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This article was downloaded by: [Ams/Girona*barri Lib]On: 16 October 2014, At: 01:18Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T3JH, UK
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A Regional CadmiumInventory: Interpretation andmanagementAnnica Lindqvist & Mats EklundPublished online: 19 Aug 2010.
To cite this article: Annica Lindqvist & Mats Eklund (2002) A RegionalCadmium Inventory: Interpretation and management, Local Environment:The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, 7:3, 295-310, DOI:10.1080/1354983022000001000
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Local Environment, Vol. 7, No. 3, 295–310, 2002
ARTICLE
A Regional Cadmium Inventory:interpretation and managementANNICA LINDQVIST & MATS EKLUND
ABSTRACT Local authoritie s in Sweden are responsible for the management ofsewage treatment and municipal solid waste. Due to this, they handle large � owsand stocks of materials and substances that may be harmful for the environment.However, knowledge about these � ows is sometimes de� cient. In addition, thecapacity to in� uence the composition of these � ows is mainly beyond thejurisdiction of the local authorities . Flow-oriented studies, such as substance� ow analysis (SFA), have proven to be a useful tool in order to understand andquantify these � ows. Furthermore, SFA is sometimes claimed to be bene� cial tothe process of decision making, since it generates comprehensive overviews ofthe substance in focus. However, quanti� cation of stocks and � ows of a certainsubstance does not necessarily provide suf� cient information for environmentalmanagement on the local level. Hence, for SFA to further contribute to theenvironmental management process, there is also a need for development in theinterpretation of the results. The main objective of this paper is to contribute tothe discussion about (1) how to interpret the results from SFA and (2) how theresults from an SFA can be used in environmental management by localauthorities . A tentative framework for interpretation is discussed in the paper,focusing on � ve aspects: total material quantities , exposure to humans and theenvironment, resource economy, function and capacity to in� uence the substance� ows. Furthermore, the paper discusses the suggested framework applied toresults of a regional cadmium inventory.
Introduction
Emissions from industrial production were formerly the main sources of manypollutants to the environment, but during the 1970s, emissions related toconsumption and use of products became the largest sources of pollution (cf.Anderberg et al., 1989; Bergback et al., 1994). As the main sources of pollutionhave changed, new tools and strategies within the � eld of environmental policyand management are needed both within the private sector and in local author-ities. Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) and related tools such as Material FlowAnalysis (MFA) and Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) can be considered as re-sponses to the need for understanding today’s environmental problems, which
Annica Lindqvist and Mats Eklund, Environmental Technique and Management, LinkopingUniversity, SE-581 Linkoping, Sweden. Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
1354-9839 Print/1469-6711 Online/02/030295-16 Ó 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd.DOI: 10.1080/135498302200000100 0
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are often extensive, both in space and time. Studying stocks and � ows ofsubstances, as in SFA, has proven to be a useful approach to the understandingof environmental problems on different spatial and temporal scales (cf. Bergbacket al., 2001; Brunner et al., 1994; Hendriks et al., 2000, Stigliani et al., 1994).The methodology of SFA has shown to be successful in identifying unexpected� ows and emissions, detecting accumulation of substances in the economy or theenvironment, as well as in areas of the substance metabolism where there is alack of knowledge (cf. Bringezu et al., 1997, Bouman et al., 2000). Furthermore,SFA is often claimed to be supportive to environmental policy and decisionmaking, since it generates overviews of the substance studied.
An SFA often follows a three-phase procedure of (1) identi� cation of thesystem and system components; (2) inventory and quanti� cation of stocks and� ows of the substance; and (3) interpretation of the result (cf. Van der Voet etal., 1995). However, phase two commonly displays a complex network ofinteractions between the different stocks and � ows studied, a result that may behard for policy makers to utilise. Thus, the opportunity for and importance ofletting the collecting of relevant data when quantifying stocks and � ows bene� tthe decision-making processes at different organisational levels has been ex-pressed (Anderberg, 1998; Berkhout, 1997; Lampert & Brunner, 1999). In orderto do this, and for the SFA to further contribute to the environmental manage-ment process, there is a need for an extension of the third phase of the SFAapproach—interpretation of the results.
SFA is still to be considered as a new approach and hence the methodologyis not yet established. Most SFA studies are, however, spatially de� ned and donot explicitly consider the perspective of the company or authority that isresponsible for or manages vital parts of the substance � ow. Instead SFA is oftenused merely as an inventory tool and hence ends after the � rst or second phase.Regarding this, Rejeski (1998) discusses the importance of implementing theresults of such studies, in order for them to become part of environmentalpolicy-making. Some attention has been given to the role of SFA in policy-mak-ing, for example in Voet et al. (1994), Berkhout (1997), and Hendriks et al.(2000), and it is obvious that knowledge gained from such studies could bene� tdecision-making processes at different organisational levels.
The aims of this paper are to: (1) interpret the results of a regional SFA ofcadmium; and (2) to contribute to the development of strategies which, to someextent, bridge the gap between the inventory and the management of substance� ows in local authorities. Local authorities in Sweden are responsible for largestocks and � ows of materials and substances, such as � ows of sewage and waste.However, they do not control the substance � ows as a whole, and generally arevery limited in their ability to in� uence the crucial components of substancesinput to the system.
A Case Study: a regional cadmium inventory
The spatial dimension of the study in focus for this paper is the region ofOstergotland in the south of Sweden, an area of about 10 600 km2. The regionis divided into 13 municipalities , with about 5% of Sweden’s population. In the
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early 1990s, several of the local authorities had problems with high concentra-tions of cadmium in sewage sludge. The county administrative board thusinitiated a regional cadmium inventory. The perspective of local authorities andthe county administrative board naturally in� uenced the design of the SFA-model. Thus, the study emphasised stocks and � ows of cadmium of main interestto local authorities from a management perspective.
Results presented in this paper mainly illustrate the metabolism of cadmiumwithin the studied region during 1995. The time dimension for the study islimited to the period 1945–95, since cadmium did not become a commonly usedmetal in Sweden before 1945 (Bergback et al., 1994). Most SFAs, including thisone, are based on the aggregation of data from several different sources (cf. Voetet al., 1995; Udo de Haes, 1998). If regional data was not available, national datascaled down to the regional level were used. Contacts with representatives fromlocal authorities have also been useful sources. However, the use of severaldifferent data sources highlights the issue of how to handle uncertainties. In thestudy, some stocks and � ows, for example, were obtained from continuousmeasurements of speci� c parameters, while others result from the aggregation ofdata and more or less quali� ed assumptions. This implies that common statisticalmethods for evaluation of the results are not suitable. However, since the aim ofthis inventory is to illustrate an overall picture of cadmium within the statedsystem boundary, aggregation of data most probably provides a suf� cientpicture. For a further discussion of the handling of uncertainties in SFA, see forexample Hedbrant & Sorme (2001) or Bjorklund (2001).
To illustrate the interactions between different stocks, � ows and processes ofcadmium, they are linked together in a � ow chart, Figure 1. The � ow chartfocuses on depicting stocks, � ows and processes under possible in� uence fromlocal authorities. The � ow chart is divided into two main sections; technosphereand the surrounding environment, which here consists of atmosphere, hydro-sphere and lithosphere. The focus of the study has been on the technosphere.Broadly, the technosphere includes all activities in the region that are organisedand managed by humans. Furthermore, the region is not to be seen as a closedsystem, there are continuous � ows of cadmium into, within and out of thesystem. The fact that a � ow inside the system may be caused by a series ofactivities outside the system illustrates the complexity of the substance � ows.
During 1995, cadmium as a raw material and in products constituted thelargest in� ow of the metal, as shown in Figure 2. A company that producedmetal strips of a cadmium-copper alloy used in car-radiators was responsible foralmost the entire in� ow of cadmium as raw material. In 1995, this company usedalmost 20 000 kg of cadmium (Outokumpu Copper Radiator Strip AB, 1995).Since the majority of the produced metal strips were exported, there is aconsiderable out� ow of cadmium from the region. Accordingly, large amountsof cadmium simply pass through the region and only to a limited extentin� uence other cadmium � ows. However, today the world is an open market,and it is possibly to assume that a small share of these cadmium-copper alloyedmetal strips sooner or later will return to the region assembled in cars.
Cadmium is a common pollutant in zinc (Nilsson, 1996). Thus, the in� ow ofzinc may also result in an in� ow of cadmium. The manufacturing companies in
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FIGURE 1. Flow chart showing the interactions between stocks and � ows of cadmium in the studiedregion of Ostergotland, Sweden. Since the � ow chart has been drawn from a local authority
perspective, treatment of sewage and municipal solid waste (MSW) is in focus.
the region annually consume around 670 000 kg of zinc metal (calculated fromEnvironmental reports from zinc handling companies in Ostergotland in 1995).The cadmium concentrations vary from 0.0003–0.15% depending on the qualityof the zinc, with the majority falling in the lower part of the range (Nilsson,1996; SEPA, 1997). In the region studied, this would correspond to an annualin� ow of 20–1000 kg of cadmium. Because of the large uncertainty, this valueis not included in the � ow chart.
Industrial production generally generates residues and give rise to emissions.Today not much cadmium is released this way (Figure 2), but earlier industrialactivities, may have introduced large concentrations of cadmium into industrialland� lls, for instance related to mining and smelter operations in the region(Eklund & HaÊ kansson, 1997). It is dif� cult to make a reliable estimate of the
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FIGURE 2. (Kilogram) Flow chart illustrating the magnitude of stocks and � ows of cadmium in theregion of Ostergotland, Sweden, in 1995. All � ows illustrate the amount per year, and the stocks
include the period of 1945–95.
amount of cadmium in industrial land� lls in the region. The accumulated amountof cadmium in industrial land� lls in Sweden as a whole for the period 1940–90has been estimated to be 1600–1900 tonnes (Flyhammar, 1995). In the regionstudied, this would indicate a total accumulated amount of cadmium in industrialland� lls of 60 to 80 tonnes. However, due to earlier industrial mining andsmelting activities, the actual amount is most likely larger. The leakage ofcadmium from industrial land� lls in the region is not quanti� ed. However,according to a national study of cadmium in industrial land� lls, this � ow isestimated to be small (Flyhammar, 1995).
Even though the amount of cadmium emitted from industries in the regionwas rather small, the atmospheric deposition was much more extensive. About500 kg reached the region in 1995 (recalculated from Ruhling, 1995), of whichthe main part originated from distant sources (Ruhling, 1995). However, over thelong term there has been a general decrease of atmospheric deposition of themetal (cf. Ruhling et al., 1996).
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The second largest in� ow, cadmium in products, is distinguished in characterfrom the in� ow of cadmium in raw material. Whereas the in� ow of cadmium inraw material constitutes well-de� ned fractions with a rather high concentrationof cadmium, the in� ow of cadmium in products results from units that individ-ually are low in concentration of the metal. Cadmium has mainly been used in� ve applications: pigments, as a stabiliser for plastics, coatings, alloys and NiCdbatteries. The major category of the in� ow in products was found in NiCdbatteries (about 4900 kg of cadmium, calculated from SOU, 1996). There aretwo main types of NiCd batteries, open cells and closed cells. The closed cellsare the most common, and accordingly represent the major in� ow of cadmiumin NiCd batteries. After use there is a great difference in the rate of collectionbetween the two categories. Only about 30% of the closed cells are collected forrecycling, whereas almost 90% of the open cells are recycled (SOU, 1996).Together these two types of NiCd batteries constituted the second largest out� owfrom the region, corresponding to about 2000 kg of cadmium, see Figure 2. Theuse of cadmium in pigments, stabilisers and coatings has been restricted inSweden by legislation since the beginning of the 1980s. Nevertheless, there isstill a small in� ow of cadmium in such products. In all, cadmium in pigments,stabilisers and coatings as well as cadmium in zinc products caused an in� ow ofabout 100 kg cadmium to the region. Even though the use of cadmium inSweden has been restricted for almost three decades, many products manufac-tured before the legislation are still in use. This may be explained by the fact thatthe use of cadmium often has intended to extend the life of the products. Thelong lifetime of the products and the continuing in� ow of cadmium in newproducts together contribute to large amounts of cadmium accumulating in theregion. For the region studied, the stock of cadmium in products is estimated tobe about 70 000 kg, see Figure 2. The use of cadmium in products in� uencesother � ows. Cadmium in municipal solid waste (MSW) and sewage constitutestwo � ows, which in one way or another result from the use of cadmium indifferent products. Due to the long lifetime of these products, it is reasonable tobelieve that cadmium in MSW and sewage not only relates to the present use ofthe metal, but also to its use 10–15 years ago.
In a broad sense, all MSW generated in the region is brought to oneincineration plant. Furthermore, the incineration plant receives MSW and otherwaste categories, from several municipalities in southern Sweden. In all, wastefrom about half a million people or about 200 000 tonnes is annually incineratedat the plant. About 70% of this is MSW, and the remaining 30% is mainly plasticwaste from industries (Tekniska Verken, 1998). There are no data on the cadmiumcontent either in the MSW, or the plastic fraction of the waste. Hence, data fromother studies has been used. The content of cadmium in MSW varies in thesestudies from between 7 and 8.3 mg/kg (Aulin & Neretinieks, 1996, Flyhammar,1997, Hansen, 1996). However, due to the heterogeneous composition of MSW,these values are very uncertain. The amount of cadmium in waste could also becalculated from the composition of incineration residues. Brie� y, during inciner-ation, cadmium is divided between incineration residues, � y ash and bottom ash.However, the main part of the metal is found in the � y ash. In 1995 about 49 300tonnes of residues were generated, distributed between 3400 tonnes of � y ash
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and 45 900 tonnes of bottom ash (Tekniska Verken, 1995). Since there are nocontinuous measurements of cadmium in the � y ash at the studied incinerationplant, data from an incineration plant in Uppsala, Sweden, have been used, witha concentration of 124 mg Cd/kg � y ash in 1995 (Uppsala Energy, 1998).Recalculated, this corresponds to a total amount of about 420 kg cadmium in � yash. The concentration of cadmium in bottom ash from incineration of MSW isestimated to 5.6 mg/kg (Fallman & Hartlen 1994), corresponding to a totalamount slightly above 250 kg of cadmium. In all, this indicates that the amountof cadmium in the incineration residues is approximately 700 kg, as presented inFigure 2.
Today, all residuals generated at the incineration plant are deposited at theplant’s land� ll. The incineration plant has been in operation since 1984. Basedon the calculations that it annually receives about 700 kg of cadmium in thewaste, approximately 10 tonnes of cadmium were accumulated in 1995 on theincineration plant land� ll. The accumulated amount of cadmium in all municipalland� lls in the region is calculated to 70 tonnes (calculated from Flyhammar,1995). In spite of the large amounts of cadmium accumulated, there is almost noleakage of the metal from municipal land� lls, at least not in the short-termperspective (cf. Flyhammar, 1995). There are no measurements of leakage frommunicipal land� lls no longer in operation in the region. However, the leakagefrom municipal land� lls in operation is treated at municipal wastewater treat-ment plants and therefore monitored continuously . The total leakage of cadmiumfrom land� lls in operation was 0.1 kg in 1995 (County Administrative Board,1997). In comparison with the amount accumulated in land� lls this is almostinsigni� cant.
Treatment of sewage in the region is mainly centralised in 18 municipalwastewater treatment plants managed by the local authorities. These municipalwastewater treatment plants receive sewage from private households , smallindustries and public services. Due to the construction of the sewage system,there is an in� ow of surface water to the treatment plants. Sewage sludgegenerated in the municipal wastewater treatment plants is one of few � ows thatare monitored on a regular basis. The municipal wastewater treatment plants arerequired to report on the quality of produced sewage sludge to the countyadministrative board. The use of sewage sludge on arable land is restricted basedon the metal content and some organic substances in the sludge. During 1995,in all 30 kg of cadmium reached the municipal wastewater treatment plants inthe studied region. Of this, one-third remained in the sewage sludge and theremaining share reached the recipient. The main share of the sewage sludgeended up in land� lls and a small share was used in agriculture. The amount ofcadmium reaching arable land as a result of the distribution of sewage sludgemay be compared with the amount of cadmium in phosphorus fertiliser. The useof phosphorus fertiliser in agriculture in the same year resulted in a � ow of about50 kg of cadmium to the region’s arable land (calculated from Hydro Agri(1995), the major supplier of mineral fertiliser in Sweden). Historically, the � owof cadmium to arable land through use of phosphorus fertiliser has been muchmore extensive. In beginning of the 1970s, the average annual input of cadmiumfrom phosphorous fertiliser to Swedish arable land was 3.3 g Cd/ha (SOU,
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1992). For the studied region, this would correspond to a � ow of about 700 kgof cadmium to the arable land each year. According to Bergback et al. (1994),cadmium in phosphorus fertilisers is one of the main contributors to thesigni� cant stock of cadmium accumulated in arable land in southern Sweden.
Trends
The above description mainly focuses on the results from the regional cadmiuminventory of 1995. However, it could also be of interest to mention the changein stocks and some trends over the years. Even though the use of cadmium inseveral applications has been restricted in Sweden since the beginning of the1980s, the in� ow of cadmium to the stock in products is still considerable, asshown in Figure 2. From this stock there are then four main out� ows: cadmiumin waste, cadmium in collected NiCd batteries for recycling, cadmium in sewageto be treated, and cadmium in phosphorous fertiliser (see Figure 2). In all, thesecategories correspond to an out� ow of about 2600 kg of cadmium, and conse-quently there is an increase of the stock of cadmium in products by 2400 kg.
The stock of cadmium in municipal land� lls also shows an increasing trend.As discussed above, the annual in� ow to the stock is about 700 kg of cadmiumand there are no important out� ows with respect to magnitude. However, thesame discussion would most probably not be appropriate for the stock ofcadmium in industrial land� lls. Today, there are, as far as we know, only minorin� ows of cadmium into the industrial land� lls in the region, and the quality ofthe out� ows is most uncertain, when the stock of cadmium in industrial land� llsdoes not increase. The annual � ow of cadmium in sewage sludge is almost30 kg. This � ow was previously much more extensive, but due to advancedend-of-pipe technologies and elimination of sources there has been a decreasingtrend since the mid-1970s (Lindqvist-Ostblom & Eklund, 2001).
Integrative Approach to Interpretation in SFA
Identi� cation and quanti� cation of substance � ows, above termed as the secondphase of the SFA-methodology, often display a complex network of interactionsbetween different stocks and � ows. Hence, if the SFA is not to be used only asan inventory tool, the third phase of the SFA-methodology must deal with theinterpretation and valuation of the results in order to make use of the SFA formanagement purposes. The phase of interpretation in SFA may cover a widerange of aspects and have different focuses, however interpretation alwaysdepends on the context in which the study is performed. In order to improve thelink from SFA studies to environmental policy, Van der Voet et al. (1999)suggest a translation of stocks and � ows of substances into twelve indicators.1
The indicators can be classi� ed as those concerning the environment subsystemand those concerning the economy subsystem.
Interpretation in SFA may as well include a discussion about uncertainties.The quality of data used in SFA generally differs. Some data could be based onactual measurements of the substance studied, while others are more or lessquali� ed estimations of the content, e.g. in a certain product. This implies a wide
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FIGURE 3. Tentative framework for characterisation in SFA, sliding scale from interpretation tomanagement of substance � ows on a local level.
range regarding the certainty of the results. Besides, in order to calculate thestock or � ow of a substance, different data are often combined, which couldimply a loss in transparency regarding the quality of the data.
This paper suggests a tentative framework for the characterisation of sub-stance � ows and discusses whether and how they applied to the regionalcadmium inventory may contribute to the management process in the context oflocal authorities and regional administrations . The suggested strategy consists of� ve aspects on a sliding scale from being closer to interpretation to relating moreand more to management, as shown in Figure 3. However, by de� ning it as anopen framework it should be emphasised that other aspects may be added as wellas exchanged. Furthermore, no evaluation has been made regarding the relativeimportance of aspects. This is to a large extent dependent on the perspective ofthe observer, since it includes steps of valuation and prioritisation betweendifferent environmental issues, as well as prioritisation within problems regard-ing one substance. Thus, it must be considered as an assignment mainly for thepolitical community.
One of the major contributions of SFA is that it focuses on mass balances ofthe substance studied. Instead of expressing the occurrence of a substance byconcentration, the total amounts are expressed. From this follows, that � ows lowin concentration, previously not considered signi� cant from an environmentalpoint of view, may come into focus on account of their magnitude. Thus, the � rstaspect, quantities , is an obvious and important contribution from SFA. Thequantity of a stock tells something about the potential of a future pollutionproblem, but also gives an indication of resource aspects of the substance. Forinstance, if large amounts of a hazardous substance is accumulated in a land� lland no leakage takes place, it is still considered as a potential problem, becausethere is no guarantee that leakage will not occur in the future. By quantifying,vital information on the time dynamics and the mobility of the substance isincluded in the SFA. However, using this approach, some information values arelost and other values are gained. For instance, it can be dif� cult to compare theSFA to toxicological information that is expressed in relation to certain concen-trations of substances. Furthermore, the spatial variation within the region is notaccounted for, which is a crucial issue, especially from a toxicological perspec-tive. Hence, discussion about the magnitude of stocks and � ows must befollowed by a discussion about the risk of exposure to humans and theenvironment. A small � ow of a hazardous substance may cause more damage toorganisms in the environment than a large � ow of a less hazardous substance ormaterial. Moreover, the risk of exposure is related to where in the system and
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within what time scale the � ow occurs. Some substance � ows cause an instantrisk of exposure, while other stocks of substances could constitute a future riskfactor. This statement could be illustrated by the fact that large stocks of heavymetals in protected applications only cause negligible emissions, whereas minornon-protected applications could dominate the emissions of the metal (cf. Sormeet al., 2001). The valuation of the risks for exposure is not an objective processbut many of us emphasise risks especially related to human health due to theoccurrence of harmful substances, for instance in city air, food and drinkingwater.
The third aspect of the framework, the issue of resource economy, includes atleast two different alternative approaches. First, it may focus on the resourceaspect of the studied substance itself. This includes aspects such as identi� cationof dissipative losses of the substance, the build-up of stocks and potential forrecycling. Evaluating the quality of the recycling processes is a subject for anarticle of its own. Here, it is suf� cient to state that it is not enough that materialis recycled to ful� l the resource evaluation of the SFA, since degree of order(exergy) and material quality should be maintained to the largest extent in therecycling process (Conelly & Koshland, 1997).
However, important resource aspects do not have to immediately deal with thesubstance itself. Instead, the occurrence of a substance can restrict the use andrecycling of other substances, materials and products through in� uence as apollutant or because it affects technical characteristics. One way of expressingthis condition is restricting the technical � exibility of a substance, a material ora product. Maintaining technical � exibility, decreasing dissipative losses andenergy use, as well as optimising recycling are important not only for theenvironmental performance of a substance � ow, but also for the economicperformance of the actors involved. For instance, losing technical � exibilitymight lead to an increased volume of materials that have to be deposited on aland� ll, which has economic consequences.
When studying substance � ows within a system, it is interesting to considerif the � ows originating from the substance have function or not (cf. Guinee etal., 1999; Van der Voet et al., 1999).2 This ought to in� uence the priority ofoptions for the management of a substance � ow. The supply of raw material toa manufacturing company constitutes a substance � ow that has an immediatefunction, at least from the company’s perspective. An example of a non-func-tional � ow is the substance studied occurring as contaminant in a product.However, intentiona l � ows with function could cause emissions that in turn areunintentiona l and non-functional . There is no objective approach to the valuationof degree of function that a substance, material or a product has to differentindividuals . However, there are objective differences in terms of how easilysubstances can be substituted for others in different applications. When trying tobridge the gap between substance inventories and management, it is obvious thatthe identi� cation of undesired � ows without function should primarily be infocus.
The capacity to in� uence is an aspect that gathers very complex interactionsbetween economic, legislative , psychologica l and social aspects on environmen-tal management. It addresses the issue of who is responsible (if anyone) for the
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substance � ows, and to what extent the composition of these � ows may bein� uenced. If the four aspects above are mainly interpretation aspects, capacityto in� uence can be considered as an extension or a step further, towards themanagement of substance � ows. However, different actors (e.g. governmentalauthorities, companies and individuals) display very different conditions toin� uence � ows of substances. Therefore, before addressing this aspect, it isnecessary to clarify from whose perspective the aspect is assessed. In thiscontext Berkhout (1998) discusses the potential management of substance/ma-terial � ows from three standpoints : those actors concerned with the inputs (thefront end); those concerned with the � ows (throughput) ; and those concernedwith waste and emissions (the back end). Traditionally, back-end measures havebeen focused, such as disconnecting sources, when possible. However, thiswould not solve the problem, and would exemplify what Ayres (1994) terms‘quick-� x policies’. In these cases the focus is only on the symptoms ofproblems and measures taken generally just transfer the problem to another partof the system. Further, the number of actors and the heterogeneity of those actorsinvolved are important and generally govern the capacity to in� uence substance� ows. Despite the problems of this aspect, there are likely some generalcharacteristics that govern the potential to in� uence substance � ows. In general,a � ow that originates from only one or a few sources, such as emissions froma manufacturing company, is to a greater extent possible to in� uence than � owsoriginating from a large number of diffuse sources. An example of this could bethe atmospheric deposition of a substance originating from many sources spreadover a large area. So, the number of actors and the heterogeneity of the actorgroup are important and govern the capacity to in� uence substance � ows.
The Framework Applied to the Regional Cadmium Inventory
A basis for this paper is as mentioned a regional cadmium inventory, focusingon stocks and � ows of cadmium of interest to the regional and local authorities.In terms of quantities, the largest stocks of cadmium in the region studied are inproducts, on municipal land� lls and possibly on industria l land� lls. These stocksare of interest from a management perspective to the local authority, since theyconstitute potential sources of emissions. Furthermore, there is a continuousaccumulation of cadmium in these stocks and the local authorities thus have aninterest in identifying the � ows causing it. One can also state that traditionalpollution prevention strategies, such as end-of-pipe technologies , have beensuccessful in reducing point sources, such as from production, whereas thediffuse sources remain. Knowledge about the magnitude of stocks and � owscontributes to the local authorities’ possibilitie s for identifying hot spots andpredict future areas of interest.
The second aspect of the framework, risk for exposure to humans and theenvironment, can be illustrated by the � ow of cadmium in sewage sludge andcadmium in residues from incineration of MSW. No positive health effect hasbeen identi� ed for cadmium. In the non-smoking population in Sweden, food isthe most important source of the metal (Berglund et al., 1994; Jarup et al.,1998). Cadmium in sewage sludge constitutes a small � ow (see Figure 2).
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However, it is according to the restrictions (SEPA, 1994; Swedish Government,1998) enough to generate concentrations in the sewage sludge that prevent useon arable land. The incineration of MSW in an incineration plant in the regioncauses an accumulation of cadmium in the land� ll of the incineration plant. The� ow to the land� ll is in its magnitude much more extensive than the � ows tosewage treatment. At present, and probably in the near future, the leakage fromthe incineration residues is almost insigni� cant (cf. Flyhammar, 1995). Hence,the limited mobility of cadmium in the incineration residues and waste inland� lls contribute to there at present being small risk of cadmium exposure.Cadmium in waste is therefore of interest mainly because of its great quantitiesand not because of the risk for immediate exposure, which is the case for sewagesludge applied to arable land.
Since the early 1980s there have been restrictions regarding the use ofcadmium, and together with mercury and lead, cadmium has been identi� ed asa substance that newly produced products in Sweden should mainly be free of(Swedish Government, 1998). Hence, the aspect of resource economy is heremainly of interest from the perspective of cadmium in� uencing other sources.Nevertheless, an example where cadmium might be considered as a resource, orat least have a potential for recycling, is in NiCd batteries. Ayres (1997) statedthat it is fortunate that the use of cadmium is mainly restricted to NiCd batteries,since they can be recycled in contrast to many other, entirely dissipative uses.Since only about a third of the NiCd batteries are recycled in Sweden (SOU,1996) this could be seen as poor resource economy.
Seen from a management perspective of the local authority, it is crucial todecrease emissions to media that represent important resource values. Asmentioned, the occurrence of cadmium in sewage sludge may stop use of sludgeon arable land. This is an example of a substance decreasing the possibilitie s ofutilising a resource.
Cadmium lacks any biological function known, but its technical functions maybe disputable. It is, however, likely that cadmium can be substituted from atechnical perspective in most applications , while there might remain economicadvantages of cadmium, since it is mined as a by-product to zinc (Nilsson,1996). Seen from the perspective of the local authorities, all cadmium � ows arenon-functional . However, three � ows can be considered to be � ows withfunction from the perspective of other actors (i.e. in� ow of cadmium in rawmaterial for industrial production, the out� ow of cadmium in manufacturedproducts and cadmium in NiCd batteries, see Figure 2). All other � ows lackimmediate function. However, they are to a large extent a product of the desired� ows with a function. Flows without function may result from concentration ofdiffuse emissions of cadmium from several sources, for example cadmium inatmospheric deposition and cadmium in sewage. Flows without function couldalso be the result of dissipative use of the metal.
The capacity to in� uence obviously varies depending on whose perspective itis discussed. Considering the metabolism of cadmium in the studied region, onecan conclude that local authorities cannot in� uence most � ows by direct means.In� ows of cadmium both in products and from atmospheric deposition constituteexamples of � ows that require international agreements for reduction in magni-
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tude. The local authorities manage the sewage system and the collection andtreatment of MSW. However, their single capacity to in� uence sources ofcadmium to the wastewater treatment plant is rather small (Lindqvist-ostblom &Eklund, 2000). This is because the amount of cadmium in sewage mainly resultsfrom diffuse emissions of the metal caused by actions of all users of the system.A reduction of the � ows to the sewage system thus has to include a reductionof use in products, which is a very dif� cult assignment for the local authoritiesalone. The same conclusion is most likely valid for the capacity to in� uence� ows of cadmium to the incineration plant. Hence, instead of reducing thein� ows of cadmium the local authorities are restricted to back-end measures.Thus, there is a risk of focusing on the symptoms instead of the causes. Thecapacity of the local authority to in� uence cadmium � ows in the municipality ismainly through information to the residents and by informing the nationalgovernment of the importance of putting the issue on the international agenda.For the management of cadmium � ows there is as well a crucial connection tothe � ows of zinc. Since cadmium is extracted as a by-product of zinc, reductionsof cadmium � ows have to begin with a reduction of zinc (Van der Voet et al.,1994).
SFA in Environmental Management by Local Authorities
Since the focus has changed from production-relate d to product-related pol-lution, there is a need for local authorities to � nd new strategies in order tocontrol and manage � ows of substances like cadmium. SFA may provide animportant tool here, yet results from the inventory phase in SFA must beinterpreted and implemented. The open framework for characterisation discussedin this paper is an attempt to contribute to this development.
As illustrated in the application of the framework, characterisation of sub-stance � ows can contribute to improving the knowledge base for environmentaldecision-making in a local authority. The characterisation of substance � owselucidates the need for the local authority of including other actors besides theirown organisation in order to manage the substance � ows.
Even though SFA most likely would bene� t the decision-making process ofthese authorities, the approach is not yet commonly used in Swedish municipal-ities (Burstrom, 2000). This may indicate that the methodology of SFA is notbeing adapted to the speci� c needs and conditions of the local authorities(Lindqvist-ostblom, 2000) or other actors. Such adaptation of SFA is probablyimportant for its use to increase. Adaptation of SFA to local authorities mayinclude aspects such as the organisation of the practical work of the studies, thechoice of system boundaries and the choice of system components.
This paper has taken the perspective of the SFA methodology. However, onetool does not, for understandable reasons, have the potential of supporting in allmanagement situations . Hence, according to Udo de Haes et al. (1998) andBouman et al. (2000), it is of interest to consider the potential of SFA insupporting other environmental management tools. The aspects in the tentativeframework for characterisation have in this paper been presented individuallyand no evaluation has been done regarding which aspect is the most important.
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However, in environmental decision making it often comes to an attempt toevaluate what are the most important environmental issues to solve. Such anissue cannot be answered within the scope of SFA even though the results fromSFA are characterised and interpreted. The characterised results are to be seenas an improved knowledge base for environmental decision-making on differentorganisationa l levels as compared to traditional environmental monitoring or thepurely quantitative presentation of results from SFA.
Notes
[1] Indicators for substance chain management , according to Van der Voet et al. (1999), are: (1) theenvironment subsystem: concentration , daily intake, environmenta l accumulation, total emissions, deple-tion rate and (2) the economy subsystem: ef� ciency, use level, recycling rate, economic accumulation,economic dissipation, pollution export and disturbance rate.
[2] Close to the aspect of function is also the topic of intentional vs. unintentional substance � ows (Van derVoet et al., 1994).
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