A PROCEDURE FOR INCREASING SELF-REPORTED DAY DREAMING'

STEVEN R. GOLD AND GARY CUNDIFF

Weetern Carolina Univer& c"ullowhee, North Carolina

Sought to increase coed undergraduates self-reported daydreaming. Six- hundred twenty-five Ss completed the Daydreamng Frequency scale of the Imaginal Processes Inventory. Sixty low daydreamers, 30 male and 30 female were selected to participate. The 60 Ss' also com leted six additional ecales from the Imaginal Processes Inventory and the terbalizer-Visualizer Ques- tionnaire. 8 s were assigned to one of three groups: a talk about daydreaming emphasizing its adaptive qualities, and attention control or a no treatment control. Results of a three factor (group, sex, and time) ANOVA +th re- peated measures on the time factor indicated that the rou hearind the talk significantly ( < .05) increased their self reported Saygeaming from pre to posttest. TIere were no si nificant changes for either control group (F < 1). There was also no rdatiomkp found between changes in daydreaming frequency and ones' initial attitude toward daydreaming. Results sugg.est that providing undergraduates with ositive information about day drearmng leads to an increased fr uency of sd- re orted daydreaming. Three alternate explanations of the res3ta are discussea

Recently, Gold and Cundiff (1980) reported that the frequency of self-reported daydreaming could be increased. One hundred female undergraduates were pre- tested on the Daydreaming Frequency scale of the Imaginal Processes Inventory (IPI). The 40 females with the lowest score on the scale were assigned to one of four experimental groups : positive talk about. daydreaming with imagery training, positive talk with no imagery training, neutral talk about daydreaming with imagery training, and neutral talk with no imagery training. A significant change ( p < .OOl), reflecting an increase in daydreaming, on the posttest Daydreaming Frequency scale of the IPI, was found and was still evident in a six month follow- up (Gold & Cundiff, 1980). Limitations of the Gold and Cundiff (1980) study were the absence of control groups, an all female sample, and no significant differences between the four treatment groups.

The rationale for increasing daydreams is the potential daydreams have for enhancing functioning. For example, frequent daydreamers are better able than infrequent daydreamers to cope with boredom (Singer, 1975), are less likely to respond to frustration with aggression (Biblow, 1973; Paton, cited in Singer, 19751, are better able to communicate with their peers (Smilansky, 1968), and may possess greater potential for creative thinking (Gowan, 1978). Also, Frank (1978) reported that 8s who were trained to develop their imagination increased their empathic abilities. Frank (1978) also found that the training in imagination resulted in Ss being better able to use their daydreams to work through interpersonal concerns. Since daydreaming has considerable beneficial potential, it is important to develop methods of increasing S's daydreaming.

The present study was designed to provide a clearer assessment of the factors responsible for the increase in daydreaming reported by Gold and Cundiff (1980) and to include males and females as well as control groups. The treatment was a positive talk about daydreaming which was compared with two control groups. An attention control group was used to control for time spent with the E and a no treatment control was used to assess changes on the Daydreaming Frequency scale just due to time from pre- to posttesting. It was hypothesized that the positive talk group would have significantly higher posttest scores on the Daydreaming

'A version of this pa er was presented at The Third American Conference on the Fantasy and Imaging Process, New gork, November 1979.

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924 Journal of Clinical Psychology, October, 1980, Vol. 36, No . 4.

Frequency scale and that there would be no change from pre- to posttest for the two control groups.

Another purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between Ss’ change in daydreaming frequency and their initial attitude toward daydreaming. The goal was to determine if Ss’ who increased their daydreaming had different initial attitudes toward daydreaming than Ss whose daydreaming did not increase.

34 ETHOD Subjects

Ss were male and female college students in undergraduate courses a t Western Carolina University. The Daydreaming Frequency scale of the IPI (Singer & hntrobus, 1972) was given to 625 Ss. The mean score for the males ( N = 298) was 37.9 (SD = 8.7) and 39.3 (SD = 8.4) for the female8 ( N = 327). From the group of 625, an experimental group of 60 Ss, 30 male and 30 female, were selected. Criterion for selection was a score of 32 or less on the Daydreaming Frequency scale; this represents infrequent daydreaming. All 60 Ss also completed six ad- ditional scales from the IPI and the Verbalizer-Visualizer Questionnaire (VVQ) (Richardson, 1977). The six IPI scales were selected because they represent the three major factors found in factor analysis of the IPI (Singer & Antrobus, 1972). The positive reactions and visual imagery scale load on the positive orientation factor, boredom and mindwandering load on the anxious factor, and guilty and fear of failure load on the guilty factor. The VVQ is designed to measure a preference for visual processing of information and was used to assess its relationship with daydreaming. These measures were used to assess the Ss’ initial attitude toward daydreaming. All experimental Ss were informed that they would be paid $3.00 if they completed the study. Procedure

Ss were assigned to one of six groups, three for males and three for females. Each group contained 10 Ss. Ss were assigned to groups according to their score on the Daydreaming Frequency scale so as to keep the mean for each group as similar as possible. The pretest means for the three male groups ranged from 26.1 t o 26.4; the three female groups means ranged from 26.9 to 27.1. In the positive- talk condition each S met individually with the second author for two sessions of approximately 15 minutes each. The sessions were 1 week apart. The E emphasized information about the adaptive qualit,ies of daydreaming. An exerpt from one of the talks follows:

The use of daydreams and images can help us become more aware of what is going on around us. For example, I’m sure you have encountered the situa- tion in which someone becomes upset with you, and you’re not aware of the reason why. In a situation like this it is often helpful to use your imagination to help solve such problems. You can reexamine t,he situation to help discover why that person is upset with you. Your imagination will allow you to visually re-live the past experiences you’ve had with them. I’m sure you’ve discovered that examining a perplexing situation in this way can often lead to a greater understanding of another person’s behavior. For example, it could have been that the individual who’s upset could have approached you while you were very involved in another activity. For example, they may have wanted you to assist them in some way or just wanted to talk a t a time when you were getting ready to go to some appointment or to a class. In a situation like this it is very easy to hurt someone’s feelings without realizing it. At any rate, by using our imagination t o mentally reexamine the complete situation (what happened, what each person did and felt or may have felt) it is often possible for us to understand a lot more about a situation in retrospect than we did while the experience was taking place. Can you recall any times you used your imagination in this wag?

Increasing Daydreaming 926

In the attention control group each S also met individually with the h’ for two 15-minute sessions. Both sessions were spent completing a life history questionnaire about the S that covered such topics as family background, self-descriptions, pleasant and unpleasant fantasies, and occupational data. The qucstionnairc was adapted from Laearus (1976). The second (no treatment) control group had no interaction with the E between pre- and posttest.

Two weeks after the second experimental session, the Daydreaming Frequency scale was readministered along with the six other IPI scales and the VVQ. The no-treatment control group was readministered all the scales 4 weeks after the initial testing.

RESULTS The dependent variable for measuring changes in daydreaming frequency

was the pre- and posttest scores on the Daydreaming Frequency scale. A three- factor ANOVA with repeated measures on one factor was performed. The three factors were group (positive talk, attention control, and no treatment), sex, and the repeated factor time (pre- and posttesting). (See Table 1.) The main effects

TABLE 1 ANOVA OF DAYDREAMINQ FREQUENCY SCORES:

GROUP X SEX x TIME

Source ss df MS F ~~ ~ -~ -~ ~ ~

Between Ss 2770.0 58 47.7 1.04 A (PUP) 264.4 2 132.2 2.88 B (sex) 52.5 1 52.5 1.14 AF3 23.1 2 11.5 .25 Ss within 2429.9 53 45.8 Within Ss 1643.0 5w C (time) 471.9 1 471.9 28.70* AC 252.8 2 126.4 7.68’ BC 11.0 1 11.0 .67 ABC 34.8 2 17.4 1.05 C X Ss within 872.37 53 16.5

.one S wm lost. * p <.001.

for sex and group were not significant ( p >.05), but the main effect for time was significant ( F = 28.7, df = 1/53, p <.001). The main effect for time was con- ditioned by a significant interaction between group and time (F = 7.68, df = 2/53, p <.OOl). An analysis of simple effects for group a t posttesting was signi- ficant ( F = 5.4, df = 2/57, p <.01). To determine which group means were dif- ferent, the Student-Newman-Keuls was performed. The results indicated that the positive-talk posttest mean (34.8) was significantly different from both con- trol groups ( p <.05), and the two control group posttest means (28.0 and 28.9, respectively) did not differ from each other. (See Table 2 for pre-posttest means.) Therefore, the Ss in the positive talk group significantly increased their self-re- ported daydreaming over time, while the Ss in the two control groups did not alter their rate of daydreaming

The relationship between change in daydreaming frequency and initial at- titude toward daydreaming was assessed by correlating the difference between Ss’ pre- and posttest scores on the IPI Daydreaming Frequency scale with the

926 Journal of Clinical Psychology, October, 1980, Vol. 36, No. 4.

TABLE 2

THE DAYDREANINQ FREQUENCY SCALE PRE- AND POSTTEST SCORES FOR

Experimental group Pretest Postteat

Positive Talk Males ( N = 10) 26.4 32.8 Females ( N = 10) 27.0 36.7

Life History Controls Male ( N = 9) 26.2 26.6 Females ( N = 10) 26.9 29.4

No Treatment Controls Males ( N = 10) 26.1 29.2 Females ( N -- 10) 27.1 28.7

six IPI scales and the VVQ. Because only the two groups that received the positive talk changed their daydreaming frequency, only those 20 Ss were included in the analysis. No significant correlations were obtained in the analysis; correlations ranged from .03 to .29 ( p < .05).

DISCUSSION The major hypothesis under investigation was supported. Providing under-

graduate students, male or female, with positive information about the role of daydreaming significantly increased the frequency of their self-reported day- dreaming.

There are several alternative explanations of the findings. The most viable explanation is that the actual number of daydreams experienced did not increase, but the procedure resulted in the Ss paying more attention to their daydreams. Singer (1977) suggests that there are individual differences in Ss’ tendencies to pay attention to their ongoing thought stream. By emphasizing positive and adap- tive aspects of daydreaming, the S’s in the positive talk group may have been encouraged to attend more closely to their stream of thought.

A second explanation is that the information provided the 8 s resulted in their actually daydreaming more often. T o evaluate this explanation would re- quire that Ss self-monitor the actusl number of daydreams they have before and after treatment.

A third explanation is that subsequent to the procedure Ss felt that it was now acceptable to report that they daydreamed often. Many people believe that daydreaming is a waste of time or form of escape (Singer, 1975), and the positive talk Ss may have been disinhibited by the procedure.

Research is needed to determine whether an increase in daydreaming stimulates other significant personality changes. The post experimental scores on the six IPI scales suggest that Ss did have a more positive attitude toward daydreaming as a result of this study. In the previous study by Gold and Cundiff (1980) the same attitude changes were reported. Because attitudes as well as frequency of daydreaming changed, it suggests that the results were not simply due t o a perceived reaction to the E’s demand. Daydreaming can be a pleasant and productive ex- perience, especially when people are convinced that they are not wasting time.

Finally, the finding that there was no relationship between change in day- dreaming frequency and initial attitude toward daydreaming may have positive implications. The finding suggests that an increase in daydreaming is possible regardless of the Ss’ initial view of daydreaming. With so many therapy techniques t,hat require Ss to use their imagination, a “positive talk” before beginning such a procedure could help the client to have a more positive attitude and be more responsive to the imagery treatment.

In creasing Daydreaming ! ) 2 i

REFERENCES BIBLQW E. Imaginative play and the control of aggressive behavior. In J. L. Singer (Ed.), The

child's world of m&-bel&ve. New York: Academic Press, 1973, 104-128. FRANK, S. J. Just imagine how I feel: How to improve empathy through trainin in imagination.

In J. L. Singer & K. S. Pope (Eds.), The p o w of human imagination. New Yo&: Plenum Press, 1978, 309346.

GOLD, S. R., & CUNDIFF, G. Increasing the frequency of daydreaming. J o u r o l of Cliniccrl Pm&dogy, 1980, 36, 118-121.

GOWAN, J. C. Incubation, imagery and creativity. Journal of Mental Imagery, 1978, 9, 23-32. LUARU~, A. A. MuUCmodul behavior therapy. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1976. BCHARDBON, A. Verbalizer-visualizer: A cognitive style dimension. Journal of Mental Imagery,

SINQER, J. L. The innss world of &ydreoming. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. SINGER, J. L. Ongoing thought: The normative baseline for alternate states of consciousness.

In N. E. Zinberg (Ed.), AZtemate &,tea ofeonsciouaness. New York: The Free Press, 1977,89-120. SINQER, J. L., & ANTROBUB, J. 5. Imaginal Process Znveniory. New York: Authors, 1972.

1977, 1, 109128.

SMUNBKY, 5. The sfficts of aociodramalic play on disadvantaged preschool childscm. New York: John Wiley, 1968.

VALIDATION OF THE 16 PF I N A PSYCHIATRIC SETTING M . Q. HOWE AND E. HELMES

LondonP chidtieHoapito1 L 2 l L , o n l a r i o

Used the 16 PF in a group screenin battery for psychiatric inpatients. Vali- dation was carried out using psyctiatric diagnoses as the criterion. Four hundred and sixty-three patients were grouped into eight traditional diag- nostic groups. Discriminant analysis was used to predict group membershi and multivariate rofile analysis was used to compare group means: d differencw in ro&e elevation or shape were found,.and four dwqnnynant functions coulaclassify correctly only 22% of the patients. Results in&cnt$ that the 16 PF is unsuitable for discriminating among psychiatric &agnostic groups.

Finding a global personality questionnaire that will adequately and quickly assess psychiatric patients is a problem germane to institutions that deal with large numbers of individuals. Such patients have a set of problems that make assessment of this type difficult. They have been described as socially, culturally and educationally deprived, in addition to displaying varying degrees of illness (Williams, Dudley, & Overall, 1972), as well as suffering from attentional and motivational deficits. These characteristics of patients interact with institutional constraints of limited staff and time available for testing to complicate further the assessment. To overcome these limitations, testing of patients in groups is often the best available alternative.

A personality test for such a use should be fairly short, easily understood by individuals with little formal education, applicable to a broad domain of per- sonality, and suitable for group administration. According to Cattell, Eber and Tatsuoka (1970), the 16 PF has been designed as such an instrument and has been used in this role with psychiatric and prison populations (Cowden, Pacht, & Bode- mer, 1970; Williams et al., 1972). Accordingly, it was decided to introduce the 16 PF into the group screening battery at our facility, a provincial psychiatric hospital, which serves an urban area and surrounding counties. The population consisted of inpatients with a wide variety of psychiatric disorders, severe enough to warrant intensive care.