A Qualitative Investigation Into the Characterists - Priest_Karageoghis

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DOI: 10.1177/1356336X08095670

2008 14: 347European Physical Education ReviewDavid-Lee Priest and Costas I. Karageorghis

accompanying exerciseA qualitative investigation into the characteristics and effects of music

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A qualitative investigation into the

characteristics and effects of music

accompanying exercise

David-Lee Priest and Costas I. Karageorghis Brunel University,UK

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to identify the characteristics of music used toaccompany physical exercise and investigate the effects of such music using a quali-

tative approach. This work underpins the further development of a theoretical

structure that is still relatively new. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with

a sample of exercise participants (N = 13), seven males and six females, all with at

least two years experience of exercising to music. An inductive content analysis of

the interview data was undertaken and results contrasted with the conceptual model

developed by Karageorghis et al. (1999) which describes the effects of musical and

cultural factors with reference to psychophysical outcomes. The findings demon-

strated the importance of musical (e.g. rhythm, lyrics, bass), contextual (e.g. time of

day) and individual factors (e.g. background, personality) in determining both short-

term (e.g. mood, imagery) and long-term (e.g. heightened work-rate, endurance)

outcomes. The findings point towards a more expansive conceptual framework. In

particular, facets of the response to music such as flow state, cognitive responses,

rhythm response and anticipation are discussed. Music perceived to be motivating

could lead to increases in exercise intensity and endurance during performance of

self-regulated tasks. These findings have implications for the use of music in physical

education settings.

Key-words: exercise psychology interviews motivation psychophysical responses

The potential effects of music on exercise performance and experience during a single

session may, over time, lead to increases in adherence (Karageorghis et al., 1999;

Schwartz et al., 1990). In a broader context, music use can prove beneficial in health-

care (e.g. Batt-Rawden et al., 2006) and physical education (e.g. Ha and Wong,

2002). One of the primary benefits in the physical education (PE) domain is an

increase in pupils enjoyment. There is now accumulating evidence that carefully

selected music improves exercise performance (Atkinson et al., 2004; Elliott et al.,2004; Karageorghis and Lee, 2001; Matesic and Comartie, 2002; Simpson and

EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW [DOI: 10.1177/1356336X08095670]

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Karageorghis, 2006; Szabo et al., 1999), elevates mood (Hayakawa et al., 2000) and

reduces ratings of perceived exertion (Nethery, 2002; Potteiger et al., 2000).

Karageorghis et al. (1999) presented a conceptual model (Figure 1) that predicts

the effects of asynchronous motivational music in the context of exercise and sport.

The term asynchronous refers to the absence of conscious synchronization betweenphysical movement and the accompanying musical rhythm. They defined motivational

musicas that which stimulates or inspires physical activity. Through psychometric

work which stemmed from a review of literature, four factors were identified that

contribute to the motivational qualities of a given piece of music: rhythm response,

musicality, cultural impact and association. Rhythm response pertains to the response

to the rhythmical elements of music, which has been identified as the key character-

istic of music in terms of eliciting a bodily response (e.g. Gaston, 1951; Karageorghis

and Terry, 1997; Karageorghis et al., 2006; Lucaccini and Kreit, 1972). In the context

of the model, the term musicality refers to the response to the pitch-related elementsof music such as harmony and melody. Cultural impact refers to the pervasiveness of

the music within society while association reflects the personal extra-musical associ-

ations that music may evoke. The four factors differed in the extent to which they

contributed to the motivational qualities of music; rhythm response was found to

exert the greatest influence and association the least.

Based on a review of theoretical and experimental work (see Karageorghis and

Terry, 1997), it was proposed by Karageorghis et al. (1999) that the application of

asynchronous motivational music leads to three psychophysical responses: arousal

control, reduced ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and improved mood. Such

responses within the context of a single bout of exercise may lead to the longer term

behavioural outcomes of increased adherence to exercise, or in a sport context, the pre-

event routine. Of the short-term responses, both mood and arousal may be influenced

by music which is played before as well as during a bout of exercise, whereas perceived

exertion is affected by music that is played concurrently. Reductions of perceived

exertion are particularly important in an educational context, and the impact of music

on student mood is also significant in terms of the beneficial effect it may exert on

348 E U RO P EA N P HY SI C A L ED U C AT I ON R E VI E W 1 4 (3 )

MusicFactors

PersonalFactors

RhythmResponse

Musicality

Cultural Impact

Association

MotivationalQualities

ExerciseAdherence

Reduced RPE

Pre-eventRoutine

Arousal Control

Improved Mood

2

1

3

4

Hierarchy

Figure 1 Conceptual framework for the prediction of responses to motivational

asynchronous music in exercise and sport (adapted with permission fromTaylor & Francis;Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 713724)

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learning. Indeed music has been used as a skill-learning aid to great effect in

educational contexts (see e.g. Chen, 1985; Spilthoorn, 1986).

The importance of the framework lies in the fact that it provides practitioners

with guidelines to facilitate the prescription of music that may ultimately impact

upon exercise adherence. In addition, researchers require a conceptual structure tofocus their investigations into the effects of music in exercise and sport settings.

Hence, the rationale underlying the present study centred upon the need to evaluate

and further develop the conceptual framework that underpins this area of study.

Karageorghis (1998) suggested that research into the psychophysical effects of

music in exercise and sport has been characterized by a positivistic and experimental

approach. The positivistic nature of the conceptual framework represents a limitation

that should be addressed. Music is an art form and the subjective nature of music

perception and preference appear to require subtle methods of investigation (Reimer,

1985). Further, it has been argued that qualitative research methods are particularlybeneficial in the development and extension of theory (Hayes, 1997; Karageorghis,

2008; Miles and Huberman, 1994; Smith, 1995).

Within the sphere of music research in the sport and exercise sciences, both

Bishop et al. (2007) and Gluch (1993) have adopted a qualitative approach to in-

vestigating musical response. In these studies, the methodology of open-ended inter-

views proved particularly effective in elucidating the subtle relationships which

obtain in a field of study that inevitably revolves around individual perceptions.

Bishop et al. developed a grounded theory of precompetitive music use in young

tennis players which confirmed several facets of the generalized conceptual model

advanced by Karageorghis et al. (1999). Notably, Bishop et al.s work elicited infor-

mation on responses that were not featured in the conceptual model such as flow and

imagery. These encouraging results in a sport context invite the extension of this

naturalistic work to an exercise context, which is the main focus of the present study

and one that is particularly pertinent to health and physical education. Qualitative

methods have also been employed to good effect in music research outside the sport

and exercise sphere. For example, Sloboda (1991) utilized an interview technique

incorporating music listening to score emotional responses to individual segments of

music: a good marriage between the research question and the methods employed.

Although the motivational qualities of music appear to have been largely ident-ified (see Karageorghis et al., 1999), the consequences of manipulating individual

musical components (e.g. rhythm) are not well understood. Further, the factors that

are thought to comprise the motivational qualities of music have been identified only

by those with experience as exercise leaders (Karageorghis et al., 1999). In the present

study the perspectives of exercise participants have also been included.

The purpose of the study was to identify and describe the motivational qualities

of music and their effects (both immediate and long-term) in the context of gymnasia,

using a qualitative methodology. It was felt that to impose a conceptual framework

a priori might inhibit detail stemming from participants perspectives (see Gillett,1995). Hence, the specifics of the existing conceptual model were not tested. Instead,

P R I E S T & K A R A G EO R G H I S : M U S I C A C C O M PA N Y I N G E X E R C I S E 349



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the interview data were subjected to an inductive content analysis, the results of which

were then contrasted with the tenets of the conceptual model. This approach was

deemed to be the most robust method of critically evaluating Karageorghis et al.s

(1999) model.

Method

Participants

The sample 13 participants were selected according to their experience of exercising

to music; the population of interest were members and staff of health clubs and sport

centres in London and Norwich, United Kingdom. Each participant had at least two

years experience of exercising to music and engaged in exercise to music in a gym-

nasium setting at least three times per week; four of the participants also had experi-ence as exercise leaders. However, the main focus of the interviews was on the

experience of exercise participation rather than exercise leadership. The exercise-

related experience of the participants was diverse, encompassing exercise-to-music

classes (n = 9), cardiovascular training (n = 13) and resistance training (n = 9). Seven

of the participants often self-selected music for use during exercise (typically using a

personal audio device) rather than exercising to the selections provided for them. In

terms of the exercise intensity that the participants generally worked at, six described

their training as intense or very hard whereas the remaining seven used terms such

as moderate or fairly light.

The sample comprised six women and seven men, whose mean age was 33.2 years

(S.D. = 11.62 yr). The distribution of ethnicity within the sample was as follows:

White UK or Irish (n = 9), Black Afro Caribbean (n = 3) and Black Maori

Australasian (n = 1). Participants were active predominantly in exercise as opposed

to sport contexts. The sample size is justified by theoretical guidelines concerning the

acceptability of smaller sample numbers for qualitative research of this type (Patton,

1990).

InterviewsHaving provided written informed consent, participants were interviewed by the

first author at a location in which they reported that they felt comfortable: either at

their place of study (n = 3), their health club (n = 3) or at their home (n = 7). Ten

of the participants were interviewed twice, whereas, owing to drop-out, the remain-

ing three participants were interviewed only once. During the second interview the

participants were given the opportunity to listen to and discuss their preferred

musical accompaniment for exercise. The rationale for this was that specific examples

might cue detailed and insightful explanations of the function of music in relation

to physical activity. The duration of the interviews was between 45 and 120 min.The first interview was open-ended in nature and semi-structured. The structure was




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derived from a schedule of topics that was specified a priori (see Ct et al., 1995).

The general themes of the schedule were drawn from a review of relevant literature

(e.g. Gfeller, 1988; Gluch, 1993; Karageorghis and Terry, 1997; Szabo et al., 1999)

and consisted of the following aspects: (a) the properties of music that elicit responses

in the exercise setting; (b) factors relating to individual perception that moderatethe response to music in the exercise setting; (c) contextual factors; (d) responses to

music in the exercise setting; and (e) the behavioural outcomes of listening to music

during exercise. To elucidate a rich description of the subject matter, participants

were also asked to envisage and describe memorable incidents that related to their

experience of music in exercise and sport-training settings. Notably, the specific

concepts that prevail within the relevant literature, such as the term motivational

music, were not imposed upon the participants lest their own perspectives should be

inhibited. Indeed, the epistemological position that underlies the present study is

one of multiple realities. Hence, a piece of music is not seen as being motivationalper se, that is, in an absolute sense; rather, music is perceivedas motivational by an

individual at a given time in a specific context (see North et al., 2004).

A largely open-ended approach was adopted to questioning (see Marshall and

Rossman, 1999). Hence, framing questions (Spradley, 1979) were used to identify key

areas which presented the opportunity for elaboration. Leading questions that

implied their own answers were avoided. During the course of the interview, the

researcher recorded in a notebook any new themes as they emerged. This procedure

ensured that certain avenues of questioning were fully explored during the present

interview and also provided a repertory for future reference and consideration. To

clarify semantic discrepancies between musical terms, the participant was asked to

clarify a term that they had used (e.g. tempo) and contrast it with similar terms. At

the close of each interview, participants were asked if any information had been

omitted or if they would like to make additional comments or elaborate on any aspect

of what they had said. Interviews were recorded using a dictaphone.

The protocol for the second interview involved the participant and researcher

listening to music together. The participant selected music to exemplify their

preferred/motivating musical accompaniment for gymnasium-based exercise. Specifi-

cally, the participants were asked to select three pieces of music (either on CD or

cassette tape) which you would choose to workout to in the gym/pieces which youfind motivating during exercise, and bring these pieces to the interview session where

we will listen to them and discuss their qualities from your perspective.

Each participant was asked to select three different pieces. Participants chose a

variety of music, which they described as follows: dance (n = 13), popular (n = 4),

rhythm and blues (n = 4), rap (n = 5), soul (n = 2) and ethnic (n = 2). The self-

selection procedure ensured that the music possessed motivational qualities from the

perspectives of the interviewees. The pieces of music were delivered by either a high-

fidelity music system in the home of the participant or a portable compact-disc player

provided by the researcher. During presentation of the music, participants were ableto draw attention to elements of the piece that they felt were salient. Following each




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piece of music, the researcher inquired as to the aspects of the music that evoked a

response. Apart from the change in protocol, the schedule used and the process of

questioning was similar to that of the first interview.

In accordance with the naturalistic objectives of the study, the first author sought

to nullify any perceptions that he was an expert or somebody who had all the answers.However there was a certain degree of reflexivity present in that he drew on his own

experience of working in a health club environment and exercising to music in order

to demonstrate his affinity with the participants and his sensitivity to their perspec-

tives. At the commencement of each interview, he emphasized that anything the

participant said was valid and of interest; hence, there were no right or wrong answers.

Data analysis

The inductive analysis of the data was based upon the methods and techniquesdescribed by Ct et al. (1995), which were, in turn, derived from the recommen-

dations of textbook authors such as Miles and Huberman (1994), Strauss and Corbin

(1990) and Tesch (1990). First, the interviews were transcribed verbatim by the first

author, who began to appraise content and identify tentative themes. At this point,

the data were screened and references to the identity of the participants were removed

to promote confidentiality. Second, each interview transcript was read in its entirety

to provide a global appraisal of each participants perspective. Third, the transcripts

were broken down into meaning units: bracketed statements from the transcript that

are indivisible and contain sufficient information to be interpreted on their own

(Tesch, 1990). Fourth, the meaning units were grouped into properties according to

common features. For example, meaning units that contained reference to the rhyth-

mical elements of the music were grouped into a rhythm property. Fifth, the

properties were further grouped into categories at a higher level of abstraction. For

example, the properties pertaining to rhythm and harmony were added to the

music category, which contained properties that were related to the perceived motiv-

ational attributes of the music. At this juncture, it was felt that it was not possible

to further group the categories to form categories at a higher level of abstraction.

Microsoft Access 2000 served as a platform to develop a database of the tran-

scripts, which permitted all the meaning units from a certain property (e.g. rhythm)to be filtered and viewed concurrently. The data were coded as they emerged rather

than at the conclusion of all data collection. Hence, during the analysis of the data

from each interview, the properties were subject to continual readjustment and

cross-referencing; Brody (1992) suggested that reflexivity is an essential aspect of

qualitative data analysis.

Critical challenging (searching for alternative explanations) and the exploration

of bias (Marshall and Rossman, 1999) were considered to be integral aspects of the

analytical process. Thus, it was felt that the analysis would be facilitated by the

involvement of a second researcher. The second author, a music psychologist, tookpart in the analysis of the data as a form of external audit (see Lincoln and Guba,




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1985). Following the analysis of the data by the first author, there was a series of three

meetings between the first and second authors, each lasting approximately 90

minutes. During these meetings, the emergent properties and categories were

discussed at length. The second author questioned and challenged the first authors

coding of a number of the properties and the formation of two of the categories (theindividual category and the environmental category that was subsequently replaced

by the contextual category). To reconcile the issues that the second author raised,

both authors referred to the data. In some cases, it was agreed to retain a disputed

property because it was appropriately qualified by reference to the data. In the case

of other properties, a recoding was agreed upon. Subsequently, the first author

reviewed all the meaning units that related to such properties and recoded them as

agreed upon during the meetings. Hence, a consensual validation was achieved.

Results

The results are presented for each category that was elicited from the analysis. In the

text, the names of the categories and properties have been italicized. Owing to the

nature of the subject matter, some of the properties are inevitably interrelated. For

example, to present findings relating to feelings of stimulation, it was in some

instances necessary to outline which musical qualities were felt to promote stimu-

lation. However, every effort was made in the analysis to distinguish and delineate

the various properties. Table 1 contains a list of the categories and properties that

emanated from the data analysis.

Music category

The music category comprises properties that relate to perceived attributes of the

music. The salience of rhythm was expressed by all of the participants. It was felt that


Table 1 Properties that emerged from the content analysis in order of response

frequency

Music Contextual Individual State Outcomes

category category category category category

Rhythm Social factors Attitude to exercise Stimulative Work-rate

Lyrics Time of day Personality Motivation Attendance

Artist Background Distracts attention Endurance

Speed Music preference Associations

Style Familiarity Mood

Bass Imagery

Segmentation Self-expression

Variety Altered state of

Harmony awareness

Sedative

Perception of time



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strong rhythmical features characterize music that is suitable for exercise. The follow-

ing statement is typical: It shouldnt really matter what music is playing, if its got

a good beat . . . if its rhythmical then you can train to it. A young male exercise

leader described the tendency to synchronize ones movement with a rhythm: There

is a natural human characteristic that if someone has a rhythm and has a beat thenthe desire is to keep up with that and to, er, work with that as opposed to sort of

pulling against it. A property was formed using meaning units that referred to the

resonance or perceived strength of the rhythm. The resonance is an aspect of the rhythm

that evoked negative reactions from four of the participants: If the beat is too heavy,

it pulls me down rather than lifts me up. However, three of the younger male partici-

pants from a sports background reported that they responded positively to the reson-

ance of the rhythm: I like the beat to be really driving, hard, a real booming sound.

The speed or tempo of the music was referred to by 11 of the participants.

Generally, a fast or upbeat tempo was considered to be motivational during exercise:When a slow song is replaced by a fast one then you can definitely see a big improve-

ment in effort and speed. Further, it was suggested by a number of the participants

that the musical tempo should be in synchrony with the movement tempo. Five of

the participants referred to harmony to describe a motivational segment of a musical

piece. For example, during her second interview, a female recreational exercise partici-

pant was able to identify a key-change in the final chorus of a musical piece that

inspired her.

On occasion, the participants used the artistof a piece of music as a reference

point to illustrate which music they preferred for exercise. However, the artist may

become synonymous with the gestalt perception of the music, for example, Stone

Roses-type music. Through their voice, an artist can express emotional character that

is important to the listener: the sound of the voice, the way they articulate the lyrics,

it brings a certain attitude to the music that I can relate to. A property closely related

to both the artist and their voice was lyrics. All of the interviewees suggested that

lyrics could be highly motivational. A sense of personal meaning can be generated by

the lyrics. For example, a participant who had forged a successful career in exercise

leadership reported that she responded to lyrics which reminded her of her own

ambitions: The words are very important to me, especially when it says something

like moving up to your destination, because I think about my own career. Lyricscan be literally related to physical activity: This morning in the, er, the spin class

theres a song which goes push, push, push, just a little . . . a little bit further and

its very, very motivating. Lyrics may prove irrelevant in some cases. For example, a

female exercise participant reported that English is her second language; conse-

quently, she said that she was not focusing on the lyrics for the most part.

Four interviewees proposed that a piece of music may possess character; for

example, human qualities such as attitude or aggression. Two of the male sport

participants reported their preference for rap music that conveyed attitude; during

his second interview, one of these participants commented that I feed off what I havedistinguished as an attitude and I take this attitude into my exercises.




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The three group exercise leaders felt thatfamiliarity was an essential component

of music used in the exercise studio setting: If the people in my class dont know the

music, they dont like it, they find it hard to motivate themselves irrespective of what

Im doing to try and motivate them. Six participants referred to the variety of the

music programme. For example, an experienced aerobics instructor described thenegative effects of repetition in a group exercise setting: For 45 minutes there was

no variation, the same beat, no lyrics, no changes in mood . . . it was just awful.

Participants made considerable reference to their preferredsegmentof musical pieces,

such as the introduction or the chorus. It was reported that a piece of music has a

motivational contour; for example, there may be a sense of increasing excitement,

which is resolved by a climax or motivational zenith: You can feel it kind of building,

energy, y know, were getting ready to take off here and this is the controlled little

bit: Going up the hill, up the hill, were now at the top, bam! Several participants

reported coordinating a burst of increased effort with their preferred segment of agiven piece of music.

Contextual category

The contextual category contains properties that represent aspects of the exercise or

training environment that may interact with the music to influence the psychophys-

ical state of the participant. Music can motivate a person indirectly through the

medium of a third party. References to this effect were grouped into a property named

social factors. An exercise leader described this process: Its not guaranteed that theyre

gonna like the same music as you do, but I think if you like the music it helps to

motivate you, which helps you to motivate them. Music may have different motiv-

ational effects at different times of the day. For example, a recreational exercise partici-

pant described her preference for gentle music early in the morning. In the evening,

her preference changed to music with a strong rhythm.

Individual category

The properties within the individual category constitute various dispositions and

psychological characteristics of the individual. An individuals personality may influ-ence their choice of music; for example, one participant who worked as a motivational

speaker expressed a preference for what she termed uplifting or positive music

during exercise.

One particular aspect of the participants personalities that may have affected

their response to music was their attitude toward exercise. The interviewees demon-

strated various approaches to their exercise: I wanna be as bloody-minded as the next

person, if you want to achieve your goal when youre training you aint letting

anything stand in your way, and this is the attitude of the music. Alongside these

highly motivated individuals were people who exhibited lower levels of motivation:Im a bit lazy for exercise, I have to be stimulated. References to age were grouped




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into a property. There was general agreement among those interviewed that a persons

age influences their response to music during exercise. On several occasions, the

participants expressed an affinity with the music of their teenage years or their early

twenties, a time in their lives when they felt most affected by popular culture. Two

of the group exercise leaders emphasized the importance of selecting music from anappropriate era when teaching older exercise participants.

The participants made reference to the role of their backgroundin determining

preference for music during exercise. However, this influence was not always in the

expected direction. A male exercise participant in his twenties developed a preference

for listening to rap music during exercise, a musical idiom that was not representa-

tive of his cultural background. However, the rap music did reflect in some ways his

tough upbringing. Some of the participants suggested that a specific type of music

preference is developed for exercise: I wouldnt want to sit down and listen to gym

music at home, its just not my music. This specific preference seems to be attribu-table to the particular function of music during physical activity: Gym music is not

the sort of thing that youd sit down of an evening and listen to; I suppose you might

say it gets the adrenaline going.

State category

The state category contains properties that reflect the psychophysiological state of the

individual. Music typically plays astimulative role during exercise. Participants said

that music could get me going, stimulate me, get me up for it, kick me up, rev

me up, spur me on, excite me and push my buttons. In particular, it was felt that

the rhythmical and resonant properties of music lead to an increase in excitement. A

property that relates to thestimulative role of music is a sense ofanticipation:

I feel quite nervous when I hear the intro . . . I go through the introduction and

then I think oh, here we go, I can feel her getting ready to start really singing

and it starts to make the butterflies come because thats when I start to work.

Music is not always cast in a stimulative role; five participants stated that music could

also serve in a pacifying orsedative capacity.

Eleven of the participants made reference to the role that music played in improv-ing their moodor evoking a positive emotional response. A group exercise leader was

able to describe an incidence of strong positive emotion that she had experienced

during exercise accompanied by dance music: You feel so high, almost like youre

flying. It was found that mood states prior to the initiation of exercise exerted an

influence on the response to music during exercise. A female exercise participant

suggested that activities engaged in prior to exercise (i.e. work) make a substantive

difference to the receptivity of an individual to the music in the gymnasium.

Music may lead to feelings of motivation or inspiration. In particular, the music

may bring about a change in the cognitive approach to the task: The music enhancesyour will to achieve something, but it doesnt change your perception that its tough.




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Three of the participants remarked that music may provide inspiration for those who

are engaging in resistance training; a very experienced recreational exerciser described

how music led to a shift in her attitude during a bout of exercise:

If they put on a piece of music that I really like, I can get positive from that

music and all of a sudden my whole attitude towards my work-out has changed,

and therefore I leave the gym in an entirely different frame of mind.

Motivational music may also alter the evaluation of the self: You feel good about

yourself, like you could go on for ever and ever. Hence, music may alter ones

perceived ability to meet the demands of a given task: It (music) gives you a feeling

that youre capable of working harder and achieving more.

Typically, the participants suggested that music distracts attention away from

exercise: If the music is motivating, Im very distracted by it, I dont think about my

body or . . . or the fatigue, I can switch off from my body and get on to that nextlevel. However, there were contrary examples. One participant, a martial artist who

engaged in intense and frequent training, felt that music did not influence him during

very intense activity. Three of the participants described their experience of analtered

state of awareness. A female exercise leader related her experience of a trance-like state

characterized by absorption and detachment: It just feels totally effortless and the

music is just taking your body wherever it needs to go. There were six references to

an alteredperception of time and these were formed into a property. Music was thought

to make time appear to speed up. The participants spoke of the response to music

during exercise as a form ofself-expression or disinhibition:

If I know a tune, and I hear it, I suddenly think oh wow! I know this tune and

I want to show off to it, I want to dance to it and express myself to the full, I

suppose in the gym Im not dancing, but I suddenly run faster and think, oh I

love this tune.

Associations were reported to contribute to the motivational qualities of music.

The interviewees frequently reported that they associated a certain piece of music with

particular life events or memories. Hence, music may function as a conditioned

stimulus or trigger: If a song comes on that I remember having an absolutely great

time to in a [night] club, then positive memories will come back, my moods gonnachange completely toward the positive and Im gonna feel inspired again. A martial

artist explained how he had conditioned himself to experience an arousal response to

a certain piece of music prior to fighting. He had learnt to associate the piece with

his pre-event routine.

Associations may be mediated by imagery, for example, a male participant with

a varied background in exercise and sport training referred to the well-known Rocky

motion picture series: Rockys training through the snow and trying to overcome this

obstacle to get to ultimately beating a guy whos sort of like nearly twice his size,

that kind of like inspires the way I approach my training. In particular, the lyrics canpromote a specific association.




13/21


14/21

feelings of elation, and psychophysical responses, such as crying and tachycardia, can

be located to exact reference points on a musical score (Sloboda, 1991). Within the

realm of exercise and sport, Szabo et al. (1999) reported that a music condition, which

included a switch from a slow tempo to a fast tempo, promoted the accomplishment

of greater work in a graded cycle ergometer test than music conditions that consistedpurely of either fast or slow music.

Karageorghis (1998) reported that the motivational qualities of music used

during an exercise-to-music class were moderately correlated with post-exercise

reports of relatedness, one of the building blocks of intrinsic motivation (see Reeve

and Sickenius, 1994). The findings of the present study indicated that music might

create a shared experience within a gymnasium setting, particularly in an exercise-

to-music class.

With reference to the findings regarding personality, McCown et al. (1997) found

that psychoticism, male gender and extraversion were all positively associated with apreference for exaggerated bass in music. In the present study, the three participants

who reported a strong preference for a pronounced rhythm and bass frequencies were

men and engaged in relatively intense training. It is plausible that those training at

a higher intensity level require musical accompaniment that is higher in its simu-

lative qualities that those who exercise at a lower intensity. Accordingly, those who

exercise at a recreational level may require the presence of music merely as a comfort

factor. Factory owners have often used music in an attempt to blur the distinction

between work, domesticity and leisure in the minds of workers, particularly women

( Jones and Schumacher, 1992).

The importance of sociocultural background in determining music preference for

exercise and sport has been established (Karageorghis and Terry, 1997). Although the

present findings lend partial support to this assertion, a more complex and subtle

picture has emerged. For example, two participants described how they developed a

music preference that was antithetical to their backgrounds. It is possible that music

preference in exercise settings is less strongly related to sociocultural factors than

music preference per se. North and Hargreaves (1997) have suggested that context-

specific music preferences develop owing to the effects of music on arousal. As posited

in the conceptual framework (see Figure 1), a key response to music in the exercise

context is arousal. Indeed, it was testified that the mounting expectancy occasionedby music was exacerbated by the anticipation of a motivational segment of music and

its effects on exercise intensity.

Karageorghis and Terry (1997) suggested that improved mood is one of the

psychophysical consequences of motivational music. The present study has yielded

evidence suggesting that music may elicit a positive mood response during physical

activity. Indeed, two of the participants suggested that a positive mood state induced

by music might encourage them to remain in the gymnasium for longer. It has been

proposed that the affective responses to music might contribute directly to improved

exercise adherence (Karageorghis et al., 1999), which is an issue of paramount signifi-cance for both physical educationalists and exercise leaders.




15/21

Music can be used to evoke mental imagery that is relevant to physical activity.

In a sporting context, Karageorghis and Terry (2001) reported that the Great Britain

bobsleigh team owed part of their medal success in the 1998 Winter Olympic Games

to the conditioned effects of music. The Whitney Houston ballad, One Moment in

Time, was used in the team bus prior to competition to trigger powerful event-relatedimagery. Similarly, in the present study, a martial artist reported his use of a specific

musical selection to accompany his pre-fight routine. As with previous research

(e.g. Gluch, 1993), the findings of the present study indicate that the lyrics that

accompany music play a particularly significant role in eliciting motivational

imagery. However, contrary to the established conceptual position (e.g. Karageorghis

and Terry, 1997; Karageorghis et al., 1999), such lyrics need not refer explicitly to

physical activity. Examples include unleash the dragon, one moment in time, and

moving on up to your destination.

A number of the descriptions given of exercising to music point toward the experi-ence of flow state (see Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). For example, the propertyaltered state

of awareness refers to a condition in which movement feels effortless and the participant

feels absorbed in a trance-like state. White and Potteiger (1996) noted that affective

stimuli such as music have the propensity to heighten awareness of physical sensations.

In the present study, two of those engaged in relatively intense resistance training

noted that it is possible to be aware of the activity and the music concurrently: a

heightened state of awareness. However, it was more typical that the participants

referred to music as a distraction from the sensations of fatigue as proposed in the

conceptual framework (see Figure 1). These findings corroborate the theoretical pre-

dictions of Rejeski (1985) and Tenenbaum and Hutchinson (2007) insofar as music

served to divert the participants attention from unpleasant fatigue-related sensations

when exercising at low-intensity levels (see also Karageorghis, 2008).

Karageorghis and Deeth (2002) found that motivational music led to increases

in reported flow state during a multi-stage fitness test, whereas Pates et al. (2003)

reported a similar finding in relation to a netball-shooting task. Descriptions of time

appearing to speed up, disinhibition and elation also relate to the flow construct.

Music has been shown to affect the perception of time in the context of a gymnasium

(North et al., 1998). In addition, Lowe (1973) reported on the use of stimulative rock

music to disinhibit an individual who had a public speaking phobia.It is possible that motivational music may influence individuals on a cognitive

level, leading them to evaluate themselves more favourably and their own ability to

meet the perceived demands of tasks. It has been reported that music may increase

the self-esteem and confidence of exercisers (see Lampl, 1996, as cited in Tenenbaum

et al., 2004) and the self-confidence of inter-collegiate athletes prior to competition

(Lanzillo et al., 2001). The frequency with which the participants used the term gym

music indicated that there might be a conditioned expectation of the type of music

that is appropriate in the exercise context. North and Hargreaves (1997) posited

that this conditioning process plays a strong role in determining contextual music




16/21

preference. Similarly, Lucaccini and Kreit (1972) wrote that music might function as

a conditioned stimulus within an exercise and sport environment. Thus, the motiv-

ational effects of music would become amplified over time owing to a gradual

reinforcement process.

Limitations

Although more than sufficient in terms of precedents set by previously published

researchers in this field of study (e.g. Gluch, 1993; Pates et al., 2003), the sample size

is acknowledged as a minor limitation. However, the significance of this limitation

is lessened by the fact that the interviews carried out were multiple and in-depth. In

light of the possibility that age influences the response to motivational music (see

Priest et al., 2004), the fact that the age range of the sample was broad (2065 years)

also constitutes a minor limitation. Finally, a possible limitation in the procedure usedfor the second interviews was that the listening environment might have influenced

the responses; that is, listening to music at home using portable equipment may not

elicit the same responses as when listening in a gymnasium setting.

Conclusions and recommendations

The present findings suggest that where work-rate is self-determined, particularly at

submaximal levels, music is a stimulus that leads exercise participants to exert them-

selves at a higher intensity and for a longer duration. The evaluation of a piece of

music in a physical activity or PE setting is highly complex, involving an interaction

between musical, personal and contextual factors. Indeed, an important finding that

stems from the present study is the significance of context to the relationship between

musical characteristics and motivational responses.

Among the music factors, rhythm is the most salient and should be considered

to be the main prerequisite when selecting a piece of music for exercise. The present

findings indicate that a specialized form of music preference develops within the

context of exercise and point towards the need for similar work in a PE context.

Hence, for some individuals, general music preferences do not dictate the preferred

choice of music for exercise.Various personal characteristics influence the response to music during exercise.

Hence, personality, sociocultural affiliations and attitude towards exercise should all

be considered when selecting a music programme to accompany exercise. Personal

characteristics are of particular importance when prescribing music for an individual

as opposed to a group. From a PE perspective, it is important to acknowledge the

quandary that, while musical preferences are individually different, they are also

somewhat similar across groups of similar sociocultural backgrounds. Hence, the

pedagogic goal must be to select music which has the greatest chance of appealing to

the greatest number of pupils, based on the principles that are being elucidated in




17/21

the research literature. In particular, the variable of age is one that might be further

investigated as there is tentative evidence here to suggest that age may play a part in

determining responses to music in the exercise setting.

Physical educationalists should be advised to study carefully the demographics

of their pupils, their attitudes and music preferences, and to use such information inthe construction of music programmes to accompany PE classes. These programmes

should vary in accordance with the type of activity they are accompanying (low vs

high intensity) and with periods of the day (e.g. mornings vs afternoons). Indeed,

future researchers may employ a tool such as the Preference for and Tolerance of the

Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire (PRETIE-Q: Ekkekakis et al., 2005) to further

investigate the relationship between preference for exercise intensity and musical

response during exercise.

The findings from the present study offer naturalistic support for the tenets of

the conceptual model (see Figure 1). However, the restricted scope of the model,coupled with its simple structure, minimized the possibility that the present findings

would prove contradictory. Based on the present findings, several potential additions

may be made to the existing conceptual framework. First, motivational music may

influence individuals on a cognitive level, leading them to more favourably evaluate

themselves and their own ability to meet the perceived demands of tasks. Second,

music may function as a conditioned stimulus within an education setting. Third,

music may demotivate exercise participants/pupils and negatively affect their

performance and eventually their adherence. Fourth, the model does not account for

the effects of personal variables such as personality and attitude towards exercise

or contextual variables such as the time of day. Fifth, music may lead exercise

participants/pupils to experience an altered state of attention comparable to flow state.

Sixth, the current findings indicate that exercise participants vary the intensity and

duration of their physical activity as a result of music listening. This is a phenom-

enon that is difficult to demonstrate in tightly controlled experimental conditions

and might be better examined in a class setting. Seventh, the strength of musical

rhythm may be linked to arousal. Eighth, exercise participants/pupils may exhibit a

heightened response to individual segments of musical pieces; this response may be

exacerbated by anticipation. Ninth, music may promote relatedness amongst exercise

participants or pupils. The foregoing list includes entirely new findings within thisfield of study (e.g. segmentation), concepts that have been mooted, yet not researched

(e.g. cognitive response to motivational music) and hypotheses which have

been supported by research but are not represented within the conceptual model

(e.g. motivational music and flow state).

In summary, the present study has yielded factors beyond the present conceptual

framework that may be further researched or used as potential bases to extend this

framework. Notably, naturalistic evidence to support various concepts within the

motivating music literature was conspicuously absent prior to the present study.

Insight has been gained into the specific processes and experiences that characterizelistening to motivating music in the exercise setting.




18/21

Those interested in promoting the social and health benefits of exercise should

regard music prescription as an area of pivotal importance. Presently, it could be

argued that music is a largely untapped resource within exercise or PE contexts and

the responses to music in such contexts are highly individualized. Hence, further

research in this domain utilizing qualitative and idiographic designs appearswarranted. Moreover, to maximize the motivational effects of music, physical educa-

tionalists and exercise leaders should aim to facilitate the self-selection of music by

those in their charge where possible.

Acknowledgement

The authors are indebted to David Lloyd Leisure Ltd. for supporting this research.

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David-Lee Priest completed his PhD at Brunel University, West London, in 2004.

Costas I. Karageorghis is academic area leader for Psychology and Coaching at Brunel

University, West London.

Address for correspondence: Dr.Costas Karageorghis,School of Sport and Education,

Brunel University, West London, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK.

[email: [email protected]]


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