importance of certain diagnostic signs is stressed.

More recently a study of 286 fatal accidents that occurred in

Wayne County, Michigan, which includes the city of Detroit, was

completed by Huelke and Davis (1969). The study includes descrip-

tions of the sites of the collisions, reports of the medical

examiner's office, police accident reports, and all available

photographs. An analysis of the factors related to these

fatalities is presented including the pedestrian actions anti

characteristics, physical factors, drug involvement, and injury

pattern. In these victims 55 percent suffered fatal head injuries

probably caused when the pedestrian struck the road, rather than

directly by impact with the structure of the vehicle. The neck,

thorax, abdomen, and pelvis were other principal injury sites,

with the latter two much less frequent than the former, Ve:hicle

front-end form was not considered an important area for potlential

reduction of pedestrian fatalities. However, this may not .be true

of non fatal injury accidents, which were not studied by these

authors.

The analysis also reveals that in many instances the strik-

ing vehicle was traveling on a straight road, in clear weather

conditions, at night, at less than 40 mph. Under such conditions,

with headlights on, an alert driver should be able to see a

pedestrian in time to stop. Furthermore many of the pedestrians

struck were crossing with the signal. At night pedestrians should

be made more conspicuous to arouse the inattentive driver. This

could be accomplished through better vehicle and fixed lighting,

reflective clothing, pedestrian and pedestrian-crossing alerting

devices, and other appropriate means.

5. PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC SAFETY--THE PRACTICAL ASPECTS

5.1. SAFETY PLANS AND CAMPAIGNS

5.1.1. GENERAL SAFETY PLANS. Cities have dealt with their

pedestrian safety problems in various ways. Many safety ca.mpaigns

rely on a combination of publicity and stricter law enforcement

aimed at making the pedestrian and the driver each more aware

of the potential dangers facing him, and of the proper methods

for dealing with these dangers. Controversy exists over the

best kind of jaywalking laws. Some cities have established

safety schools that are mandatory for traffic-law violators.

One method of education is through safety magazines. For

example, Traffic Safety (1957) provides an article which serves

as a warning and an educational service to pedestrians. It,

states traffic regulations and common-sense pointers for both

pedestrians and drivers, as well as accident statistics. Other

articles discuss various safety programs. Traffic Safetx (1958)

outlines the AAA's six-point program to reduce pedestrian d.eaths

by 50 percent. The program includes a comprehensive study of

accident locations leading to engineering improvements and better

education, publicity, and lighting. In a similar article d.is-

cussing the AAA's plan, Automotive News (1958) lists the following

as major needs outlined by the AAA's program: engineering changes;

public education; better street lighting; better education for

the age extremes; a review of local pedestrian ordinances; im-

partial enforcement of pedestrian regulations; cooperation of

press, radio, and TV; wider use of adult crossing guards; arnd

school safety patrols.

Sielski (1964) discusses a longer range AAA safety campaign,

which recognizes that most traffic laws and legislation have

dealt with the motorist, not the pedestrian. For example, in

1935, when 40 percent of all traffic fatalities were pedest-rians,

the AAA took the initiative in trying to reduce the growing

pedestrian fatality rate. Following widespread efforts, pedes-

trian deaths in 1963 decreased by 47 percent, to 8,200 in corn-

parison with 15,500 in 1937. However, during the same peri.od

all other traffic fatalities increased 47 percent, which might

indicate that although the higher fatality rate had shifted from

pedestrians to drivers, the overall picture did not improve. Also,

the shift may have been correlated with other factors, such as a

decrease in the number of pedestrians and an increase in the num-

ber of drivers, and may not have resulted from the AAA campaign.

In recent years the trend toward reduced pedestrian deaths has

leveled off and now the rate seems to be rising again. Sielski

recommends more work on pedestrian safety, especially in the areas

of protection and law enforcement. Gleason (1954) reiterates

many points about pedestrian safety. He advises communities to

establish councils composed of representatives from various local

groups to set safety standards and policies. He also advises use

of the public media, as well as patrols organized by the schools.

His main point is that people must be kept aware of pedestrian

and traffic safety.

5.1.2. SPECIFIC TliAFFIC SAFETY PLANS. Davin (1952) des-

cribes the 1952 Citizen Traffic Safety Board's public education

program in Chicago, which emphasized newspaper publicity, a

"Watch it on Western Street" program, billboards, T.V. and radio

spots, etc, Trumble (1959) describes traffic safety programs in

various cities. Generally they combine education with law en-

forcement. Todhunter (1958) discusses pedestrian safety pro~grams

in Norfolk, Virginia, where the main concern was for school chil-

dren, and in Sacramento, California, where transient laborers,

who were freq'uently drunk on weekends, resulted in a pedestrian

safety problem. The former problem was solved by a combinat.ion

of education, enforcement, and engineering. The latter was con-

trolled by having a special squad car take protective custody of

drunks.

Kretchmar (1965) describes a very comprehensive traffic

safety program in Seattle, using Pedestrian Traffic Regulation

(limited jaywalking) that allows pedestrians to cross against the

light if they judge such action to be safe. A mandatory ped.es-

trian safety school for violators, a large program of public

safety education, and a school patrol were also used.

An article in Traffic Safetl (1957) describes a pedestrian

campaign in Oakland, California, and contends that those cha.rged

with pedestrian education are not succeeding. Gwin (1955) d,e-

s c r i b e s t h e J . C . Penney Company's e f f o r t s t o promote s a f e t y con-

s c i o u s n e s s th rough v a r i o u s programs i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t towns.

The b a s i c program, a "Back t o School" s a f e t y campaign, was q u i t e

widespread . I t used t h e "Stop and Go" t w i n s , p u b l i c i z e d by e v e r y

medium, a motion p i c t u r e f i l m , p o s t e r s , c a r c a r d s , ou tdoor a d s ,

s a f e t y badges , and s t o r e window and c o u n t e r d i s p l a y s . The

a r t i c l e s t a t e s t h a t t h e p r o j e c t he lped d e c r e a s e a c c i d e n t s a.mong

school-aged youngs t e r s t h roughou t t h e c o u n t r y ; however, no

s t a t i s t i c s were g iven s u p p o r t i n g t h i s s t a t e m e n t . McInerney (1959)

d e s c r i b e s t h e 1957 New York C i t y P e d e s t r i a n S a f e t y Campaign, which

i n c l u d e d an a n t i j a y w a l k i n g o rd inance ( v i o l a t i o n of which r e s u l t e d

i n a $ 2 . 0 0 f i n e ) and a g r e a t d e a l of p u b l i c i t y , such a s s a f e t y

r a l l i e s and pamphlet d i s t r i b u t i o n s . Th i s program was n e c e s s i t a t e d

by N e w York ' s h igh p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h r a t e i n p r e v i o u s yea r s , , due ,

i n p a r t , t o t h e f a c t t h a t many peop le were t o o ready t o a c c e p t

s t o p l i g h t s a s t h e s o l e s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem. Lash ley (1965)

d e s c r i b e s a p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y campaign s t a r t e d by t h e AAA i n

Washington, D. C . I n 1964, t h e upward t r e n d i n p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s

was checked, s o t h a t o n l y about h a l f t h e p r e d i c t e d number were

k i l l e d . The s a f e t y program inc luded enforcement and r e v i s i o n of

p e d e s t r i a n r e g u l a t i o n s , and a p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c s choo l fo:r

v i o l a t o r s s l

ENGINEERING: INTERSECTIONS AND CONTROL DEVICES

Much of t h e l i t e r a t u r e d e a l s w i t h t h e problems of i n t e r s e c t i o n s ,

Most w r i t e r s a g r e e t h a t t h e on ly p e r f e c t s a f e t y p l a n i s one t h a t

comple te ly s e p a r a t e s t h e p e d e s t r i a n and t h e automobile i n e i t h e r

space o r time. S e v e r a l a u t h o r s d e s c r i b e and d i s c u s s subways and

overhead b r i d g e s , which s e r v e t o s e p a r a t e p e d e s t r i a n s and au to -

mobi les i n s p a c e , b u t o f t e n a r e i m p r a c t i c a l . Because complete

s e p a r a t i o n i n space i s u s u a l l y imposs ib l e , we must u s e d e v i c e s

t o s e p a r a t e t h e two i n t i m e (Howie, 1954) .

A g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of v a r i o u s t y p e s of c r o s s i n g s i s

provided by Duff (1963) . The d i s c u s s i o n i n c l u d e s zeb ra c r o s s i n g s ,

s i g n a l l e d c r o s s i n g s , p e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l , subways and f o o t - b r i d g e s ,

and pedestrian precincts and walkways. The article also contains

a good discussion of the Panda crossing. This crossing is

essentially the same as the five-phased intersection signal system

discussed lat-er . 5.2.1. THE PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE. Moore (1956) discusses some

psychological factors important in pedestrian traffic engineering.

He stresses the traffic engineer's need to have a fuller under-

standing of human abilities and limitations. Pedestrian use of

subways and bridges, and the information required to plan these

safe facilities so that they are sure to be used are also dis-

cussed. Some pedestrian bridges have already been installeld, and

Ramos and Travel (1949) describe one over Quezon Boulevard in

Manila, Philippines. The bridge was successful on both financial

and practical traffic levels probably because of its advantageous

location and heavy pedestrian and traffic volumes. Elliott (1962)

describes California's unsuccessful attempts to build pedestrian

overcrossings from which children cannot fall or throw things.

The railings were most problematic because they needed to be

constructed so that children will not be able to crawl through

the openings or over the top. [Elliott appears to have been

upset about the failure of these projects, and in his article

stated several times that the children must be severely punished

in order to build their characters.]

American City (1966) reports the success of a pre-engineered,

prefabricated bridge erected across a dangerously busy crossing

used by most of the students in Mattleson, Illinois. In

Metropolitan Transportation (19621, Donald Stephens~n shows

a more comprehensive traffic plan involving the use of walk:ways

over intersection.^.

5.2.2. TRAFFIC LIGHTS--THE PHASING PROBLEM. Usually it is

impossible or impractical to use pedestrian bridges at intersections,

and other methods of intersection control must be discovered and

employed. Duff (1963) discusses the several ways of arranging

priorities between pedestrians and motorists. At many intersec-

tions the pedestrian crosses with the signal, and cars are expected

to defer to him before they turn. However, as traffic becomes

heavier, more intricate arrangements must be made, including

different phases and signals.

Rudden (1959) points out the confusion concerning different

intersection signals, His article is an attempt to classify and

designate different systems of control, which are described as

follows:

(a) Concurrent Pedestrian Phase. Pedestrian signals display

a "walk1' indication separately for each direction (i.e., north-

south "walk" and east-west "wait"). For a given direction, the

green indication for vehicle traffic and the "walk" indication

for pedestrian traffic are displayed simultaneously during the

first portion of the phase. During this green-signal display,

vehicles are permitted to turn into the crosswalk at the same

time that pedestrians are permitted to walk.

(b) Exclusive Pedestrian Phase (Scramble). At a given inter-

section, pedestrian signals display a "walk" only after all

vehicle signals display a "red." "Walk" is indicated for all

crosswalks simultaneously, and during this phase pedestrians

may cross in any direction.

( c ) Clear Pedestrian Interval. At a given intersection,

vehicles are restricted from turning into a parallel crosswal:k by

means of straight-through green arrows displayed during that

portion of the phase when the crosswalk is assigned to pedestrians.

In a similar article, Gove (1958) defines and discusses the

same systems of pedestrian signs-1s. After discussing various

problems the author suggests that information on how the cities

actually use these signals be gathered, and that warrants or

guidelines be established.

Some controversy exists concerning the "scramble system,'"

which provides a completely separate interval for pedestrian

movement across the street in any direction. Shoaf (1955)

describes the scramble system as it was used in San Francisco.

The results of a study released on 7 May 1954 show that, for

the test area, the average travel time for all motorists using

the system increased an average of 48.4 percent. Furthermc~re,

Shoaf concludes that only about 25 percent of pedestrians clross

diagonally at corners where scramble is in effect, and it i,s

doubtful that pedestrians save any time. He maintains that

the 75 percent who cross the street at right angles actually lose

time. From a pure traffic-oriented viewpoint, scramble does not

make better use of existing streets. Also, the traffic conges-

tion caused by scramble can be expected to result in losses to

the businessmen of the area. Marconi (1959) also discusses the

failure of the scramble system in San Francisco. The removal of

the system resulted in a 24 percent increase in traffic speed.

Ilgner (1954) discusses the discontinuation of scramble in

downtown Milwaukee. During this time, nine pedestrian accidents

occurred, as contrasted with 17 accidents at these four inter-

sections during the same period the previous year. However,

rear end collisions increased from eight in 1952 to 17 in 1.953.

Bruening (1957) describes four intersections in Milwaukee,

using the share-the-phase system. To avoid conflict between

right-turning traffic and pedestrians, each has its own phase.

This system, Bruening claims, has none of the disrupting effects

of the scramble system. Pedestrians receive 15 percent more

crossing time free of vehicular interference than with scramble.

Traffic Engineering and Control (1961) discusses another inter-

section-signal system which is five-phased. The crossing i~s

marked with a white cross.

The phases are:

(1) With no pedestrian demand for right-of-way, all signal

lights are extinguished.

(2) As soon as a pedestrian depresses the button, a pul-

sating amber signal is shown to road traffic and the "wait"

indicator on the push button unit is illuminated.

(3) After a preset period (three to seven seconds) the am-

ber and "wait" signals are extinguished; vehicular traffic now

receives the pulsating red signal and must stop. At the same

time pedestrians receive the white "cross" signal, and they :may

cross.

(4) After a preset period (three to seven seconds), the

pulsating red signal is extinguished and vehicular traffic receives

a flashing amber signal. At the same time, the white "cross"

signal commences to flash at the rate of 9 0 flashes per minute,

During this period pedestrians on the crossings still have right-

of-way but motorists may proceed if the crossing is clear.

(5) After a preset period (three to 13 seconds), the rate

of flashing is increased to 180 per minute to indicate that the

pedestrian right-of-way is nearly ended. This increased rate

of flashing continues for five seconds.

All signals are now extinguished for a preset period (20

to 65 seconds). This is known as the vehicle-precedence period,

during which vehicles have the right-of-way and any pedestrian

demand is stored until the end of the period. This ensures that

during heavy pedestrian traffic the vehicles will be allowed to

clear. Operation of the pedestrian push button during the vehicle

precedence period causes the "wait" indicator to be illuminated.

At the expiration of this period, the cycle of operation described

above begins again if there has been any pedestrian demand. The

five-phase signal may seem unnecessarily complicated, but the

author feels that motorists and pedestrians could quickly learn

to distinguish the cycles.

Another variation on the intersection signal is described

in Roads and Road Construction (1956). Pedestrians signal their -- wish to cross by pushing a button, and get a "cross" or "wait"

sign. Drivers, once obtaining the green light, would not have

to stop again before leaving the system, which extends for 6 5 0

yards. Two separate plans have been devised, one for heavy and

one for light traffic,

5 . 2 . 3 . TRAFFIC LIGHTS - NEW DESIGNS. Another frequently

discussed traffic problem is that of designing the most effective

au tomat ic t r a f f i c s i g n a l . Hoffman (1958) d i s c u s s e s Harnmond,

I n d i a n a ' s change from "walk/donl t walk" s i g n s t o " l e a v e curb/

d o n ' t l eave curb" s i g n s , The fo l lowing reasons f o r t h e change

a r e given: (1) The new s i g n c o n t r o l s t h e p e d e s t r i a n b e f o r e he

e n t e r s t h e s t r e e t ; ( 2 ) it e l i m i n a t e s g u t t e r - s t a n d i n g ; ( 3 ) it

does n o t say anything t o p e d e s t r i a n s who have a l r e a d y l e f t : t h e

curb; ( 4 ) i t can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o any e x i s t i n g system.

Wiley (1953) d e s c r i b e s New York C i t y ' s new "walk/donl t wa1.k"

s i g n a l s , which f l a s h whi te and amber i n s t e a d of green. Fowler

(1949) d i s c u s s e s t h e problem a r i s i n g from t h e c o n f l i c t between

t h e d r i v e r ' s need t o use t h e v e h i c u l a r red-amber-green l i g h t s f o r

guidance and h i s d e s i r e t o make t h e same s i g n a l s i n v i s i b l e

t o t h e p e d e s t r i a n when "walk /don l t walk" s i g n s a r e i n s t a l l e d . A

h i g h l y developed "walk/waitf ' s i g n a l , which i n c r e a s e d p e d e s t r i a n

o b s e r v a t i o n of s i g n a l s by a t l e a s t 50 p e r c e n t , was i n s t a l l e d i n

P o r t l a n d and i n o t h e r c i t i e s i n Oregon.

J4ackie and Jacobs (1965) compare t h e behavior of d r i v e r s

-shown t h e s t e a d y amber s i g n a l a t t r a f f i c s i g n a l - c o n t r o l l e d c r o s s -

i n g s , and t h e p u l s a t i n g amber l i g h t a t panda c r o s s i n g s . Accord-

i n g t o law, d r i v e r s must s t o p when t h e s e s i g n a l s appear u n l e s s

they a r e t o o c l o s e t o t h e c r o s s i n g t o do so . An a t t e m p t was made

t o d i s c o v e r whether t h e r e was any d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two t y p e s

of c r o s s i n g s

v a r i o u s d i s t

d r i v e r s who

r e s u l t s i n d i

a t l igh t -con

5 . 2 . 4 .

t i o n s i g n a l s

i n t h e p r o p o r t i o n s of d r i v e r s beginning t o s t o p a t

.ances from t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s . The p r o p o r t i o n of

d i d n o t obey t h e r e d s i g n a l was a l s o cons idered . The

c a t e d poore r d r i v e r behavior a t panda c r o s s i n g s than

t r o l l e d c r o s s i n g s .

RADIO SIGNALS. A more novel approach t o i n t e r s e c -

developed by Ford Motor Company and s i m i l a r l y by

General Motors Corpora t ion (Hanysz, 1960) appears . - i n B e t t e r Homes

and Gardens (1965) . T h i s a r t i c l e d e s c r i b e s t h e r a d i o roacl a l e r t

sys tem, which s e r v e s t o r e p l a c e road s i g n s w i t h sound. The

system c o n s i s t s of two s m a l l u n i t s , one of which t i e s i n t o any

t r a n s i s t o r i z e d a u t o r a d i o , t h e o t h e r of which i s b u r i e d under-

ground o r mounted on a road s i g n , u t i l i t y p o l e , o r b u i l d i n g . The

r e c e i v e r i n t h e c a r c o n t a i n s an end-loop magnetic t a p e which can

ho ld up t o 1 0 0 prerecorded messages. The t r a n s m i t t e r u n i t i s

mounted a long t h e roadway, and when a c a r c o n t a i n i n g a r e c e i v e r

approaches an a r e a r e q u i r i n g s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n , t h e s i g n a l from

t h e t r a n s m i t t e r t r i g g e r s t h e r e c e i v e r . The r e c e i v e r s e l e c t s t h e

p roper message, t u r n s t h e r a d i o on , and d e l i v e r s t h e vo ice message

t l i ree t imes . I f t h e r a d i o i s on a l r e a d y , t h e program i s i n t e r -

r u p t e d , The au thor b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e system could be i n e f f e c t

w i t h i n a few y e a r s .

Another ' Y t l k i n g " s i g n a l was d e s c r i b e d i n American City (1960) .

The s i g n a l , which was demonstrated a t 5 t h Avenue and 42nd S t r e e t ,

New York c i t y , a c t i v a t e s a message i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e v i s u a l "walk"

and " d o n ' t walk" s i g n s .

5 .2.5, THE ZEBRA-STRIPED CROSSING. Many a u t h o r s d i s c u s s

t h e p ros and cons of z e b r a - s t r i p e d c r o s s i n g s . I n an a r t i c l e by

Mackie (1962) an a t t e m p t was made t o d i s c o v e r whether t h e r i s k of

c r o s s i n g on and o f f t h e s t r i p i n g s , b u t w i t h i n 50 ya rds of them. Data

secured from t h e 2 1 a v a i l a b l e c r o s s i n g s i t e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t

t h e r i s k of i n j u r y t o a p e d e s t r i a n who u s e s t h e s t r i p e d c r o s s i n g

i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s than t h e r i s k he runs c r o s s i n g w i t h i n 50

ya rds of i t . Moore (1953) , reviewing a s tudy of p e d e s t r i a n

judgment i n c r o s s i n g s t r e e t s and of t h e e f f e c t s of zebra c r o s s i n g ,

r e p o r t s t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n of p e d e s t r i a n s u s i n g t h e c r o s s i n g s

was g r e a t e r a f t e r z e b r a - s t r i p i n g wa.s employed, The -- Surveyor and

Municipal and County Engineer (1950) reviews two a s p e c t s of a

N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Week h e l d i n England i n A p r i l 1949. I t was

d i r e c t e d towards t h e behavior of road-users a t p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s ,

a s i n f l u e n c e d by zebra markings and propaganda. The exper imenters

conclude t h a t t h e propaganda i n f l u e n c e d p e d e s t r i a n s and d r i v e r s

to pay attention at crossings, especially at zebra crossings.

Garwood and Moore (1962) reported a study, conducted in London

from 1952 to 1962, in which the pedestrian casualty rate dropped

by 7 percent following the installation of zebra crossings, com-

bined with a public information program.

Another article in Surveyor and Municipal and County

Engineer (1949) also reviews studies of the relative effective-

ness of zebra crossings, and concludes that zebra markings are

superior to either raised crossings or steel studs. In another

edition of the same magazine, Jacobs (1965) gives a more detailed

account of studies of zebra crossings. His conclusions are as

follows: (1) There was a slight reduction in the delay to pedes-

trians wishing to cross the road in the immediate vicinity of

the crossing, while on the crossing itself there was a slight

increase. (2) The time taken by pedestrians to walk across the

road on or near the crossing did not change significantly.

(3) The crossing attracted 70 percent of the pedestrians from

a length of road about 200 yards long to the vicinity of the

crossing. Within 50 yards of the site, about 90 percent of

the pedestrians used the crossing. (4) After the installation

of the crossing, there was a reduction in vehicle speeds which

can be partly explained by an increase in pedestrian and traffic

flows.

One of the problems of zebra crossings involves the materials

used for the markings. Roads and Road Construction (1949) notes

the markings of nearly 1000 zebra crossings with white plastic

strips, which had worn well after four months of wear.

Another article in Roads and Road Construction (1953) des-

cribes the use of white, or white and black, ceramic blocks

to mark the crossings. The surface of each block was studded

t o e l i m i n a t e s k i d d i n g , and t h e s i d e s of each were g lazed t o

r e f l e c t overhead l i g h t toward oncoming t r a f f i c . Hayward and

P e t e r s (1954) d e s c r i b e t h e f o u r m a t e r i a l s most c o m o n l y used

f o r zebra c r o s s i n g s : whi te p l a s t i c , whi te m a s t i c a s p h a l t ,

whi te bi tuminous macadam, and whi te concre te . White m a s t i c

a s p h a l t seems t o have t h e l o n g e s t l i f e , a t l e a s t f i v e y e a r s l

P e t e r s and F r a n c i s (1954) d i s c u s s t h e t echn iques adopted f o r

l a y i n g two types of zebra c r o s s i n g s , whi te concre te s t i p e s e a s t

i n s i t u wi th b lack s t r i p e s of m a s t i c a s p h a l t , and whi te and -- black s t r i p e s formed w i t h p r e c a s t concre te b locks . Both were

q u i t e e f f e c t i v e . S t r e e t Eng inee r inq (March 1957) d e s c r i b e s a

new compound, "Perma-l ine," which i s used i n s t e a d of t h e o l d e r ,

s h o r t - l i v e d type of s t r e e t marking m a t e r i a l . Perma-line showed

on ly s l i g h t evidence of wear when examined a f t e r 18 months of

use .

5 . 2 . 6 . THE RUMBLE STRIP, AND OTHER INNOVATIONS. One

i n n o v a t i o n , seemingly q u i t e p r a c t i c a l , i s t h e rumble s t r i p .

Both MacDonald (1964) and Mortimer (1965) d i s c u s s t h i s d e v i c e ,

which c o n s i s t s of a rock-and-p las t i c s t r i p t h a t sends sounds

and v i b r a t i o n warnings through t h e frame of an automobile a s it

p a s s e s over pa tches of t h e m a t e r i a l p laced ahead of danger

s p o t s i n t h e road. Mortimer (1965) d i s c u s s e s t h e e f fec t ive i?ess

of t h e s t r i p s a s used i n approaches t o i n t e r s e c t i o n s t o p s i ~ j n s ,

A t some i n t e r s e c t i o n s s t o p s i g n v i o l a t i o n s were a s h igh a s 6 2

p e r c e n t ; county-wide, t h e f i g u r e was 2 0 pe rcen t . With a rumble

s t r i p p laced L O O yards from t h e s t o p s i g n , t h e c a r r e c e i v e s a

s l i g h t j o l t , fol lowed by a g e n t l e rocking motion and an a u d i b l e

rumble. A f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e rumble s t r i p t h e r e were, a t

some check p o i n t s , no i n s t a n c e s of complete d i sobed ience , Every

d r i v e r e i t h e r completely s topped or reduced h i s speed t o a

r o l l i n g s t o p .

S t o r e y (1954) d e s c r i b e d a Michigan C i t y , Ind iana , program

i n which crosswalks were p a i n t e d green t o d i scourage jaywallcing

and keep d r i v e r s from s t o p p i n g on t h e c ros swa lk ; t h i s sys tem,

which seemed s u c c e s s f u l , was t i e d i n w i t h g reen l i g h t s and t h e

s l o g a n "walk on t h e g r e e n . " Another unusua l d e v i c e was des-

c r i b e d i n American C i t y (Feb rua ry 1 9 6 6 ) . A 1600-square- foot

c ros swa lk i n s t a l l e d i n t h e h e a r t o f a Boston shopping d i s t r i c t

s e r v e s t o remind p e d e s t r i a n s of t h e a n t i - j a y w a l k i n g law. Only

w i t h i n t h e huge c ros swa lk can p e r s o n s c r o s s d i a g o n a l l y .

Ano the r , q u i t e d i f f e r e n t v i ewpo in t i s e x p r e s s e d by Roer

(1961) . H e comments on t h e p e d e s t r i a n i n m e t r o p o l i t a n Toron to ,

t a k i n g t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t p e d e s t r i a n s a r e n o t he lped by h e a v i l y

marked c r o s s o v e r s b u t , on t h e c o n t r a r y , a r e g iven a f a l s e s e n s e

of s e c u r i t y . The p e d e s t r i a n and t h e m o t o r i s t b o t h seem uncer-

t a i n a b o u t t h e i r r i g h t s when c r o s s o v e r s a r e p r e s e n t . To make

p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s o v e r s s a f e r , he m a i n t a i n s , s t r i c t p a r k i n g and

s t o p p i n g p r o h i b i t i o n s shou ld be a p p l i e d and e n f o r c e d .

F inch and Howard (1958) d e s c r i b e a un ique s t u d y p e r t a i n -

i n g t o an i m p o r t a n t , b u t l i t t l e - d i s c u s s e d , problem of adver -

t i s i n g s i g n s i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t r a f f i c s i g n a l s , o f s i r r i i l a r

c o l o r s , c r e a t i n g c o n f u s i o n between s i g n a l s and s i g n s . An

i n s t r u m e n t d e s i g n e d t o compare t h e c o l o r s of d i s t r a c t i n g l i g h t s

w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d c o l o r l imi ts i s d i s c u s s e d . Confusion of s i g n

c o l o r s w i t h t r a f f i c s i g n a l c o l o r s can be a r e a l problem i n c i t y

d r i v i n g , and r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r s t u d y s o t h a t p r a c t i c a l l i m i t s

can be e s t a b l i s h e d t o a v o i d t h e d i s t r a c t i o n s t h a t now e x i s t

w i t h o u t undue r e s t r i c t i o n on commercial s i g n s .

5 . 2 . 7 . THE EFFECTIVENESS OF MARKED CROSSWALKS. Marvin

(1951) d i s c u s s e s t h e e f f e c t of marked c ros swa lks and s t o p l . i n e s

on where a c a r w i l l s t o p . No p e d e s t r i a n s were c r o s s i n g d u r i n g

t h e s e s t u d i e s . The s t u d i e s show t h a t d u r i n g t h e day , a t

unmarked s i g n a l i z e d i n t e r s e c t i o n s , t h e v e h i c l e s ' mean s t o p -

p i n g d i s t a n c e from t h e n e a r c u r b l i n e can be e x p r e s s e d a s two-

t h i r d s of t h e s t r ee t wid th minus n i n e f e e t . A t n i q h t , motor-

i s t s t e n d t o s t o p t h r e e f e e t f a r t h e r back. The wid th o f t h e

s t o p l i n e was v a r i e d f o r t h e s t u d y and a 9- inch wid th recommended,

I n a more r e c e n t a r t i c l e Mortimer and Nagamachi (1969) show

t h a t fewer v e h i c l e s s t o p on t h e p e d e s t r i a n crosswalk when t h e

road i s marked wi th a s t o p l i n e i n f r o n t of t h e crosswalk than

when it i s marked wi th a crosswalk on ly o r by t h e end of t h e

c e n t e r l i n e . Such a marking can , t h e r e f o r e , be used t o advan-

t a g e i n keeping t h e crosswalk r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f w h i c l e s a t

t r a f f i c - s i g n a l - c o n t r o l l e d i n t e r s e c t i o n s and t h u s pe rmi t s

improved p e d e s t r i a n f low on t h e crosswalk.

The P e d e s t r i a n and School S a f e t y Divis ion ( A p r i l 1964) of

t h e AAA prov ides a f a c t s h e e t e n t i t l e d , How To Obtain O r d e r l x

Movement of P e d e s t r i a n T r a f f i c a t I n t e r s e c t i o n s Through Channel- - i z a t i o n by Means of Painted-Lines wi th t h e measurements and a

diagram of v a r i o u s t r a f f i c l i n e s .

5 . 3 . PEDESTRIAN RISK-TAKING BEHAVIOR

5.3.1. THE JAYWALKING CONTROVERSY. Many t r a f f i c s a f e t y

programs p l a c e t h e i r h e a v i e s t emphasis on enforcement o r r e v i -

s i o n of jaywalking laws. Hayes ( 1 9 6 1 ) d e s c r i b e s a t r a f f i c

s a f e t y program i n Lansing, Michigan. The a u t h o r f e e l s t h a t

p e d e s t r i a n s should be c o n t r o l l e d a t l e a s t a s much a s m o t o r i s t s ;

he d i s c u s s e s t h e enforcement of p e d e s t r i a n laws, p e d e s t r i a n

s i g n a l s , p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s , and educa t ion i n t h e schoo l s .

Denham (1957) d e s c r i b e s a t r a f f i c - l a w enforcement program which

s t a r t e d i n Miami on January 2 , 1957. This program enforced t h e

law r e q u i r i n g p e d e s t r i a n s t o c r o s s a t c rosswalks , T r a f f i c a c c i -

d e n t s i n v o l v i n g p e d e s t r i a n s decreased 19 p e r c e n t w i t h i n t h e

fo l lowing four-month p e r i o d . G r i f f i n (1959) d e s c r i b e s t h e

s t r i c t enforcement of p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c laws i n D e t r o i t , and

t h e drop i n t h e p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t r a t e s which seemed t o be

connected wi th t h i s enforcement. Other f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g

t o t h e lower a c c i d e n t r a t e were a v igorous p o l i c y of law enforce-

ment a g a i n s t a l l o t h e r t r a f f i c law v i o l a t o r s , a sound engi-

neering program, and an i n t e n s i v e e d u c a t i o n a l e f f o r t . I n t h e

e a r l y 1 9 4 0 t s , D e t r o i t p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s annua l ly accounted f o r

70 p e r c e n t of t r a f f i c d e a t h s ; i n 1958, t h e y accounted f o r 52

p e r c e n t of a l l t r a f f i c dea ths . Also i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 4 0 f s , . i n j u r i e s

t o p e d e s t r i a n s accounted f o r 35.5 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l t r a f f i c

i n j u r i e s . I n 1958, p e d e s t r i a n i n j u r i e s were 17 pe rcen t of t h e

t o t a l . The p r i n c i p a l method of e n f o r c i n g p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c laws

i s by i s s u i n g $2.00 t i c k e t s t o v i o l a t o r s . E s s e n t i a l l y t h e law

demands c a u t i o n i n c r o s s i n g t h e s t r e e t ; c r o s s i n g i s pe rmi t t ed

both a t c o r n e r s and i n t h e middle of t h e b lock , and i n t h e l a t t e r

c a s e i s known a s l i m i t e d jaywalking. George Edwards, one of

D e t r o i t ' s councilmen a t t h e t ime, i n s i s t e d upon a l e g a l c l a u s e

t o h e l p p r o t e c t t h e p e d e s t r i a n a g a i n s t c a r e l e s s , r e c k l e s s , and

speeding d r i v e r s . While t h e c l a u s e made it a v i o l a t i o n f o r a

p e d e s t r i a n "whi le c r o s s i n g t h e s t r e e t a t a p o i n t o t h e r than a

crosswalk t o s t e p suddenly, run o r jump i n t o t h e p a t h of a

moving motor vehic le . . .when [it] i s s o c l o s e a s t o c o n s t i t u t e

a haza rd , " it a l s o s t a t e d t h a t " t h e fo rego ing p r o v i s i o n does n o t

r e l i e v e t h e m o t o r i s t of h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o d r i v e c a r e f u l l y , "

G r i f f i n (1959) b e l i e v e d t h e reduc t ion i n p e d e s t r i a n dea ths and

i n j u r i e s showed t h a t t h e ant i - jaywalking campaign had been

q u i t e e f f e c t i v e . C l e a r l y t h i s conclus ion would r e q u i r e sub-

s t a n t i a t i o n ,

T r a f f i c S a f e t y ( A p r i l 1959) d e s c r i b e s a s e c t i o n of

New J e r s e y ' s P u b l i c Opinion P o l l on T r a f f i c S a f e t y e n t i t l e d

"The Driver Looks a t t h e P e d e s t r i a n , " One q u e s t i o n was, "How

do you f e e l about t h e enforcement of p e d e s t r i a n r e g u l a t i o n s ? "

The d r i v e r s ' answers v a r i e d a s fo l lows:

1. P e d e s t r i a n s should be t i c k e t e d f o r v i o l a t i o n : 49%

2 . P e d e s t r i a n s should be educa ted , n o t a r r e s t e d : 2 7 %

3. P e d e s t r i a n s should be l e f t a lone: 2 %

4 . The law r e q u i r i n g d r i v e r s t o y i e l d t o p e d e s t r i a n s a t crosswalks should be enforced: 2 0 %

5. No opinion: 2 %

T r a f f i c S a f e t y (Sept . 1959) a l s o d e s c r i b e s a mandatory t r a f f i c

s a f e t y s e s s i o n f o r jaywalkers i n Elmira , New York. The e f f e c -

t i v e n e s s of t h e program may be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e town 's a c c i d e n t

r ecord f o r 1953 and 1958, a l though t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e

of t h i s r e c o r d i s q u e s t i o n a b l e . During t h i s two-year pe r iod

t h e r e were no p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s i n Elmira , a l though f o u r

had occur red i n 1956.

5 .3 .2 . STUDIES OF RISK-TAKING. S e v e r a l s t u d i e s have been

made of t h e r i s k involved i n c r o s s i n g a t v a r i o u s c o r n e r s .

Mackie and Older (1965) d i s c u s s a s t u d y of seven s t r e e t s i n

London, England, which found t h a t more women (60 p e r c e n t ) than

men (56 p e r c e n t ) , aged 16-60, c r o s s on t h e c r o s s i n g s ; c h i l d r e n

have t h e b e s t c r o s s i n g behav io r ; t h e a r e a s of h igh r i s k a r e t h e

s e c t i o n s w i t h i n 50 ya rds of t h e c r o s s i n g f a c i l i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y

i f they were a l s o nea r i n t e r s e c t i o n s . S e c t i o n s w i t h i n 50 ya rds

of l i g h t - c o n t r o l l e d c r o s s i n g s a r e more dangerous than t h o s e nea r

zebra c r o s s i n g s , and t h e h i g h e s t r i s k of a l l i s w i t h i n 50 ya rds

of l i g h t - c o n t r o l l e d c r o s s i n g s which a r e w i t h i n 2 0 ya rds of junc-

t i o n s . The s a f e s t p l a c e t o c r o s s appears t o be a t p e d e s t r i a n

c r o s s i n g s . The peak danger zone i s a d j a c e n t t o t h e c r o s s i n g

i t s e l f . The a r t i c l e a l s o q i v e s more d e t a i l e d in fo rmat ion on

r i s k . Jacobs and Wilson ( 1 9 6 7 ) d i s c u s s a s t u d y which reaches

b a s i c a l l y t h e same conc lus ions a s t h e p rev ious s t u d y , The

emphasis i s on p e d e s t r i a n r i s k nea r i n t e r s e c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y

w i t h i n 50 ya rds of a c r o s s i n g . The r i s k i s lowes t , b u t not

s i g n i f i c a n t l y s o , on t h e c r o s s i n g s . Both on and o f f c r o s s i n g s ,

r i s k i s g r e a t e r nea r i n t e r s e c t i o n s .

5 .3 .3 . STREET CROSSING TIME. A g r e a t d e a l of r e s e a r c h

has been done on t h e s u b j e c t of p e d e s t r i a n s t r e e t - c r o s s i n g

t ime. How, f o r example, does t h e p e d e s t r i a n judge when it i s

s a f e t o c r o s s t h e road? How does t h e t r a f f i c eng inee r h e l p

ensure t h a t t h e p e d e s t r i a n w i l l have ample t i m e t o c r o s s ?

H o l l i c h (1968) d e s c r i b e s a s i t u a t i o n i n Chicago i n which pedes-

t r i a n s d i d n o t have enough time t o c r o s s t h e s t reet e n t i r e l y .

The problem was s o l v e d by t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a c e n t e r r e f u g e .

Moore (1953) s a y s t h a t p e d e s t r i a n d e c i s i o n s t o c r o s s a road

a r e based on t h e d i s t a n c e and speed of an app roach ing v e h i c l e ,

i . e . , it i s a c a l c u l a t i o n of how l o n g it w i l l t a k e t h e au to-

mobi le t o r each t h e p e d e s t r i a n . Cohen, Dearna ley , and Hansel

(1955) r e p o r t on r o a d - c r o s s i n g b e h a v i o r a g a i n s t one-way, moder-

a t e l y heavy t r a f f i c . The speed and d i s t a n c e o f t h e oncoming

v e h i c l e were c a l c u l a t e d i n seconds from t h e time t h e pe r son

s t e p p e d t o t h e edge of t h e road and looked toward t h e oncoming

t r a f f i c t o t h e moment when t h e v e h i c l e r eached t h e c r o s s i n g

s i t e , When t h e v e h i c l e was 4 .5 seconds away, 50 p e r c e n t of

t h e peop le who c o u l d c r o s s d i d s o . No one c r o s s e d when t h e

v e h i c l e was less t h a n 1 . 5 seconds away, and everyone c r o s s e d

when t h e v e h i c l e was more t h a n 10 .5 seconds away. Road

Research Labora to ry devo ted a c h a p t e r of Research on Road

T r a f f i c (1965) t o t h e methods and r e s u l t s of s t u d y i n g pedes-

t r i a n movements and b e h a v i o r . Methods o f measur ing p e d e s t r i a n

s p e e d s , d e l a y s , and d e n s i t y of g roup ings a r e d i s c u s s e d and

c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g iven t o t h e e f f e c t o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s on

t h e s e measures . An a n a l y s i s i s made o f t h e f a c t o r s l i k e l y t o

a f f e c t p e d e s t r i a n s i n judging when it i s s a f e t o c r o s s t h e road .

Moore (1956) d i s c u s s e s t h e impor t ance , from t h e t r a f f i c eng i -

n e e r ' s p o i n t of view, of o b t a i n i n g a f u l l e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

human a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s . A s an example o f t h e s o r t

of b a s i c d a t a which a r e u s e f u l , t h e r e s u l t s of an i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n i n t o t h e t ime a l lowances r e q u i r e d by p e d e s t r i a n s when,

c r o s s i n g a t r a f f i c s t r e a m a r e g iven . Tanner (1951) c a r r i e d

o u t an a n a l y s i s t o de t e rmine t h e d e l a y time i n c u r r e d by th,e

p e d e s t r i a n i n c r o s s i n g a s t r e e t and found a r e a s o n a b l e ag ree -

ment w i t h some e m p i r i c a l d a t a .

A subsequen t a n a l y s i s by Weiss (1963) re-examined t h e

theory of p e d e s t r i a n queuing, when f r e e d from t h e r e s t r i c t i o n

of a n e g a t i v e e x p o n e n t i a l gap d i s t r i b u t i o n , and u t i l i z e s a con-

t inuous f u n c t i o n , r a t h e r than a s t e p f u n c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n of

gap acceptance p r o b a b i l i t y .

Vuchic (1967) d i scussed t h e same problem from ano the r angle .

H e showed t h a t p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g time may be an impor tant

f a c t o r l i m i t i n g v e h i c u l a r c a p a c i t y a t s i g n a l i z e d c r o s s i n g s on

undivided, m u l t i l a n e t r a f f i c a r t e r i a l s .

Garwood and Moore (1962) summarized t h e t r a f f i c s a f e t y

s i t u a t i o n a s it e x i s t s a t p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . They concluded

t h e fo l lowing:

(1) Most p e d e s t r i a n s w i l l use a subway o r b r i d g e on ly

i f i t a f f o r d s a q u i c k e r c r o s s i n g than t h e ground-

l e v e l r o u t e .

( 2 ) I t i s much s a f e r t o c r o s s a t a zebra c r o s s i n g o r

t r a f f i c l i g h t , than o u t s i d e b u t nea r t o them.

An impor tan t g o a l of t h e r e s e a r c h d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s

t o use t h e most e f f e c t i v e equipment a t s p e c i f i c i n t e r s e c t i o n s .

T r a f f i c ( A p r i l 1962) has developed a t e n t a t i v e

s t a n d a r d f o r t h e use of such equipment. The purpose of t h i s

t h r e e - p a r t s t a n d a r d i s t o provide a guide f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n

of minimum purchase s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r p e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l s i g -

n a l heads. The s t a n d a r d r e p r e s e n t s t h e minimum requi rements

f o r t h e equipment d e s c r i b e d and i s n o t in tended t o impose

r e s t r i c t i o n s upon des ign of m a t e r i a l s which conform t o t h e

purposes and i n t e n t of t h i s s t a n d a r d ,

5.4 . CITY PLANNING

The most e f f e c t i v e approach t o t r a f f i c s a f e t y i s one which

i n c l u d e s a l l of t h e approaches d i s c u s s e d , C i t y p lann ing ,

a l though it does n o t u s u a l l y reach t h i s u l t i m a t e g o a l , i s t h e

most comprehensive approach now considered i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

Many a u t h o r s have sugges ted r a d i c a l l y new t y p e s of c i t y d e s i g n ,

b r i n g i n g t o bea r t h e r e s u l t s of much t r a f f i c r e s e a r c h and

e n g i n e e r i n g knowhow. Backhouse (1959) d i s c u s s e d what peop le

d e s i r e i n a town, and how t h e y can g e t what t h e y d e s i r e . People

want wel l -p lanned , s a f e , economic towns. Backhouse o u t l i n e d

t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n e x i s t i n g towns, emphas iz ing t h e i n t e r m i x i n g

of u n r e l a t e d b u i l d i n g u s e s , narrow s t r e e t s and t r a f f i c conges-

t i o n , l a c k of p a r k i n g , p o o r l y p l a c e d p a r k i n g , e tc . Backhouse

s u g g e s t e d , a s do most modern c i t y p l a n n e r s , a town b u i l t on

v a r i o u s l e v e l s . The ground l e v e l of t h e b lock i s devoted t o

p a r k i n g , l o a d i n g zones, and L i f t s h a f t s . Shops and o f f i c e s

a r e one o r more s t o r i e s above t h e g round- f loo r p a r k i n g a r e a ,

The b lock i s sur rounded by t r a f f i c - c o l l e c t i n g r o a d s , w i t h

p e d e s t r i a n f o o t p a t h s s e p a r a t e d e n t i r e l y from v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c ,

Backhouse a l s o sugges t ed a p l a n f a r an a r e a i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n

s t a g e between r e s i d e n t i a l development and shopping zones and

urban renewal schemes, and a p l a n f a r r o u t i n g a new expressway

through t h e second l e v e l of b u i l d i n g s . Both Dark (1962) and

I iol loch (1959) agreed t h a t p e d e s t r i a n and a u t o t r a f f i c must be

on two s e p a r a t e l e v e l s .

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y and T r a f f i c Review (1960) bas

an e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e c o v e r i n g t h e g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n of eng inee r -

i n g and town p l a n n i n g f o r p e d e s t r i a n s . The urban p e d e s t r i a n , -

v e h i c l e problem must be e l i m i n a t e d s o t h a t t h e p e d e s t r i a n can

be s a f e . The a u t h o r d i s c u s s e d Alke r T r i f f , who f i r s t gues-

t i o n e d ou r p r e s e n t c i t y s t r u c t u r e and made t h e f i r s t c l e a r

s t a t e m e n t of t h e " p r e c i n c t p r i n c i p l e , " whereby c e r t a i n a r e a s

a r e se t a s i d e f o r p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c o n l y . S t u a r t (1968) a l s o

d i s c u s s e d t h e e n g i n e e r i n g phase of p e d e s t r i a n p l a n n i n g .

S e v e r a l c i t i e s have i n c o r p o r a t e d v a r i o u s f a c e t s of modern

c i t y p l a n n i n g i n t o t h e i r own s t r u c t u r e . B u t l e r (1953) des-

c r i b e d a sys tem i n Denver c o n s i s t i n g o f : (1) r e s t r i c t e d p a r k i n g

i n t h e downtown a r e a d u r i n g peak h o u r s , ( 2 ) a one-way s t r e e t

sys tem, and ( 3 ) e x c l u s i v e p e d e s t r i a n s i g n a l s a t 31 i n t e r s e c t i o n s .

V e h i c l e - p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s were down from 48 i n 1951 t o 2 9 i n

1952, perhaps p a r t l y due t o t h e s e measures .

More r e c e n t l y some new towns (e. g , , Columbia, Md. ) had

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e i r p l a n s many of t h e i d e a s sugges t ed by

Backhouse (1959) and o t h e r s , which e l i m i n a t e t h e mixing of

p e d e s t r i a n s and v e h i c l e s .

Var ious o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e s s e n t i a l t o road and town

development have been d i s c u s s e d . Hol ford (1961) b e l i e v e s t h a t

r o a d s shou ld be deve loped t o bypass o u t s t a n d i n g ( h i s t o r i c )

v i l l a g e s and town c e n t e r s b e f o r e t h e y a r e r u i n e d by heavy t r a f -

f i c . H e stresses t h a t l a n d u s e and economics , s o c i a l and r e a l

e s t a t e v a l u e s , and t h e d e s i g n of l andscape and u t i l i t i e s , a r e

a l l i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s t o c o n s i d e r i f s t r u c t u r a l forms a r e t o

have meaning and purpose.

F a i t h f u l l (1959) h a s d i s c u s s e d r i b b o n , o r r o a d s i d e , deve l -

opments a s one of t h e s e r i o u s problems of urban growth. Motor

v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c and r i bbon development have become a lmos t

i ndependen t because commercial d e v e l o p e r s wish t o l o c a t e where

t r a f f i c i s t h i c k e s t , and because t r a f f i c i s g e n e r a t e d by com-

m e r c i a l l a n d use s . F a i t h f u l l a r g u e s t h a t t o e n s u r e t r a f f i c

s a f e t y r i bbon development must b e c o n t r o l l e d ; c e r t a i n a r e a s

must be o n l y r e s i d e n t i a l , o t h e r s commercial . The r o a d s must

be deve loped t o meet t h e needs of t h e su r round ing p r o p e r t y .

An ex t r eme ly comprehensive d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p a s t , p r e s e n t , and

f u t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e p e d e s t r i a n and t h e c i t y i s t o

be found i n Lewis ( 1 9 6 6 ) . The a r c h i t e c t u r e of many c u l t u r e s i s

d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l t o a q u a i n t t h e r e a d e r w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h i e s

and l i f e - s t y l e s which de te rmine t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e s o f

v a r i o u s c i t i e s .

CONCLUSIONS

Much r e s e a r c h has been done i n a l l a r e a s o f p e d e s t r i a n

s a f e t y ; more p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of t h i s

r e s e a r c h i s neces sa ry . A l so , more r e s e a r c h of a comprehensive

nature must be done which leads t o t o t a l c i t y plans instead of

patchwork readjustments. A t o t a l c i t y plan would consider the

i n t e r e s t s of both the dr iver and t h e pedestrian from several

d i f f e r e n t aspects , as those of safe ty , p r a c t i c a l i t y , and

aes the t i c s .

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Automotive News 32, AAA opens campaign on p e d e s t r i a n dea ths . No. 366 (1958) , 23.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of a campaign t o c u t p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s i n h a l f w i t h i n f i v e y e a r s .

' Backhouse, W.O.: Grade s e p a r a t i o n of p e d e s t r i a n and v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c i n town c e n t e r s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y and, T r a f f i c Review 7 , No, 3 ( 1 9 R ) , 5-8, 16.

Discuss ion of grade s e p a r a t i o n of p e d e s t r i a n and v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c i n town c e n t e r s .

Barthslomew, W . M . : P e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n s e r v i c e a r e a s of s e l e c t e d c i t y r e c r e a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s . T r a f f i c S a f e t y Research Review 11, No. 4 (1967) , 117-1m.

A s t u d y of a c c i d e n t s of 5- t o 14-year-old p e d e s t r i a n s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s , wi th a comparison of frequency and l o c a t i o n of a c c i d e n t s b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e d e d i c a t i o n of t h e f a c i l i t i e s .

' B a t t s , H.M.: Is p r e s e n t schoo l c r o s s i n g p r o t e c t i o n adequate? I n s t i t u t e of T r a f f i c Engineers , Proceedings (1964) . Paper No.3, 167-168.

School c o n t r o l s a r e n e i t h e r adequate nor uniform, and educa t ion must be age-graded.

B e t t e r Homes and Gardens 43, S p e c i a l r e p o r t on a new s a f e t y concept . No.10 (1965) , 40, 130, 139.

D e s c r i p t i o n of t a l k i n g road s i g n s ,

B r a c k e t t e , E.M.; and Johns ton , A.M.: S o c i a l p a t t e r n s of road a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n : Some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of v u l n e r a b l e f a m i l i e s . B r i t i s h Med. J. 1, No.5119 (1959) , 409-413.

A s t u d y of 1 0 1 f a m i l i e s i n which a h e a l t h y c h i l d has su rv ived a road a c c i d e n t ,

B ly the , J.D.: Highway l i g h t i n g and a c c i d e n t s i n Ind iana . WRB B u l l e t i n No. 146 (1956) .

T r a f f i c l i g h t i n g problems i n Ind iana .

' Bruening, M.E.: Share-the-phase p e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l . T r a f f i c -- Diges t and Review 5 , N O . ~ (19571, 1 2 - 1 6 .

Replacement of t h e "scramble" sys tem w i t h t h e "share- the-phase" sys tem, i n which p e d e s t r i a n s and r i g h t - t u r n i n g c a r s s h a r e t h e same phase.

B u t l e r , E.L.: Denve r ' s new t r a f f i c c o n t r o l sys t em i n c l u d e s p e d e s t r i a n s e p a r a t i o n p e r i o d . T r a f f i c D i g e s t and Review 1, No.1 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , 16-18.

D e s c r i p t i o n of town p l a n used i n p a r t of Denver which i n c l u d e s r e s t r i c t e d p a r k i n g d u r i n g peak h o u r s , a one-way s t r ee t sys tem i n t h e a r e a and an e x c l u s i v e p e d e s t r i a n phase a t 31 i n t e r s e c t i o n s ,

C a l l a h a n , J . M . : Car-design g u i d e sough t . . . . p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s t o p i c of s a f e t y s t u d y . Automotive N e w s 40, No.4060 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 8 , 54.

A d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p a r t s of t h e c a r t h a t cause i n j u r y t o t h e p e d e s t r i a n . I t was s t a t e d t h a t it i s n o t t h e s ize o f t h c s2r which i s i m p o r t a n t , b u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p e d e s t r i a n ' s h e i g h t and t h e c a r ' s p r o f i l e t h a t d e t e r m i n e s i n j u r y .

Ca rpe r , J . : They s t o p a t c o r r i d e r t r a f f i c s i g n a l s . S a f e t y - Educat ion 38, No.7 (Mar. 1 9 5 9 ) , 2-3.

Scaled-down t r a f f i c s i g n a l s a r e used i n s c h o o l ha l lways ,

' Chicago T r a f f i c S a f e t y Review, - C h i l d r e n 5-9 i n most dange r , ( M a r , / ~ p r , 1 9 6 2 ) .

Chicago T r a f f i c S a f e t y Review, C h i l d r e n p e d e s t r i a n v i c t i m s i n c r e a s e - - o t h e r age groups down. ( M a r . / ~ p r . 1 9 6 6 ) .

C leve l and , D .E . : S e l e c t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y on t r a f f i c cont : rol f o r p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y . liighway s a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e , - The U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan (1969) .

Cof fey , A.V.: ~ i t t s f i e l d meets Wandering Wi l ly , S a f e t y I-

Educa t ion f o r September 3 7 , No.1 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 2-3.

A s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n program f o r e l emen ta ry s c h o o l c h i l d r e n th rough a c a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r i n t h e l o c a l newspapers.

Cohen, J . ; Dearna ley , E.J.; and Hanse l , C.E.M.: The r i s k t a k e n i n c r o s s i n g a r o a d . O p e r a t i o n a l Research Q u a r t e r l y 6 , No.2 - (1955) , 120-128.

A r e p o r t on r o a d - c r o s s i n g b e h a v i o r a g a i n s t one-way, modera t e ly heavy t r a f f i c .

Dark, J . W . : Ra ised footways i n urban c e n t r a l a r e a s . T r a f f i c - E n g i n e e r i n g and C o n t r o l 3 , No.9 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 553-556.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e development o f a t w o - t i e r sys tem having v e h i c l e s a t t h e ground l e v e l , and pedes- t r i a n t r a f f i c o n l y a t a h i g h e r l e v e l .

I Davin, F.: Crusade for traffic safety. Public Safety - 42, No.35 (1952) , 4-6.

A description of a safety campaign in Chicago carried on mainly through the mass media.

I Davis, L., Jr.: Is present school crossing protection adequate? Institute of Traffic Engineers, Proceedings (1964), Paper No.2, 166-167.

A description of school traffic safety in Peoria. School boundarjes are based on traffic flow, and both patrol boys and adult crossing1 guards are used.

R Denham, P.M.: Miami's pedestrian control program. Traffic -- Digest and Review 5, No.11 (1957), 1-3. --

A description of enforcement of the law requiring pedestrians to cross at crosswalks.

I Dier, R.D.: Determining the degree of hazard at school crossings. Traffic Engineering 25, No.4 (19551, 137-139, 153.

An attempt to determine a safe yap in traffic for the purpose of crossing.

I Dodds, T.: We might as well print our school warnings in Japanese. Safety Education 44, No.3 (1964), 8-10.

A plea for standardized traffic signs near the school crossing based on the theory that motorists are more likely to obey familiar signs.

8 Duff, J.T.: Mutual obligations of turning traffic and pedestrians at signal controlled intersections and appropriate indication thereof. International Road Safetv and Traffic Review 11, No.2

Papers submitted by 18 countries concerning the problem o f the mutual obligations of turning traffic and pedestrians at signal controlled intersections.

I Dunivan, R.E.: Is present school crossing protection adequate? Institute of ~ r a f f ic Engineers, Proceedings (1964) , Piiier No. 1, 162-166,

What happens when school zones are replaced with signalized school crossings.

I Elliot, A.L.: Kidproof railings: Safety offers challenqe on pedestrian crossings. ~alifornia ~ i ~ h w a ~ s and public-works 41, No.9-10 (1962), 19-23.

An attempt to develop safe pedestrian over-crossings off of which children cannot fall or throw things.

8 Faithfull, W.G.: Ribbon development in ~ustralia. Traffic -- Quarterly 13, - No.1 (1959), 34-54.

A discussion of roadside development as one of the serious problems of urban growth.

Family Safety, Back to School. (Fall 1962), 14-15.

A discussion of safety rules for children.

I Finch, D.M.; and Howard, J.H.: A color comparator for lights in the vicinity of traffic signals. HRB Bulletin No. 191 (1958), - - -

Discusses the problem of advertising signs and lights which are close in color to traffic signals and describes an instrument which compares light colors.

r Ford Motor Co.: Radio Road Alert System. Automotive Sa.fety Center, Dearborn, Michigan.

I Fowler, F.T.: Pedestrians observe these signals. American - City 64, No.3 (1949), 135, 137.

A discussion of the necessity for making red, amber, and green sig- nals visible to the driver but invisible to pedestrians when wait and walk - signals are present.

1 Garwood, F.; and Moore, R.L.: Pedestrian accidents, Medicine, - Science and the Law. (Oct. 1962). 439-447.

0 Garwood, F.; and Moore, R.L.: Pedestrian accidents. Traffic Engineering and Control 4, No.5 (Sept. 1962, 274-27Kr 279.

A survey of accidents at various types of traffic crossings is presented.

m Gleason, E.M.: A blueprint for community action on pedestrian safety. National Safety Council Transactions 28 (1954), 80-81.

Setting up a community safety program.

I Gonzales,T.A.; and Gettler, A.O.: Alcohol and the pedestrian in traffic accidents. J. Amer. Med Assoc. 117, No.18 (Nov. 1, 1941) 1523-1525,

Discussion of the influence of alcohol on pedestrian deaths.

r Gove, A.W.: Pedestrian signal warrants. Institute of Traffic Engineers, Proceedings (19581, 97-99.

A description of three different types of intersections: clear, mixed, and scramble.

Griffin, G.M.: Walkers win in car capital. Traffic Safety 54, No.4 (April 19591, 6-10, 42-43.

Descriptions of a safety campaign in Detroit which included law enforcement and safety education.

I Gwin, J . : Penney ' s f o r s a f e t y . P u b l i c S a f e t y f o r February 4 7 , No.2 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , 4-6.

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f Penney l s s a f e t y campaign.

Haddon, W . , Jr.: P r e v e n t i o n o f a c c i d e n t s . Textbook of Pre- - v e n t i v e Medicine. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown (1966) .

T h i s c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s t h e p r o p o r t i o n of a c c i d e n t s which lhappen t o c h i l d r e n , and whether t h i s number i s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e number of c h i l d r e n i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I t a l s o d i s c u s s e d t h e backgrounds of c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d i n t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s .

I Hanysz, E . A . : Highway Aler t Radio. I R E Trans . 9 , No.2 (1960) .

I H a r r i s , L.S.: Where should t h e y c r o s s ? S a f e t y Educat ion f o r March 3 4 , N0.7 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , 8-12.

The a d v i s a b i l i t y of c h i l d r e n c r o s s i n g i n f r o n t of a s choo l bus i s d i s c u s s e d .

I Hartman, J . F . ; and Rankin, W . : How e f f e c t i v e a r e schoo l s i g n s ? S a f e t y Educat ion 4 1 , No.6 ( ~ e b . 1 9 6 2 ) , 20-21.

A d i s c u s s i o n of v a r i o u s t y p e s of s choo l s i g n s .

I Hayes, A . T . : P e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l . ~ n s t i t u t e of ~ r a f f i c ~ n g i n e e r s , Proceedings (1961) , 87-92.

P e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l i n Lans ing , Michigan, u s i n g p e d e s t r i a n laws , s i g n a l s , c r o s s i r ~ g s , and e d u c a t i o n i n t h e s c h o o l s .

Hayward, A . T . J . ; and P e t e r s , C . H . : M a t e r i a l s f o r marking s t r i p e d p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . Surveyor and Municipal - and County Engineer , London 113, No.3230 (1954) , 87-91.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of l o n g - l a s t i n g m a t e r i a l used f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g z e b r a c r o s s i n g s ,

H a z l e t t , R . D . ; and A l l e n , M . J . : The a b i l i t y t o see a ped .e s t r i an a t n i g h t : The e f f e c t s of c l o t h i n g , r e f l e c t o r i z a t i o n arnd d r i v e r i n t o x i c a t i o n . HRB R e p r i n t (1968) .

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of a l c o h o l on a s u j e c t ' s a b i 1 , i t y t o d e t e c t s i m u l a t e d p e d e s t r i a n s wear ing v a r i o u s t y p e s of c i a t h i n g a t n i g h t . The e f f e c t s of a l c o h o l a r e somewhat counterac t ,ed by r a i s i n g l i g h t i n g and by wear ing r e f l e c t o r i z e d c l o t h i n g .

1 H e u s t i c , C . E . : L o u i s v i l l e ' s l a d i e s i n b l u e . P u b l i c S a f e t y 37, No.6 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , 14-15! 32.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of L o u i s v i l l e l s system f o r p r o t e c t i n g schoo l c h i l d r e n .

I Hoffman, L.: Hamrnond cu rbs p e d e s t r i a n s . T r a f f i c S a f e t y 52, No.3 -

(March 1 9 5 8 ) , 16-7

Di scusses Hammond t r a f f i c s a f e t y t e c h n i q u e s .

Ho l fo rd , W . : A q u e s t i o n o f p r i o r i t i e s . T r a f f i c E n g i n e e r i ~ x and C o n t r o l 3 , No.1 (May 1 9 6 1 ) , 30-32.

S e v e r a l p o i n t s of view t o be c o n s i d e r e d when p l a n n i n g a road .

H o l l i c h , G.F.: ~ n t e r s e c t i o n s o l u t i o n - - c e n t e r r e f u g e g i v e s p e d e s t r i a n s a b e t t e r chance. S t r e e t Eng inee r ing 3 , No.5 ('May 1 9 6 8 ) , 20-22,

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c e n t e r r e f u g e b u i l t on a wide s t ree t i n Chicago t o f a c i l i t a t e c r o s s i n g .

' H o l l i c h , G,: Why n o t a e d e s c a l a t o r system? S t r e e t Eng inee r ing 4 , No.1 ( J an . 1 9 5 9 ) , 28-3 +--

D e s c r i p t i o n of a p l a n of second s t o r y s i d e w a l k s , u s i n g e s c , a l a t o r s and ramps, a s a means of doub l ing t h e t r a f f i c c a p a c i t y of s t r e e t s and s idewa lks .

Horst, J . : Accident s p a r k s s a f e c r o s s i n g d r i v e . S a f e t y Elduca- t i o n 4 1 , No. 3 (Nov. 1961) , 13.

S t u d e n t s improve an u n s a f e i n t e r s e c t i o n .

~ o w i e , G.W. : Design f o r walk ing . N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Congress - T r a n s a c t i o n s 28 ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 84-86.

Desc r ibes s a f e t y programs i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e coun t ry .

I l l g n e r , H.F.: "All-way" p e d e s t r i a n walks . M u n i c i p a l i t y 49, - No.7 ( J u l y 1 9 5 4 ) , 153, 162.

D e s c r i p t i o n of an a l l -way walk i n t e r v a l system a t f o u r i n t e r - s e c t i o n s which r e s u l t e d i n a s l i g h t d e c r e a s e i n a c c i d e n t s .

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y and T r a f f i c Review, School s a f e t y p a t r o l s around t h e wor ld . (Summer, 1 9 5 5 ) , 16-20.

School p a t r o l s seem t o be an e f f e c t i v e means of r e d u c i n g a c c i d e n t s .

' I n t e r n a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y and T r a f f i c Review 4 , Danger i n t h e da rk . No.1 (Winter , 1 9 5 6 ) , 5-9, 17.

T h i s a r t i c l e d e s c r i b e s t h e need f o r adequa te l i g h t i n g , by bo th s t r ee t and h e a d l i g h t s .

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y and T r a f f i c Review 8 , P e d e s t r i a n s e g r e g a t i o n . No.1 (Winter , 1 9 6 0 ) , 7-8, 10-12, 1 4 .

D i scuss ion of t h e p r e c i n c t p r i n c i p l e , under which c e r t a i n a r e a s a r e used o n l y f o r p e d e s t r i a n s .

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y and T r a f f i c Review 11, ~ r o t e c t i o n o f p e d e s t r i a n s a t n i g h t . No.4 (Autumn, 19631, 38-43.

Th i s a r t i c l e a d v i s e s t h a t r e f l e c t i v e garments be made compulsory f o r p e d e s t r i a n s a t n i g h t .

48

Jacobs , G . D . : E f f e c t of zebra c r o s s i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s on pedes- t r i a n s and v e h i c l e s . No.1: Yiewsley High S t r e e t . Su:rveyor and Municipal and County Engineers 126, No.3816. ( J ~ Y 2 4 , 1 9 6 5 ) , 23-24! 27.

According t o t h i s a r t i c l e , zebra c r o s s i n g s seem s u c c e s s f u l , r e s u l t i n g i n an i n c r e a s e i n p e d e s t r i a n and t r a f f i c f lows, and a r e d u c t i o n i n v e h i c l e speeds ,

Jacobs , G . D , ; and Wilson, D.G . : Study of p e d e s t r i a n r i s k - i n c r o s s i n g busy roads i n f o u r towns. Road Research Laboratory Report LR 106, (1967) .

A comparat ive s t u d y of p e d e s t r i a n r i s k a t f o u r i n t e r s e ~ t i ~ o n s .

J e f f c o a t e , G .O . : R e l a t i v e a c c i d e n t r a t e s f o r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of v e h i c l e s invo lved i n p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n b u i l t - u p a r e a s on weekdays. Road Research Lab. Note RN/3065, 1957.

Jensen , L.L.; and Ruby, W . J . : Motor Vehic le Accident Data, Automotive S a f e t y Research O f f i c e , Ford Motor Company (1968) .

J. of Amer, Insurance 39, Heaven h e l p t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n 1 No.11 (Nov, 1 9 6 3 ) , 22-23.

Discusses s t a t i s t i c s on c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s and v a r i o u s causes of and remedies f o r such a c c i d e n t s .

J. of Amer. Insurance 4 2 , Tiny town--great t e a c h e r , No.2 (Mar./Apr. 1 9 6 6 ) , 29-32.

A d i s c u s s i o n of a t r a f f i c educa t ion system f o r c h i l d r e n .

K a l i n o s k i , J . R . : Eva lua t ion of schoo l c r o s s i n g warning s i g n s , P o r t l a n d T r a f f i c S a f e t y Commission, Engineer ing Committee

A s tudy of v e h i c l e speed a t schoo l c r o s s i n g s e x h i b i t i n g v a r i o u s schoo l c r o s s i n g warning s i g n s .

Kowalski, J . M . ; Rose, N . ; and F i o r e s e , F.F. : Blood a l c o h o l l e v e l s i n v e h i c u l a r and p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s i n I l l i n o i s . I l l i n o i s Med. J. 131, No.5 (1967) , 659-661.

Forty-two p e r c e n t of t h e p e d e s t r i a n s s t u d i e d had a measurable amount of a l c o h o l i n t h e i r blood. Thir ty-two p e r c e n t had, blood a l c o h o l l e v e l s of over 0 . 1 0 p e r c e n t .

Kralovec, D . W . : Coord ina t ing t r a n s i t s a f e t y w i t h p u b l i c schoo l s . T r a n s a c t i o n s , N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Congress 26, ( 1 9 5 4 ) ) 71-76.

A d i s c u s s i o n of v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of schoo l t r a f f i c s a f e t y .

Kretchmar, A.A. S e a t t l e promotes p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y , -- Tralff ic Diges t and Review 13 , N O . ~ ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 15-17.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s i n S e a t t l e , Washing- t o n , i n c l u d i n g l i m i t e d jaywalking and a mandatory p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y schoo l f o r t r a f f i c v i o l a t o r s .

49

I Ladd, W.: You are an AP. Public Safety 46, No.3 (~ept. 1954), 16-17.

Categorization of various pedestrian faults,

I Lashley, G.T.: The aging pedestrian. Traffic Safety 57, No.2 (August 1960), 10-13.

A discussion of the problems of the elderly pedestian.

I Lashley, G.T.(ed.): Remembering the forgotten man. Arnerican -- Motorist 34, N O . ~ (May 1965), 11-24.

A description of a pedestrian safety campaign in Washington, D.C. Existing pedestrian regulations were enforced by a pedestrian traffic school.

I Lewis, David: The pedestrian in the city. Princeton: 1l.Van Nostrand Company, Inc. (1966) .

A compilation of reports on pedestrian-traffic segregation.

I Lindquist, G.C.: School crossing protection. National Safety Council 27 (1955), 116-120.

No traffic gimmick can completely protect a child. He must be educated to traffic safety.

I MacDonald, K.R.: Talking road warns of hazardous curve. Better Roads 31, No.4 (April 1964), 40.

A description of a rumble strip in Richmond, California.

I Mackie, A.M.: Accident risk to pedestrians on and within 50 yards of zebra crossings. ~riffic Engineering and Control 4 No.8 (Dec. 1962), 448-450.

Risk to the pedestrian who uses the zebra crossing is significantly less than the risk to those who cross within 50 yards of it.

I Mackie, A.M.: and Jacobs, G.D.: Comparison of road user behavior at panda, ' zebra, and iight controiled crossings. Traffic Ensineerins and Control 6, No. 12 (1965) , 714-718, m-

Poorer driver behavior was found at panda than at light controlled crossings.

1 Mackie, A.M.; and Older, J.J.: Study of pedestrian risk in crossing busy roads in London inner suburbs. Traffic Engineering and Control 7 (Oct. 1965), 376-380.

Statistics on pedestrians who used certain crossings in London are presented along with a description of the crossing a.reas of relative risk.

I Marconi, W.: Exit "scramble" in San Francisco. Traffic! ~ngineering 29, No.4 (Jan. 19591, 20-24, 35. -

A description of the shortcomings of the scramble system re- sulting in its discontinuation in San Francisco.

I Marks, H,: Child pedestrian safety: A realistic approac:h. Traffic Engineering 28, No.1 (Oct. 1957), 13-19, 25.

50

#n a n a l y s i s of 1,008 a c c i d e n t s invo lv ing c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s .

May, F.E.: S tudent p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c s i g n a l s vs . c r o s s i n g guards. Na t iona l S a f e t y Council Transac t ions 23 (1964) , 25-28.

~

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r a f f i c s i g n a l s a s opposed t o human c r o s s - i n g guards i s d i scussed ,

Marvin, W.L.: Dr iver observance of crosswalk and s t o p l i n e s . T r a f f i c Engineering 2 1 , No.5 (Feb. 1951) , 157-159.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of marked crosswalks and s t o p l i n e s on t h e p o i n t a t which a c a r s t o p s a t t h e corner .

McCarroll , J . R . , e t a l . : F a t a l p e d e s t r i a n automotive a c c i d e n t s . J. A m e r . Med, Assoc, 180, No.2 ( A p r i l 1 4 , 1962) , 127-133.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i n j u r i e s s u s t a i n e d i n 200 f a t a l p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s .

McClosky, R , I . : P a t r o l s slow down t r a f f i c . S a f e t y Education 39, No. 4 (Dec. 1959) , 2-3.

A s t u d e n t p r o j e c t t o a l e r t school speed zone v i o l a t o r s .

McDougall, R , : T r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n 11, J. Canad. Med. Assoc, 82, No.2 (Jan . 9 , 1960) , 61-65.

A d i s c u s s i o n of a s tudy on c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n dea ths i n Montreal .

'McInerney, T . J . : P e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y campaign i n New York Ci ty . T r a f f i c Quar te r ly 32, ( ~ p r i l 1959) , 283-293.

Desc r ip t ion of a New York S a f e t y campaign which p u b l i c i z e d a n t i - jaywalking ordinance ,

McIntyre, R . J . : A d e s c r i p t i o n of a s a f e t y campaign f o r t h e pro- t e c t i o n of school c h i l d r e n i n S a l i n a s , C a l i f o r n i a . S a f e t v

7.L

Education 36, No. 7 (March 1957) .

McLellan, E.M.: The l o s t a r t of walking. T r a f f i c S a f e t y 63, - No.1 ( J u l y 1 9 6 3 ) , 20-21.

Discussion of an e d u c a t i o n a l program f o r e l d e r l y p e d e s t r i a n s i n Ontar io .

Metropol i tan Transpor ta t ion 58, Get r i d of r ed l i g h t s . No.6 ( ~ u l y 1 9 6 2 ) , 30.

Discusses use of overpasses and one-way s t r e e t s .

' M i l l e r , E . D . ; and Michael, H.L,: A s tudy of school c r o s s i n g pro- t e c t i o n . T r a f f i c S a f e t y Research Review 8 , No.2 (June 1 9 6 4 ) , 51-56.

Evaluat ion of t h e e f f e c t of v a r i o u s types of school c r o s s i n g p r o t e c t i o n .

I Mills, J . B . : Paren ts - -p lay it safe- -safeguard your ch i ld . . C a l i f o r n i a P a r e n t Teache r s 3 7 , No.2 (Oct. 1 9 6 0 ) , 2 3 .

A l i s t o f t r a f f i c s a f e t y r u l e s f o r c h i l d r e n .

I Moore, R . L . : Man and machines i n t r a n s p o r t sys tems. - O p e r a t i o n a l Research Q u a r t e r l y 4 , No.1 ( 1 9 5 3 ) , 3-10.

A d i s c u s s i o n of t h e p r o s and cons o f v a r i o u s c r o s s i n g d e v i c e s such a s subways and b r i d g e s , w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e r o l e of p e d e s t r i a n judgment i n c r o s s i n g a s t ree t .

I Moore, R.L.: P s y c h o l o g i c a l F a c t o r s of Importance i n T r a f f i c - Enginee r ing . I n t e r n a t i o n a l Study Week i n T r a f f i c ~ n g i - n e e r i n g , S t r e s a , I t a l y (Oct . 1-5, 1 9 5 6 ) , 1-3.

A s t u d y o f t h e impor tance of human f a c t o r s i n t r a f f i c all-owance used by t h e p e d e s t r i a n i n c r o s s i n g t h e subways and b r i d g e s .

Mort imer , R . G . ; and Nagamachi, M . : E f f e c t s of roadway markings on v e h i c l e s t o p p i n q i n p e d e s t r i a n c ros swa lks . Rept. HuF--2, Highway S a f e t y Research I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan (1969) .

I Mort imer , W . J . : New m a t e r i a l s used a t rumbler s t o p s . - Cook County Highways 1 2 , No.7 ( J u l y 1 9 6 5 ) .

A d i s c u s s i o n of warning rumble s t r i p s .

I N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Counci l : Acc iden t F a c t s . Chicago, I11 (1968).

I N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Counci l : S a f e t y l e s s o n s f o r j u n i o r h i g h and s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . S a f e t y Educat ion 4 0 , No, , l ( ~ e p t . 1960) , 29-32.

Classroom m a t e r i a l s on t r a f f i c s a f e t y .

I N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Counci l : School c r o s s i n g p r o t e c t i o n . P u b l i c S a f e t y Memo No.71 ( A p r i l 1957) .

A d i s c u s s i o n of s c h o o l c r o s s i n g p r o t e c t i o n . Underp ro tec t ion i s dange rous , b u t o v e r p r o t e c t i o n may make t h e c h i l d r e n i r r e s p o n s i b l e .

I N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Counci l : Winter walk ing , S a f e t y Educat ion Data S h e e t No.58 (1965) .

Discussed a r e v a r i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n s of t h e f a c t t h a t 1/9 of a l l p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s o c c u r i n December.

1 OIRegan, M. : Lad ie s t a k e ove r a t s c h o o l c r o s s i n g . T r a f f i c -- S a f e t y 65 , N O . ~ ( ~ e p t . 1 9 6 5 ) , 26-27, 38.

The u s e o f women c r o s s i n g gua rds i n Chicago has proven e f f e c t i v e ,

I Peters, C . H . ; and F r a n c i s , E . : Concre te markings f o r p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . Surveyor and Munic ipa l and County ~ n ~ i n e e r 113 ( J a n . 9 , 19541, 21-23.

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s used f o r z e b r a c r o s s i n g s .

P o l i c e Chief 2 1 , Columbus p r o t e c t s i t s youngsters from w i n t e r ' s low v i s i b i l i t y haza rds , (Feb, 1954) , 4 1 ,

This a r t i c l e d e s c r i b e s " o p e r a t i o n n i t e - r a y , " i n which over 15,000 c h i l d r e n were given r e f l e c t i v e s t r i p s .

P u b l i c Heal th Repor ts , P e d e s t r i a n automotive f a t a l i t i e s . No.9 (Sept . 1963) , 772-773.

Discusses t h e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s i n New York Ci ty .

Ramos, I . ; and F r a v e l , H . D . , J r , : P e d e s t r i a n overpass . T r a f f i c - Engineering 19, No.5 (Feb. 1 9 4 9 ) , 215-219.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of a p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g b r i d g e i n Manila which was both p r a c t i c a l l y and f i n a n c i a l l y s u c c e s s f u l .

Road Research Labora tory , P e d e s t r i a n s . Research on Road I ' r a f f i c , London (1965) , 390-405.

Desc r ip t ion of methods of measuring p e d e s t r i a n movement.

Roads and Road Cons t ruc t ion 27, Zebra p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . No. 317 (1949) , 186-187.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of m a t e r i a l s used t o mark zebra c r o s s i n g s .

Roads and Road Cons t ruc t ion 31, Ceramic p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g markings., No.362 ( ~ e b . 1 9 5 3 ) , 58.

A d i s c u s s i o n of ways of marking zebra c r o s s i n g s .

Roads and Road Const ruc t ion 34, A p r o g r e s s i v e p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c c o n t r o l system. No.399 ( 1 9 5 6 ) , 79-80.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of a p e d e s t r i a n - a c t i v a t e d t r a f f i c l i g h t .

Rodgers, C.T.; and Voorhees, A.L.: Some thoughts on whi te cane philosophy and problems. New Outlook f o r t h e Blind 5 5 , No.5 (Mar. 1961) , 173-177.

The au thor a d v i s e s t h a t whi te cane laws be d i s c o n t i n u e d , because they a r e n o t u s e f u l ,

Roer, P . : P e d e s t r i a n c rossovers . T r a f f i c Engineering 13 Aug. 1961) , 2 1 - 2 2 .

P e d e s t r i a n s a r e given a f a l s e sense of s e c u r i t y by h e a v i l y marked c ross roads .

Rudden, J . B . : Warrants f o r and exper iences wi th p e d e s t r i a n i n t e r v a l s a t s i g n a l i z e d i n t e r s e c t i o n s . ~ n s t i t u t e of T r a f f i c Engineers , proceedings (1959) , 181-182.

The d e s i g n a t i o n and c l q i s i f i c a t i o n of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t systems of i n t e r s e c t i o n c o n t r o l ,

Ryan, G . A , ; and McLean, A.J.: P e d e s t r i a n s u r v i v a l . P roceed inas .I

* of t h e 9 t h S t a p p c a r Crash Conference , U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota , Minneapol i s ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 321-334.

A d i s c u s s i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e shape of a c a r and v a r i o u s p e d e s t r i a n i n j u r i e s . From t h e f r a c t u r e s i t e , t h e r e l a - t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t h e p e d e s t r i a n and c a r can be determined, ,

S a f e t y Maintenance and P roduc t ion 110, The "normal" look by day becomes t h e " s a f e " look a t n i g h t . No.4 ( O c t . 1 9 5 5 ) , 80-81.

T h i s a r t i c l e d e s c r i b e s a g r e y y a r n which r e f l e c t s l i g h t a t n i g h t .

S a l e , J. : Nevada 's "Walk-thru," T r a f f i c S a f e t y 57 , No , l (1960) , 27, 44.

C h i l d r e n l e a r n how t o o p e r a t e t r a f f i c s i g n a l s .

I Seve ry , D . ; and Br ink , H . : Au to -pedes t r i an c o l l i s i o n expe r imen t s . S o c i e t y of Automotive E n g i n e e r s , Repor t 660080 an. 1 9 6 6 ) .

Repor t s of t h e f i n d i n g s of a u t o - p e d e s t r i a n c o l l i s i o n expe r imen t s .

School S a f e t y 1, S tand o u t f o r s a f e t y . No.1 (0ct. 1 9 6 5 ) , 15-18,

Elementary s a f e t y r u l e s .

Shoa f , R.T.: A d i s c u s s i o n o f w a r r a n t s f o r sc ramble s i g n a l s . T r a f f i c Eng inee r ing 25, No.7 ( A p r i l 1 9 5 5 ) , 261-263.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e limits o f t h e scramble sys tem i n San F r a n c i s c o .

S i e g e l , S.T.: The r o l e o f p e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l i n t r a f f i c r e g u l a - t i o n . I n s t i t u t e of T r a f f i c Eng inee r s P roceed ings ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 72-89.

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e d e s t r i a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which make them v u l - n e r a b l e t o i n j u r y , such a s s low pace , u n p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o r and age .

S i e l s k i , M.C.: The p e d e s t r i a n : T r a f f i c s a f e t y ' s f a l l guy. N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Counci l T r a n s a c t i o n s 24, (1964) , 36-37,,

More work i s needed on p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y i n c l u d i n g more p r o t e c - t i o n and more enforcement ,

Solheim, K . : P e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s i n Os lo t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s . B r i t . Med. J. 1, ( J a n . 1 9 6 4 ) , 81-83.

A 10-year s t u d y of 168 p e d e s t r i a n s f a t a l l y i n j u r e d .

S t a t e of I n d i a n a , O f f i c e of t h e Governor, I n d i a n a s c h o o l c r o s s - i n g p r o t e c t i o n . Procedure Manual, (Mar. 19 , 1 9 6 4 ) .

T h i s s t u d y concludes t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t r a f f i c s a f e t y f o r c h i l d r e n .

S t o r e y , L.H.: Walk on t h e g reen . P u b l i c S a f e t y 46, No.3 ( S e p t . 1954) , 8-9.

I n Michigan C i t y , c ros swa lks were p a i n t e d g reen t o d i s c o u r a g e jaywalking.

S t r e e t E n g i n e e r i n g 2 , More e f f e c t i v e markings f o r " h o t " c r o s s - walks . No,3 (Mar, 1 9 5 7 ) , 30, 46,

D e s c r i p t i o n of a new l o n g - l a s t i n g compound f o r p a i n t i n g s t r e e t s .

S t u a r t , D . : P l a n n i n g f o r p e d e s t r i a n s . J. American I n s t i t u t e - o f P l a n n e r s 34, No.1 ( J a n . 1 9 6 8 ) , 37-41.

D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e n g i n e e r i n g phase of p e d e s t r i a n p l ann ing .

S u l l i v a n , H.W.: ,On t h e c a r e and p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p e d e s t r i a n s . N a t i o n a l S a f e t y Counc i l T r a n s a c t i o n s 24 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 40-43.

The young, t h e e l d e r l y , and t h o s e who have been d r i n k i n g a r e most l i k e l y t o be i n an a c c i d e n t ,

Surveyor and Munic ipa l and County Eng inee r s 108 , Experiments i n t h e marking of p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . ( J u l y 8 , 1 9 4 9 ) ) 407-409.

An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of z e b r a c r o s s i n g s .

Survey and Munic ipa l and County Eng inee r s 109 , I n f l u e n c e of t h e "Zebra" marking and o f propaganda on b e h a v i o r a t p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g , ( ~ u n e 23 , 1 9 5 0 ) , 365-366.

A d i s c u s s i o n o f two a s p e c t s of a N a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y Week h e l d i n A p r i l 1949.

Tanner , J . C . : Delay t o p e d e s t r i a n s c r o s s i n g a road . Biomet r ika - 38, N O , 3-4 (1951) , 383-392, -

Thorson, A , : P e r s o n a l p r o t e c t i o n i n d a r k n e s s . Expe r i ence conce rn ing t h e u s e o f r e t r o - r e f l e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s i n Sweden. InternationalRoad No.1 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 32-34.

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e u s e of r e f l e c t i v e m a t e r i a l i n Sweden.

Todhunter , W . : A t a l e of two c i t i e s and t h e i r p e d e s t r i a n s . T r a f f i c S a f e t y 53, No.5 (Nov. 1 9 5 8 ) , 22-23.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e t r a f f i c s a f e t y campaigns i n Nor fo lk , V i r g i n i a , and Sacramento, C a l i f o r n i a .

T r a f f i c D i g e s t and Review 9 , P e d e s t r i a n v i o l a t i o n s . No.6 ( June 1961) , 10-15, 26-31,

Some c a u s e s of p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s , and some methods of law enforcement and a c c i d e n t p r e v e n t i o n a r e d e a l t w i t h .

T r a f f i c Eng inee r ing 32, A t e n t a t i v e s t a n d a r d f o r a d j u s t a b l e f a c e p e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l s i g n a l head , No.7 ( ~ p r i l 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 1 - 4 2 ,

A s t a n d a r d gu ide f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e minimum purchase s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r p e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l s i g n a l heads.

T r a f f i c Eng inee r ing and C o n t r o l 3 , New p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g . No.8 (Dec. 1 9 6 1 ) , 502.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of a 5-phase c r o s s i n g system.

T r a f f i c S a f e t y , P e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l , key t o c i t y t r a f f i c problem, No. 3 (Sep t . 1 9 5 7 ) , 40-43.

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f p e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l ,

T r a f f i c S a f e t y 53, N e w AAA program aims t o keep p e d e s t r i a n s a l i v e . No.4 ( Q c t , 1 9 5 8 ) , 19.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e AAA t r a f f i c s a f e t y program.

T r a f f i c S a f e t y 54, D r i v e r s d i s c u s s wa lke r s and s a f e t y p e r s u a d e r s . No. 4 ( A p r i l 1 9 5 9 ) , 18-19,

Th i s a r t i c l e i s a q u e s t i o n n a i r e , "The d r i v e r l ooks a t a p e d e s t r i a n . "

T r a f f i c S a f e t y 51, H e l p f u l h i n t s f o r p e d e s t r i a n p r o t e c t i o n . No.3 (Sep t . 1 9 5 7 ) , 42-43.

A look a t t h e p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t p i c t u r e and s a f e t y s u g g e s t i o n s f o r wa lke r and d r i v e r s .

T r a f f i c S a f e t y 51, P e d e s t r i a n c o n t r o l : Key t o c i t y t r a f f i c problem. No.3 ( ~ e p t . 1 9 5 7 ) , 40-42.

Oak land ' s p e d e s t r i a n s a f e t y campaign.

T r a f f i c S a f e t y 55, School b e l l s r i n g o u t f o r Elmira jaywalkers . No.3 ( ~ e p t , 1 9 5 9 ) , 23, 48,

T r a f f i c s a f e t y s c h o o l i s mandatory f o r jaywalkers i n Elmira .

T r a f f i c S a f e t y 57 , The s e n i o r c i t i z e n i n t r a f f i c . No.2 (August 1960) , 18-19.

S t a t i s t i c s abou t e l d e r l y p e d e s t r i a n s .

T r a f f i c S a f e t y 54, Tr imble , J . : Hope f o r t h e b a t t e r e d urban p e d e s t r i a n . No,2 (Feb. 1 9 5 9 ) , 22-25, 47-48.

S e v e r a l programs i n v a r i o u s c i t i e s , which a r e most ly combina- t i o n s of s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n and law enforcement .

Vuchic, V . R . : P e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g time i n d e t e r m i n i n g w i d t h s of s i g n a l i z e d t r a f f i c a r t e r i a l s . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Scieince 1, No. 3 (August 1 9 6 7 ) , 224-231.

Pedestrian crossing time may limit vehicular capacity. All two- way arterials of more than four lanes should have either median dividers or a special refuge island.

I Waller, J.A.: High accident risk among middle-aged drivers and pedestrians. Geriatrics 21 (Dec. 1966), 125-137.

A discussion of the high accident risk among middle-aged drivers and pedestrians, especially those who have been drinking.

I Wiener, E.L.: The elderly pedestrian: Response to an enforcement campaign. Traffic Safety Research Review 12, No.4 (Dec. 1968), 100-111 *

I Weiss, G.H.: Analysis of pedestrian queuing. J. of Research, Sec B, Math and Math Physics, 67 B I No.4 (0ct.-Dec. 1963), 229-243.

A formula for determining when pedestrians will cross.

White, J.D.: School crossing problems. Proceedings, 46th Annual Road School (April 18-21, 1960), 165-173.

A discussion of a study of the school crossing problem i,n Wayne, Indiana, with a recommendation that patrol boys be replaced by pedestrian-activated signals.

I Wiley, T.T.: New York City's pedestrian signals. American City 68, No.2 (1953), 139.

A discussion of the replacement of the "scramble" system with the "share-the-phase" system in which pedestrians and right--turning cars share the same phase.

I World Health Organization: Epidemiological and vital statistics. Report prepared by the World Health Organization, - 11 No'.1(1958) .

A discussion of the statistical data which demonstrate the effects of the increase in motor traffic on pedestrian mortality.

I Yaksich, S.: A Study of Pedestrian Fatalities in Washington, D.C. (1948-1957). Pre~ared for the American Automobile Association

The statistics of Washington's traffic fatalitites.

I Zahavi, Y.: Traffic signals for the blind in Israel. 'Traffic Engineering 34, No.2 (Nov. 1963), 51-52.

Description of a special traffic signal for the blind in Tel-Aviv, Israel when the signal is activated by a blind pedestrian, a bell sounds when it is safe to cross.