A Review of Multicultural Counseling

A Review of Multicultural Counseling

Joseph R. Morris Dianne T. Robinson

This article explores the salient theoretical ideas and practical applications surrounding issues regarding diversity, including certain assumptions related to the Western worldview or the accepted frame of reference in American counseling. Western assumptions are contrasted with various divergent cultural perspectives, current training concerns are noted, and implications for counselor educators are provided.

The relationship between culture and cultural biases, resulting from the use of theories, training paradigms, and practices based on the Westem worldview, is predicated on the coalescence of several assumptions (Pedersen, 1987). These assumptions include placing the individual over the group; small, independent family structures; highly verbal communication; material goods symbolic of power and status; deemphasis on heritage; a culture-specific view of determinants of “normal” behavior; and highly structured use of time. Such assumptions are in direct contrast with those held by many cultures.

Of particular relevance to the types of counseling services currently available for members of multicultural populations are the paradigms to which counselors-in- training are exposed. Insufficient exposure to divergent viewpoints, culturally sound theories, and practical techniques leaves many counseling program graduates feeling less than adequately prepared to provide culturally responsive services (Niles, 1993; Sodowsky, Taffe, Gutkin, &Wise, 1994).

A call for change has been issued by various professionals in the field (Allison, Crawford, Echemendia, Robinson, & Knepp, 1994; Bemal & Castro, 1994; Ho, 1995; Quintana & Bemal, 1995; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). To underscore the need for innovative, proactive measures, we indicate specific areas that both counselors-in-training and counselor educators may consider as pivotal starting points in heeding this invitation.

Joseph R. Morris is a professor and interim chair, and Dianne T. Robinson is a doctoral student in counseling psychology, both in the Department of Counselor Education and Coun- seling Psychology at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Joseph R. Morris, Department of Counselor Education and Counseling Psychology, College of Education, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-51 95.

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CULTURAL BIAS

Culture has been defined in various ways. Pedersen (1 985) proposed that culture is a frame of reference from which we encounter the world, ourselves, and life. Although Leighton (1982) and Sue and Sue (1990) have offered broader definitions of culture encompassing ethnicity, attitudes, and so forth, it is clear that the concept of culture is complex and dynamic (Pedersen, 1990). When counselors disregard the many influences of culture, the resulting counselor-client interaction may reflect cultural bias (Lopez et al., 1989).

There seems to be a marked relationship between European American culture and the cultural values that form the foundations of traditional counseling theory and practice. Educational and professional texts, counseling dyads (both in training and in professional practice), research methodologies (Ibrahim, 1991 ; Pedersen, 1987), and training paradigms are typically centered in the Western worldview (Mahtani & Huq, 1993).

In a recent study on confirmatory bias, Strohmer and Shivy (1994) found that individuals are more prone to pay attention to characteristics in others that fit preexisting theoretical frameworks. In the field of counseling, if the counselor’s framework is based on a European American worldview, the range of acceptable client behaviors and mannerisms will necessarily be restricted to that paradigm. Such limitation may provide the basis for confirming hypotheses that are less than accurate about clients. Cultural bias, then, may occur when professionals accept the assumptions of the dominant culture without question (Pedersen, 1987; Steenbarger, 1993; Wrenn, 1985) and define their clinical observations solely from this circum- scribed frame of reference.

ASSUMPTIONS

Individualism

Pedersen (1987) and Katz and Sheridan (as cited in Katz, 1985) have suggested that there are various assumptions inherent in the Western worldview. A critical examination of these traditionally accepted views may assist professionals in providing enhanced counseling experiences to members of diverse populations. Individualism or an orientation toward the welfare of oneself (White & Parham, 1990), is highly valued in America (Katz, 1985; Sue, 1981). In relation to counseling, the primary focus and level of responsibility are placed on the individual, as evidenced by the common use of terms such as self-awareness, seIf-jidjZlment, and self-discovery (Pedersen, 1987). We contend that counseling from such a provincial perspective may restrict the probability of gaining an accurate picture of underlying problems, particularly if presenting issues are long-standing.

In contrast, many non-Western cultures view interdependency and cooperation as healthy, essential ingredients of well-being. The Chinese (Pedersen, 1987), African (Essandoh, 1995), and Puerto Rican (Hernandez, 1995) cultures, for example, place

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great emphasis on the welfare of the family and the community (Pedersen, 1987). Persons from these cultures perceive themselves as integrally connected and their decisions and behaviors typically reflect a communal sense over individual pursuits, wants, and needs. Therefore, it seems beneficial to consider not only the client’s cultural context, but also the function of interdependency within the context, before determining the extent to which it may or may not be deemed excessive (Pedersen, 1987).

Family

A second assumption involves the Western perception of family. The traditional family structure is nuclear and patriarchal, with the man in the role of a breadwinner, head of household, and the woman in the role of a homemaker, subordinate to the husband (Katz, 1985). Conditioning that results from membership in such family structures may promote individuation, where each member maintains a separate and individual identity and role. Adherence to this view tends to diminish the importance of the family as a cohesive, collaborative unit (Holaday, Leach, & Davidson, 1994).

Counselors who espouse Western family ideals may neglect the importance many non-European American clients place on the family as a traditional source of support and value clarification (Morris, 1987; Pedersen, 1987). The common American practice of sharing intimate family secrets with strangers (e.g., counselors) is not accepted in many of the world’s cultures. When problems arise, or life choices are to be made, they are typically handled within the parameters of the extended family unit (Pedersen, 1987). For example, in Puerto Rican culture, children are socialized to seek help solely within the family system (Rosado & Elias, 1993) and to plan careers that will benefit the family as well as the community (Hernandez, 1995). It seems vital, then, to identify and honor existing support networks when counseling individuals from traditional, diverse cultures (Pedersen, 1987; Vontress, 1988; Wilson & Stith, 1991). Indeed, consulting with family, clergy, healers (Solomon, 1992), and other respected community leaders (Takeuchi, Mokuau, & Chun, 1992) may prove to be the pivotal point between providing beneficial or ineffective counseling interventions (Wilson & Stith, 1991).

Communication Styles

A third assumption revolves around the concept of communication (Katz, 1985; Pedersen, 1987). Western communication typically involves the use of standard English with an emphasis on verbal language, direct eye contact, and limited physical contact. It is not unusual for European Americans to readily use these forms of communication from the outset of counseling. In contrast, African Americans may exhibit a tendency to test relationships that contain perceived power differentials such as counseling relationships, before allowing themselves to develop trust- ing and intimate bonds that promote the sharing of personal information. Such behavior may be viewed as a survivalistic response to a heritage of slavery, segregation


(Boyd-Franklin, 1989; Steele, 1992; Wilson & Stith, 1991), racism, oppression and discrimination (Boyd-Franklin, 1989), as well as job ceilings, lack of economic opportunities, poor schools, and the related problems of broken families, drug- infested communities, and social isolation (Steele, 1992). Until a bond is formed, African American clients may deny problems, withhold information, miss appointments or arrive late. Such communication postures may be taken by the client until he or she feels assured that the counseling milieu is not inherently racist (Lyles, 1992; Wilson & Stith, 1991).

Culture may also dictate appropriate norms for nonverbal communication, such as client proxemics before, during, and after counseling sessions, as well as the use of direct eye contact (Solomon, 1992). For example, most African cultures value connectedness and close interpersonal space over prescribed distance. The helping relationship is based on reciprocity and kindness, and may extend into after-hour social gatherings in honor of the counselor’s assistance. Additionally, in some cultures looking directly at perceived authority figures, for example counselors, may be viewed as a sign of disrespect (Solomon, 1992). Clients holding this view should not be misjudged as shy or hostile unless corroborating evidence is present.

Other forms of communicating respect for authority figures may be evidenced in certain cultural mannerisms. For example, it may not be unusual for traditionally socialized Asian Americans to display respect via overcompliance, that is, smiling and nodding, even when they do not understand or agree with certain aspects of the counseling process (Solomon, 1992). Similar communication styles may hold true for Mexican American immigrant clients as well (Kunkel, 1990).

Based on differing communication styles alone, it is evident that problems may arise when the Western worldview is used as a template for determining appropri- ateness of styles of communication for all clients. Counselors familiar with a variety of culture-specific forms of communication will be more apt to interpret them correctly (Solomon, 1992). Furthermore, we contend that it is the counselor’s ongoing responsibility to clarify communication differences as they arise, thereby creating an atmosphere in which mutual understanding and respect are possible.

Status and Power

In the counseling scenario, status and power issues may translate into an under- estimation or total disregard for the influence of cultural variables (Ridley, Men- doza, Kanitz, Angenneier, & Zenk, 1994). Perceived power differentials may elicit reactions of overcompliance and feigned friendliness from ethnic minority clients. Comas-Diaz and Jacobsen (1991) have cited an example in which a Latina professional woman, usually assertive in her professional role, fails to negotiate inconven- ient appointments scheduled by a European American counselor. The woman’s perception of a dominant-subordinate relationship elicited overcompliant behaviors that compromised the counseling alliance and shortchanged the Latina woman’s opportunity for optimal growth. If counselors are aware of this tendency toward overcompliance, even among some minority professionals, they might be more

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sensitive to verbal and nonverbal cues that would indicate a need for mutual reconsideration.

Historical Context

Another widely held Western assumption is that historical context is not necessarily important in the counseling process (Pedersen, 1987). Such neglect of heritage discounts the reality of many cultural groups. For example, African Americans have been enslaved (Gaines & Reed, 1995; Takaki, 1989); Native Americans segregated; Asian Americans excluded from citizenship; and Japanese Americans interned (Takaki, 1989).

Boyd (1990) has contended that recognizing a culturally diverse client’s historical frame of reference is the starting point for effective cross-cultural counseling. For example, African Americans may enter counseling with issues of anger or rage related to long-standing conditions of racism (Foster, 1995; Grier & Cobbs, 1968). Being seen by a European American counselor may further evoke angry feelings if the client views the counselor as a representative of “the system” (Abernethy, 1995). Allowing anger and frustration, without judging, blaming, or personalizing, may be the most direct way to form a working counseling relationship, whereas invalidating anger may result in premature termination.

Normal Behavior

A sixth assumption involves the definition of “normal” behavior. In the Western view, all people share a common measure of normal behavior (Pedersen, 1987), and the Westem idea of normal is seen as an adequate measure for judging behavior across all cultures (Niles, 1993). A broader understanding of behavior incorporates the idea that what is considered normal in one country or ethnic group may be considered pathological or dysfunctional in another country or locale (Solomon, 1992).

In practice, clinical diagnoses are based on deviations from normative measures, therefore, consideration of the cultural norms of the client will reduce the possibility of diagnostic bias (D’Andrea & Daniels, 1991; Hohenshil, 1994; Solomon, 1992). In general, diagnostic error may be reduced by recognizing that definitions of normality are necessarily specific to the situation, culture, time, social and political reference of the individual being judged (Pedersen, 1987).

Time

Adherence to rigid time schedules, and the viewing of time itself as a commodity are Western concepts that may directly affect treatment outcomes (Katz, 1985). Differ- ential views of time have resulted in minority clients being accused of having little respect for time constraints, as displayed by arriving late or missing appointments (Kupers, 198 1).


However, in professional settings, appointments are primarily scheduled to meet the needs of the counselor, which may conflict with the needs of the client. It may be important to practice greater flexibility when scheduling and working with clients from racially diverse groups.

In addition, differing counseling expectations may revolve around the concept of time. In contrast with the Western assumption of counseling as future-oriented, the time perspective of urban, low-income, Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central American, South American (Rosado & Elias, 1993) and African American (Wilson & Stith, 1991) clients may center more on present-orientation and survival. For such populations, the concern may be with resolving concrete here-and-now issues, rather than delving into and working through issues using lengthy, abstract, theoretical concepts.

TRAINING ISSUES

A Call for Change

Racial minorities represent 24.4% of the total U.S. population (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990). In recognition of the increasing cultural diversity among Americans, the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD), a division of the American Counseling Association, has recently approved a set of multicultural counseling competency standards. These guidelines have been proposed specifically to identify attitudes, knowledge, and skills that promote effective counseling with diverse racial groups (Arredondo & D’Andrea, 1995).

Incorporation of such guidelines into mainstream counselor training programs may benefit future graduates, because current students report feeling unprepared when introduced to cultural and race-related counseling constructs and scenarios (Sodowski et al., 1994). This underscores the view of many specialists in the field of multicultural counseling, who advocate that the time has come for placing greater emphasis on multicultural issues during graduate training (Allison et al., 1994; Bernal & Castro, 1994; Ho, 1995; Quintana & Bemal, 1995; Sue eta]., 1992).

Despite this growing call for change, numerous applied graduate training programs still do not provide courses and experiences specifically geared to diverse populations (Allison et al., 1994; Sue et al., 1992). Many current procedures involving recruitment, training, and counselor development are generated from a monolithic cultural paradigm. Training based on this limited perspective produces counselors who are ill-prepared to counsel members of culturally diverse populations (Allison et al., 1994; McRae & Johnson, 1991; Niles, 1993; Pedersen, 1987; Sodowsky et al., 1994; Sue et al., 1992; Vontress, 1988), although they may be quite competent to serve clients who fit the cultural perspective from which they have been trained.

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IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELORS AND COUNSELOR EDUCATORS

In response to the call for increased collaborative efforts regarding both training and practical counseling issues with diverse populations, we offer the following points for consideration:

Counselors and counselor educators are not immune to socialization processes (Sue et al., 1992); therefore, we recommend thorough self- examination of culturally biased assumptions through professional training opportunities, involvement in campus-wide cultural activities, and initiation and maintenance of contact with members of various racial groups (Allison eta]., 1994; Pedersen, 1987; Quintana & Bemal, 1995). In addition to increasing self-awareness, information gleaned from these activities may be further used in generating culture-specific interventions (Leong & Kim, 1991; Ridiey et al., 1994; Speigel & Papajohn, 1986) for use in practice and instructional settings.

Counselors and counselor educators with sufficient background, exposure, and experience involving racial minorities may benefit by considering research activity, writing for publication, and program evaluation as opportunities for collaboration with students in counseling programs. Such team- work may serve to inform students about historical and current issues surrounding various cultures, thereby increasing the knowledge base of all persons involved in the endeavors (Quintana & Bernal, 1995).

Counselors and counselor educators need to be aware of the potential limitations of many standardized instruments used for research and information gathering purposes (Ibrahim & Arredondo, 1986; Pedersen, 1987; Solomon, 1992; Sue, 1993). Research results may be significantly skewed by failure to take into account such factors as immigration status, geo- graphical location, and economic standing (Solomon, 1992), as well as the issues of oppression, discrimination, prejudice, and differential power strata that exist in America between certain groups (Sue, 1993). In other words, the sociopolitical nature of research (Sue, 1993) must not be over- looked if the research is to be considered valid and be of reliable benefit to the populations being studied, as well as to counselors and trainees.

Counselors and counselor educators must be cognizant of the insidiousness of systemic racism and its impact on members of diverse cultures. A need exists to rigorously critique skill development models and theoretical orientations for appropriate use with such populations. An example of culturally sensitive models for group counseling techniques is offered by Corey (1995). In addition, Abemethy (1995) proposed that cultural competency training must include a component on anger management techniques, that would enable counselors and trainees to appropriately work through


justifiable anger and rage they may encounter when counseling racial minority clients (Foster, 1995; Grier & Cobbs, 1968) Counselors and counselor educators in leadership positions, for example, chairpersons of departments, heads of divisions, directors of agencies, and others in administrative roles, should actively solicit racial minorities for training opportunities or in-service programs for students and counseling staffs. Inviting professional members of racial minority groups to speak on various topics will serve to enhance networking opportunities among both student trainees and professional colleagues (Quintana & Bernal, 1995). Counselors and counselor educators need to be aware of the potential dichotomy between the demands of the majority culture and the desire of minorities to maintain their cultural heritage. Successful counseling may entail assisting minority clients through this dilemma, with the specific goal of empowering clients to meet societal, personal, and vocational needs. A counseling process that strives toward this end may include techniques on conflict resolution, assertive versus aggressive behavior, interpretation of formal and informal organizational policies, and time considerations.

DISCUSSION

The literature on cultural bias, training paradigms, and counseling methodologies regarding members of diverse cultures indicates serious shortcomings in the counseling profession. Many areas are in need of improvement. Individual arenas should not be pointed out as more lacking than others, for example, training paradigms, theoretical bases, research practices, and so forth. It is apparent that a concerted, global effort is needed to bring about positive systemic change.

If the end product of years of training results in culturally insensitive counselors, however, then perhaps unified efforts in this area warrant our most urgent attention. Taking a step back from the actual teaching methodologies used in the classroom, one may begin by scrutinizing the hiring practices of the training programs themselves. Are such programs engaging individuals who are culturally aware and sensitive? What about the tenured faculty? How willing are they to put the time and effort into completely revising course syllabi, reviewing new texts, creating new assignments, and preparing themselves to be knowledgeable in these endeavors?

It would be easy to feign innocence to the point of deluding oneself into thinking that cultural insensitivity may decrease with only minor adjustments in training, research, and practice. In addition to warding off denial, it is vital to skip the “laying blame” phenomenon that tends to follow any discovery that something is amiss. How counseling became culturally anesthetized is clear-the question now is, are we willing to come together to move the field in a positive direction? Are we willing to heed the call for change? We believe that a necessary and vital first step has been undertaken by those who have identified areas in need of improvement, as reviewed in this article. Such individuals deserve the honor of having their years of ground-

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breaking work followed by the next phase, that is, the promulgation of systemic changes. It is only through conscious, widespread change that educators, students, and practicing professionals can bring themselves up-to-date-America is becoming more and more diverse every day. Proactive maneuvers are needed to ensure that all Americans have at their disposal the mental health services that are appropriate for their needs. As America’s practicing counselors, counselors-in-training, and counselor educators, should not this be a primary, rather than an ancillary concern?

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No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.

-Eleanor Roosevelt

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Documents

A Review of Multicultural Counseling