A Positive Psychological Intervention to Promote …...group, evaluated the intervention as particularly helpful with respect to all well-being variables, an effect maintained two

A Positive Psychological Intervention to Promote Well-Being in aMulticultural School Setting in Greece

Christina Dimitropoulou a, Sophie Leontopoulou* b

[a] Psychologist, psychodrama psychotherapist. [b] University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece.

AbstractThe present study seeks to examine the effectiveness of a Positive Psychology Intervention in enhancing well-being in a multiculturalschool setting. 121 5th and 6th grade primary school male and female students participated in the study. 57.9% were native Greeks and42.1% were migrant children. 81 students were allocated to the positive intervention group, while 40 students partook in a control groupwith no positive orientation. Students were asked to complete a questionnaire battery a day prior to the interventions and also fifteen dayslater. Results indicated that only the positive intervention was effective in enhancing positive emotional experiences, optimism and self-efficacy in peer interactions two weeks after its implementation. The results were mostly undifferentiated for gender, migrant andsocioeconomic status as far as positive emotions are concerned, while the patterns of influence of demographic variables on the efficacy ofthe intervention concerning the participants’ benefits in optimism and self-efficacy are discussed. The PPI group, as opposed to the controlgroup, evaluated the intervention as particularly helpful with respect to all well-being variables, an effect maintained two weeks after theintervention. This positive intervention appears appropriate as a universal mental health promotion vehicle, especially within a demandingmulticultural classroom context.

Keywords: Positive Psychological Intervention, multicultural classroom, well-being, positive emotions, optimism, self-efficacy

The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 2017, Vol. 6(1), 113–137, doi:10.5964/ejcop.v6i1.141

Received: 2017-02-01. Accepted: 2017-10-08. Published (VoR): 2017-11-21.

*Corresponding author at: Department of Primary Education, University of Ioannina, University Campus, 45110 Ioannina, Greece. E-mail:[email protected]

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properlycited.

In the last two decades Positive Psychology, an alternative paradigm encompassing basic and appliedsciences, has reformulated the goals of Psychology primarily by defining mental health as a construct whichgoes beyond the absence of disorder and malfunction to include well-being and positive adaptation (Seligman& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Its pioneers, followed by a growing number of researchers and practitioners,emphasized the importance of individual and institutional flourishing and well-being and also of understandingand enhancing positive aspects of human behavior, emotion and cognition (Gable & Haidt, 2005). The newPositive Psychology approach aims to complement rather than replace traditional psychological andpsychotherapeutic approaches which, despite their accomplishments concerning the relief of mental illnesssymptoms and the development of various effective treatments, fail to provide the means for a more fulfilling life(Norrish & Vella-Brodrick, 2009). In fact, the main principles of this orientation can be traced back to thefoundations of Counselling Psychology (Brady-Amoon & Keefe-Cooperman, 2017). In recent years PositivePsychology has widened its scope to embrace youth development. As stated by Larson (2000, p. 170), ‘acentral question of youth development is how to get adolescents' fires lit, how to have them develop thecomplex of dispositions and skills needed to take charge of their lives’. In this light, the present study aims toexamine the efficacy of a school-based Positive Psychology Intervention (PPI) developed to promote well-being

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in an early adolescent sample in Greece. Taking into account the specific developmental characteristics of thistransitional developmental stage we adopted the multidimensional approach to well-being proposed byCaprara, Steca, Gerbino, Paciello, and Vecchio (2006) indicating positive affect, optimism and self-efficacy askey variables in adolescents’ optimal experience. Furthermore, our intervention was designed for and applied inclassrooms with multicultural composition. According to UNHCR (2016) in 2015 and 2016 alone more than onemillion people have reached the European coasts fleeing wars or extreme poverty, with 27% of those arrived in2016 reported as minors, a fact that underlines the urgency for psychological and educational initiativessuitable for youths from diverse cultural backgrounds.

The Impact of Immigration on Young People’s Mental Health

Immigration is one of the most prominent phenomena of our times, affecting millions of people across theglobe. People who leave their countries of origin and settle in new sociocultural environments face greatchallenges considering both their social and psychological adaptation (Berry, 1997). Receiving societies are,also, affected, as they struggle to respond effectively to the advanced needs of multicultural populations.Respective research, while underlying the heterogeneity of immigrant groups and individuals in terms of culturalvalues, pre-immigration experiences and their status as financial immigrants or refugees, suggests two factorsas potential risks for immigrant adults’ and children’s well-being, namely stress associated with theacculturation process (Suárez-Orozco, 2001) and perceived discrimination (Wong, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2003).

The impact of these experiences on immigration is considered to be particularly significant during childhoodand adolescence, when identity and self-competency beliefs formation take place (Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton,2000; Wong et al., 2003). Studies focusing on these populations suggest that acculturative stress andperceived discrimination may increase the probability of psychological and behavioral problems, such as lowself-esteem, anger, depression, alienation and psychosomatic complaints among immigrant adolescents(Pumariega, Rothe, & Pumariega, 2005; Wong et al., 2003). Furthermore, adolescents facing obstacles incultural adaptation may adopt risky behaviors influencing their developmental trajectories in the long term.

Despite these findings, a number of studies address immigration not solely as a problem, but also as anopportunity for both immigrant youths and the societies receiving them (Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006).This perspective derives its arguments from the fact that a significant part of immigrant population worldwidemanage to adapt successfully and even thrive, while simultaneously enriching receiving societies with diversecultural elements. In the presence of a set of protective factors, such as a positive cultural identity and a senseof belonging, lower exposure to prejudice, as well as enjoyment of family and peer support, adolescents ofimmigrant background are facilitated to manifest psychological resilience (Heidi, Miller, Baldwin, & Abdi, 2011;Pumariega et al., 2005; Wong et al., 2003). In support of the above, a review of current research by Stevensand Vollebergh (2008) revealed the lack of any consistent results indicating that immigrant youths suffer poormental health compared to their native peers. Berry et al. (2006) reached similar conclusions concerning anumber of indicators of psychological and social adaptation. These findings underline the need for furtherstudies examining the buffering effect of protective factors against the adversities associated with immigration,as well as the development of interventions suitable for multicultural settings, such the one described in thepresent study.

A PPI in a Multicultural School Setting 114

The European Journal of Counselling Psychology2017, Vol. 6(1), 113–137doi:10.5964/ejcop.v6i1.141


Components of Well-Being in Early Adolescence: Positive Affect, Optimism and Self-Efficacy

Positive Affect

In 1988, Watson, Clark, and Tellegen defined positive affect as a reflection of ‘the extent to which a person feelsenthusiastic, active and alert’ (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988, p. 1063). Since then, positive affectiveexperiences, usually referred to as positive emotions, have been shown to relate to numerous adaptivefunctions, such as attentional and cognitive broadening (Isen, 2003), approach motivation (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2008), resource building (Lyubomirsky, 2001), engagement in pleasant activities and social interactions(Kashdan & Roberts, 2004), and adoption of flexible strategies in setting and pursuing goals (Carver, 2003).Positive emotions are, also, linked to adaptive coping mechanisms fostering resilience (Cohn, Fredrickson,Brown, Mikels, & Conway, 2009). Despite the fact that the passage to adolescence reflects a developmentalchallenge in terms of the quality and the intensity of emotional experiences (Gilbert, 2012), current researchconcerning the impact of positive affect on adolescents is rather limited and focuses mostly on cognitive andacademic outcomes. Relevant studies reveal the facilitating effect of positive emotional experiences on learningand achievement through the promotion of creativity and flexible learning strategies (Pekrun, Frenzel, Goetz, &Perry, 2007). Beyond academic achievement, research indicates positive affectivity as a major protective factoragainst depression among children and adolescents (Lonigan, Phillips, & Hooe, 2003). In the social domain,positive affect enables adolescents to initiate and maintain relationships (Forbes & Dahl, 2005) and show lessvulnerability to negative peer influence (Mrug, Madan, & Windle, 2012). Not only is enhancement of positiveemotional experiences considered a means towards psychological well-being, it is also a desired outcome ofschool-based counselling for young people (Rupani et al., 2014).

Optimism

Optimism, one of the cognitive components of adolescents’ well-being (Caprara et al., 2009) reflects a set ofgeneralized expectancies characterized by a positive orientation towards the future (Scheier & Carver, 1992). Inadult populations optimism has been shown to foster resilience and protect from distress and depressionsymptoms in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (e.g. Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002). Likewise,optimism has been related to adaptive coping mechanisms in the face of adversity (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges,2001).

In the light of the beneficial impact of optimism on adults’ well-being, a body of research has recently focusedon positive orientation in life among youths. Optimism has emerged as a main component of healthypsychological development in childhood and adolescence, functioning as a protective factor against depressionand hopelessness (Ey et al., 2005; Toner & Heaven, 2005), whereas pessimistic attributions and expectanciesare linked to elevated depressive symptoms,anxiety and poor adjustment (Garber, Weiss, & Shanley, 1993). Asfar as positive outcomes are concerned, optimistic adolescents report higher levels of positive affect andsatisfaction with life (Veronese, Castiglioni, Barola, & Said, 2012). Optimism is, furthermore, found to functionas a personal resource enabling youths to attract social support and experience less peer rejection (Ciarrochi,Heaven, & Supavadeeprasit, 2008; Deptula, Cohen, Phillipsen, & Ey, 2006).

Dimitropoulou & Leontopoulou 115



Self-Efficacy

Contemporary approaches in youth development view adolescents as active agents who evaluateenvironmental circumstances, develop expectations and regulate their emotions and behavior in order to adaptand succeed (Larson, 2000). In this light, self-efficacy, namely the subjective perception of one’s personalcompetence to achieve desirable outcomes (Bandura, 1977) is perceived as an essential resource thatpromotes mental health and well-being during adolescence. The study and cultivation of positive efficacybeliefs becomes more essential during early adolescence, a transitional stage characterized by enormouschanges concerning the academic and interpersonal challenges facing young people.

In their study, Bandura, Pastorelli, Barbaranelli, and Caprara (1999) have indicated that high efficacy beliefs inacademic and social tasks were associated with lower depression levels, both directly and through theirinfluence in building prosocial behaviors. The perception of self-efficacy as a mental health contributor is furthersupported by more recent studies which have shown that adolescents with stronger efficacy beliefs tend toreport less depression symptoms and psychological complaints (Jenkins, Goodness, & Buhrmester, 2002;Karademas, 2006). Apart from functioning as a barrier to the onset of mental illness, self-efficacy has beenattested to promote positive outcomes, such as satisfaction with life (Vecchio, Gerbino, Pastorelli, Del Bove, &Caprara, 2007) and optimism (Caprara et al., 2009; Karademas, 2006).

Given the importance of the above crucial components of adolescent well-being and positive development,Positive Psychology is mainly interested in identifying the means and mechanisms through which young peoplemay be assisted in cultivating their strengths and, therefore, achieving an optimal level of functioning.

Positive Psychological Interventions

Layous and Lyubomirsky (2014) pointed out that the most reliable way to increase happiness is by voluntarilyadopting certain strategies on a cognitive and emotional level rather than just by ameliorating one’s lifecircumstances. Such ‘treatment methods or intentional activities aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positivebehaviors, or positive cognitions’ (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009, p. 467) are grouped under the term PositivePsychology Interventions (PPIs). Being its applied branch, PPIs are thought to be ‘the bottom line of work inpositive psychology’ (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005, p. 413).

Most interventions, such as the ‘Three Good Things’ (Seligman et al., 2005), the ‘Loving–Kindness Meditation’(Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008) and the ‘Counting Blessings’ (Froh, Sefick, & Emmons, 2008)target the enhancement of positive emotional experiences and the alleviation of depressive symptoms bybuilding skills which enable people to self-generate positive emotions and regulate positive and negativeemotions. In terms of content, available interventions may focus on positive constructs and character strengths,such as hope (Feldman & Dreher, 2012), savoring and gratitude (Rash, Matsuba, & Prkachin, 2011; Sheldon &Lyubomirsky, 2006), optimism (Boehm, Lyubomirsky, & Sheldon, 2011; Lyubomirsky, Dickerhoof, Boehm, &Sheldon, 2011) or forgiveness (Reed & Enright, 2006). Most recent studies (e.g. Sanjuán et al., 2016;Leontopoulou, 2015) include a series of activities in their curriculum. Concerning the effectiveness of positiveinterventions, the results of two available meta-analyses (Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009) haveshown that evidence-based positive activities and programs can indeed contribute to both the enhancement ofwell-being and the alleviation of depressive symptoms.




School Based Well-Being Promotion in Early Adolescence

The school setting, as one of the most important environments for children and adolescents in terms ofsocialization, emotional and cognitive learning, can be seen as an excellent field where Positive Psychology’srationale and principles can be effectively applied by promoting young people’s personal and social assets andresources (Clonan, Chafouleas, McDougal, & Riley-Tillman, 2004; Seligman et al., 2009). Such initiatives maycomplement existing school-based counselling services which have been shown effective in amelioratingstudents’ mental health (Cooper et al., 2015). In recent years a number of PPIs have been designed to fosteradolescents’ and middle school students’ well-being, targeting a variety of indicators of positive youthdevelopment. Current research suggests that interventions which foster and enhance positive constructs andstrengths, such as hope (Marques, Lopez, & Pais-Ribeiro, 2011) and gratitude (Froh et al., 2009; Froh, Sefick,& Emmons, 2008) had a positive impact in students’ mental health and life satisfaction, as opposed to controlgroups where such advancements were not observed. Other studies showed that the participation of studentsin activities which offer opportunities for positive and interesting school experiences result to increased well-being and positive emotions, which in turn facilitate the emergence of more such experiences (Dawood, 2014;Stiglbauer, Gnambs, Gamsjäger, & Batinic, 2013).

Apart from single scope interventions, there are examples of broader multi-component programs integrating thepositive psychology perspective. The ‘Positive Psychology Program’ which was implemented to adolescentsand followed a 20-25 session curriculum reported significant gains in school engagement and enjoyment, aswell as improvements in social skills (Seligman et al., 2009). Further strength-based interventions, such as‘Celebrating Strengths’ (Eades, 2005) and ‘Strength Gym’ (Proctor et al., 2011) were based on structuredschool-implemented curricula and had a beneficial effect on adolescents’ life satisfaction and well-being. Amore recent school-based program developed by Suldo, Savage, and Mercer (2014) achieved an increase inlife satisfaction among the participants which was maintained at a 6-month follow-up. Last but not least,Shoshani and Steinmetz (2014) developed a year-long intervention implemented by school teachers, where theparticipants reported short- and long-term gains in subjective well-being, self-esteem and self-efficacy.

A meta-analysis of Positive Youth Development programs (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger,2011) suggests that the availability of a range of stimuli, activities and opportunities for expressing feelings andthoughts combined with the encouragement for participation in positive social and interpersonal interactions is akey component of successful mental health promotion initiatives. Research focusing on more traditional mentalhealth services for adolescents, such as individual counselling and psychotherapy, underlines the importance ofproviding an accepting environment with ample opportunities for expressing oneself (e.g. Rupani et al., 2014;Sagen, Hummelsund, & Binder, 2013).

In order to address the particularities of multicultural school settings, which are of special interest in this study,mental health promotion interventions, including PPIs, should adopt certain characteristics. Researchersunderline the need for extensive opportunities of positive interaction among students of different culturalbackgrounds as a means of confronting stereotypes and discrimination (Rayle & Myers, 2004). Developingprograms targeted at multicultural classrooms should adopt the principle of the ‘psychology of difference’ (Chin,1993), namely the supposition that cultural diversity is an opportunity for positive outcomes rather than a riskfactor. Of great importance is the multicultural competence of teachers and psychologists who develop andapply such programs as well as their high level of tolerance towards different cultures (Pedrotti, Edwards, &




Lopez, 2009). As far as content is concerned, several studies show that expressive methods such as roleplaying, art and psychodrama are suitable for groups of children with different ethnic backgrounds, as they areconsidered to be more culture-free (Beauregard, 2014; Chiumento, Nelki, Dutton, & Hughes, 2011; Miller &Billings, 1994).

The Present Study

The objective of this exploratory study was to test the efficacy of a Positive Psychology Intervention in amulticultural school setting at the onset of adolescence in Greece. This intervention study, the first of its kind inGreece to the best of our knowledge, sought to examine whether an experiential psychoeducationalintervention enhanced student well-being, as indexed by positive and negative affect, optimism and self-efficacy. For this purpose, we designed a pre-test post-test PPI study that included both an intervention and acontrol group; the latter entailed an intervention with no particular positive orientation, as suggested by Sheldonand Lyubomirsky (2006). Our primary hypothesis was that participating in the PPI would boost positive affect,optimism and self-efficacy, relative to the control comparison group. In addition, we expected that the PPI wouldaffect native Greek and non-Greek migrant children equally. However, no specific predictions were maderegarding the effects of socio-demographic variables on the PPI and control groups, as current researchpresents no conclusive evidence of their impact on the efficacy of positive psychology interventions amongadolescents (Froh, Sefick, & Emmons, 2008; Schonert-Reichl & Lawlor, 2010; Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014).

Method

Participants

A total of 121 male (45.5%) and female (54.5%) students aged 10-13 years (Mage = 11.23, SD = .74)participated in this intervention study. Participants were enrolled at the 5th (50.4%) and 6th (49.6%) grades oftwo primary schoolsi in the wider urban area of Athens, Greece. 57.9% of the sample were native Greeks, while42.1% reported that either themselves, or their parents had migrated to Greece from a different countryii. Of thelatter, 25.6% were first generation migrants and 16.5% were second generation migrants. Almost half the studysample 48.8% came from middle socio-economic status (ses) families, with 31.4% students originating fromlower and 19.8% from higher ses families. According to the teachers of the participating school classes’immigrant children had adequate oral skills, but poor understanding and writing skills, compared to their Greekpeers.

Of the total six school classes that participated in the studyiii, four (a total of n = 81 students) participated in thePositive Psychology Intervention (PPI) group, while a further two classes (a total of n = 40 students) took part inan intervention with no particular positive orientation (control group). As the duration of the two interventionsdiffered (the PPI taking longer to complete), allocation of the classes into the two groups was based on theamount of time teachers were able to afford the studyiv. Table 1 displays information on the socio-demographicdistribution of the sample in the two intervention groups.




Table 1

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Total Sample, the PPI Group and the Control Group

Socio-demographic characteristic

PPI Group Control Group Total

N % N % N %

GenderMale 39 48.1 16 40 55 45.5Female 42 51.9 24 60 66 54.5

ClassFifth 42 51.9 19 47.5 61 50.4Sixth 39 48.1 21 52.5 60 49.6

SESLower 25 30.9 13 32.5 38 31.4Middle 41 50.6 18 45 59 48.8Higher 15 18.5 9 22.5 24 19.8

Country of BirthGreece 61 75.3 29 72.5 90 74.4Other 20 24.7 11 27.5 31 25.6

Country of OriginGreece 47 58 23 57.5 70 57.9Other 34 42 17 42.5 51 42.1

Total N 81 40 121

Measures

Questionnaire Battery and Evaluation Form

Participants were invited to complete a questionnaire battery twice, once before the interventions took place,and once during the follow-up meeting two weeks later. It comprised a set of socio-demographic questions,including gender, age, ses, number of siblings, country of birth and of origin, and satisfaction from their livingsituation; and also two self-report questionnaires, as follows.

Positive and negative emotions — The Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE; Diener et al.,2010) is a 12-item questionnaire, including six items to assess positive feelings and six items to assessnegative feelings, such as “Good”, “Unpleasant”, “Sad” and “Contented”. It is scored in a 5-point Likert-typescale and three subscales can be calculated, two for positive and negative experiences and one for a balancebetween them. Higher scores suggest higher frequency of positive and negative emotions, and also forbalance. SPANE is reported to have good psychometric qualities and in this study, for the first completionCronbach’s αs were α = .81 for positive emotions and α = .72 for negative emotions. For the second completionthe respective Cronbach’s αs were α = .83 and α = .77.

Optimism — The Youth Life Orientation Test (YLOT; Ey et al., 2005) was administered to assess participants’optimism levels. YLOT consists of nineteen statements, measured on a 4-point Likert-type scale. Sample itemsinclude “It’s easy for me to have fun” and “Things usually go wrong for me”. Higher scores suggest higheroptimism. Ey et al. (2005) report high internal consistency (α = .83), and Cronbach’s αs in this study for the firstcompletion were α = .70 for the optimism subscale, α = .74 for the pessimism subscale and α = .80 for the total




scale; as for the second completion of the scale, the respective Cronbach’s αs were α = .78, α = .80 andα = .86.

Self-efficacy — The Children’s Self – Efficacy for Peer Interaction Scale (CSPI; Wheeler & Ladd, 1982)comprises twenty questions, twelve items involving and eight non- conflict situations. Children are asked toindicate how easy or difficult it is for them to do what each item suggests. Sample items include “Some kidswant to play a game. Asking them if you can you play is ___ for you” and “Some kids are making fun ofsomeone in your classroom. Telling them to stop is ___for you”. Higher scores in the two subscales, as well asin the total scale suggest higher self-efficacy in social interactions. The authors report alpha coefficients α = .85for conflict and α = .73 for non-conflict situations. In this study Cronbach’s αs for the first completion wereα = .83 for conflict situations, α = .72 for non-conflict situations and α = .88 for the total scale. For the secondcompletion the respective Cronbach’s αs were α = .83, α = .71 and α = .86.

In addition to the above, an evaluation form was provided to both PPI and control group students to completeafter the interventions and at follow-up. They were asked to describe how they felt after the intervention theyeach participated in. They were also invited to complete a four-point Likert-type scale especially constructed forthe needs of the present study. Questions included whether the intervention helped them to have more positiveand fewer negative emotions, to think more optimistically about life and to cooperate better or solve a problemtogether with their peers. Participants were also asked to note what they liked best and what they wouldchange in the whole intervention process and to rate the whole intervention in a scale from 1 to 5.

Procedure

Both interventions were carried out at school during class time. A total of three meetings took place with bothPPI and control groups. During the first meeting students completed a battery of self-report questionnaires (seeMeasures section). The interventions were carried out the day following the first meeting. The duration of thePPI was 2 hours, whereas the control intervention lasted 45 mins. Immediately after the conclusion of theinterventions, students were asked to complete an evaluation form of the intervention they partook. Two weeksafter the interventions, a follow-up meeting was arranged, during which students completed the questionnairebattery and the evaluation form for a second time. Class teachers were present at all times and offeredassistance to any student experiencing difficulty in reading and completing the questionnaire batteries.

Description of the PPI and the Control Group Interventions

As regards the procedures for the PPI group, the intervention included four activities. Each meeting begun byshowing a short video aimed at creating a positive climate in the classroom and igniting the emergence ofpositive emotions in children.

The second activity for the PPI group sought to identify and develop participants’ character strengths (Peterson& Seligman, 2004), which are key elements in the effective interventions and programs aimed at promotingchildren’s mental health (Catalano et al., 2004; Seligman et al., 2009). The Children’s Strengths Survey (Park &Peterson, 2003) was administered to participants in the PPI group in order to help them identify their signaturestrengths. This questionnaire assesses how much each of the 24 items is like/unlike them on a five-point Likert-type scale. Sample items include “I am always curious about the world” and “I am not very good at sensingwhat other people are feeling”. After completion, children were asked to select three of their character strengths




and to write them down at a provided form. Subsequently, in order to alert children to the fact that they possesssome strong positive elements in their personality, and to enable them to connect those elements withparticular outcomes in real life, they were each allocated into one of four groups that were formed based onsimilarities in the character strengths they displayed. Each group was offered materials, such as markers,cardboards, magazines and stickers, and participants were instructed them to create collages portraying theirpositive character strengths in order to show them to the whole class and to explain the ways these help themin their everyday life. This particular exercise was a variation of the “Coat of Arms” (Villalba & Myers, 2008)exercise. The use of artistic creation means in our variation was dictated by the need to facilitate culturalsensitivity. It was also in line with other studies that demonstrated how artistic creation can heighten well-beinglevels and positive emotions (e.g. Stuckey & Nobel, 2010), while the opportunities it created for collaboration ina pleasant activity increase self-efficacy and sense of adequacy in social relations (Usher & Pajares, 2008).

The third PPI activity was a modified version of the “Best Possible Selves” exercise (King, 2001) and focusedon heightening positive expectations for the future, positive emotions and sense of personal ability andadequacy. The “Visualising Best Possible Selves” activity was shown to strengthen positive thinking andpositive emotions (King, 2001; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006) and to also be one of the sources of self-efficacy(Bandura, 1993). After the children had enough time to create in their own minds their best possible future self,three random teams were formed. Participants were asked to prepare a small theater sketch in which to sharetheir visions of their particular future self with their team members in a fictional future meeting. These theatricalrepresentations were spontaneous and included various techniques used in drama therapy, such as “freezingtime”, “role interviews” and “mirrors”. These techniques allow for savouring positive emotional experiences,development of empathy and observation of the self from different viewpoints.

The fourth PPI activity was the “Three Good Things” exercise (Seligman et al., 2005), in which children wereasked to think and write down three good things that happened to them that day and to thinkv of the reasonsthey believed these things happened and how they could act so that they could be repeated in the future. Theywere instructed to continue this exercise at home and their teachers were asked to encourage children daily toremember to do this exercise at home.

Efforts were taken so that the control group activities mirrored those for the PPI group, without these having thePPI’s particular positive contents. Once children were randomly allocated to teams, they were offered materialsto create a collage, but no instructions regarding a theme. These were presented to the rest of the class. Thefollowing activity was the “Life Details” (Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006), suggested by its authors as anappropriate control exercise.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Because student assignment in the positive intervention and the control group was not random, but based onteachers’ choice between a longer or a shorter intervention, a series of preliminary analyses were conducted inorder to test for differences in demographics and baseline well-being variables between the two subgroups(Bonate, 2000). As no significant differences between school classes were found on any of the variables tested,no analyses are included in the text.




Concerning the socio-demographic profile of the intervention and the control group, no significant differenceswere detected in terms of gender [χ2(1) = .72, p > .05], socio-economic status [χ2(2) = .41, p > .05] andimmigrant background [χ2(1) = .003, p > .05]. The socio-demographic characteristics of participants in bothsubgroups are summarised in Table 1, demonstrating sample homogeneity.

In order to test for possible mean baseline differences in well-being variables, a series of independent samples(positive intervention and control groups) t-tests were computed with dependent variables the pre-test scores innegative affect and optimism. In the case of positive affect, we conducted a Mann-Whitney non-parametric test,as the normal distribution precondition for the conduction of t-test was not satisfied. The aforementioned testsrendered no significant results, suggesting that the participants in the positive intervention and the control groupscored similarly in positive affect (Z = -1.02, p > .05), negative affect (t(119) = -.57, p > .05) and optimism [t(119)= -.23, p > .05] prior to the respective interventions. Similar results emerged concerning Time 1 self-efficacyscores [t(119) = .82, p > .05]. In light of these results baseline levels of well-being variables will not be used ascovariates in further analyses. Mean pre- (Time 1) and post-test (Time 2) scores for both groups are presentedin Table 2.

Table 2

Mean Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores and Standard Deviations of Well-Being Variables by Group

Well-being variable

PPI Group Control Group

Time 1 Time 2 Time 1 Time 2

M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)

Positive affect 24.37 (4.25) 25.75 (3.75) 25.10 (4.00) 24.33 (4.27)Negative affect 13.70 (3.98) 13.57 (4.24) 13.63 (4.03) 14.10 (4.75)Optimism 24.58 (6.09) 26.69 (5.83) 24.85 (6.27) 24.98 (5.60)Self-efficacy 59.83 (10.16) 63.31 (8.70) 58.28 (9.06) 59.73 (8.63)

The Effectiveness of the Positive Psychology Intervention

To examine the effect of the PPI on positive affect, negative affect, optimism and self-efficacy, we conducted aseries of ANOVAs, in which the difference scores, namely the result of subtracting Time 1 scores from Time 2scores, were used as dependent variables. The use of difference scores is suggested by Dimitrov and Rumrill(2003) as a method of choice in order to examine intervention effects in pre-test post-test designs, such as theone used in our study. In all general linear models applied to test our Hypotheses, group (PPI vs. control),immigration status (native vs. migrant), gender and socio-economic background served as fixed factors. Thelevel of statistical significance was set at p < .05 and partial eta-squared (η2

p) effect size was used in order toprovide information about the magnitude of the intervention and demographic variables effects on well-beingdifference scores. Cohen’s (1988) criteria were adopted, according to which effect sizes ranging from .059to .137 are considered moderate.

Positive and Negative Affect

Analyses revealed that students who participated in the Positive Psychology Intervention showed significantincreases in their reported frequency of experiencing positive affect from pre-test to post-test, as opposed tothose assigned to the control group, who manifested a mild mean decrease of their respective scores. As




depicted in Table 3, there was a significant main effect for Group for Positive Affect [F(1, 120) = 12.17, p = .001]of moderate size (η2

p = .11). Concerning negative affect, as shown in Table 3, participants in the PPI groupexhibited minimal decrease in their scores from pre-test to post-test, whereas control group’s mean scoresincreased slightly; both changes of no statistical significance.

According to the analyses of variance, none of the demographic factors controlled for, including immigrationstatus, produced significant main effects or interactions on difference scores for both Positive and NegativeAffect variables.

Optimism

With respect to optimism, the results of the respected analysis showed a significant main effect for Group [F(1,120) = 6.99, p = .01]. Specifically, participants in the Positive Psychology Intervention group reportedsignificantly greater increases (M = 2.11, SD = 3.79) in optimism scores from pre-test to post-test, compared tothose in the control group (M = 0.12. SD = 3.12). Concerning the magnitude of the effect size, as reported inTable 3, it was in the moderate range (η2

p = .07).

Analyses showed no main effects of demographic variables on changes in optimism from Time 1 to Time 2,whereas a significant interaction effect for immigrant background x ses was noted. In particular, irrespective ofthe group they were assigned to, immigrant students of higher (M = 3.00, SD = 4.59) and lower (M = 1.36, SD =3.13) ses and native Greek students of middle (M = 2.87, SD = 4.16) and lower (M = 2.80, SD = 3.36) sesincreased their optimism scores, as opposed to those of immigrant and middle socio-economic background andthose natives of higher ses, who presented a negative pattern (decrease) in changes in optimism from pre- topost-test (M = -.15, SD = 2.58 and M = -.38, SD = 3.30 respectively).

Table 3

Mean Difference Scores and Standard Deviations of Well-Being Variables by Group (Controlling for Immigrant Background, Gender andSES)

Well-being variable

Group

F(1, 120) p Partial η2pPPI Control

Positive Affect 1.38 (2.75) -.78 (3.29) 12.17 *** .11Negative Affect -.14 (2.98) .48 (3.69) .27 ns .00Optimism 2.11 (3.79) .13 (3.12) 6.99 ** .07Self-efficacy 3.48 (7.51) 1.45 (5.71) 3.66 ns .06**p < .01. ***p < .001. ns = non-significant.

Self-Efficacy

Marginally non-significant main effects for intervention emerged from the analysis of variance concerning self-efficacy [F(1,120) = 3.66, p = .059], even though participants in the PPI showed higher increase in therespective scores from Time 1 to Time 2 compared to the students who joined the control group, as shown inTable 3.

Further analyses were conducted in order to examine the effect of the PPI on self-efficacy sub-domains, asdefined by the quality of peer interaction, including conflict and non-conflict situations. With respect to self-efficacy concerning conflict social situations, no significant main or interaction effects were observed forIntervention or any of the demographic variables included in the model. On the contrary, analysis produced a




significant interaction effect for Intervention x Gender on self-efficacy in non-conflict situations difference scores[F(1,120) = 5.74, p < .05], with the respective effect size emerging into the moderate range η2

p = .06.Specifically, girls assigned to the PPI group showed considerably higher increase in scores of self-efficacy innon-conflict situations from pre-test to post-test (M = 1.86, SD = 3.73) compared to the control group ones(M = .13, SD = 2.90). With respect to the male participants the observed pattern was reversed, as boys whoappeared to benefit more considering their self-efficacy in non-conflict situations scores were the control groupones (M = 1.81, SD = 3.41), as opposed to the PPI male participants, who presented relatively lower gains(M = .54, SD = 3.24).

Participants’ Evaluation of the PP and the Control Interventions

For the purposes of the present study participants were asked to complete an evaluation form in order toassess their perceived benefits on well-being variables derived from the attendance of the PPI and the controlgroup. Students assigned in both groups reported their evaluation twice; immediately after the completion of theintervention (Time 1) and two weeks later (Time 2). A four-point scale was used for each variable ranging from0 (I was not helped at all) to 3 (I was helped a lot). In order to examine the maintenance of the mean perceivedgains in Positive and Negative Affect, Optimism and Self-efficacy from Time 1 to Time 2, we conducted a seriesof paired samples t-tests for each group separately. Mean evaluation scores for both groups at both time points,as well as the results of the aforementioned analyses are presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Means and Standard Deviations for Participants-Reported Intervention Efficacy on Well-Being Variables by Group

Variable Group

Time 1 Time 2

pM (SD) M (SD)

Positive AffectPPI 2.47 (.55) 2.42 (.69) nsControl 2.35 (.77) 1.85 (.80) ***

Negative AffectPPI 2.21 (.74) 2.11 (.79) nsControl 2.10 (.67) 2.10 (.74) ns

OptimismPPI 2.42 (.57) 2.44 (.65) nsControl 2.23 (.80) 2.00 (.75) ns

Self-efficacyPPI 2.47 (.63) 2.54 (.65) nsControl 2.38 (.77) 2.17 (.75) ns

*p < .05. ***p < .001. ns = non-significant.

As depicted in Table 4, students who participated in the PPI group evaluated the intervention as particularlyhelpful with respect to all well-being variables. High evaluation scores were maintained two weeks later as nosignificant changes emerged from t-test analyses. A slight evaluation score decrease was observed for Positiveand Negative affect, whereas scores for Optimism and Self-efficacy manifested a positive pattern (increase)from Time 1 to Time 2.




As far as the control group is concerned, participants evaluated the intervention as less effective compared totheir PPI colleagues, a pattern consistent for all well-being variables, as shown in Table 4. Furthermore, asopposed to the PPI group, control group participants reported statistically significantly decreased perceivedbenefits in experiencing positive affect [t(39) = 3.387, p = .002] from Time 1 to Time 2. With respect to negativeaffect, evaluation scores manifested no change between the two measures, whereas optimism and self-efficacyevaluation scores showed a non-significant decrease.

Discussion

The present study brings together practices and findings from varied fields of positive psychological enquiriesunder a unifying Positive Psychology context. It yielded encouraging results regarding the promotion andenhancement of both migrant and native students’ well-being as a direct result of participation in the PPI. Thefindings suggest that this PPI enjoys multicultural validity, as regards experience of positive emotions andpositive expectations about the future.

The Experience of Positive and Negative Emotions

Participation in the PPI seemed to enhance the frequency of positive emotions experienced two weeks after theintervention. Whereas, participation in the control group proved ineffective, as participants reported a slightreduction in the experience of positive affect. These findings support previous findings about the effectivenessof PPIs. For example, Sheldon and Lyubomirsky (2006) and Seligman et al. (2005) found that interventionsincluding ‘The Three Good Things’ and ‘Best Possible Selves’ exercises were more effective in strengtheningemotional well-being than control interventions with no particular positive content.

Regarding negative affect, our PPI failed to reduce the frequency of participants’ experience of negative events.Moreover, participation in the PPI or the control group did not seem to affect significantly the observed changesin the experience of negative emotions from Time 1 to Time 2. This finding contradicts previous indications thatprograms aiming at mental health promotion achieve reduction of negative emotions and symptoms ofdepression (Catalano et al., 2004; Gillham et al., 2007). This finding may be partially explained by the focus ofthe present PPI on enhancing the positive emotions, rather than reducing the negative ones, and also by thefact that previous studies reported reduction on the intensity, and not the frequency of negative emotions(Seligman et al., 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006). Furthermore, our sample reported low enough negativeemotions at the onset of the study, while other studies suggest that children that benefit more from positivepsychoeducational interventions are those who report rather high levels of depression and stress prior to theirparticipation in such studies (Froh et al., 2009). Finally, the above findings seem to support views that positiveand negative emotions are distinct and relatively independent dimensions of human emotional experience(Watson et al., 1988). This distinction suggests that positive and negative emotions are shaped and enhancedor restricted depending on different emotional and cognitive processes (Clark, Beck, & Stewart, 1990). Thisconceptualization of emotions allows us to hypothesize that an intervention may only be effective on one, andnot necessarily both dimensions of emotions.




Enhancing Optimism

The PPI described here proved effective in enhancing optimism levels two weeks after each implementation.This was a clear-cut result, since the control group failed to effect in either direction the expression of optimismin students. Previous studies also demonstrated that optimism can be developed by way of intervening in theprocesses and the prototypes of thinking and behaviors associated with it (Seligman et al., 2005). The extantliterature highlights two basic components of effective programs targeted to elevating optimism, namelyemphasizing the thought processes that construct a positive orientation in life and also reinforcing positive self-perception (Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002; Gillham et al., 2007).

The effectiveness of this PPI as regards the strengthening of optimism can be possibly attributed to theparticular exercises that may have allowed for the positive reconstruction of participants’ thinking patterns andthe experience of personal adequacy in children. Identification of character strengths, and exercises such as‘The Three Good Things’ and “Best Possible Selves’ have been shown to activate positive expectations for thefuture and to generate positive thoughts and mental images (Owens & Patterson, 2013). Working withcharacter strengths, especially through the collage exercise, children had the opportunity to be exposed to asuccess condition and to obtain a positive social experience (Gander, Proyer, Ruch, & Wyss, 2013). Accordingto recent studies, optimism can be reinforced through experiences that build self-confidence and a personalsense of adequacy (Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010; Gillham et al., 2007), while other researchersemphasize the significance of interaction with peers in such situations (Boman et al., 2009).

Promoting Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy in social interactions levels marginally increased for children who participated in the PPI,independent of whether such interactions involved conditions of conflict or cooperation. These results seem toconfirm the current literature (Bandura, 1993; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998). Elements of the PPI that may havebeen conducive to success include affording participants the opportunity to interact successfully with theirenvironment and their classmates in a safe environment (Pajares, 1996). In addition, the particular exercisesreflected clear, short-term targets that all children could meet; this was proven to be a key element of theeffective programs aimed at the promotion of self-efficacy (Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002). The use oftechniques, such as the imagery and the psychodramatic experience of ‘Best Possible Selves’ may havecontributed to this positive outcome. According to Bandura (1977), one of the basic sources of developing self-efficacy relies on observing the adequate and successful behavior of others. During the PPI each child wasable to function as a model for all the others, since identification and processing of ‘Character Strengths’participants had the opportunity to re-introduce themselves to their classmates, putting forward their positivecharacteristics and abilities.

The Effects of Demographic Characteristics of Participants

The PPI appeared to be equally effective for both genders, as far as experience of positive and negativeemotions is concerned. Similar findings were observed in studies of programs and intervention effectiveness(Seligman et al., 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009). Furthermore, all members ofthe PPI group, independent of gender demonstrated significant enhancement of their optimism levels during atTime 2. Previous prevention programs carried out in schools for the increase of optimistic expectations andattributions revealed similarly positive results (Brissette et al., 2002). In addition, the literature does not support




the existence of systematic differences in the way the two genders construct an optimistic or pessimisticorientation in life (Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010). The effects of the PPI on self-efficacy did not differ formales and females. Nevertheless, the two genders enhanced their self-effectiveness under different conditionsof social interaction. In particular, boys appeared to enhance their levels of self-efficacy under conditions ofconflict or assertiveness. In contrast, girls tended to show more self-efficacy only in social interactions thatrequire cooperation with their peers. This differentiation could be attributed to the different content of the socialgender role that boys and girls are called to adopt in a particular cultural context (Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Formales, self-efficacy may be enhanced through experiences of active pursuit and achievement, while forfemales, a sense of adequacy may be constructed in the context of interpersonal relations and the approachbehaviors they entail (Toner & Heaven, 2005).

In the same venue, no systematic differences were observed in the way in which students from different socio-economic backgrounds responded to the PPI in terms of increasing their positive emotional experiences andenhancing their self-efficacy. This finding is in accordance with previous ones, as respective literature offers noconclusive findings in support of ses differences in the effectiveness of programs and interventions aiming atincreasing the well-being and positive development (Barrett et al., 2001; Froh et al., 2009; Sheldon &Lyubomirsky, 2006). On the other hand, socioeconomic status, not solely but in interaction with migrantbackground, was found to influence significantly the effectiveness of the intervention as far as optimism isconcerned. More precisely, students from lower ses backgrounds showed increases in their optimism levelsirrespective of their migrant or native status, whereas their native classmates of higher ses, as well as themigrant ones of middle ses did not seem to benefit from the intervention. The extant literature partly sheds lighton such findings, since programs targeted at populations facing a series of risk factors (e.g. poverty) seem topositively affect positive expectancies for the future (Brunwasser, Gillham, & Kim, 2009). Further research isneeded in order to define the role of ses of students on the effectiveness of mental health promotion initiativesand to identify the subgroups which are more likely to be helped (Sweeting & Hunt, 2014).

All PPI participants, regardless of ethnic origin, reported significantly higher frequency of experiencing positiveemotions fifteen days after participating in the intervention. This finding agrees with current literature, whichmaintains that ethnic origin or minority status do not influence the effectiveness of interventions promotingmental health (Greenberg et al., 2003; Seligman et al., 2005). Other contributing factors to the above findingmay have been the particular ways in which enhancement of positive emotions was attempted in this study.More experiential ways (visual and drama techniques) were preferred to more verbal expressions of emotions,thus rendering the intervention more culturally neutral. Also, the SPANE questionnaire used in this study wasless culturally charged (Diener et al., 2010), possibly adding to the above effect. Similar findings emerged foroptimism. Both migrants and native participants in the PPI reported equally high levels of optimism at Time 2.Previous programs aimed at raising optimism (such as the “Penn Resiliency Program) proved effective indifferent cultural settings and are reported to equally help students of minority or not status (Ungar, 2005).Barrett et al. (2001) suggest that interventions targeted at multicultural groups should incorporate certaincharacteristics that do not necessarily include specific cultural elements, but which can lift any obstacles thatminority students may face. The present positive intervention included exercises and verbal means that, to adegree, lift difficulties associated with the use of language and cultural opportunities (or, lack thereof), thatminority students may face. In addition, by emphasizing positive characteristics and the opportunity for positiveprojection in the future (‘Best Possible Selves’ exercise), migrant children managed to mentally build a betterfuture for themselves and to work on their optimism (Peters et al., 2013). This is no small feat, since it may be




more difficult to achieve under the burden of everyday life difficulties and given their minority identity and theconstraints this puts on their personal and social development (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Themulticultural value of the PPI was, furthermore, confirmed concerning its effectiveness in enhancing the socialself-efficacy of participants. While immigrant background was not found to affect significantly the effectivenessof the intervention on self-efficacy, the relatively minor benefits produced concerning this indicator of youths’well-being could be partly attributed to the multicultural composition of the sample. This may reflect the closeconnection between self-efficacy and adequacy beliefs and the socio-cultural context in which these areformed, as well as the dominant values of this context (Ungar, 2008). In particular, migrant participants in thisintervention study came almost exclusively from Balkan and Far East countries, where the value that isattributed in personal ability and achievement is rather limited (Luszczynska, Gutiérrez-Doña, & Schwarzer,2005).

Evaluation of the Intervention, Limitations and Next Steps

Overall, the PPI described in this paper was effective in the promotion of positive emotions, optimism and socialself-efficacy of participants. On the contrary, participants in the control group did not appear to benefit withregard to any of the dimensions of psychological well-being here targeted. These findings are supported bysubjective beliefs of participants in both groups. PPI participants reported that they benefited from theirinvolvement in that group; this finding is corroborated by the fact that only this group reported a benefit for theirself-efficacy at Time 2. It is also remarkable how participants in the control group reported improvement ofaspects of their well-being. This phenomenon has been found many a times in research into the effectivenessof interventions and therapy and is often attributed to the fact that participation in a group and creative processenhances the sense of well-being and mental health (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001).

This exploratory PPI study suffers certain limitations, the most important being opportunity sampling. Thispotentially threatens the generalization of results to other populations. However, opportunity sampling is rathercommon practice in applied research (Seligman et al., 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Sin & Lyubomirsky,2009) due to practical difficulties inherent to random sampling. In addition, the limitations of the opportunitysampling did not appear to negatively affect the validity of the findings, given that our main findings supportother results of previous similar studies (Dawood, 2014; Froh et al., 2009; Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2014). Afurther limitation concerns the design of the intervention, with only two measurements fifteen days apart. Moremeasurement points, as suggested in the literature might offer deeper insight into the longer-term effects of theintervention (Biswas-Diener, Kashdan, & Minhas, 2011). Having said that, the study’s exclusive focus onchildren and not on the wider systems that these belong is a point for improvement in subsequent studies.Inclusion of parents and educators in the study may offer a wider perspective on those mechanisms andprocesses that protect children against risk and maladaptation. Simultaneous interventions in the contexts offamily, school and the community may aid toward this goal (Durlak et al., 2011; Hatzichristou, 2004; Kourkoutas& Giovazolias, 2015). Such intervention programs will benefit from incorporation of both quantitative andqualitative methods for measuring their effectiveness, as well as from the points of view of children and otheradults alike.

Despite the above restrictions our results were encouraging in themselves; they also move the cause ofPositive Psychology in Greece to the next level, i.e. from prevention to the promotion of the psycho-emotionaladequacy and the enhancement of psychological resources and well-being. The study also responds to a




poignant current question in a country facing multiple challenges regarding immigration and refugee currents toadequately, proactively and effectively address migrant children needs and enhance their adaptive abilities in anovel social, cultural and economic milieu. Multiculturalism is an established characteristic in the modern schoolclassroom in Greece. The present study developed the structure, methods and tools for an intervention that iseffective for all students, migrants and native alike. Finally, this intervention study comes at a time and in thecontext of a country struggling to overcome the effects of a great economic, political and socio-cultural crisis; itmay, thus, aid students to survive and thrive, by way of developing those crucial skills and abilities and buildingpsycho-social resources that will enable them to become more resilient in the face of adversity and to flourish.

Apart from addressing current social and educational challenges at a national level, the present study manifestscertain qualities which facilitate generalization of its results to other European countries. The multiculturalefficacy of the Positive Psychological Intervention as demonstrated in this study functions as an essentialargument towards this direction. Furthermore, specific study characteristics, such as the integration ofpsychodrama and art therapy techniques, the possibility of being implemented by teachers and mental healthpractitioners alike with minimum training and equipment, as well as its brevity, render this intervention a flexiblemental health promotion medium and, thus, suitable for the various classroom curricula met in differenteducational systems in Europe.

Notes

i) Schools were selected for inclusion in the study based on enrollment rates of immigrant children: 33% to 53% of each ofthe six school classes that participated in the study consisted of immigrant children.ii) Over half the immigrant children (51%) originated from Albania, 25.5% from the Philippines, 3.3% from Egypt, 2.5% fromRomania, 1.7% from Poland and a further three students came from Ethiopia, Armenia and Germany.iii) These were the classes in which enrolled students returned parental consent forms.iv) Teachers were offered the choice between a shorter and a longer intervention and received no information on theparticular contents of each intervention, so as not to bias their expectations and attitude during the interventions.v) Due to participants’ age and their possible refusal to comply, the original instructions for this exercise to write down therequired information were modified, in order to allow them to think about these instead.

Funding

The authors have no funding to report.

Competing Interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Acknowledgments

The authors have no support to report.

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