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AReviewof“HerHonor:AnIslamicCritiqueoftheRapeLawsofPakistanfromaWoman‐Sensitive”Perspective
12 Aug
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Author AsifaQureshi Reviewers FrancescaSpidalieriNatashaLatiffAhsanBhattiEditor HelenaZeweriFront Cover Photo Reference DamonLynch(http://damonlynch.net) Produced by ManishaBasnet
©2012FeminIjtihadALLRIGHTSRESERVED
FeminIjtihadstandsfor"criticalthinking"ofgendernotionsandlaws.Itsaimistoresearchand share relevant and simplified academic scholarship on Muslim women's rights, toactivists and organizations working at the grassroots. Over the years, academic ideas andtheories have flourished the re‐understanding of women's rights.F.I.’s Research Programsfocuses on locating academic and activist articles, book chapters, orNGO‐produced reportsfrom a variety of disciplines (legal, theological, historical, anthropological, sociological,political science, and other social science methods) that analyze arguments on notions ofexegesis of Islamic texts; contemporary legal reforms inMuslim‐majority societies; variousforms of Muslim women’s resistance; Muslim women in literature; and programs thatempowermenaspartnersinwomen’srightsefforts.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CLASSIFICATION ........................................................................................................................................................1
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................................2
UTILITY.........................................................................................................................................................................31.ProblematicapplicationofZinaisaresultofselectiveinterpretationofIslamiclaw.............................3
2.RevisitingIslamicSourcesofLawtoReframetheOffencesofZinaandRape ............................................3
3.CounternarrativestoPatriarchalandDiscriminatoryDiscoursesonFemaleSexualityandHonor 4
4.Hiraba andjirahasactionabletoolfortheprosecutionofrape.......................................................................4
5.MaritalRape .............................................................................................................................................................................5
SYNOPSIS ......................................................................................................................................................................61.CritiqueofZinaOrdinance .................................................................................................................................................6
A.PowerofLaw:TheZinaOrdinanceanditsApplicationinPakistan...........................................................6
B.LawofGod:theQur’anonZina...................................................................................................................................6
C.PregnancyasaproofofZina ........................................................................................................................................8
D.DraftingProblemsintheZinaOrdinance...............................................................................................................8
2.ProblemswithZinaasTa’zir.......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.RapeinIslamicJurisprudence....................................................................................................................................... 11
EXTRACTS ................................................................................................................................................................. 141.CritiqueofZinaOrdinance .............................................................................................................................................. 14
A.PowerofLaw:TheZinaOrdinanceanditsApplicationinPakistan........................................................ 14
B.LawofGod:theQur’anonZina................................................................................................................................ 14
C.PregnancyasaproofofZina ..................................................................................................................................... 15
D.DraftingProblemsintheZinaOrdinance............................................................................................................ 16
2.ProblemswithZinaasTa’zir.......................................................................................................................................... 18
3.RapeinIslamicJurisprudence....................................................................................................................................... 19
4.Conclusion:AModernIslamicGender‐EgalitarianLawofRape?.................................................................. 21
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Classification
Audience: Members of the legislature, judiciary, lawyers and activists currently grappling
with zina, rape and family laws, which have criminalized women for zina onfrivolouscountsandmadeitnearly impossibleforamantobeconvictedofrape.This articlewill give background knowledge on the strict criminalization of zinaand arguments for using already‐existent tools in Islamic jurisprudence to argueagainstfrivolouschargesofzinaagainstwomen.
Nature of the article: Scholarlyarticle
Discipline:Lawandsocio‐anthropologyAbout the Author: Asifa Quraishi is a specialist in comparative Islamic law and U.S.
constitutional law at the University of Wisconsin. She holds a doctorate fromHarvardLawSchoolandotherdegreesfromColumbiaLawSchool,theUniversityofCaliforniaatDavis,andtheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,andhasservedaslawclerk inUnitedStatesCourtofAppeals for theNinthCircuit.Dr.QuraishihasservedasaPublicDelegateontheUnitedStatesDelegationtotheUnitedNationsCommissionontheStatusofWomen,ontheTaskForceonReligionandtheMakingofU.S.ForeignPolicyfortheChicagoCouncilonGlobalAffairs,andasadvisortothePewForumonReligion&PublicLife. Sheiscurrentlyonthegoverningboardsofthe National Association of Muslim Lawyers (NAML), Muslim Advocates, theJournalofLawandReligion,andtheAssociationofAmericanLawSchoolsSectionon Islamic Law. She also has long‐standing relationshipswith theMuslimYouthCamp of California, the Muslim Women's League, Karamah: Muslim WomenLawyersforHumanRightsandAmericanMuslimsIntentonLearningandActivism(AMILA).
Jurisdiction:Pakistan
Date of Publication:Winter1997 Citation: Abusharaf, Adila. “Women in Islamic Communities: The Quest for Gender Justice
Research.” Human Rights Quarterly,vol.28,no.3(August2006):714‐28.
Subject terms:Muslimwomen’s rights, IslamicCriminalLaw,RapeLaws,Pakistan, Islamicsacredtext(Qur’an),CulturalPatriarchy,IslamandState
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Abstract
ThisarticleanalyzesPakistan’s rape laws,enactedaspartof the “Islamization”ofPakistanilaw in 1979, andhow its loopholes andunjust application have led tomajor discrepanciesbetweena)theprinciplesthattheselawsweresupposedtodefendinordertoprotectwomenand,b)theirresultingimplementation.
Manyorganizations,lawyersandactivistsaregrapplingwithzina laws.Women,moresothanmen,areincreasinglybeingchargedwithzina andimprisoned,overfrivolousaccusationsoffornication. Rape cases, cases of runaway and instances where women remarry (withoutregistrationofpriordivorce)haveoftenbeenprosecutedincourtsaszina.Duetotheseverityand prevalence of these cases inmany countries, this articlewill be of immense utility forthosecurrentlygrapplingwith zina,rapeandfamilylaws,whichhavecriminalizedwomenonfrivolouscountsandmakeitnearlyimpossibleforamantobeconvictedofrape.Becauseofthe religious stamp of zina as a transgression against ‘the limits placed’ by God (hudood), many have found it difficult to argue for its reform. Quraishi’s article points out themisinterpretationsofzina andputsforwardanargumentforamoreequitableinterpretationthatiswithintheIslamiclegalframeworkbydrawinguponprimaryandsecondarysourcesofIslamiclaw.
In particular, she illustrates the deficiencies contained in the Ordinance on rape, itsevidentiaryrequirements,anditsineffectiveimplementation.ShefurtherinvestigatessomeofthetraditionalIslamicjurisprudenceonrape,andsuggeststhatitwouldbemorefeasibleformodernMuslimlegislatorstousethetoolsalreadyprovidedbyIslamicjurisprudencetocallfor strict legalandpracticalmeasuresagainst frivolouschargesofzinaagainstwomen,andcreateanoffenceofrapethroughthecrimesofhiraba (unlawfulandforcefultakingpropertyofothers:“sexualautonomy”)andjirah (civilcompensationtovictimuponbodilyharm).
Theauthorcontendsthattheinherentgender‐egalitariannatureofIslamisoftenoverlookedbyacademics,courts,andlegislatures,andthatit isthedeep‐rootedculturalpatriarchythathasshapedtheapplicationofcertainIslamiclawsinplaceslikePakistan,resultingintheveryinjusticewhichtheQur’an soforcefullycondemns.
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Utility
1. Problematic application of Zina is a result of selective interpretation of Islamic law Islam is often used as a justification tomaintain gender inequalities and entrenched socialhierarchies, includingpatriarchalsystems.Thisarticleencourages readers torecognize thatcertaindiscriminatorypracticesandunjustapplicationsofmodern lawsarenotnecessarilyrelatedtothecoremessageofIslam’ssacredtexts,butrathertotheselectiveinterpretationand unfair implementation of Islamic jurisprudence by traditional religious, political andjuridicalinstitutions.
2. Revisiting Islamic Sources of Law to Reframe the Offences of Zina and Rape AccordingtoPakistan’sHudood Ordinancesof1979,whichclaimedtocodifytheIslamiclawof unlawful sexual relations, the testimony of four Muslimmale witnesses is necessary toprovethe indictmentsofbothzina (extramaritalsexualrelations)and zinabiljabr (zina byforceorrape).Thismeansthatawomanwhoallegesrape,mustproducefourmalewitnessestothecrime.Ifthevictimisunabletoproducethis,herallegationwillbetakenasaconfessionof fornicationandthe intercoursewouldberegardedasbeingconsensual, therebychargingrape victims with the crime of zina. However, a closer examination of the Qur’anicunderpinnings of theZina Ordinance shows a severe distortion of the original context andintentofthetext.Infact,theconflationbetweenrapeandzina isaresultofstrippingthezina verses from its linguisticandhistorical contextand from its relationwithotherethical andspiritualprinciplesinIslam.
In addition to the requirement of four witnesses, theQur’an andHadith (traditions of theProphetp.b.u.h)stipulatesapunishmentof80lashesforanysmalldiscrepancywithregardsto the testimonies. This evidentiary burden and heavy punishment was revealed with theintention ofmaking it almost impossible for others to falsely accusewomen of adultery, aslander so often used against women in many communities when a woman’s honour isintrinsicallytiedtoherandherfamily’sdignity. TheQur’anicversesareclearon themischief itdetermined toaddress. Itsversescouldnothavebeenintendedtosituationsofrape.NotonlyistheliteralmeaningoftheQur’anicversesunequivocalonthis,butsoare thereasonsbehind itsrevelation, theactionsof theProphetMuhammad,(p.b.u.h)andthewayinwhichthelawofzina hasbeenarticulatedtofulfillotherIslamic principles of mercy, repentance and right of privacy. However, drafters of theOrdinanceincludedtheconceptofnon‐consensualsexasasubcategoryofthecrimeofzina.Indeed,theauthorarguesthat“the zinabiljabr language is nearly identical to the old common law of rape in Pakistan,” borrowed by British criminal law and simply relabeled under theMuslimheadingofzina.ThissubcategorizationdoesnotaccuratelyarticulatetheIslamiclawonrape.Therecognitionandunderstandingofhow rape has been falsely construed as zina
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in modern Islamic laws can enable activists to engage in the reform of substantive andprocedurallawrelatingtorapeandzinathatbetterreflectQuranicinjunctionsonthematter. ThisarticlealsoexposestheremarkablerangeanddepthwithinShariahwhichenablesmoreprogressive interpretations of the law in a way that is not gender‐exclusive. Readers willrecognizethatoperativelawrelatedto womenisnotsomuchareflectionofdivinewillbutratheraninterpretativeoutcomeofthatwill.
3. Counter narratives to Patriarchal and Discriminatory Discourses on Female Sexuality and Honor The surrounding discussions in the article also offer arguments that could be used topatriarchalanddiscriminatorydiscoursesonfemalesexuality,honourandconsent.Throughciting the Quran and the Prophet’s traditions, a case is made for Islam’s disapproval oftreatingwomen’s bodies as a repositories of honour and shame, aswell as usingwomen’sbodiesasphysicalanddiscursivesitesfordishonouringherfamily,hertribeandherdignity;callingupontheQuranicinjunctioninChapter24,thatitis‘notforustospeakof’.
4. Hiraba and jirah as actionable tool for the prosecution of rape As defined by the author, “rape is not consensual sexual intercourse, but a violent assaultagainstavictim,manorwoman,wheretheperpetratorusessexasaweapon.”Islamiclawcanaddressrapeasanindependentcriminaloffencetobeprosecuted(underhiraba)andallowscivil compensation to rape survivors (under jirah). Hiraba is a violent crime of forcefulusurpationofthevictim’spropertyandthiscanberegardedastheusurpationofthevictim’ssexualautonomy.Unlikezina, anoffenceof immorality, rape isacrimeofpower,deceptionandviolenceoveraweaker subject.The re‐locationof rapeunderhiraba thuscaptures thecriminalityorwrongnessbehindrapemoreappropriately than the lawofzina does. It alsorefocusescourtattentiontothemensreaandactusreusoftheallegedoffenderratherthanspeculatinginvolvementofzina ontheclaimant’spart.Inlobbyingfortheuseofthistoolaslegalresponsetorape,activistsshouldemphasizethatthefocusinacriminalprosecutionforhiraba would be the accused rapist and his intent and physical actions, and not second‐guessingtheconsentoftherapevictim.Moreover,Hiraba doesnotrequirefourwitnessestoprove the offense, so circumstantial evidence, medical data and expert testimony wouldratherformtheevidenceusedtoprosecutesuchcrime.Islamic jurisprudence provides an avenue for civil redress through its law of jirah (bodilyharm) to survivors of rape.. Islamic law designates ownership rights to each part of one’sbody, and a right to corresponding compensation for any harm done unlawfully to any ofthose parts. Harm to a sexual organ, therefore, entitles the person harmed to appropriatefinancialcompensationunderclassicalIslamicjirah jurisprudence.EachschoolofIslamiclawhas held thatwhere awoman is harmed through sexual intercourse (some includemaritalintercourse), she is entitled to financial compensation for the harm. Further, where this
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intercoursewaswithouttheconsentofthewoman,theperpetratormustpaythewomanboththe basic compensation for the harm, as well as an additional amount based on the diyya (financial compensation formurder, similar to awrongfuldeathpayment).Activists shouldthus help victims of rape to claim in their courts of law either instead of, or in addition tohiraba punishmentagainsttherapist,acompensationfortheirordealundertheprincipleofjirah.OrganizationscanfurtherexplorewaysinwhichmodernIslamiclegislationcouldspecificallydefinethecrimeofrapeasaformofhiraba,andwhatcombinationofhiraba andjirah shouldapply in any given situation and society. This ongoing effort must be undertakensimultaneouslywithanyofficiallegislativeamendments,inordertoenforcesuchlegislation,which in turn will bring the spirit of the Qur’anic verses honouring women to what Dr.Quraishibelievesshouldbetheirquintessentialeffect. ThearticlewouldbeusefultoactivistswhoarepresentlyaccumulatingmaterialsontherapelawsofdifferentIslamicRepublicsforcomparativeanalysistobeusedintheirpublicationsasinstructionsonhowIslamiclawismisconceivedbytheapparatusesofpoliticalandStatepower.
5. Marital Rape
Activists can further encouragedebates among Islamic legal scholars andpolicy‐makersonwhether a husband is obliged to pay his wife when she is physically harmed from sexualintercourse,andthusonwhetherIslamicjurisprudencerecognizesmaritalrape.Theanswersto fundamental questions, such as “Is there a recognition of marital rape in Islam?, canconsent be presumed by virtue of marital relationship? or is compensation due upon thecommitment of harm, regardless of the consent ?”, may also generate greater civic andjuridicalengagement.
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Synopsis
1. Critique of Zina Ordinance
A. Power of Law: The Zina Ordinance and its Application in Pakistan The Hudood Ordinance brought forward in the Zia Martial Law administration was acrudeattempttojointhetwooutstretcheddotsonthesameline.TheOrdinancesetforthfeloniessuchastheft,rape,adulteryandslanderandalcoholconsumption.(1)
TheoffenceofZina/adulterywasoutlinedintheZinaOrdinanceas:
1. Whenamanandwomanhave illicit sexual intercoursewithoutbeingmarried toeachother.
2. Itisliabletohaddpunishmentifcommittedbyanadultmanofsanemind.3. It iscommittedbyanadultsanewomanwhodoesnotsuspectthemantobeher
husband.(2)
TheZinaordinancealsocontainstheoffenceofrapeanddefinesitas;Zina‐bil‐Jabr:1. A person is said to commit Zina‐bil‐Jabr if he/she has sexual intercoursewith a
man/womaniftheactiscarriedoutagainstthevolitionofthevictim.2. Rapeisalsocarriedoutunderduress.3. Penetrationissufficienttoconstituteasanoffence.ApersonchargedwithZina‐bil‐
Jabristobeaccordedwithhaddpunishment.(2) Furthermore, evidentiary requirements to prove the offence are outlined for both theoffencesas:
1. Theaccusedconfessesinacourttohavecommittedtheact.2. 4maleeye‐witnessestotestifytheactofpenetration.(2)
An interesting loophole in the evidential requirements for Zina‐bil‐Jabr is that where forinstance4witnessesarenotavailable,thecourtsseemtoholdinherentprejudiceagainstrapevictims i.e.women.Thecourtshave thusheldsexual intercourseasapprovedby thevictimandsentencedthemforZinainstead.(Seeillustrationintheextractsbelow)(3)
B. Law of God: the Qur’an on Zina The preamble of the Pakistani Zina Ordinance states that it is enacted to modify theexistinglawrelatingtoZinasoastobringitinaccordancewiththeQuraniclaws.
o HoweverthewritercontendsthatthetermZina‐bil‐Jabr(rape)isaninnovationofthedraftersoftheOrdinance.
o To evaluate the correctness of this term and its sub‐categorisation under ZinaOrdinance, we must thereupon briefly peek through the Quranic law of Zina:
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The termappears in theQuranwhere itwarns its followers to refrain from fornication(Zina)asitisanevilandimmoraldoing(17:32).(4)
TheQuranthenprescribesthesentenceforthosewhocommitthissini.e.fornicationbystatingthat:
o The adulteress and adulterer should be flogged a hundred lashes each and thepunishmentshouldbewitnessedbyabodyofbelievers(Qur’an24:2)(4)
o TheQuranthusmakesitbindingonMuslimstofollowthefloggingofanoffenderstrictlyandfurtherrequiresittobemadepublic.
Moreover,theQuranalsoassignsrigorousevidentialrequirements,forthisoffencetobeproved:
o It states that thosewho defame chaste women and do not bring four witnessesshouldbepunishedwitheightylashes,andtheirtestimonyshouldnotbeacceptedafterwards,fortheyareprofligates(Qur’anat24:4).
Additionally,theIslamiclawrequireswitnessestobesane,matureandofagoodcharacter(Salama 1982, 109; El‐Awa 1982). The defendant’s privacy carries a unique andparamountpositionwhichifbreachedwouldrenderthetestimonyvoid.(5)
TheQuestionthatfollowstheseargumentsis,whyaretheresomanyrestrictionsimposedbytheIslamicscholarsonevidentiaryrequirements?
The justificationheld behind is that persecutionwill only take placewhere four peopleactuallywitnessed the offenders committing the crime in public. The argument furtherdevelops then thatwhilst theQuran prohibits “extra‐marital” sexual relations, it on thesamehandpropoundstheprosecutionofthiscrimeonlywhencommittedsopubliclythattherequirednumberofwitnessesseethemwithoutinterferingwiththeirprivacy.
TheversesinQuranseverelycondemnthosewhoslanderregardingtheoffenceofZina.
TheQuranstates:Whydidtheynotbringfourwitnesses(insupportoftheircharge)?Andsincetheydidnotbringthefourwitnesses,theyarethemselvesliarsinthesightofGod.Whydidyounotsaywhenyouheardit:"Itisnotforustospeakofit?Godpreserveus,itisagreatcalumny!"(5)
o Godcounselsyounottodoathinglikethis,ifyouarebelievers(Qur’an24:11‐17).(5)
The arguments turn to discuss the paramountcy of preserving women’s honour anddignity.
AninstanceoftheProphets’wifeHazratAishaismentionedwhenshelaggedbehindthecaravanandrumoursspreadofhertimealone.Howevertheaboveverseswererevealedtoputanendtothecontroversy.(seeextractsbelow)(6)
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o The writer claims that the verse (Qur’an 24:4) highlighted above accordingpunishment for committing slander, is directed atmen to refrain from any suchaccusations and establishes the principle that there be no speculation over awoman’sfidelity.(6)
C. Pregnancy as a proof of Zina • GiventheQuran’sstrictstandardofproofforaZinacase,onemightnowwonderwhethertheconvictionsofwomenlikeJehan,MinaandSafiaBibiforZinaontheevidenceoftheirpregnancyalonecouldbejustifiedbyIslamiclaw.(7)
• TheIslamicjurisprudenceisoftheopinionthatpregnancyaloneisnotsufficient,toprovetheallegationsofZina:
o Theindispensiblerequirementoffourwitnessesmustbefulfilled.o Somewritersontheotherhandexpressthatpregnancydoesnotamounttoproof
ofillegitimatesexualrelationswhenthewomanisneithermarriednorhasclaimedrape.
o ItisreportedthatImamMalikandHanbalheldunmarriedpregnancyasevidenceforZinaandisbaseduponthepracticesofthelastthreeCaliphsasthat"adulteryispublicwhenpregnancyappearsorconfessionismade"(Salama1982,121).(7)
o This rationale thewriter argues is controversial. She suggests that although thisnotion does encapsulates the idea that the real offence in Zina is the publicexposure and indecency. Nevertheless it fails to capture the latent bias againstwomen.It is indicatedinthearticlethattheabovenotionisadamanttotakeintoaccountthemedicaladvancementssuchasinsemination.
o Moreover, thewritercontends that itputs theburdenofproofagainstwomanasshe has to prove that the intercourse was non consensual in order to avoid aprosecution forZina.Thisputs thewomantoproveher innocenceandguardherhonour against such allegations which do not meet the Quranic four witnessrequirements.
D. Drafting Problems in the Zina Ordinance AsitappearsthereisnomentionofZina‐bil‐Jabr(rape)intheQuran.Zinaisestablishedasacrimeof“publicindecency”inQuran.(8)On theotherhandrape isdeliberatelyomitted in theQuranon theunderstanding that it isonetobereprimandedbythecommunitywhethercommittedinpublicornot.• Thence rape does not fall under the category of Zina. Quraishi argues that rape is areprehensible act which should be prevented by the community therefore it does notbelongtothecategoryofpublic indecentcrimeofZina.NeverthelesstheZinaOrdinancebyaccommodatingZina‐bil‐Jabrasa sub‐category to ithasbeendraftedcontrary to theQuranicexclusion.
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• ItmakesonewonderhowwastheZina‐bil‐JabrpartincludedintheZinaOrdinance?• ItisassertedthatZina‐bil‐JabrdoesnotreflecttheidealsofIslamicjurisprudenceratheritismoreonthelinesandborrowedfromthecommonlawoffenceofrape.
o TheoldcommonlawPakistanirapestatuteread:Amanissaidtocommit"rape"ifhehassexualintercoursewithawoman:
1. Againstherwill2. Withoutherconsent3. Underduress
• withagirlundertheageof14etc4. There isanexception to itwhich is thatsexual intercoursebyamanwithhis
wife,thewifenotbeingunder13yearsofageisnotrape(PakistanPenalCode1860,sec.375).(8‐9)
o Besidestheexceptionpart,theremainingpartoftheHudoodOrdinanceisareplicaoftheCommonlawoffenceofrape.Thewriterscriticizesthisactof“copy‐pasting”thesecularlawoftheBritishimposedlegalsysteminIndiawiththeonlyexceptionbeingtheinclusionoftherequirementoffourwitnessesintheHudoodOrdinance.(9)
o This unintelligible effort by the drafters of the Ordinance to preserve rape ascriminaloffenceinthePakistani lawdoesnotcasttheIslamiccriminal lawhencecouldneverbejusttowomen.
I. Sexuality and Suspicion
The writer talks about USA’s rape law and how its male‐oriented misconceptionsregarding thewomen’s reputation affect the courts to analyse the issue of consent in acaseattheirdisposal.(9)
It is furthermore,emphasised that thispeculiarsituationbecomesadversewhentalkingabout Pakistan. The inclusion of rape under the Zina Ordinance directs women’sunsuccessfulclaimstorapeassomeformof“defaultevidence” forZina.Hence it isveryplausible that a claim of rape by a woman could be considered as a “loose women’sattempttoescapepunishmentforZina.”(9)
Itisfurthersubmittedthatfemalesexualstereotypesexacerbatethesituation.CitingthestatementofajudgefromthePakistaniShariatcourt(seeextractsbelow).
o Thewriterexclaims thatsuchobservations fromanesteemed incumbencyrevealtheprimarypatriarchalprejudicesagainstwomeninPakistan.Thisinturnleadstothe formingofmisperceptions that sexualencounterwasmutual since therewasnoevidenceof retaliationby thewoman.Consequentlya considerableamountofjudgmentsinvolvingrapeinPakistanicourtshavebeenconvertedintoZina,duetoalackofevidenceofsuchresistance(Jilani1992,72).(9)
o Surprisinglysuchspeculationofwomen’scharacterbythejudicialbodiesandthe
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generalpublicdoesnotcoincidewiththeQuraniccondemnationwhereitsays“itisnotforustospeakof.”Thewriterremarksthat“theintertwiningofrapewithZinainthePakistaniordinanceencouragessuchspeculations.(9)
II. Bearing Witness
The Quran ordains the witnesses required for Zina cases to be 4 and the IslamicJurisprudencefurtherprovidesguidanceoverthetraitsofsuchwitnesses.
However the Zina Ordinance adds limitations to the Quranic evidential requirements,restrictingitstrictlytomenonly.Thatis,thestandardofproofintheZinaOrdinanceforZinaorZina‐bil‐jabriseitherconfessionortestimonyby"atleastfourMuslimadultmalewitnesses."
On the otherhand theQuranic requirement of 4 eye‐witnesses is not restricted tomenalone.Itusesthepluralterm“shuhada”whichentailsbothmenandwomen.(10)
ThedeliberateexclusionofwomentogiveevidenceinZinacasesfromtheOrdinancethenleadsto itsquestioning.NotwithstandingtheQuranicprovisionsmost Islamicschoolsofthoughtand juristshaveexcludedwomenperceiving themunfit for renderingevidence.On the other hand, some famous jurists, such as al‐Tabari, Ibn Taymiyya, and Ibn al‐Qayyimhaveheldotherwise.(10)
o The underlying reasoning appears to be that on several instances in Quran, itdeems the evidence of 4men and on these same similar instanceswomen havebeenbarredfromsuchprivilege.
o Nonetheless thewriter is of the view that literateMuslimswould not hold suchimprudent views regarding women and would rather discard claims of womenbeingintellectuallyinferiortomenorlesscapableincharacter.
o Thisrestrictionoftestimonylimitedonlytomenisbaseduponoutdatedcustomswhichratherthanevolvingalongthetimeshasretaineditsform.
o However in the recent years, steps have been taken to re‐evaluate this longestablishedcustomandithasbeenconcludedbysomejuriststhatwomencanverymuch take part in all aspects of life and that it was in accordance with Islam.(Ghadbian1995,27).Amongthemanyproponentswhoholdsuchviews,afewareHasan al‐Turabi of Sudan, Rachid al‐Ghanouchi of Tunisia, and Muhammad al‐GhazaliandYusufal‐QaradawiofEgypt.(12)
2. Problems with Zina as Ta’zir
Islamiccriminallawrecognisestwocategoriesofcrimeandpunishment.
The first, known as hudood, encompasses crimes specifically articulated by God in theQur’anandthroughthehadith.(13)
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Islamic jurisprudence however acknowledges that society may need legislation foradditionalcrimesandpunishments.Thesecommunitylegislatedcrimesandpunishmentsarecalled"ta’zir."(13)
o Ta’zircrimescansometimescarrymuchlighterevidentiaryorsentencingschemesthanQur’anichudoodcrimes.
o In Pakistan, since the rigid 4male‐eyewitnesses standard of proof is difficult tomeet, it hasbecome increasingly conventional for zina cases tobeprosecuted asta’zircrimes,asopposedtohudoodcrimes.
o One undeniable effect of the ta’zir prosecutions in Pakistan has been to allowwomen’stestimony.
o The Quranic verse (Qur’an 24:4) envisages the likelihood of adultery allegationsbeingbroughtagainstwomenforwantof4eye‐witnessesandthusdenouncesitasslander. Since Zina is the only hadd crime for which the Quran itself proscribespunishment for lack of evidence, it follows that the ZinaOrdinance by acceptingprosecutionofZinaasta’zirpunishment,contravenestheQuranicideals.(14)
3. Rape in Islamic Jurisprudence The stringent requirement of 4 male witnesses for the offence of Zina certifies thepreservationofbothmenandwomen’sdignity.
When illicit sexual activity takes place privately, it is a matter between man and God,whilstifitispublicitistobeprosecutedbythesociety.(15)
On theotherhand, this same rationaldoesnot apply to rape. In rape it is not theopenexhibition of the act that is important rather it is the act itself which is condemnablewhethercommittedinpublicorprivately.
Rapeisanassaultagainstthevictim,where its imposeruses“sexasaweapon.”ThusfarfromthediscussionitbecomesknownthatrapeisnotmentionedanywhereintheQuran.(15)
WheredoesrapefinditsrootsintheIslamicjurisprudencethen? I. Duress: Rape as a Negation of Intent for Zina
IslamicjuristsrecognisethatwhereoneormorepartiesareinvolvedinZinaunderduress,theywillnotbechargedforZina.(15)
It is reported that this principle was developed through a tradition of the ProphetMuhammad pbuh. A woman once reported to the Prophet that she was compelled tocommitadultery.Hedidnotpunishherbutdidprosecutetheculprit.(15)
ThefocusoftheIslamicjurisprudenceisonduressasnegatingintent,whichineffectleadstotheacquittalofthevictim.(15)
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Furthermore,itissubmittedthatcontrarytothePakistanilaw,IslamiclawhasclassifiedrapeasadistinctcrimefromZinaandfallsunderHirabacrimes.
Compensationcanalsoberecoveredbythevictimofrapeunderjirah.
II. Hiraba: Rape as a Violent Taking
HirabaisahaddcrimeashighlightedintheQuran.
Ithasbeendescribedas"forcibletaking,""highwayrobbery,""terrorism,"or"wagingwaragainstthestate.(15)
o Islamicscholarshavedefineditasthetakingofsomekindofpropertybyforce.o ItisdifferentfromregulartheftinthattheQur’aniccrimeoftheft(sariqa)isthe
takingbystealthwhereashirabaisatakingbyforce.(16)o ThewholereviewofthetraditionalIslamiclawrevealsthatrapeisnotasub‐
categoryofZinaratherisanindependentcrimeunderhiraba.o ThewriterassertsthatsinceIslamholdsanindividual’ssexualautonomyof
profoundsignificance,thetakingbyforceofsomebody’spropertyishencepreciselycategorisedunderhiraba.
o Itfurtherappearsthathirabadoesnotrequiretheevidentiaryrequirementof4witnessestoprovetheoffense.(16)
o Howevercircumstantialandexpertevidenceprovidesgroundfortestimonieswhichinturnisutilisedtochargetheoffenders.
o DNAtestingandforensicevidencearetwoofthemethodsthatcouldbeusefulforcontemporaryhirabaprosecutionsofrape.(17)
III. Jirah: Rape as Bodily Harm
WhereIslamiclawclassifiesrapeasahirabaoffenseitalsoprovidesforamechanismtocompensatethevictimthroughthelawofjirah(wounds).(17)
Islamiclawallowscompensationforharmcausedunlawfullytoaperson’spropertywhetheri.e.bodilyorotherpossessions.
o Itfollowsthatcompensationisallowedforinjurytobodypartsofavictimofrape.o AllIslamicschoolsofthoughthold,thatfinancialcompensationmustbepaidtothe
personsubjectofrape.o Thewriterthusholdsthatsincerapecouldoccurwithouttheagreementofthe
victim,theclassificationofrapeunderjirahisrenderedareasonableone.o ItisfurthercontendedthatsinceIslamholdsanindividual’ssexualautonomyasa
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constituentcomponentofitsbodilyintegrity.Itcouldbearguedthatanunlawfulinterferencewithone’ssexualorganswouldconstituteharmdespitetherebeingnosignofphysicaldamage.
o Furthermoreitissuggestedthatthemodernlegislatorscouldincorporatebesideshirabapunishmentagainsttherapist,compensationtoawomanunderjirah.(17)
4. Conclusion: A Modern Islamic GenderEgalitarian Law of Rape?
TopicsinternationallyandnationallyconcernedgroupsshouldexaminewhenplanningonworkingfortheimprovementofstatusofwomenacrossdifferentMuslimcommunities:
o Struggleofwomenagainstpowerfulvariables,suchasstrictfatwao Differentlegalsystemsestablishedbythediscourseofreligiousinstitutionso Possibilitiesforwomentonegotiatetheirrolesandrightso Socio‐legal status of Muslim women in specific regions to use for comparative
analysisandsocio‐legalstudiesinothercommunitiesorcountries(727).
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Extracts
1. Critique of Zina Ordinance
A. Power of Law: The Zina Ordinance and its Application in Pakistan (b) at least four Muslim adult male witnesses, about whom the Court is satisfied, havingregard to the requirements of tazkiyah al‐shuhood [credibility of witnesses], that they aretruthfulpersonsandabstainfrommajorsins(kaba’ir),giveevidenceaseye‐witnessesoftheactofpenetrationnecessary to theoffence(P.L.D.1979,53;Bokhary1979,182;MajorActs1992,12). A few cases will disturbingly illustrate the concern. In 1982, fifteen‐year‐old Jehan Minabecamepregnantasaresultofareportedrape.Lackingthetestimonyoffoureye‐witnessesthat the intercourse was in fact rape, Jehan was convicted of zina on the evidence of herillegitimatepregnancy(Minav.State,1983P.L.D.Fed.ShariatCt183).Herchildwasborninprison(Mehdi1990,25).Later,asimilarcasecausedpublicoutcryanddrewpublicattentiontothenewlaw.In1985,SafiaBibi,asixteen‐year‐oldnearlyblinddomesticservantreportedthatshewasrepeatedlyrapedbyherlandlord/employerandhisson,andbecamepregnantasaresult.Whenshechargedthemenwithrape,thecasewasdismissedforlackofevidence,asshewas theonlywitnessagainst them.Safia,however,beingunmarriedandpregnant,waschargedwithzinaandconvictedon thisevidence (Bibiv. State,1985P.L.D.Fed.ShariatCt.120).5 YetanotherappallingexampleisofShameem,whoallegedthatshewasrapedbythreemen.ThePoliceratherthancatchingtheperpetratorsarrestedShameeminsteadandchargedherwithZinasinceherfamilycouldnotpaythefeesetforherrelease.Whileinpolicecustodyshewas re‐raped by the three more barbarous men (Amnesty International 1993, 11‐12).Ineffectivenesson thepartof thepoliceandother civil institutions toprovidewomenwithjusticehasbeen indubitablyapparent fromsimilarcases.Whatcanoneexpect fromaStatelikePakistan,wheretheprotectorsofthelawthemselvesbreakandlaughatthelawwhichisequallyapplicabletothemasitistoothercitizens.
B. Law of God: the Qur’an on Zina Therequirementoffoureye‐witnessesseemstobe“insurmountable”asthewritersuggestsandthroughvariouscaseillustrationsitbecomesapparentthatsuchrequirementshaveonlybeenusedtodiscriminateagainstwomen. TheIslamicjurisprudenceunanimouslyhasrequiredtheactualwitnessingofthepenetrationbyfourpeople.ThisinterpretationisbasedonahadithofMuhammad(pbuh)whereafteramanpersistedinconfessingtoadultery(theProphethavingturnedawaytoavoidhearingthe
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informationseveraltimesprior),Muhammadaskedseveralspecificquestionstoconfirmthattheactwasindeedsexualpenetration(Bukhari1985,8:528‐35(Bk.82,Nos.806,810,812‐814). This finds support in Cherif Bassiouni declaration: "the requirement of proof and itsexigenciesleadtotheconclusionthatthepolicyoftheharshpenaltyistodeterpublicaspectsofthisformofsexualpractice"(Bassiouni1982,6) ThisanalysisisconsistentwiththetoneoftheQur’anicverseswhichimmediatelyfollowtheabove verses regarding zina. After the verses establishing the crime and the attendantstandardofprooftheQur’anstates:Thosewhospreadlieswereacliqueamongyou.Donotthinkitwasbadforyou:Infactithasbeengoodforyou.Eachofthemwillpayforthesinhehascommitted,andhewhohadgreatershare(ofguilt)willsuffergrievouspunishment. Whydidthefaithfulmenandwomennotthinkwelloftheirpeoplewhentheyheardthis,and[say]"Thisisaclearlie?" WereitnotforthegraceofGodandHismercyuponyouinthisworldandthenext,youwouldhavesufferedagreatafflictionforthefalseaccusation. Whenyoutalkedaboutitandsaidwhatyoudidnotknow,andtookitlightly–thoughinthesightofGoditwasserious– TheQuranicversesproposeMuslimsnot toreact toanysuchpublicmisbehaviour i.e.Zina.This conceptwas reiteratedbyMuhammad’s hadithwherehewasnotwilling to allow theconfessionofaman foradultery.Thus it isargued that theQuranprohibits its followers tobecomeinvolvedinotherpeople’spersonalmatters. Placing these Qur’anic verses into context will further emphasize the importance of thisconcept in Islamic law, and inparticular, its close connection to thedignityofwomen.Theverses setting forth the crime of zina and the accompanying verses denouncing publicdiscussionofthematterwererevealedjustafterthefamous"AffairoftheNecklace,"inwhichMuhammad’swife, Aisha,wasmistakenly left behind by a caravan in the desertwhen shewentlookingforalostnecklace(al‐Tabari1910,18:86‐101;al‐‘Umari1991,2:82‐84).25Shereturnedhomewitha young singlemanwhohadhappeneduponher andgivenher a ridehome.RumoursofAisha’stimealonewiththismanspreadquicklythroughoutthesmalltownofMedina,untiltheaboveversesfinallyendedthegossip.Thus,theveryrevelationoftheseverseswaspromptedbyanincidentinvolvingattacksonawoman’sdignity–Aisha’shonour.
C. Pregnancy as a proof of Zina Moreover,theQur’anicinsistenceonfourwitnesses,aswesawearlier,establishesthattheactof intercoursemust be public, not its consequences. It is public sexwhich is deterred, notpublic pregnancy. A pregnant woman looks the same in public, whether the pregnancyoccurred from rape, zina, or legal marital intercourse, and in modern societies of large
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populations,itisgenerallynotobviouswhichofthesethreeappliestoapregnantwomanonthe street. Nor, indeed, should the public (or courts) speculate about it without solideyewitness proof of the actual act of penetration, according to Islamic law. Furthermore,pregnancy is something which only applies to women. If pregnancy alone constitutessufficientevidenceofzina,theresultseemstoforgetthattheverypurposeofthezinaversesistoprotectwomen’shonour.Women,again,tendtobemoresusceptibletoaccusation,andthe Qur’an addresses this susceptibility directly, by enjoining any charges against womenwithoutsolidproof.Ifpregnancyisallowedassufficientproofofzina,apregnantadulteresswill be convicted without any testimonial proof, while her adulterous partner escapespunishmentwithhisreputationintact.Thewoman‐affirmingspiritofthezinaversesislost.
D. Drafting Problems in the Zina Ordinance TheoldcommonlawPakistanirapestatuteread:Amanissaidtocommit"rape"who,exceptinthecaseshereinafterexcepted,hassexualintercoursewithawomanundercircumstancesfallingunderanyofthefollowingdescriptions:–
With her consent or when her consent has been obtained by putting her in fear ofdeathorofhurt.
Withherconsentwhenthemanknowsthatheisnotherhusbandandthatherconsent
isgivenbecauseshebelievesthatheisanothermantowhomsheisorbelievesherselftobelawfullymarried.
With or without her consent, when she is under [fourteen] years of age.
Explanation—Penetrationissufficienttoconstitutethesexualintercoursenecessarytotheoffenceofrape.
Exception—Sexual intercoursebyamanwithhisownwife, thewifenotbeingunder
[thirteen] years of age is not rape (PakistanPenal Code1860, sec. 375).44With theexceptionofthestatutoryrapesection(under"Fifthly"),thelanguagespecifyingwhatconstitutes rape is almost identical to the zina‐bil‐jabr language under the HudoodOrdinance. Even the explanation that penetration is sufficient to constitute thenecessaryintercourseisthesame.
DidthePakistanilegislators,inwritingthezina‐bil‐jabrlaw,simplyrelabeltheoldsecularlawofrapeundertheMuslimheadingofzina(aszinabyforce–‐jabr),andre‐enactitaspartoftheHudood Islamization of Pakistan’s laws–right along with the four‐witness evidentiary ruleuniquetozina?I. Sexuality and Suspicion
CitingthestatementofajudgefromthePakistaniShariatcourt:
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“Wherever resort to courts is unavoidable for any reason, a general possibility that eventhough the girl was a willing party to the occurrence, it would hardly be admitted orconceded. In fact it is not uncommon that a woman, who was a willing party, acts as aravished woman, if she is surprised when in amorous courtship, love‐making or in theembrace of aman she has not repulsed.” Such biased and derogatory observations againstwomenbytheIslamiccourtinPakistanrevealabasicculturalmalebiasintheperceptionofwomenandfemalesexuality.II. Bearing Witness
The rationales accompanying this rule are interesting, however. For example, the Hedaya,states: Evidence is of several kinds, that of fourmen, ashasbeenordained in theQur’an; and thetestimonyofawomaninsuchcaseisnotadmitted;because...‘inthetimeoftheProphetandhistwoimmediatesuccessorsitwasaninvariableruletoexcludetheevidenceofwomeninall cases inducing punishment or retaliation’; and also because the testimony of womeninvolvesadegreeofdoubt,asitismerelyasubstituteforevidence,beingacceptedonlywherethetestimonyofmencannotbehad;andthereforeit isnotadmittedinanymatterliabletodropfromtheexistenceofdoubt(Hedaya1982,353‐54Bk.XXI,Ch.1). Assumptionssuchastheseofthelackofmemory,incompetence,andgeneralweakcharacterofallwomenobviouslystemfromapatriarchalperspectiveinamale‐dominatedintellectualcommunity.TheQur’an,however,doesnotbearthisattitude,asitestablishestheequalityofmenandwomenbeforeGodandtheresponsibilityofbothequallyasvicegerentsofGodonearth.57 But where cultures aremale‐dominated, the absence of the active and intelligentparticipationofwomeninthepublicspherenaturallymightbreedsuchattitudes,andthesehave apparently made their way into the analysis and application of Islamic law in suchsocietiesandplacesinhistory. EducatedMuslimstoday,however,wouldquicklydismissassimpleignoranceanyclaimsthatwomenareinferiorinintellectualcapacity,memory,orcharacter.Asforthesocietalharmonyarguments thatwomendonot ventureout intopublic space,Muslimwomen today, donotnecessarilyfitintothemoulddescribedinthesequotes.Nor,indeed,didallwomenofMuslimhistory.58 To reason that women should not be witnesses to a zina or zina‐bil‐jabr casebecause thiswould encourage their going out in public is pointless in a societywhere, forexample, themedicalevidence inazinaprosecutionmighteasilybesubmittedbyawomandoctor, the prosecuting or defense attorney could be a female litigator, and the presidingjudge a woman jurist. The caution against women entering public space has long beendroppedinmostpartsofPakistanandothercountriesofthemodernworld. ThelimitationoftestimonyexclusivelytomenappearstobeanincorporationintoIslamiclawofanantiquatedcustomwhichhasnowchanged,andinIslamiclaw,"allrulesintheshariah[Islamiclaw]thatarebaseduponcustomschangewhencustomchanges"(Mahmassani1987,
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116)59Modern Islamistwritings, in fact, have been instrumental in establishing that suchexclusionofwomen frompublic space is anunfair cultural practice that is not an inherentpartofIslam. AmongthemanyrespectedleadersofthemodernIslamistmovementwhofollowthisattitudeareHasanal‐TurabiofSudan,Rachidal‐GhanouchiofTunisia,andMuhammadal‐GhazaliandYusufal‐QaradawiofEgypt
2. Problems with Zina as Ta’zir . . .Whoevercommitszinaorzina‐bil‐jabrwhich isnot liabletohadd,or forwhichproof ineitheroftheformsmentioned . . . [i.e.confessionorfourwitnesses] isnotavailableandthepunishmentofqazf(slander)liabletohaddhasnotbeenawardedtothecomplainant,orforwhichhaddmaynotbeenforcedunderthisOrdinance,shallbeliabletotazir(P.L.D.1979,53;MajorActs1992,13). ThisistheQur’anicversewhichstartedourzinadiscussion.Itcontemplatesthepossibilityofadulterychargesbeingbroughtagainstwomenuponlessevidencethanfourwitnesses,andcondemns it asagrievous slander.Byallowingprosecution for zinaasa ta’zirpunishment,and thereby loosening theevidentiary rules, thePakistaniZinaOrdinancehas succeeded incontraveningtheveryQur’anicverseuponwhichitisbased.66Infact,zinaistheonlyhaddcrime for which the Qur’an sets out a specific punishment for not meeting its strictevidentiaryrules.67TheQur’anthusindicatesthat,unlikeotherhaddcrimes,therecanbenota’zirpunishmentforzina.Thatis,forthisonecrime,iffoureyewitnessesarenotproduced,thestateandsocietymustwalkawayandnotspeakofitagain.68 ButtheZinaOrdinancegoesevenfurtherinignoringtheQur’anicinjunctionofall‐or‐nothingproof of zina. It includes a provision for "attempt" of zina, setting forth punishment ofimprisonment, whipping, and a fine (P.L.D. 1979, 55; Major Acts 1992, 14‐15). Again, thisdirectlycontradictsthespiritoftheIslamiclawofzina.BoththeQur’anicversesquotedaboveand thehadith ofMuhammadestablish that unless the actwas actual penetration, it is notpunishablebythestate.69 There is a compelling Qur’anic spirit against either a ta’zir or an attempt version of zina.Unfortunately, the Pakistani ZinaOrdinance has lost sight of the unique status of zina as ahaddcrimeofpublic indecencyandexpandedittoareaswhichinevitablyresult in injusticeanddiscriminationagainstwomen–‐thefocusoftheQur’anicversesonthesubjectinthefirstplace.
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3. Rape in Islamic Jurisprudence We have seen that the rationale for the strict evidentiary requirements for zina is anaffirmanceandprotectionofbothfemaleandmalehonour:unlawfulsexual intercoursewillbeprosecutedbythestateonlywhenitispubliclyindecent.Withintheprivacyofone’shome,the immorality of the act is something left between the individual and God. The samerationalewouldnot, however, apply to the crimeof rape. In rape, public display is not thecrucial element to the criminality of the act. Rather, the attack itself is a crime of violencewhethercommitted inpublicor inprivate.Rape isnotconsensualsexual intercourse,butaviolentassaultagainstavictim,manorwoman,boyorgirl,wheretheperpetratorusessexasa weapon. Consistent with our analysis thus far, the Qur’an does not include any directmentionofrapeunderthegeneralcrimeofzina.
I. Duress: Rape as a Negation of Intent for Zina
SimilarrulingsbytheCaliphUmaribnAl‐KhattabandImamMalik(Malik1982,392)furthercementthisprincipleinIslamiclaw.Islamicjurisprudence,infact,devotesmuchattentiontotheconceptofduressasanegationof intent,thuseliminatingliabilityforanoffense.73Theapplication of this field of law to zina results in a thorough analysis of liability in possiblepermutations of forced zina. Thus, the Hedaya devotes several paragraphs to resolvingconflicting stories regarding a sexual encounterwhere one party claims itwas consensual,and theother claims itwasnot (Hedaya1982, 353‐54).Mattersbecomemore complicatedwherethewitnessestotheencounterareofdifferentgenders(Hedaya1982,353‐54).Thereisalsodiscussionanddifferenceofopinionastowhetheramancanbeforcedtocommitzinaandthusnotbeliableforhaddpunishment(Hedaya1982,187). Thus, thediscussionsof forced sex in jurisprudentialwritingsonzinaexhaustivelydiscussnon‐consensualsexasanegationoftherequisitementalstateforzina,butdoesIslamiclawaddress rape as an independent crime? As it turns out, contrary to what the Pakistanilegislationwould suggest, Islamic jurisprudence has in fact not only categorized rape as aseparate criminal offense (under hiraba), but has also allowed civil compensation to rapesurvivors(underjirah).Thesetworemediesareaddressedinturn.II. Hiraba: Rape as a Violent Taking
ThecrimeofhirabaisbasedonthefollowingQur’anicverse:The punishment for those who wage war [yuharibuna] against God and His Prophet, andperpetratedisordersinthelandis:killorhangthem,orhaveahandononesideandafootontheothercutofforbanishthemfromtheland(Qur’an5:33). Inaddition, theMaliki judgeIbn ‘Arabi,relatesastory inwhichagroupwasattackedandawoman in their party raped.Responding to the argument that the crimedidnot constitutehirababecausenomoneywastakenandnoweaponsused,Ibn‘Arabirepliedindignantlythat
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"hirabawith theprivateparts" ismuchworse thanahiraba involving the takingofmoney,andthatanyonewouldratherbesubjectedtothelatterthantheformer(Sabiq1993,2:450). IbnHazm,aSpanishMuslimjuristheldHirabaas:Onewhoputspeopleinfearontheroad,whetherornotwithaweapon,atnightorday,inurbanareasorinopenspaces,inthepalaceofacaliphoramosque,withorwithoutaccomplices,inthedesertorinthevillage,inalargeor small city, with one or more people, making people fear that they’ll be killed, or havemoneytaken,orberaped("hatkal‘arad") . . .whethertheattackersareoneormany(Sabiq1993,2:450).” InIslam,sexualautonomyandpleasure isa fundamentalright forbothwomenandmen;76takingby force someone’s right to control the sexual activityofone’sbody is thus logicallyclassified as a form of hiraba. Note that this principle could also be applied to expand theIslamiclawofrapetoincludetherapeofmenasanotherinstanceoftheviolenttakingofanindividual’ssexualautonomy.III. Jirah: Rape as Bodily Harm
EachschoolofIslamiclawhasheldthatwhereawomanisharmedthroughsexualintercourse(some includemarital intercourse), she is entitled to financial compensation for the harm.Further,wherethisintercoursewaswithouttheconsentofthewoman,theperpetratormustpay thewomanboth thebasic compensation for theharm,aswellasanadditionalamountbasedonthediyya(financialcompensationformurder,akintoawrongfuldeathpayment).
Modern Islamic jurisprudence and legislation could therefore choose to provide that eitherinsteadof,orinadditiontohirabapunishmentagainsttherapist,awomanmightalsoclaimcompensation for her ordeal under the principle of jirah. Again, this analysis would alsoprovideformalerapevictims.
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Conclusion: A Modern Islamic Gender-Egalitarian Law of Rape? Wehave seen that Islamic jurisprudence includes a lawof rapewith two very appropriateavenuestojustlyrespondtothecrime,itsseriousness,anditseffectonwomeninparticular.Unfortunately, the drafters of Pakistan’s Hudood Ordinance and the Shariah court whichimplementedittooknonoticeofthisprecedentincreatingPakistan’szinalaw.
ModernIslamicjurists,legislatures,membersofthejudiciaryandthebarmustworkoutthelogicaldetailsoftheselaws,andwhatcombinationofhirabaandjirahshouldapplyinagivensituationandsociety.Agreaterchallenge,perhaps,ischangingtheculturalattitudestowardswomenwhichhelpedtocreatetheexistinglawsinthefirstplace.Thatongoingeffortmustbeundertakensimultaneouslywithanyofficiallegislativechanges,inordertogiverealeffecttosuchlegislation,andtogivelifetotheQur’anicverseshonouringwomen.
