A microenvironmental study of an archaeologicalsite, Arizona BB: 10:3, Whiptail Ruin

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Authors Lytle, Jamie Laverne, 1946-

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A MICROENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE, ARIZONA BB:10:3, V/HIPTAIL RUIN

byJamie Laverne Lytle

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the

COMMITTEE ON GEOCHRONOLOGY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1 9 7 1

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of re­quirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judg­ment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholar­ship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

PREFACE

This thesis was originally proposed as a micro-environmental study of an archaeological site. After investigating various research

techniques, stratigraphy, paleontology, emission spectroscopy, and palynology, it was postulated that the best method for the interpre­

tation of the paleoenvironment in this site was palynology.

It is hoped that conclusions formed in this research will:

(l) encourage further use of palynology in Hohokam sites, and (2)

stimulate investigation into and testing of other palynological tech­

niques not presently used in archaeology.

I wish to thank my advisors, Dr. Arthur Jelinek, Dr. Richard

Reeves, and especially Professor Terah L. Smiley, my Thesis Director,

for their continued encouragement, criticism, and guidance of this

thesis. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Paul Grebinger (Herbert

Lehman College, Mew York) and Mr. Bruce Bradley (Arizona State Museum,

Arizona) for furnishing their information, time, and energy, and the

pollen samples, and to Miss Sharon Urban and the Arizona State Museum

for access to the site and to artifacts from the site. Thanks for

aid in laboratory techniques and pollen identification are due

Drs. Paul S. Martin and Allen Solomon, and Messrs. James King and

Gerald Kelso (all of The University of Arizona). Suggestions, com­

munications and criticisms were forthcoming from Drs. Paul S. Martin,

Allen Solomon, Professor Terah L. Smiley, Messrs. King and Adam

ill

iv

(Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona), Dr. J, Rodney

Hastings (Department of Atmospheric Physics, University of Arizona),

Dr. Emil W. Haury and Mr. Gerald Kelso (Department of Anthropology,

University of Arizona), Dr. David Hendrichs (Department of Agricul­

tural Chemistry and Soils) Dr. Charles T. Mason (Herbarium, University

of Arizona) and Dr. David Adam (Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research,

University of Arizona) and from individuals too numerous to acknowledge

individually. The diagrams are by Miss Judith Mikevich.

The positive worth of this thesis is due in large part to the

above mentioned people, any misconceptions or erroneous information

are my own

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS........ .. ............... . vii

LIST OF TABLES . ............... '....................... viii

A B S T R A C T ............................................... ix

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................... 1

Research Before 1950 ............................... 2Research After 1 9 5 0 ............................... 3

2. THE HOHOKAM . . . . ..................................... 7

3. WKIPTAIL RUIN, ARIZONA BB:10:3 ......................... 11

.... Archaeology and the Present Environment............ 11

In RESEARCH AT WHIFTAIL R U I N ............................... 19

Postulated Research............................... . 19Palynological Study................................. 20Sampling Methods and Method of Extraction ........ . 22

Archaeological Samples ......................... 23Stratigraphic Samples ........................... 2UModern S a m p l e s .................. 25Wash Sample............ 25

Interpretation of Pollen Counts . . . . . . . . . . . 26Pollen Groups . . . . . . ........................... 30

Cheno-ams.................................... 30Corapositae.................................... 31Tidestromia.................. 32Quercus......................................... 35T C T ............................................. 35Firms........................................... 35Salix (willow) and Sparganlum-type ............. 38Cylindropuntia . ......................... 39Unidentified Pollen . . . . ..................... UOCultigens ....................... liO

Page

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued

Page

INTERPRETATION OF PRESEITT D A T A ............ .............. 1*2

House 1 9 ............................................. h2House 2 3 ......................................... .. . h3

6. POLLEN, ENVIRONMENT, AND CLIMATE........................ h$

7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . ............................. . #APPEI'IDIX A: GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS................ 57

LIST OF REFERENCES.................... 60

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. U,S. Geological Survey map of Bellota Ranch quadrangle . 13

2. Pollen samples from houses ............................. 27

3. Pollen samples from stratigraphic sections ............ 28

It, Pollen samples inside vessels ..................... .. , 29

Figure Page

vii

LIST OF TABLES

1. Number of pollen grains found in rooms from WhiptailR u i n ................................................. 36

2. Number of grains found in stratigraphic columns inmodern samples and in wash sample from WhiptailR u i n .......................................... 37

Table Page

viii

ABSTRACT

In this thesis, originally proposed as a micro-environmental

study of an archaeological site, Whiptail, Arizona BB:10:3, Pima County, Arizona, the technique postulated to be the most effective

for the interpretation of the paleoenvironment of the site is paly- nology.

Nineteen samples out of 1^0 collected from the rooms during

excavation were extracted and counted. In addition the author col­

lected 18 samples from two stratigraphic columns in the rooms. These

samples were also extracted and counted. Two surface samples and one

sample from a wash were collected, extracted, and counted to be used

as control samples. A total of LtO samples were used in this study.

No trends or clusterings are present in the samples from the

rooms. Changes in the stratigraphic column are attributed to a rise in the local water table, the beginning of grazing, or some other unknown localized factor. No climatic change is postulated. Modern

surface samples demonstrate the effect of variations in vegetation on the local pollen rain in a small area.

It is concluded that with the methods presently used in paly-

nology in Southwestern archaeological sites like Whiptail Ruin quan­

titative interpretations of the paleoenvironment are not feasible due

to cultural effects on the pollen rain. New palynological methods

which should be tested are suggested.

ix

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

There can be no present without a past, no future with­out both. That which is is only comprehensible in terms of what was. That which was may explain that which is, but cannot predict that which will be (KcIIarg 1969: $2).

The problem given to this generation is not just to prepare

to cope with the future, but to determine if they are to have any

future at all. Environmentalists are now searching for a way to live

with nature, not to conquer it. Many anthropologists postulate that

"primitive" man's relationship with nature was quite different from

our own. Environmentalists and anthropologists wish to know more

about this relationship. How was man affected by nature, by his en­

vironment? How did man affect his environment? The ultimate goal of

paleoenvironmental research in archaeology is to explore the relation­

ship between primitive man and his environment. The present goal is

to discover that environment and to make inferences about the

relationship where possible. By applying this research to present

problems and using the information to re-educate the populace we still

may not be able to predict the future, but at least we may ensure that

there will be a future and at best we may help direct it.

Environmental studies of archaeological sites have, with a few

exceptions, not been prevalent in the Southwest until the last two

1

2decades. This movement towards environmental research is due partially

to the introduction of new methods and the refinement of old, but

primarily to the increased interest on the part of archaeologists and

environmental scientists alike. Today the questions asked in archae­

ology are not just what cultures lived here, what did they make, and

when, but how did they live, what was their relationship with their

environment? Interest in these types of Questions has increased dra­

matically in the past few years. Certainly new methods are available

and knowledge of old and new methods more widespread, but, especially

with the coming generation of archaeologists, the interest has been

spurred by the increased awareness and recognition of the possibility

that in the future man will be unable to live with the environmental

waste that he has created.

Research Before 1950

Prior to the 19$0's there is little information on environment

in archaeological reports in the Southwest other than several brief

descriptions of the present geography and vegetation of a particular

region. Some few exceptions include stratigraphic and paleoclimatic

interpretations in Sayles* and Antovs1 (I9bl) classic paper, Cochise

Culture, and stratigraphic, paleoclimatic, botanic, and zoologic re­

search in Haury and Others (195)0), The Stratigraphy and Archaeology

of Ventana Cave. The pioneering work of Douglas in dendrochronology

and stratigraphic studies by Antevs (I9li8) opened the question of the

Indian and climate, specifically the climate during the "Great

Drought," to anthropologists. Bryan was as closely aligned to

3archaeology as was Antevs. Bryan's research (I9lil) includes relating Indian agriculture to periods of alluviation and correlating the stra­

tigraphy and archaeology of Ventana Cave (1950). Hack (I9b2) worked

with the problem of environmental change and its effect on modern

Indians, as well as with paleoenvironments. Studies in botany were

conducted by Deevey (l9bb) and Carter (I9b5)> and Sears attempted

pollen analysis of Southwestern archaeological sites (Sayles and

Antevs 19bl).

Research After 1950

After 1950 an increased recognition of the importance of inter­

disciplinary studies combining geology, geography, biology and

geochronology (including.palynology) with archaeology is noted. The

pioneering work of Antevs (Sayles and Antevs 19hl; Antevs 19lt8) and

Bryan (1950) in stratigraphy has been continued by geologists, espe­

cially those involved with early man sites. Dr. C. Vance Haynes, Jr. (I96I1, 1968), a geologist, is one of the foremost archaeologists dealing with early man in America. His work at Murray Springs is

exemplary in its use of stratigraphy, palynology, and paleontology in

attempting to gain knowledge of paleo-Indian and his association with

the animals and the environment. Eddy (1958) and Schoenwetter and

Eddy (I96U) have added combined alluvial and palynological studies of more recent paleo-Indian sites. Investigations by Antevs (1952, 1955,

1962) into arroyo-cutting and their paleoclimatic implications while

not directly associated with archaeological excavations are certainly applicable to them.

hIn dendrochronology previous work has been refined by Schulman

(1956), Fritts (1965), and others. Present research in dendroclima-

tology, the science which studies the climatic imnlications of tree- rings, at the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research .of The University of

Arizona may be able to answer many Questions concerning climatic

change and the Indians.Prior to 1950 botanical remains in archaeological contexts

were identified, but little interpretation was made beyond the assump­

tion that the Indians were using the vegetal material in some way*

Theoretical research involving plant geography and distribution of

cultivated plants was conducted (Carter 19h5) and has been continued

by Kaplan (1956), Cutler and Whitaker (1961), and others, More care

is taken in the collection and identification of botanical remains

from sites (Cutler 196h; Bohrer, Cutler and Sauer 1969). Especially

indicative of present research in paleobotany is Bohrer*s analysis of

plant material from Snaketown (1970). In this paper she not only

identifies the vegetal remains, but also hypothesizes man-acricultural and man-environmental associations.

One of the techniques used most prolifically in the recon­

struction of the paleoenvironment of archaeological sites is paly-

nology. Research in this field has been so great that it is possible

to mention only a few studies. Most of the pollen samples collected

have been used to interpret the environment and climatic change

(Schoenwetter 1962, 1967} Martin 1963; Hevly 196!i; Schoenwetter and

Eddy 196)4; Mehringer and Haynes 1965} Mehringer, Martin and Haynes

51967; Bohrer 1968). Some of this research has dealt with the effect that man has on the vegetation and the resulting pollen rain in a site

(Martin and Byers 1969; Jelinek 1966). Newer areas have been opened

in the analysis of human coprolites (Martin and Sharrock 196h; Kelso

in press) and in room function studies (Hill and Hevly 1968). Because

the association of palynology and archaeology in the Southwest is relatively recent, re-evaluation of previous research and;interpreta­

tions are both expected and sought. One such re-examination has been

presented by Kelso (manuscript in preparation) and a similar dis­

cussion will be presented in this paper.

Paleontological research started with the simple identification

of bones and other faunal remains collected during the excavation of

a site. Present research involves paleoclimatic and cultural inter­

pretation of the associated fauna (Lance 1999; Stein 1963; Lundelius

196b; Guilday 196?), as well as environmental reconstructions of the

relationship between man and animals (Saunders 1970).

Interpretations of paleoclimatology are based mainly on in­ferences of stratigraphic, palynologic, or dendrochronologic evidence.

This includes the previously mentioned work of Antevs (1992, 1999,

1962), Schulman (1996), Martin (1963), Hevly (196b), Schoenwetter and

Eddy (196b), Fritts (1969), and Mehringer (1967), as well as other

papers more directly involved in paleoclimatology and the paleo-Indian

(Aschmann 1998; Sears and Roosma 1961; Smiley 1961; Woodbury and

Ressler 1962; Leopold, Leopold and Wendorf 1963; and Woodbury 1963). Sadly lacking in this enumeration is research by meteorologists and

6

climatologists. There is a communication gap between archaeologists

and meteorological researchers which must be closed in the future if "

any accurate analysis is to be made of paieoclimatic changes and their

relationship to cultural change.

Areas of research which have been initiated recently or only

superficially explored are total environmental studies and emission spectroscopy. Sabels at Rampart Cave (Martin, Sabels and Shutler

1961) performed an emission spectroscopic analysis of sloth dung to

determine if minerals essential for its existence were present in the

plants which the animal ate. Such studies of trace elements have not

to my knowledge been used in archaeological sites. Total environmental

analysis of archaeological sites is a new area which encompasses a

number of fields. It is especially necessary in sites located in the

desert for the desert is an area of extremes in which environmental

conditions can vary within a few hundred meters. Excavations in

early man sites in the Southwest are making more use of total environ­

mental investigations than are other areas of Southwestern archaeology.

Unfortunately, the knowledge of the types of research available and

their limitations is not widespread enough among archaeologists for

research in these fields to reach their full potential in archaeology.

CHAPTER 2

THE HQHOKAM

The Pima and Papago Indians of Arizona named those people who previously inhabited their land the Hohokam. The term means "the

ancient ones" or "those who have gone." The Hohokam lived on the

river floodplains and the deserts of central and southern Arizona.

Their culture included the knowledge of copper and etching, irrigation

and agriculture. Their contacts spread from Mexico to California and

beyond. They may have been the descendants of the early hunters and

gatherers-of the Cochise culture, or, as now hypothesized by Dr, Emil

Haury (personal communication) immigrants from Mexico, It is possible

that their descendants are the modern Pima and Papago Indians of

Arizona. The Hohokam were farming the terraces of the Gila and Salt

rivers in Arizona by A.D. 1, but had vanished or become unrecognizable

by the time Columbus reached the New World. Coronado and his men noted

the ruins of the Hohokam (Nunez Cabeza de Vaca V?h2) and Father Kino

named the most conspicuous adobe structure Casa Grande .(Fewkes 1912).

The first excavations of Hohokam sites took place around the turn of

the 19th century (Mindeleff 1896j Fewkes 1912). The culture was

defined in the 1930*s in the classic report (Gladwin and others 1937) on the excavation at Snaketown, a Hohokam village south of Phoenix.

Since the time of the original definition the culture has been divided

7

8

into Riverine and Desert subcultures (Haury and others 195>0). Various

excavations (Haury 1932; Hayden 1957? Johnson 196b; Wasley and Johnson

196$) of Hohokam sites have been continued, but feu of them have

included a full environmental study. This omission has been due

partly to the lack of initiative and money, but also to the inability

of the excavators to find environmental indicators. One study on soil

was conducted by el Zur (1957) to ascertain if the emigration of the

Indians from the sites was caused by mineral depletion of the soil.

The basic assumption of this research was that the soil on the flood-

plain at Snaketown at the time of the study was the same soil the

Hohokam had farmed hundreds of years ago. The validity of this

assumption was accepted and never discussed, yet, the assumption may

not be tenable. Rain and sheetwash cause weathering and erosion of

the soil. Deposition and erosion of sediment on river terraces occurs

during each flood. It appears unlikely that the sediment on the

terraces of the Gila River has remained unchanged for so many years.

If the basic assumption is not valid then the conclusions of the soil

study are irrelevant to the problem of Hohokam emigration.

The most recent thorough excavation of a Hohokam site was

completed in the mid-I9601s by Dr. Emil Haury. Radiocarbon, palynolo-

gic, paleobotanic, and paleontologic investigations were included in

this re-excavation of Snaketown. Though preliminary reports have been

published (Haury 1965, 1967; Bohrer 1970), the complete analysis of

the excavation may take years to assemble (Haury, personal communica­tion 1970).

9There are four basic periods in the Hohokam culture (Gladwin

and others 1937). The first, the Pioneer period, began at least as

early as the Christian era and possibly hundreds of years before

(Haury 196?). The early pottery is undistinguishable from that of

the early Mogollon, but unique features such as cremation, mosaics,

shell work, irrigation, and carved, stone figurines, were present.

About A.D. 5>00 during the Colonial period new influences (Anasazi,

Mogollon, or Mexican?) contributed to change the Hohokam culture.

The transitional phase between the Colonial period and the Early

Sedentary period, c. A.D. 900, formed the peak of the culture. Hoho­

kam artifacts included stone paint palettes whose borders were carved

with geometrical designs or stylized animals, and beautifully carved

stone incense burners (?) and figurines. Finely etched shells, some

inlaid with turquoise and other semi-precious stones were made by

their craftsmen. Irrigation canals totaled many miles in length at

Snaketown. By the end of the Sedentary period (c. A.D. 1100-11^0) the

decline in culture had already started (Wasley and Johnson 196£: 80).

(At this time) a radical change seems to have occurred. Sites which were occupied for as long as several hundred years were abandoned, and new villages were established closer to the river, on the floodplains or on the edge of the first terrace . . . a change in agricultural techniques may be inferred from this change in village location. . . . The abandonment of sites . . . the absence of any evidence for the later occupa­tion of these sites, and the lack of definite evidence for Classic-period canal systems in the Painted Rocks Reservoir, all indicate that reliance must have shifted from canal irri­gation to some other types of farming and irrigation.

Haury, however (personal communication 1971) states that the total

length of the canals near Snaketown increased during the next period.

10

Such apparent contradiction demonstrates the state of knowledge about the Hohokam today. Opinions and interpretations change as new excava­

tions are conducted and new evidence found.

The Classic period, A.D. 1100 to lltOO, featured a continued

decline of the fine arts and culture. An increased influence from

other peoples is apparent, and, inevitably, the Hohokam culture lost its unique identity. There appear to be instead a number of small

sub-units of culture, each slightly different (Bradley, personal com­

munication 1969), Identifiable evidence of the Hohokam disappears c. A.D. IbOO-lliSO.

CHAPTER 3

WHIPTAIL RUIN, ARIZONA BB:10:3

Archaeology and the Present Environment

During the years 1968 to 1970 Paul Grebinger, a former graduate

student, and Bruce Bradley, a former undergraduate student, both in

the Department of Anthropology at The University of Arizona, were in

charge of the excavation of Whiptail Ruin, Arizona BB:10:3 on the

Arizona State Museum survey maps. The site, which encompasses 100 to

2f>0 acres of land, is located in the foothills of the Santa Catalina

mountains, IIO^LL*W longitude, 32°17,H latitude, in the NE - NW-ij- Section

29 T.13S R,16E of the Bellota Ranch quadrangle, Arizona, U.S.G.S, 1£>

minute series. Whiptail Ruin is a quasi-Hohokam site of the Classic

period which is different from contemporary sites in the Tucson Basin

and unlike other ruins previously described (Grebinger, personal com­

munication 1969). The ruins in the site are adobe and slant walled

Tanque Verde phase structures with hypothesized adobe walled storage

structures. All of the houses were burned. Whether the destruction

of the houses resulted in abandonment of the site or the site was

burned when it was abandoned (ceremonial burning?) was not determined,

The site has been dated with extrapolated dendrochronological

dates of post-A.D. 1275 and pre-A.D. 1350. Re-analysis of dates in

this area is planned by the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research of The University of Arizona,

11

12The site is located about one half mile from the Agua Caliente

Ranch east of Old Soldiers' Trail 15-6/10 miles northeast of The

University of Arizona, Tucson, at an elevation of 2728 feet (Fig. 1).

It is in a cul de sac formed by the Santa Catalina mountains to the

northeast, Agua Caliente Hill to the east, and the Rincon mountains to the southeast.

Geologically, Whiptail Ruin is situated on terrace gravel

which has been correlated, with the Jaynes terrace gravel by Pashley

(1966). Of the origin of the Jaynes terrace he says (1966: 136),

"During Jaynes erosion and deposition, Rillito Creek occupied, a new,

lower, and more northerly flood plain, which is marked today by the

position of the Jaynes terrace, and cut into its bank forming an ero-

sional scarp." North-northeast of the site lies Agua Caliente Wash

which is composed of quaternary alluvium. The alluvium consists of

coarse gneissic gravel with large gneissic and granitic cobbles and

boulders. The Santa Catalina mountains, Agua Caliente Hill, and the

Rincon mountains are composed of the Catalina Gneiss which was formed

by late Cretaceous or early Tertiary to mid-Tertiary intrusions, meta­

morphism, folding, and faulting. The gneiss has been dated at 2b.9 my

and 29.5 my (Pashley 1966). The formation has been briefly described

(Pashley 1966) as ranging from granitic-gneiss and gneissic-granite

to intruded, banded gneiss. Though areas within the gneiss have not

been defined or described the gneiss grades in places into units of micaceous schists and fine-grained granites.

T 13S

470 000

3 2 * 15'1 10 *4 5 '

SCALE 1:625001 i 0 I 2 3 4 MILES* H K-r , 4 , -f- L-l -T - TT .... .......... .....!■- - --- ■■■■-.■■ ■: --i------ ... ... ,

Figure 1. U.S. Geological Survey map of Bellota Ranch quadrangle

IllSoil on the site and in the area has not actually been mapped

but can be correlated with descriptions of soil compiled by the

National Cooperative Soil Survey (Hendricks, personal communication

1971). The Palos Verdes series which consists of gravelly sand loam may be correlated with the terrace area on which the Whiptail Ruin

reposes. The small wash traversing the site could be part of the Anthony series of sandy loam. The Agua Caliente Wash is best corre­

lated with the Arizo series, described as gravelly fine sand which

may contain 35 to 75 percent gravel, as much as 25 percent cobble­

stones, and up to 10 percent stones. Until more mapping and research

is done in the area these correlations should be considered tentative.

The area is in a marginal arid to semi-arid climate which is

highly influenced by the terrain. The precipitation in the Tucson

Basin as measured at The University of Arizona meteorological station

averages 10.91 inches, almost half of which occurs during the summer

months of June, July, and August (Green and Sellers 196U). The

average maximum temperature is 82.9°F, the average minimum, 5l.6°F.

The average mean temperature for the basin is 67.3°F, Extreme tem­

peratures recorded for the period 1895 to 1962 range from 115°F in

June I960, to 6°F in January 1913, Freezing temperatures generally

start around November 19 and end March 19. The amount of time between

freezes would allow a long growing season for plants the Indians may

have cultivated.

Because much of the pollen found in sediments is contributed

by wind-pollinating plants, knowledge of the prevailing wind and wind

patterns is desired for interpretation of the regional environment.

The prevailing wind direction as measured at The University of Arizona

meteorological station varies during a 2h hour period from SSE (9:00

p,m. to 12:00 a.m.) to WNW (12:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m,, Green and Sellers

1961:). This direction may be locally different due to thermals and

downdrafts, and the surrounding topography. The topography in which

Whiptail Ruin is located most certainly affects the winds in the site.

The Rincon Mountains southeast of the site may negate much of the

normal wind pattern of the basin. Air drainage and downdrafts asso­

ciated with mountain valleys will also have an effect. The total

result of the various factors cannot be predicted. The wind pattern

and prevailing wind direction in the site remain unknown.

The present vegetation of the area is dominated by a creosote-

bush-/Larrea tridentata (DC.) CovilleT- bursage (Franseria dumosa Gray)

association with many saguaros /Garnegiea gigantea (Engelm.) Britt,

and Rose//, various prickly pear and cholla (Opuntia spp. and cylindro-

puntia), and a ground cover of the family types Chenopodiaceae,

Amaranthaceae, and Gramineae. Gray-thorn (Condalia lyciodes Gray)

Mormon tea (Ephedra sp.), desert hackberry (Celtis pallida Torr.),

mesquite /Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC.7> and blue paloverde

(Cercidium floridum Benth.) grow near the wash which traverses the site.

About a quarter of a mile north of the site is a warm spring

for which the wash, the ranch, and the hill were named. The spring

was dammed by man in the early 1900*s and now forms a lake. The

present vegetation around the lake includes willow (Salix sp.), cattail

16

(Typha sp.), and other aquatic species of plants. Evidence of man both

prehistoric and historic is present in the numerous pot sherds and

sun-colored glass near the lake. The various peoples were probably

using the spring as a watering hole. Since willow pollen and Typha-

like pollen are present in the samples from the site and reeds were

found in rooms during the excavation of the site, the spring was

probably in existence when the Hohokam were living at Whiptail. Before

the spring was dammed the vegetation was probably typical of both

standing water and a cienega-type environment. There might have been

a small pool of water near the mouth of the spring supporting willows

and cattails and permanently wet ground with sedges (Cyoeraceae sp.)

and other cienega plants farther away. The effects of the spring

might not be felt farther than a few feet from the mouth due to the

high potential evaporation /81t.03 inches to 102.5U inches (Green and

Sellers 196107 of this climate and the high permeability and porosity of the sediment surrounding the spring.

The artifacts found in the site mirror, for the most part,

the surrounding geology. The large stones used as foundation for the

adobe walls are schist and gneiss, derived from the Catalina Gneiss.

Ketates and manos are predominantly gneiss and fine-grained granite,

very similar to large stones also derived from the Catalina Gneiss

which are found in the wash today. There are a few basalt manos and

metates. Pashley (1966) states that volcanic rocks are found at the

base of the Rincon Mountains but neglects to describe the type of

17

volcanic rock. The basalt of the grinding stones best resembles the

vesicular basalt found in the Tucson Mountains. The projectile points

are divided into two groups, the micro- or bird-points, and a few

larger points. The micro-points are predominantly composed of various

types of quartz: clear quartz, milky quartz, and rose quartz. One

very crude point of basalt was found as well as a few of chert. Bases

of obsidian points were also present. The larger points and accompany­

ing flakes were mainly chert, though one crude point of porphyritic

andesite (a volcanic rock) was found. The quartz is probably from the

area. Large veins of quartz are found in the Catalina Gneiss and

cobbles of quartz are present in the washes near the site. The vol­

canic basalt and adesite may be local or imported. Further geologic

descriptions of the area are necessary before their origin can be

determined. The chert is probably imported, possibly from further south or north.

The Indians took advantage of the natural properties of some

of the rocks in the area. Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock which

breaks very easily into layers. Micaceous schist is grainy and has

fine abrasive qualities. Rectangular pieces of schist, mainly

micaceous, about one quarter to one half inch in width, were made into

saws (serrated edges) and "mescal" knives (ground edges). Other

pieces of flat schist were rounded and made into spindle whorls, One

or two knives were made of a very fine-grained greenish (chloritic)

schist which is not found in the Catalina Gneiss but may be correlated

with schist found at the base of the Rincon Mountains (Douglas Shekel,

personal communication 1971).

18Imported material besides the chert and basalt includes tur­

quoise, hematite, and shell, which was made into bracelets and other

jewelry. Imported material was used either for luxury items, or where

no good substitute was present in the local area, but even then very little was brought from outside the region.

CHAPTER h

RESEARCH AT WHIPTAIL RUIN

Postulated Research

There were various means possible to study the changing paleo-

environment of the site during occupation. Each of these methods was

investigated.

There are no apparent stratigraphic units in the site because

the sediment consists of a fairly uniform mass of fine sand, silt,

and clay. Houses were therefore dug in arbitrary units. Two houses

(Nos, 19 and II4) on the south side of the wash were filled with alluvial-type material apparently deposited by a stream. The sediment

consists of poorly sorted gravel, sand, and silt, which grades upward

into coarser material. Because the houses were burned a fairly large

proportion of the base of the fill is composed of mixed sediment,

charcoal, and burnt beams. The lack of sedimentary units and the

uniformity of the fill as well as the apparent difficulty in dis­

tinguishing the surface at the time of occupation caused me to

seriously question the feasibility of using sedimentation and stra­

tigraphy to reconstruct the paleoenvironment of the site.

The possibility of making an emission spectroscopic study of

cholla buds found in the site was considered (Martin and others 1961).

Comparisons of trace elements in these buds would be made with various

19

20

species of modern chollas in the same and in different locations to

determine if there are any differences in the absorbed minerals.

Variations might possibly be related to differences in precipitation

and temperature if it was found that the same species of chollas

absorb different amounts of different types of minerals under various

climatic regimes. This idea was abandoned when further discussion made it apparent that the time and equipment required were unfeasible for the study.

Deer scapula and other bones were found in a single area of

one floor, which caused the archaeologists to postulate that they had

a ceremonial or tool making use. But, the amount of bone was too

small for a detailed paleontological study.

It was eventually postulated that a palynological analysis of

samples from the site might be the best available method for recon­

struction of the environment at the time of occupation by the Hohokam

Indians. Samples were available, since they had been collected by the

archaeologists during the first two years of excavation and interest

was keen. No other Hohokam site with enough pollen for 200 grain

counts had previously been studied. This could be a pioneer investi­gation.

Palynological Study

When excavation first began the archaeologists were aware of

the technique of pollen analysis and consequently took numerous samples

with the hope that the samples would someday be analyzed. During the

second year of excavation the author collected sediment samples for

pollen analysis from stratigraphic columns in two houses (Nos. 19 and

23).The first purpose of the study was to see if there was any

pollen in the samples. Other palynological investigations of Hohokam

sites had reported too little pollen to count. Bohrer (1970) found

only enough pollen in the trash areas for 200 grain counts. The main problem seems to be a lack of preservation due to high oxidation rates

in the desert caused by high surface temperatures and possibly

accentuated by soil alkalinity (Dimbleby 1937). Preliminary analysis

of a few samples showed that enough pollen was available for 200 grain

counts, The "magic" number of 200 grains was chosen because studies

have shown that after 200 grains the percentages of the different

types of pollen hold relatively constant (James King, personal commu­

nication 1969). Higher counts are advisable if there are many dif­

ferent types of pollen most of which occur in low percentages. In

that case a LOO grain count or greater will give a more accurate idea

of the actual amount of the various pollen types. Because there were

not a large number of identifiable pollen types in the samples, and

because those types which were most numerous were (with the exception

of Pinus) those most often used for environmental interpretations, it

was theorized that 200 grain counts would be adequate for the present study.

Following the preliminary analysis soil samples from various

areas of the site: rooms, floors, vessels, under vessels and other

21

22

artifacts, and in fill, were extracted and counted to see if some areas

were more profitable than others. All areas so tested contained enough

pollen for 200 grain counts.

Both environmental and room function studies were originally

contemplated when it was ascertained that sufficient pollen was avail­

able for the study. Environmental reconstructions from pollen analysis

in sites of the Mogollon culture had been made by Schoenwetter (Schoen- wetter 1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy 1961t) and Hevly (196b) by the

interpretation of the changing arboreal (mainly Pinus and Juniperus)

to non-arboreal (mainly cheno-ams and Compositaes) ratios. Room

function analysis is a very new aspect of palynological research in

archaeological sites. Hill and Hevly (1968) found high percentages

of cheno-am pollen in habitation rooms and kivas and high percentages

of economic pollen in storage rooms in the pollen analysis of rooms

at Broken K Pueblo. It was postulated that such studies could also

be conducted at Whiptail.

Sampling Methods and Method of Extraction

One hundred fifty samples were collected by the archaeologists

during the excavation. Nineteen of those were extracted and counted.

In addition, nine samples were collected from each of two strati­

graphic columns. All 18 stratigraphic samples were extracted and

counted. Two surface samples and one sample from the wash were col­

lected, extracted, and counted for control purposes, A total of hO

samples were used in this study.

23Archaeological Samples

Samples collected at the site were taken by Paul Grebinger. Four types of samples were extracted and counted: floor samples, ves­sel samples, samples from prepared pits, and samples from the fill in

the rooms. Floor samples consisted of c. 200 gms of sediment scraped

off the floor with the tip of a trowel. Fill samples were collected

in a similar manner from various levels in the sediment which filled

the rooms. Vessel samples were composed of the sediment at the very

bottom of the inside of the vessels. Samples from prepared pits

(holes with packed dirt sides or plaster lining which were dug in the

ground or floors, possibly used for storage or in food preparation)

were collected at the bottom of the pits.

Ideally, vessels, metates and manos are washed with a dilute

solution of hydrochloric acid in order to obtain pollen adhering to

their surfaces. The washings are then allowed to evaporate and the

remaining sediment extracted like other samples. In this way it is

hoped that pollen from plants ground in the metates or stored in the vessels can be collected. This pollen can give an indication not only

of the plants eaten but also of the habits of the people (i.e., was

one type of metate used for wild footi and another for cultivated food?

Hill and Hevly 1968). Washings were not made of the grinding stones

and vessels at Whiptail Ruin. Metates found in the site were stored

in an open room with artifacts from many sites for some months before

the author began the analysis. Because the probability of

contamination from these other artifacts was so high it was not deemed

profitable to collect pollen samples from the grinding stones and

vessels found at Whiptail. The omission of this technique during

excavation demonstrates the general lack of communication between

palynologists and archaeologists, both of whom are to blame.

All samples collected during excavation were immediately placed in plastic bags, sealed, and labeled for provenience and date. The

samples were also listed in the site records.

Stratigraphic Samples

Stratigraphic samples were collected from fresh columns in two

of the houses (Nos. 19 and 23). The faces chosen were cleaned and

examined for distinguishable stratigraphic units. None were found.

A measuring tape was used to locate sampling intervals 10 cm apart.

These were marked with flags on nails as suggested by Mehringer (1967).

Samples were collected from the bottom-up so that the lower locations

would not be contaminated by fall from the higher samples. Each place

was cleaned anew directly before the sample was collected. Ideally,

(Mehringer 196?: 136), "the sediment is collected in a single large ped or several smaller ones so that before extraction each ped may be

washed with water until surface material has been removed," Due to

the poor cohesion of the sediment this was not possible. About 200

gms of the loose dirt was collected with the tip of a trowel, placed

in a Whirl-pak plastic bag, sealed, and labeled with column, depth,

and house number.

2£?Modern Samples

One modern sample was collected one quarter mile northeast of

the site; another was collected on the eastern perimeter of the site.

The samples were taken in November 1970 and February 1971 respectively,

at times when no major contributor to the pollen rain would be polli­nating and consequently skewing the results. The samples were col­

lected by picking up small amounts of sediment on the tip of a trowel from ten locations in a £0 meter area and placing them all in a plastic sack. This method of mixing was used to get a sample repre­

sentative of the local and regional pollen rain and to eliminate any type of pollen which might be contributed by a single plant in a

localized area. Since more than just the very top soil was collected

the samples probably reflect the pollen rain from a number of years,

rather than just the pollen fallout from the last season of pollina­tion.

Wash Sample

One sample was collected from the wash. A small trowel-full

of sandy sediment was taken from the upper moist layer of sand in the

wash. The dry sand was not collected because it was postulated that

the chances of loss of pollen through oxidation or filtration to lower

levels was higher in the dry sand than in the wet sand. The validity of this hypothesis was not tested.

In the laboratory the samples were extracted according to the

method described by Mehringer (1967) as being most successful in

26

dealing with alluvial samples. Acetolysis was not used in the ex­

traction because the combination of the hydrofluoric acid treatment

and acetolysis destroys a large amount of the sample (Kelso, personal

communication 1970), Acetolysis is used to artificially fossilize

pollen so that it may be more easily identified. Since alluvial pollen

is already naturally fossilized it does not necessitate artificial fossilization.

Interpretation of Pollen Counts

A few preliminary statements can be made about the pollen

counts in general. (Mehringer 196? offers a detailed explanation on the interpretation of pollen diagrams.) First, there are no apparent

trends in.any.room (Diagram 1) or in the pollen associated with ves­

sels (Diagram 3) or other artifacts. In other words, no house or

association of samples displays a consistently higher percentage of

one type of pollen or any distinctive clustering of two or more types

of pollen. In fact, in a single house the amount of the different

types of pollen may vary by as much as 20 percent. The same is true

of pollen in vessels and pollen under artifacts. Some of the floor

and vessel samples may be post-occupation since it is not likely that

the Indians kept dirt in their jars, and sediment and pollen could

have filtered to the floor after abandonment of the site.

Finally, there are no other studies done in Ilohokam sites in

which enough pollen was found to do complete studies so there is

nothing with which to compare this research.

DIAGRAM I. Pollen samples from houses.

Inside vessel Inside vessel Near vessel Lower fil l, adobe

Floor

Next to vessel Under mono

/Half 099Whole d Total C D 99t

^ // # / / / /

House 19 Floor19-97 Inside vessel 19-141 Step in entryway 19-144 Inside bowl 19-145 Below bowl

House 1818-5 Floor

House 17 17-2 17-5 17-7 17-9

House 16 16-1

House Q13-2 Under stone

House 12 12-1 12-8

House II11-3 Lower f i l l

House 1010-5 Under grinding stone

House 8Prepared pit • Prepared pit

C299000000999%

dORXXRXXXXK

i----

r"~ ~r w xvvvvw w g o

ZXXXXXXKXRRRRR!

8-9 8-11

House 77 -4 Prepared pit 7-10 34 cm above floor

:35RR%3355R%95

C==%22222222%3RXXX

L C3 (t 6&

izaB cm i> '1Em E “’--M i o

ta i 1 >

r=3l3

a <t (

)t<

<f <

? < oA

bra CB i <> <t < oCB a 4a cm B <> <t oa cm a () <> oa c m c m <>

3 m c m i> <> ocm a c m <> o□ a t3 < oa a o

i 3 3 <» i► iI a < ii oP=>a 1a a <a > <>

<> < T#SCALE: 75i_

Percent Figure 1. Pollen samples from houses, no

Diogrom 2. Pollen samples from stratigraphic sections.

/// Half

(T whole a

/CZ3

Total

Wash

Modern^2

Modern^ I

a□□

/o*

X/

7SCALE:

0I 25i 50i_ 75 100_i_____i

0

PercentFigure 2. Pollen samples from stratigraphic sections

Diagram 3. Pollen samples inside vessels.

<9 Half ^

cf W h a le d Total [ 3 ^ 4 ^

: KV-.

17-2

17-7

19-97

19-144

□888888888888b

38888888888b

1

3

3r— i■■ - •*

SCALE:0 25 5 0 75 100L________ l________ I_________i_________I

Percent

Figure 3. Pollen samples inside vessels♦

30

Pollen Groups

Cheno-amsThe group of pollen called cheno-ams is an arbitrary group

composed of pollen of plants in the family Chenopodiaceae and the

genus Amaranthus. Chenopodiaceae are generally known as the goose-

foot family and the Amaranthus as pigweeds. Both grow as weeds in

numerous environmental situations in the Southwest. The pollen of

the two groups is, with a few exceptions such as greasewood

(Sarcobatus), indistinguishable, so the general grouping is made.

Half and whole cheno-am grains were counted separately. This was

originally done because it was thought that there might be a relation­

ship with the quality of preservation, i.e., the more half cheno-ams

the poorer the preservation. Such a correlation might have been in­

dicated by high peaks of half cheno-ams accompanying low troughs of

whole cheno-ams. This theory was not supported, for many high peaks

of whole cheno-ams occur with peaks of halves. In other words, high percentages of half cheno-ams occur when there are large amounts of

cheno-ams. Half cheno-ams were also counted because they occurred

in unusually high percentages. If all were counted as wholes it was

feared that they would be over-represented. The large amount of half

cheno-ams may be due to erosion before preservation, preservation, or

preparation of the samples. Because the preservation is generally

poor in all of the samples, this factor is probably the cause.

In the site the cheno-ams vary from c . 30% to c. 80% of the

samples (Diagrams 1 and 3). These percentages are larger than those

31found in the modern counts of the Sonoran Desert vegetation at this

altitude (Hevly, Mehringer and Yocum 1965), and, in general, larger

than the modern surface samples taken at the site (Diagram 2). These

higher percentages may be due to two factors: (1) cultural influence,or (2) environmental change. Martin (1963), Martin and Byers (196$), and Jelinek (1966) interpret large amounts of cheno-am pollen to be due to cultural influence as produced by disturbance or by use of the

plants. Schoenwetter (1962j Schoenwetter and Eddy 19610 and Hevly

(1961;) interpret increased percentages of cheno-ams and decreased percentages of pine pollen as indicative of environmental change.

For reasons which will be stated later I favor the factor of cultural

influence,

Compositae

Compositae are members of the sunflower family, some common

plants of which include the goldenrod, aster, daisy, and thistle.

Compositae pollen are separated into two groups, low spine and high

spine. The high spines in this study were designated as those grains

with spines larger than Ip in length. I now believe that it would

have been better to use the division of l.$p to 2,0 pas-suggested by Hevly and others (196$) because the length of many of the spines is

on the borderline of lu and the distinction thus becomes very sub­

jective. High spines vary from 2% to 11$ in the archaeological

samples (Diagrams 1 and 3), from 6.$% to 30.$# in the samples from the stratigraphic columns (Diagram 2), and $.$# to 6.$# in the surface

32samples (Diagram 2). The wash sample contains ll.££ high spine Com-

positaes. The low spine Compositaes vary from «*>£ to 18*5$ in the

archaeological samples, from 6% to 23$ in the stratigraphic columns, and from 20$ to 30.5$ in the surface samples. The wash sample con­

tains 29$ low spines. No trends or clusterings are apparent in the Compositaes. There are equivalent peaks of lh$ in a prepared pit

(Diagram 1, Sample 7-it) and above a step in an entryway (Diagram 1, Sample 19-litl). Neither high spines nor low spines were dominant in

any house or association or in the whole site.

Tidestromia

Tidestromla is an insect pollinated annual in the family

Amarahthaceae which is distinguishable from the pollen in the genus

Amaranthus and so given a count of its own. Within the site Tides­

tromia varies from 2$ to 30$ (Diagrams 1 and 3)• Percent Tidestromia

in the stratigraphic columns ranges from 3*£$ to 30$ (Diagram 2).

The modern surface samples contain 1$ and 2.5$ Tidestromia and the

wash sample contains no Tidestromia (Diagram 2).

Tidestromia is usually found as trace amounts in modern

samples and in samples from alluvium in the Sonoran Desert (Martin

1963; Hevly and others 1965). There is only one other study known

which has high percentages of Tidestromia and that is Casas Grandes

in northern Mexico (David Adam, personal communication 1970; Gerald

Kelso, personal communication 1971). In the Casas Grandes study the

peak of Tidestromia is associated with the silting of a reservoir.

33As the reservoir silted in, disturbance continued, and conditions re­

mained favorable for its growth. At Whiptail the highest peak of 3d?

is found in a vessel, but it is within 6# of a floor peak. The

question now is why there are such high percentages. A number of

possibilities are present. First, the plant may have been used by the Hohokam. There is no ethnobotanical evidence to support such use

(Castetter 1935; Castetter and Underhill 1935), but it is still a possibility.

Kearney and Peebles in Arizona Flora (196U) describe the en­

vironment of Tidestromia lanuginosa (Nutt.) Standi., the Tidestromia

found in Pima County where the site is located (Kearney and Peebles

196U: 258): "The whitish mats of this plant are conspicuous soon

after summer rains on the deserts in southern Arizona, and are well

adapted for checking the blowing of sandy soils." Herbarium sheets

in The University of Arizona Herbarium record collection of T.

lanuginosa in a wide variety of environmentsz by streams, in sand,

in gravel, on mesas, bajadas, pediments, and in association with

numerous different plant communities: mariola (Parthenium incanum

H.B.K.), snake-weed /Guterrezia microcephala (DC.) Gray^Z, white thorn

(Acacia constricta Benth.), and Mormon tea; desert salt-bush (Atriolex

polycarpa Torr. and A. linearis Watts.); and mesquite, yucca (Yucca sp.) and Acacia sp. From personal observation and discussion with

Drs. Mason (Department of Botany, University of Arizona) and Martin

(Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona) Tidestromia sp.

is found in disturbed soils♦ Since occupation would have resulted in

disturbed soils, this factor and possibly some other unknown cultural

factor could have created a favorable environment for the Tidestromia.

The high percentages could also be an artifact of preservation.

Tidestromia is a very distinctive pollen type and quite easily identi­fied, Even when it is crushed it is still distinguishable. Through

unconscious selection, bias towards Tidestromia may have entered the counts thus increasing its percent relative to less easily identi­

fiable pollen types.For reasons previously stated the high percentages of Tides­

tromia in the samples were probably caused by the increased abundance

of the plant in the site and the distinctive shape of the pollen.

Where do Tidestromia grains occur in the samples? There is

once again no real trend. There are differences in amounts, but they

do not occur in any one locality or association. Perhaps the dif­

ferences are due to a seasonal factor since Tidestromia blooms from

June to October. One interesting item is noticed. When Tidestromia

percentages are added to the rest of the cheno-ams they even the

degree of differences in the cheno-am distribution. Perhaps conditions

were better for Tidestromia at different times or in different places.

The high peak and low trough of Tidestromia both occur in the same

house (No. 17), both inside jars. This could mean that either the

two samples were not contemporaneous or that Tidestromia is an arti-

i fact of preservation and that the preservation in the two vessels wasj

3b

35not the same. It is also possible that Tidestromia had a ceremonial

or other use and was stored in only one of the vessels.

Quercus

The amount of Quercus (Tables 1 and 2) or oak found in the

room samples from Whiptail (0.£$ to 6%) is generally less than the

percentage in the surface samples from the site (both 1&% ), The

smaller amount of oak in the occupation samples from the site is

possibly due to oxidation of the oak grains. Research into the oxi­

dation of pollen and spores (Havinga 196U) shows that Quercus cor­

rodes very rapidly under oxidation conditions: "When interpreting

pollen diagrams of mineral deposits, it should never be overlooked

that there is a possibility of the pollen composition having been

changed by selective corrosion . . . the fairly frequent phenomenon

of under-representation of Quercus in sand spectra is usually over­

looked" (Havinga 196!|; 632). The rate of oxidation increases with

high temperatures. The houses were burned. This and the high soil

temperatures on desert sand support the hypothesis of a depletion of Quercus due to oxidation.

TOT

The pollen group TCT (Tables 1 and 2) is composed of grains

in the families Taxodiaceae, Cupressaceae, and Taxaceae. Trees repre­sented might be junipers or cypress. Percentages of TCT in the

samples were low, generally below 1$ in the archaeological samples though one sample (17-7) contained 15 grains. Percent of TCT in the

36

Table 1. Number of pollen grains found in rooms fromVIhiptail Ruin. ---Grains present during scanning.

I IW? .2

0 i o to nj1 i 1 1 8 1O JZ V {X UO ^ H 10 % "to•o 9 3 6 8 5 §

3BEh <D

2*8rC 5

§s s §<D <D£ O T3s s 3tt -i {C d O «H O eHHouse samples S to h y ^ •HPL, O 0Eh O* dCO s ^ ^

4)

I

I

i8tos

sit■<§

c0•81 f

s8 r—I O£5 •HCO<D

§

<D _ d d0) *riO U d rt •H O C *H O CO§ %r

s<DI4)S

1I

<Dd0)i•Ecdi

19-1U5 Below 50 118 168 16 5 L 2 2 * i !* 2 1vessel '

19-97 Inside 23 9L 117 20 18 29 3 * 1 ! 1 6vessel ' i

19-lUl Entryway 16 108 121; 28 7 26 1 1 2 5 1 519-litL Inside 21 76 97 17 30 Ll 1 1 3 3 7

vessel18-S Floor LI 101 1L2 12 20 8 1 3 2 1 2 , ! 5 2 2

17-9 Lower L3 89 132 8 29 8 1 3 : 1 7 8fill :

17-7 Next to 23 95 118 20 12 2 -> 15 12 5 i : 8 3 Ljar

8 817-5 In vessel 39 91 130 22 13 L 1 * *,

12

17-2 In vessel 18 L3 61 5 1L 60 1 3 13 1 1 1 10 6 1916-1 Floor 22 70 92 18 31 2L 1 5 * 2 12 * 5 -K 2 8

13-2 Under 25 72 97 19 37 31 •5C- 5 1 1 * L 5stone

12-8 Under gr. 29 72 101 31 15 33 2 * * 3 3 6stone j :

12-1 Next to 31 85 116 10 19 38 2 l 5 1 3 -1 i ! 1 2bowl ■

11-3 Lower Lo 99 139 15 18 1L 1 2 2 * 3 I : 6fill

10-5 Under gr. 6L 93 157 21 1 15 * 1 i * : 1 3stone

8-11 Prepared 62 11L 176 L 2 . 7 1 1 2 L i 2pit r

8-9 Prepared 51 111 162 L 9 10 1 1 3 1 * X 3 1 5pit

7-10 Middle 36 108 ILL 21 10 1L 2 1 1 1 3 1 ^ 1 1fill

7-U Prepared 31 96 127 28 1 2L 1 3 K 1 3.5 7 4 7pit

Unid

en a

rbor

eal

37

Table 2. Humber of grains found in stratigraphic columns in modern samples and in wash sample from VJhiptail Ruin. ^Grains present during scanning.

House 19I? cm s 37 U2 61 Ul 22 . 1 3 5IS cm 10 S6 66 U3 38 32 3 -X-

2S cm 6 72 78 28 26 583S cm 7 66 73 US 15 60 * •RUS cm 11 80 99 39 12 U9SS cm 12 70 82 Ul IS 526S cm 16 79 9S 52 12 287S cm 27 70 97 39 2U 28Floor 18 91 109 20 17 U6 1

House 23S cm 3S 60 95 2U U3 6 3 1 u 3IS cm 36 86 122 26 30 7 12S cm 38 65 103 25 U6 9 1 23S cm S8 66 12U 13 22 25 1 1US cm SO 7U 12U 18 23 15 1SS cm 38 91 129 1U 22 13 16S cm 62 79 1U1 18 18 7 17S cm SS 71 126 13 18 12 2 28S cm 3S 72 107 21 27 2U 2 * 1MS #1 21 67 88 11 UO 5 1 9 15MS //2 3S Ul 76 13 61 2 2 U 15 3¥S UO 68 108 23 58 0 5 2 6 13

3 1 * R 13 U '3

5 R 9 2 2

1 1 * 5 2 1

* 1 1 1 2 2

R * 6 I)7 >

1 1 5 i6* U 82 2 3

i

3 1 1 5 3 91 1 3 3 6

1 2 U 7* R 1 1 R U 1 6

7 3 9R 2 7 12

5 2 2 1 1 2 2

2 3 1 2 2 5 1 10

1 7 5 5i

1 1 * U 2 63 1 1 3 2 15 2

i

3 1 2 1 2 7 5 U

38

surface samples was slightly higher than most of the archaeological

samples (2$ to h»5%)• The low number of grains in the archaeological

samples may again be due to the lack of preservation. This pollen

type, round with few apparent features, is not distinctive, and there

are many broken grains in the samples which cannot be identified.

Pinus

The low pine counts (0$ to 1%, Diagrams 1 and 3) agree with

the surface samples from the site (O.£o to 1%, Diagram 2). The

nearest abundant pines are in the Santa Catalina and the Rincon

Mountains. The occurrence of pine in the samples would be dependent

upon the wind patterns or on aboriginal use of pine. As was pre- - -viously stated, the wind•pattern is unknown and essentially unpre­

dictable. The use of pine is verified, because charcoal of pine found

in the rooms shows that pine beams were used in the house structures.

Salix (willow) and Sparpanium-tvpe

Two of the pollen types represent standing or running water.

Sparganium-type pollen consists of pollen from a number of plants,

all associated with water ("aquatic or semi-aquatic," Kearney and

Peebles 1961;: 61;), One possible source is cattail or Typha sp. The

pollen from Typha normally occurs in groups of four, or tetrads, but

quite often these tetrads will be broken. A single grain from the

tetrad would be identified as Sparganium-type pollen. Willow and

Sparganium-type pollen do not usually occur in sediment in the Sonoran

Desert (Hevly and others 1969). /Percent of both types ranges from

390% to 2% in the site (Diagrams 1 and 3) and in stratigraphic and sur­

face samples (Diagram 1)7• There are two ways to explain the occur­

rence of Salix and Sparganium-type pollen in the site. Pollen from

mountain canyons where conditions would be favorable for the growth

of these plants could have been carried to the site by the wind.

However, a more likely source of the pollen is the natural spring

located within a quarter mile of the site. Willow and cattail are

presently growing around the man-made lake. It is quite probable that

they were growing there when the Indians occupied Whiptail, especially

since, as previously mentioned, remains of reeds used in the roofing

of some of the houses were found during the excavation. Salix and

Sparganium-type pollen could have been introduced either with the plants or with drinking and cooking water carried from the springs.

Cylindropuntia

Cylindropuntia pollen refers to pollen which is produced by

cholla cactus. It is found in low percentages (0% to 2%) but consis­

tently in the samples from the rooms (Diagrams 1 and 3)• Cylindro­

puntia grains are found in percentages up to in the samples from

the Snaketown trash mounds (Bohrer 1970). Modern samples (Hevly and

others 1963) record percentages of less than 3# Opuntia-type pollen (which would include cylindropuntia pollen) in a transect in the

Sonoran Desert. In a study of pollen in sediments located in a

creosotebush-bursage floral association like that growing on the site

today, only one Opuntia-type grain was found in 13 samples

(Schoenwetter and Doerschlag 1970). The samples of modern pollen from

the surface of the site and from the wash contained no Opuntia or

cylindropuntia pollen (Diagram 2). A probable interpretation of the

cylindropuntia pollen found in the site is that the people were eating

the chollas. This theory is supported by the presence of cholla buds

in the houses. Ethnographic data indicates that cholla (Opuntia

fulgida Engelm.} 0. versicolor Engelm; and 0. echinocarpa Engelm and Bigel.) buds and joints are collected, pit-baked, and dried for future

use by modern Papago Indians ( Castetter and Underhill 193?).

Unidentified Pollen

Pollen labeled "unidentifiable" (Tables 1 and 2, Diagrams 1,

"2, and 3) refers to those grains which are pollen, but which due to poor preservation (corrosion, crushing), cannot be identified as to

type. "Unidentified arboreal" grains are those pollen which most

closely resemble pollen from arboreal plants, but which, again, due

to poor preservation, cannot be further defined. Pollen which is most similar to grains from non-arboreal plants but which cannot be further

identified are placed in the group "unidentified non-arboreal" pollen.

Cultigens

The lack of pollen from cultivated plants is something of a

mystery. High amounts of pollen from cultivated plants such as corn,

squash, and beans are seldom found in an archaeological site, but it

is unusual not to find any. At first one might postulate that all of

the samples represent post-occupation sediment, but that would not be

h i

true for samples found under artifacts. There is no pollen of culti-

gens even there. The next possibility is that the inhabitants were more dependent upon gathering than upon cultivation for their suste­

nance. In the storage rooms jars of corn and beans were found. It

is possible that cultivated food was brought to the storage rooms before it was taken to the habitation rooms. Pollen which remained

on the plants when they were harvested would be dropped in the storage

rooms and little would be left on the plants by the time the food

reached the cooking pots. Dr. Emil Haury (personal communication 1971) hypothesizes that the majority of the cooking was done outside the

houses. If this is true, then it would help to explain why no grains

of cultivated plants are present in the habitation rooms.

CHAPTER $

INTERPRETATION OF PRESENT DATA

With the methods that were used the question might be asked, "What environmental interpretations can be made from the pollen samples

from Whiptail Ruin?" There are a few. First, in general, the same

plants now growing in the area of Whiptail Ruin were growing there c. A.D. 1300: Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Compositae, Gramineae,

Mormon tea, Liliaceae (Yucca elata Engelm.?), and cholla. No Tides-

tromia is growing on the site presently.

There are two stratigraphic columns (Diagram 2) from which

environmental interpretations can be attempted, but the problems are

numerous• There are no stratigraphic units and no dates, though all

but the floor samples are probably post-occupation.

House 19There is no real change until 2$ cm below the surface. This

lack of change is interpreted to be the result of one single period

of continuous deposition. In general the samples below 25 cm in the column agree well with the modern surface samples from the site,

especially with the sample collected next to the site. The major

difference between the stratigraphic samples and the surface samples

is that Tidestromia is represented by very low amounts in the modern

surface samples (l$ to 2.55b, Diagram 1) but found in higher

h2

k3

percentages (3.5# to 30%) in most of the samples in the stratigraphic column (Diagram 2). Tidestromia grows along the sides of washes and

streams and on arroyo banks. If the alluvium was indeed deposited

during a flood, then it is quite likely that more pollen from Tides­

tromia would be incorporated into the alluvium than would be found on

the desert floor. However, this theory is not supported by the sample

from the wash. This sample contains no Tidestromia. There may be

some other unknown factor such as selective grazing that prevents its growth in the wash today (Terah Smiley, personal communication 1971).

At 2$ cm below the surface there is a drop in cheno-ams and Tidestromia and a rise in the Compositaes. In the early 1900's the

spring was dammed and a lake formed. The formation of the lake may

have caused a change in the level of the local water table which re­

sulted in a more favorable environment for the Compositaes. /Com­

positaes are usually associated with higher water tables than cheno-

ams (Martin 1963; Schoenwetter and Eddy 196LX7. Or the change may

indicate initial grazing. Without dates one can only theorize.

House 23There is only one major difference between the stratigraphic

column from House 19 and that from House 23. In House 23 there is a

major rise in the Compositaes, especially the low spines, and a decline in the cheno-ams and Tidestromia from 35> cm to 2% cm below the surface.

From 2$ cm to 1$ cm the low spines decline and the cheno-ams rise.

Then there is another reversal from l£ cm to £ cm when the cheno-ams

Uidrop lower than before and the low spines climb to their previous high.

The column in House 19 has only one major change at 25 cm below the

surface. The differences in the two columns is probably a local

phenomena. Such localized differences in the pollen rain are supported

by the modern surface samples from the site. The second surface sample

contains over 20 more low spines than the first sample and 30% fewer cheno-ams. These differences may be due to drainage patterns or some other factor. •

The sample from the wash indicates one interesting phenomena.

This is the only sample, modern or old, that contained more whole

cheno-ams than half cheno-ams, I would have postulated that since

there is more erosion in a wash than on the surface, there should be

fewer whole cheno-ams and the general preservation should be poorer,

but this does not appear to be true. This phenomena suggests that

some factor other than erosion may be responsible for the half cheno-ams

CHAPTER 6

POLLEN, ENVIRONMENT, AND CLIMATE

Originally the study was conceived as a micro-environmental

investigation of the site. The question arises, "Are environmental

interpretations justified in pollen studies of archaeological sites?"

Through research and reading I have come to the conclusion that with

the techniques now in use it is difficult if not impossible to inter­

pret the regional or even the local natural environment from pollen

samples taken in an archaeological site.

There are a number of problems in interpreting the environment

from pollen samples in any locality. Initially there is the question of equating pollen with vegetation. Research on this relationship was

conducted by Davis and Goodlett (i960) at a pond in Vermont. The

total amount of vegetation surrounding the pond was measured. The

percentages of the various flora growing around the pond were then

compared with the percentages of the plants represented in the pollen

samples to see if there was good correlation. To the contrary they

found that, "the pollen composition of the sediments shows little

relation to the composition of the vegetation. Nearly all the tree

species observed in the present vegetation are represented in the

sediments, but quantitative relations are almost completely lacking"

(Davis and Goodlett I960: 353). The lack of positive relationship

between the vegetation and the pollen rain is partially due to differ­

h6

ences in pollen production, differential dispersion of pollen, and

pollen preservation. Some plants produce more pollen per plant than

others, and the rate of pollen production can change in time (Kehringer

1967). Physical characteristics of pollen can affect their areal dis­

tribution. Once the grains have been deposited differential preserva­

tion may change the picture that pollen gives of the vegetation. It

has already been noted that Quercus oxidizes very quickly under well-

aerated conditions. This often causes oak to be under-represented in

the pollen record. Other pollen types also oxidize quite readily or

are more susceptible to degradation by fungus or bacteria. What types

will be under-represented depends upon the kind of degradation or

corrosion which takes place in the samples. Another factor which may affect the in situ preservation of pollen and about which, to my

knowledge, nothing is known is the differential filtration of pollen

through the strata. Does pollen remain in the sediment in which it is

initially deposited or can it be transported to lower levels by per­

colating rain or groundwater? If it can be carried in this manner is

there selectivity in the pollen transport due to the different sizes

and buoyancy of the various pollen types? These questions are

especially important when dealing.with alluvial sediment and it is

precisely this type of sediment from which most of the pollen samples

from archaeological sites in the Southwest are collected. Until these

problems are studied environmental interpretations can be made only

with caution and with full knowledge of the limitations present.

h i

The interpretation of pollen from alluvial samples presents

additional problems because the preservation is often poor, i.e., the

grains have been crushed, broken, or corroded. Faegri and Iversen

(1961;: 120) suggested, "If more than half of the pollen grains of

deciduous trees (conifer pollen is more resistant) show traces of cor­

rosion, the sample should be discarded, since a distortion of the

spectrum due to the total disappearance of part of the pollen flora

must be suspected.” If one were to abide by this theory then much of

the Southwest would lack any pollen work at all. Interpretations can

be made if the limitations of poor preservation are recognized. Some

of these limitations have been expressed well by Mehringer (196?: 138).

Preservation of the pollen grains is important in their identification. Divisions which can be made within a family or genus on .the basis of minute morphological details or slight size differences cannot be accomplished in poorly preserved material. Thus, in the alluvial fossil pollen record, in which the pollen is not commonly well-preserved, it would be unrealistic to attempt more precise identifica­tions and it is more practical and less misleading to work only with the major pollen groups.

The interpretations I make include, I hope, ample recognition of these

limitations.

The main problems are apparent in making environmental inter­

pretations of archaeological sites. These are sampling procedures

and cultural influence on the pollen rain.

In most of the previous studies of archaeological sites occu­

pied in the last 2000 years one sample was taken from each floor and analyzed (Schoenwetter 1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy 1961;; Hevly 1961;;

Hill and Hevly 1968), In one study of a late Pueblo site the authors

U8describe their method of sampling (Hill and Hevly 1968: 200). "Each

sample consisted of about 200 gins of soil from an area measuring about hO cm in diameter and l/2 cm in depth." No statistical studies

have been made in any of these investigations to ascertain if this one

sample is representative of the whole floor. In an unpublished study

(Gerald Kelso, personal communication 1971) as much difference was

found in samples taken in various parts of one floor as was found in

the whole site. In the present study there are three floor samples

from House 19. Pollen sample (PS) 19-lh!? was taken below a vessel

(Diagram 1). It contained 7h^ cheno-am pollen, 2% Tidestromia, and

10.5% Compositae. PS 19-lhl, taken above the step in the entryway,

contained 62$ cheno-ams, 13$ Tidestromia, and 16.$$ Compositae

(Diagram l). The 83 cm sample (Diagram 2) from the floor of the

stratigraphic column contained $h% cheno-am grains, 23$ Tidestromia,

and 18.5>$ Compositae, While three samples from one house are not

statistically significant, the different pollen percentages within this house do suggest that more than one sample is necessary for the

interpretation of the environment or of the activities which took

place on a room floor. Perhaps the sample for a room should consist

of small amounts of sediment taken from many areas in the room and

mixed together as the modern surface samples in this study were col­

lected. Another method might be to take a series of random samples

from the floor, analyze all of them, and make interpretations from

the mean of the percentages of all of the samples rather than from

the percentages of a single sample. These various methods should be

h9

tested to see which one results in percentages most representative of

an entire floor.

The effect of cultural influence on the pollen rain within

sites has been considered by a few, but not by those who have conducted

most of the research, Hevly (1961*) estimated a possible 1%% rise in

cheno-am pollen in a cultural context,- Jelinek, however, in a study

in the Middle Pecos River valley of New Mexico (1966) interpreted any

percentage of cheno-am pollen above l\Q% to be due to cultural activity.

(The pollen in sedentary cultural levels varied from h.5% to 80%.) He

arrived at this figure because the ltO% level was below those percent­

ages which correlated with the presence of sherds. The sherds were

thought to be indicative of more sedentary habits which were more dis­

ruptive to the natural vegetation than had been the activities of the

hunters and gatherers. Hevly (196b) gives no reason for his 1$%

estimate. It would appear that he may have grossly underestimated

the effect of man on the pollen rain. Schoenwetter (1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy 196b) has neglected to account for any cultural influence of

cheno-am pollen at all. He has devised an adjusted pollen sum in

which pollen from plants indicative of riparian conditions or a

cienega situation were discarded (cattails, sedges or Cyperaceae,

cottonwood or Populus, birch or Betula, alder or Alnus, and willow).

Pollen which occurred in very small percentages (Ephedra, Cactaceae,

the Mallow family or Malvaceae, "other" Gompositae, Liguliflorae a

relation of the dandelion, Douglas fir or Pseudotsuga, and spruce or

Picea) were retained because (Schoenwetter and Eddy 196b: 71), "Their

inclusion inside or outside the pollen sum can make little difference,"

The "Ambrosiaea" which consists of pollen indistinguishable from

Ambrosia (ragweed) have been excluded because (Kelso n.d.: 33)> "some

prefer wet and some dry conditions, although most favor disturbed

soils," The grasses were retained (Schoenwetter and Eddy 196L: 71),

"As there are so many species involved in the grass pollen spectrum

each with its own ecological adaption. . . . " (which appears to be

the same reason that the "Ambrosiaea” were discarded). The cheno-ams

minus Sarcobatus were left in the adjusted sum, even though it was

recognized that they are indicative of disturbed soil. The economic

types, maize (Zea), beeweed (Cleome), and squash (Cucurbita), were

excluded. Except for the deletion of the economic types there is no

effort to provide for the effects of cultural influence on the pollen rain.

The lack of multiple working hypotheses is very apparent in

previous research (e.g., Schoenwetter 1962; Schoenwetter and Eddy

196L; Hevly 196b; and Hill and Hevly 1968). In one pollen spectra

Schoenwetter (Schoenwetter and Eddy 196b) while noting that all of

the samples contain maize interprets the adjusted pollen sum to be

indicative of conditions unlike any of the modern vegetation in the

region. Pollen from two superimposed fireboxes are considered to

reflect a change to dryer conditions, while the pollen from a burial

in the same floor indicated conditions similar to those now present

at the site. Kelso (n.d.) states that such a shift "would require

a mechanism on the order of a major glaciation" (n.d.: b9).

51Hevly (19614) makes no interpretation of single diagrams, but

interprets the composite picture of all of the pollen spectra instead

. . . the fossil record from the archaeological sites may be interpreted as two types of environmental changes superimposed on one another. . . . Periods of decreased effective moisture occurred between 1100 to 1300, 600 to 900, and 200 to foOO A.D. with intervening periods of increased effective moisture from 1300-1500, 900-1100, and I4OO-6OO A.D. Superimposed on this pattern is one of changing seasonal dominance of pre­cipitation, as indicated by the pine pollen proportions (Hevly 196U: 108-109).

Though Hevly initially asked whether the pollen changes could be due

to cultural influence and decided negatively, he neglected to consider whether the changes that he sees could be due to the superposition of

sites. His samples are taken from a number of sites which cover more

than a thousand years. Each site lasts approximately as long as his

time periods. Another reasonable interpretation could be that as

each site is settled the amount of cheno-ams would rise. They would

peak when the disturbance was greatest, presumably around the time of

abandonment approached (Kelso n.d.). This can be seen rather well in

a recent study by Zubrow (1971), In the Grasshopper area of northern

Arizona the number of sites decreased around A.D. 1100 and the size

of the sites started increasing. At this same time the pine pollen

percentages decreased and the cheno-am percentages increased. This

is interpreted as a cultural change caused by a climatic change. But

another interpretation could be that as the size of the sites started

increasing the amount of disturbed ground per site increased too,

thus making a larger area favorable for the growth of cheno-ams and

consequently increasing the absolute amount of cheno-am pollen produced.

22

This interpretation is supported, by the fact that in the graphs com­

paring the number of sites and the pine pollen percentages through

time, the pine pollen drop comes after the drop in the number of sites (but the limitations of dating techniques must be remembered).

In what ways could cultural activities affect the pollen rain

on the floors of the sites? First, one must consider the type of

conditions favored by the Ghenopodiaceae and the Amaranthus spp..

These plants are both weeds which grow best in disturbed soil. Dis­

turbed soil would be quite prevalent around an archaeological site

during occupation. In addition various activities could skew the

pollen on the habitation floors. Pigweed (Amaranthus palmer! S. Wats.)

was used for greens and the seeds were collected for food by the

Papago Indians (Castetter and Underhill 1932). Various Amaranthus

spp. were boiled and eaten much like spinach, or boiled then fried

in lard, or boiled and canned by the Pueblo and Navajo Indians (Cas­

tetter 1932). Kearney and Peebles (196b.) state that "The Indians use the leaves (of the Ghenopodiaceae) for greens and the seeds of certain

species for making mush and cakes . . . ." (Kearney and Peebles 196b:

221). Use of these and other plants on different areas of a habitation

floor would produce vast differences in the percentages of the various

pollen types in samples taken from these floors. Such activities have

been largely ignored by previous investigators.

Further support for cultural influence on the pollen rain is

presented by Martin (1963). In samples from the area of the Dry Prong

Reservoir a drop in heliophytym such as.Mormon tea and a rise in pine

f>3pollen frequencies was noted in areas associated with archaeological

sites. No contemporaneous rise of Pinus was found in samples col­

lected in desert alluvium.

From the previously mentioned considerations I conclude that the pollen in an archaeological site like Whiptail Ruin is indicative of; (1) what plants were utilized, and (2) what plants were more favorably influenced by the artificial environment produced by man and the consequently reduced•percentages of pollen from the natural vegetation. Thus quantitative interpretations of the natural environ­ment cannot be made with the methods used today, and if the environ­ment cannot be interpreted then neither can the causal climate.

Are there any methods available but not presently used through which environmental interpretations can be made? Dr. Arthur Jelinek

(1966) suggests a technique which has possibilities. His data con­

sist of pollen and artifacts from two cultures, hunters and gatherers,

and a more sedentary people. By correlating the pollen percentages

with the artifacts he finds that the pollen from plants which favor

disturbed areas (cheno-ams) have a high positive correlation with the

pot sherds (indicative of sedentism), and that the Gramineae (the

assumed natural vegetation) correlates positively with the chipped

stone and bone. By assuming a constant percentage of cheno-ams

(below those percentages associated with the pot sherds) he recalcu­

lates the percentages of the other pollen types and then interprets

environmental changes from these percentage changes. His interpreta­tions are supported by the paleontological evidence from the site. This method should be tested in other contexts.

By extracting and counting the number of pollen grains per

gram of sediment absolute changes in the pollen rain may be shown.

With present methods only relative percentages are found. It is pos­

sible that one plant may increase in abundance. The amount of pollen

will also increase. With relative percent counts when one pollen

type increases all of the other types decrease in relation to that

pollen type. With an absolute count one could tell whether the de­

crease of a pollen type or types was absolute or relative. One would

still have to determine if the increases or decreases were due to cul­

tural factors, but the foundation for interpretations would be more

firmly laid. Absolute counts might be one method to test Dr. Jelinelc's technique. Per gram counts of Gramineae may substantiate the inter­

pretations he makes on the relative percentages.

Finally, collaboration with climatologists and meteorologists should be sought to ensure the best climatic information and models

possible.

CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Some general statements concerning environmental and paly-

nological research in archaeological sites in the Southwest and some

specific conclusions on the palynological investigations of Whiptail

Ruin can be made from this study.

1. Environmental studies are a new and relatively unexplored

research area in archaeology in the Southwest.

2. Lack of pollen preservation often hinders environmental

studies in excavations in the Southwest, but research should be con­

tinued. The present investigation was the first to find sufficient pollen for 200 grain counts in all areas of a Hohokam site.

3. Samples from the site display no functional differences between

rooms. No cultivated pollen was found. The samples suggest that

statistical tests should be made on methods of collecting pollen

samples which are representative of a house floor.

It. Samples from stratigraphic columns display no apparent changes

until the surface is approached. Differences between the columns and

changes in the columns are attributable to local differences in vege­

tation and the pollen rain. This is supported by variations of

pollen spectra from the modern surface. No climatic change is postu­lated.

5* Present methods in palynology are not adequate for the inter­pretation of environment and environmental changes in sites such as

Whiptail Ruin. Cultural effects on the pollen rain must be dealt

with before accurate environmental interpretations can be made. Promising techniques include per gram pollen counts and their corre­

lation with paleontological finds and artifact types. Contact between

climatologists and archaeologists should be sought.

7

APPENDIX A

GLOSSARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS

Scientific Term Common Term

Acacia const.ricta V/hite thorn

Alnus sp. Alder

Amaranthaceae Pigweed familyAmaranthus sp. Pigweed

Ambrosia sp. Ragweed

Betula sp. Birch

Cactaceae Cactus family

Carnegiea gigantea SaguaroCeltis pallida HackberryCercidium floridum Blue paloverde

Ghenopodiaceae Goose foot family

Cleome sp. Beeweed

Compositae Sunflower familyCondalia lyciodes Gray thornCucurbita sp. GourdsCupressaceae Cypress family

Cylindropuntia Cholla

Cyperaceae Sedge family

Ephedra sp. Joint fir including Mormon tea

Eriogonum sp. Wild buckwheat

5>7

£8Scientific Term Common Term

Franseria dumosa Bursage

Gramineae Grass familyGuterrezia microcenhala Snake-weed

Junipcrus sp. Juniper

Larrea tridentata Creosotebush

Lipuliflorae Related to the DandelionLiliaceae Lily family

Malvaceae Mallow familyNyctaginaccae Four o'clock family

Onagraceae Evening primrose family

Opuntia sp. Prickly pear, including chollaParthenium incanum Mariola

Picea sp. SprucePinus sp. Pine

Polemoniaceae Phlox family

Populus sp. Cottonwood or aspen

Potomageton sp. PondweedProsopis .juliflora MesquitePseudotsuga sp. Douglas firQuercus sp. OakRosaceae Rose familySalix sp. "Willow

Sarcobatus vermiculatus Greasewood

Sparftanium sp Bur-reed

Scientific Term Common Term

Taxaceae

Taxodiaceae

Tidestromia lanuginosa

Yew family

Typha sp. Cattail

Umbelliferae Parsley family

Yucca sp. Yucca

Zea sp. . Maize

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