Livestock Research for Rural Development 23 (2) 2011

Ethnopharmacological practices in management of livestock helminthes by pastoral communities in the drylands of Uganda

A S Nalule, J M Mbaria*, D Olila** and J W Kimenju***

1 Department of Land Resource Management and Agriculture Technology, University of Nairobi,

P. O. Box 29053 00625 Nairobi, Kenya snalule@vetmed.mak.ac.ug ; snalule@gmail.com *Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 29053 00625 Nairobi, Kenya ** Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062 Kampala Uganda *** Department of Plant Science and Crop Protection, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 29053 00625 Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract

A two stage sampling ethno-pharmacological study was carried out with agro-pastoralists in Nakasongola district

involving two sub-counties namely; Nabiswera and Nakitoma. Participatory methods were used to establish a

livestock disease inventory, ethno-diagnosis, medicinal plants used and implication for livestock-based

livelihoods. Fourteen focus groups discussion comprising of 198 persons and 32 key informant interviews were

conducted.

Trypanosomosis (20.9%), East cost fever (15.5%) and helminthosis (12.8%) were found to be the most prevalent

of the twenty five diseases affecting different livestock species in the area. Thirty seven plants

species belonging to 28 genera and 24 families were reported as traditional treatments against helminthosis.

The frequently used plant parts were leaves(54.1%) and roots (29.7%). Cold aqueous extraction (pounding and

adding water) (81.1%) was the main method of preparation of ethno-veterinary remedies with oral drenching as

the main route of administration. About 65% of population used combination of traditional and conventional

veterinary medicine, 22% used only conventional veterinary medicines, while 13% of the farmers used

traditional medicine. Accuracy of ethno-diagnosis compared well with conventional veterinary medicine

diagnosis although the causes of the diseases were not well understood by the respondents. Medicinal plants

were found to be an important input in livestock production although their efficacy, active molecules and safety

is not known thus there was urgent need of scientific studies into these research gaps.

Key words: Agro-pastoralists, Cattle corridor, Ethno-diagnosis, Medicinal plants, Nakasongola

Introduction

The prevalence of helminthes constitutes a serious impediment to livestock production in Uganda.

They have been reported to cause high morbidity and low production in stocks (Githiori et al 2006;

Grade et al 2008) with a high nematode prevalence (Ssewannyana et al 2010). Helminthes reduces

the level of meat, milk and manure output, and reduces asset value through increased mortality,

especially of young stock (Cabaret et al 2002; Githiori 2004; Adebisi 2008). The incidence and

severity of various helminthes parasitic diseases are more widespread in tropical regions (Ibrahim

et al 1984). Despite this importance, helminthes are the most neglected area of veterinary care in

the developing countries due to its chronic and insidious nature, with endemic pathogens, vectors

and diseases particularly where extensive grazing is practiced (Magona et al 2008; Bizimenyera et

al 2008).

In sub Saharan Africa and Uganda in particular modern methods of helminthes treatment have

been by use of three classes of synthetic drugs of which helminthes have become resistant

(Wolstenholme et al 2004; Coles et al 2006; Gilleard 2006). Commercial dewormers are rarely

used by rural communities probably due to high costs, unavailability and inaccessibility especially

to the low income communities. This has led has led to seeking for alternative methods of

helminthes control. The communities instead rely on ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) (McCorkle

et al 1996) involving use of medicinal plants to control these diseases a situation that has also been

acknowledged by World Health Organisation (WHO 2010) who estimated that 80% of people in

the developing world or 60% of the human race depend on traditional medicine based largely on

the use of plants. In communities dependent on verbal communication and natural herbal

pharmacopoeias, it is paramount to tap and document ethnopharmacological practices on disease

identification and management using medicinal plants

To-date, specific ethnopharmacological studies carried out in pastoral areas of Uganda have been

limited, yet ethno veterinary medicine could be used to a great advantage in control of

helminthosis in the face of drug resistance in the socio-cultural context of resource poor farmers

for sustainable livestock production. However, measures to search for solutions to emerging

diseases have often neglected the role of indigenous knowledge in the overall context of

disease control.The current study was undertaken to identify and document ethnopharmacological

practices by agro-pastoral communities, specifically how pastoralists in mid western Uganda cattle

corridor recognize the diseases and subsequent management of the disease.

Materials and methods

Study area description

The study was conducted between December 2009 and February 2010 in Nakasongola district.

This is one of the cattle corridor districts that stretches south-west to north-east of Uganda. The

district is bordered by Apac district to the north, Masindi district to the west, Luwero district to the

south and Kayunga district to the east. The district has a human population of 144,100 (UBOS

2009) and is characterized by inadequate provision of extension services, weak industrial sector,

cultural diversity and high livestock population, declining soil fertility, environmental degradation

and droughts.

The cattle corridor occupies an area of 44% of the country surface area and has a bi-modal rainfall

and high evaporation rate. In 2010, a report by a consortium of institutions including Ministry of

Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Uganda; Uganda Bureau of Statistics; Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; International Livestock Research Institute; and

World Resources Institute, indicated 78% of households in the cattle corridor own livestock of one

or another kind of which 29% own cattle, 44% own small ruminants (sheep and goats), 23% own

pigs and 65% own chicken. The cattle population densities in the mid corridor was reported to be

50-150 heads of cattle per square kilometer (MAAIF and UBOS 2009). Livestock is the main

source of livelihoods in the cattle corridor compared with outside districts where livestock is

ranked second or third as source of livelihood nationally (MAAIF and UBOS 2009).

Study Design

Nakitoma and Nabiswera sub-counties of Nakasongola district were purposively selected based on

livestock production systems, accessibility, ease of follow-up and response of the local authorities

to collect ethnopharmacological practices. Fourteen focus groups were formed based on parish

level from which thirty two key informants were also identified during focus group discussions by

participants for in-depth interviews. Each group consisted on average twelve people purposively

selected based on livestock health management knowledge and experience and herbal medicine

knowledge. The elderly community members (aged above 60 years) and herbalists were targeted

as respondents.

Ethnopharmacological data collection methods

Rapid rural appraisal (RRA) techniques explained in the different publications (Rudqvist and

Tobisson 1991; Chambers 1992; Holland and Blackburn, 1998) were employed. The research

methodology was designed to allow free sharing of information between the researcher,

pastoralists and the key informants. Specifically, focus group discussion using an interview

schedule, key informants interviews employing semi-structured questionnaire and transect walks

was employed. Field excursions were conducted in accompaniment of key informants, local leader

and extension worker for direct observations to assess conservation status of these medicinal plants

mentioned and to collect the herbarium voucher specimens under the guidance of the herbalist.

Information on livestock diseases including helminthes regarding perceived causes and diagnosis,

treatment, herbal preparation, plant preference and source of the plants, dosage were collected.

Other information collected included conservation efforts and challenges encountered while using

herbal medicine. The medicinal plants collected were those mentioned during FGD and key

informant interviews. The plants specimens were given collection numbers, pressed and later

identified by a voucher code by which it was botanically identified in Makerere University

Department of Botany Herbarium.

Generation of disease list and the medicinal plants used in disease treatment

Fourteen focus groups of pastoralists including men and women were each converged in their

communities and asked to name all livestock diseases that occurred in their area and mention

species affected in their local language. A list of diseases mentioned was generated and spread on

the floor. Each member was then given a bean seed and asked to press it on the most common

disease among the diseases on the list. Total number of beans on each disease was counted and

recorded and thereafter removed and redistributed again. They were asked to indicate the second

most common, the third and so on for the rest of the diseases. Similarly, a list of medicinal plants

used to treat the disease was generated by a checklist of questions.

Qualitative Data analysis

The qualitative data was analyzed by themes and content approach according to Taylor-Powell and

Renner, (2003). While all primary data obtained using semi-structured interview questionnaire

from key informants were entered in excel spread sheet and analyzed for descriptive statistics

using SPSS 12.0.1 for windows.

Results

Respondents’ biographic details

A total of fourteen focus group discussions comprising of 198 agro-pastoralists aged 30-72 years

of whom 47% were women and 53% men were held. About sixty five percent (65.6%) of key

informants were women while 34.4 % were men. Majority (75.5%) women interviewed were

more knowledgeable in disease diagnosis and herbal treatment than the equivalent proportion of

men.

Common Livestock diseases in study area

A total of 25 livestock diseases were reported as existing in the area (Table 1).

Table 1. Common livestock diseases in Nakasongola district

Common Disease name Local name Lululi or

Luganda Species affected Suspected cause (s)

Trypanosomosis East cost fever Contagious

pleuropneumonia Helminthosis Foot and mouth disease Black quarter Three day sickness Blindness/Thelezia Lumpy skin disease Brucellosis Hygroma Cough/TB? Abortions Orf Headache Ring worm Mastitis Mange Poor milk letdown Open wounds Bloat Newcastle disease Coccidiosis Bronchopneumias (PPR?) Diarrhea

Kipumpuri Amakebe Kihaaha Enjoka Kalusu Kakooto Kamenya Okuziiba amaaso Ekifuruto Nabuguma Ebigoye/amakajjo Ekikororo/ekifuba Okusowola Obunwanwa Omutwe Ebiguuna Ebaanyi Olukuku/oburoro Okugonesa Amabwa/ebiwundu Kutumbira Mulalama Kijonjobaro Rubyamira Ekidukaano

Ruminants and pigs Ruminants Ruminants All species Ruminants and pigs Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle Ruminants & humans Cattle All species All female mammals Small ruminants Cattle Cattle and pigs Mammals Pigs, dogs, cattle Cattle, pigs, goats All species Ruminants Poultry Poultry Small ruminants All species

Tsetse flies Ticks/much milk? Wind Worms & swamp water Dry season with wind Dry season Not known worms, wounds &fever drought and wind Much heat not known worms/unknown Mounting pregnant animal Grazing on burnt pastures Not known Not known Poor hygiene Poor hygiene & dust Poor breed Injuries and calf bites Young pastures Wind Unknown Unknown Unknown

Ethno-diagnosis of common diseases by the Baruli agro-pastoral community

Efforts were made to identify peoples’ knowledge of livestock diseases diagnosis (Table 2). The pastoralists were

able to diagnose with correctness the peculiar characteristic clinical signs of a specific animal disease and used

these signs to guide treatment. The area veterinary officer assisted in getting the equivalent scientific name of the

described disease by the participants.

Table 2. Ethno-diagnosis of livestock diseases and conditions by the Baluli pastoral community

Disease name Local name

(Lululi or

runyankore)

Animal species

and age affected Peculiar clinical signs as described by people in

study area

Trypanosomosis Kipumpuuri Cattle -Loss of weight and poor health, diarrhea and

running eyes/tears, animal has poor appetite, tarry

hair coat, blood spots in feaces East coast fever (ECF) Amakebe Cattle, great impact

in calves less than

one year old

-Common in calves, swollen lymph nodes

especially the parotids, nasal and eye discharges,

high temperatures, clouded eyes, coughing,

circling, Starry hair coat, dry muzzle. High

respiratory rate, cough, diarrhea or constipation Contagious bovine

pleuropneumonia

(CBPP)

Kihaaha The disease affect

cattle and goats,

and all ages

-Animal stays in the shade and stands with the

head lowered and neck stretched, back arched and

elbows abducted, painful fast difficult breathing

with bad smell of breath and mucus in the nose,

Severe dry coughing on moving and loss of

weight, failure to lie down/sleep, abortions,

enlarged lungs Stomach and intestinal

worms

Enjoka or

ebiwuka

All animal species,

all age groups, but

more significance

in young animals

-Animal is thin and looks weak, rough hair coat,

sometimes with diarrhea, anemic, sometimes loose

appetite, reduced milk production, swollen neck in

calves, distended stomach/pot belly of calves and

piglets, retarded growth, worms sometimes seen in

faeces, on slaughter, stomach worms are visible in

animals stomach and intestine. Some leaf like

worms seen in liver ducts Foot and Mouth

disease

Karuusu All ruminants and

pigs, all age groups -Contagious and highly infectious, animal

develops wounds on gums, udder, teats, hooves

and drool saliva. Low milk production. Abortions

& waterly milk. Morbidity high but low mortality.

Said to result from contamination by cattle

traders, migration, infected livestock products and

dry season Lumpy skin disease Ekifuruto Cattle of all age

structure -Severe lumps about 4 cm in diameter on the skin

of the animal’s whole body, and swollen lymph

nodes legs swollen with water, high temperature. Ring worm Ebiguuna Cattle, goat and

pigs -Loss of hair on body in a ring form, itchy rings,

Animal scratches on objects or ground

Placenta relation Cattle, goats, sheep -Hanging tissue, from vulva and failure to find

afterbirth at site, Blackquarter Kakooto

Cattle, all age

structure but affect

yearlings most

-Sudden lameness in hind limbs, depression, fever,

heavy muscles especially the hind quarters

swollen, skin on the swelling is dark, swellings are

hot and painful and give crackling sound when

touched. Diarrhea, Common with young pastures

shortly after dry season, If animal dies, the meat is

blue/black and soft

Ephemeral fever

(Three day sickness)

Kamenya Cattle of any age -Animal is sick for 3-5 days. There is fever,

shivers and sudden lameness and stiffness of

limbs, animal lies down, saliva drool, watery eyes,

some animals develop bloat, starry hair and animal

breathes with difficult. Mastitis Ebaanyi Milking cows -Swollen udder and painful teats, sometimes milk

clotted or with blot clots. Sometimes udder

engorged with milk but fail to get out when teat is

squeezed Orf Obumwamwa Goats and sheep -It occurs when goats graze on rush grass after

bush burning. Small swellings appear around the

muzzle that turn into wounds Theleziasis Eminyororo cattle -Animal blind, tears run down, threadlike worms

seen on cornea Brucellosis Ebigoye or

Nabuguma Cattle and goats -Swollen joints and lameness and failure to mount

if bull, abortions towards last semester, sometimes

retained placenta and weak calves, joint pains Anaemia All species -Weak, pale/yellow mucous membranes, white

eyes Headache Omutwe Ruminants -Lowering the head, running tears in eyes,

reddening of the eye Bloat Kutumbira Ruminants -Extended para lumber region, difficult breathing,

and failure to lie down. Newcastle disease Murarama Poultry -Diarrhea with green and red colour, turned neck

on the back, failure to eat, drooping feathers,

sometimes sudden death, all age affected Coccidiosis Kijonjobaro Poultry -Whitish-bloody diarrhea, poor health, drooping

feathers Bronchopneumonias

(PPR?) Rubyamira or

Omubyamo

Goats and sheep -Bronchopneumonia, respiratory distress,

including dyspnea and sneezing in an attempt to

clear nose, serous white nasal discharge that can

crust over and occlude nostrils, diarrhea &

anorexia. dehydration, abortion and mortality

occur

Ethno-diagnosis and management of Livestock helminthes in Nakasongola

The community uses clinical signs and circumstantial evidence to diagnose helminthosis.

Particularly the presence of round worms and/or segments of cestodes in feacal material and flat

“leaf-like” worms in the liver ducts, poor body condition and diarrhea are highlighted as their

guide to diagnosis. Also mentioned is the presence of threadlike material in the eyes of cattle and

associated with high lacrimation.

The study established that 65% of the community use a combination of traditional and modern

veterinary medicine to treat livestock diseases while 22% solely use modern veterinary medicine

and 13% use traditional herbal medicine. The frequently used conventional anthelmintics

were Albendazole hydrochloride (Wormicid©

) and Levamisole hydrochloride (Levacide©

).

Use of Medicinal plants in livestock helminthes control

Thirty seven (37) medicinal plants species belonging to 28 genera and 24 families mentioned as

used to treat helminthosis of livestock and/or humans were documented (Table 3). Species from

Euphorbiaceae being the most used (13.5%). The plant parts used were leaves (54.1%), roots

24.3%, stem bark 5.4%, fruits and seeds 8.1% and a combination of roots and leaves (8.1%).

Table 3: Medicinal plants used to treat livestock helminthosis by Nakasongola community

Family name Species name Plant local name Growt

h

form

Part(

s)

used

Preparation Dosage/quant

ity

administered Rutaceae Zanthoxylum

chalybeum

Engl

Entale yedungu Tree R -Pound about

0.3kg of root

bark and boil

in 4L of water

Drench ½L to

adult cattle,

300mls calves

and 1table

spoon to

children Eurphorbiacea

e Euphorbia

heterophylla

Linn.

Akasandasanda/Kimoto

oka Herb WAP -½ kg of

mature aerial

plant parts

steamed in 2L

of water

Drench

750ml to

adult and

300ml to

calves and

small

ruminants. Asclepiadacea

e Secamone

africana (Oliv)

Bullock

Obukoni or Akatakura Lianar WAP -About ½ kg

pounded and

boiled in 1L of

water and

cooled

Drench ½ L

to adult cattle

&; 300ml to

calves and

small

ruminants Compositae

Vernonia

amygdalina

Del.

Omululuza Tree L, R -About ½ kg

of mature

leaves

pounded, add

3L of cold

water, or boil

1kg of roots in

2L of water

Drench 1.5L

to adult cattle

or 750ml to

young ones

Vitaceae Rhoicissus

tridentata

(L.f.) Wild &

R.B.

Drummond

Omumara Shrub RT -About 1kg of

pounded root

tubers boiled

in 2L of water

Administer ½

L to 1liter to

young and

adult animals

respectively Compositae Vernonia

grantii Oliv Omukuzanyaana shrub L, R -Boil pounded

1kg in water Drench ½

L to

1.5liters

Phytolaccacea

e Phytolacca

dodecandra

L'Herit

Oluwooko shrub L -About ½ kg

of mature

leaves boiled

in 3L of water

to remain with

1.5L and cool

Drench 1.5L

to adult cattle,

750ml to

calves and

small

ruminants Caparicacea Carica papaya

L. Pawpaw tree F,

S, SP -Chop 1kg

young fruits or

about 100g of

seeds

Mix with feed

or put in

mouth of

animal Vitaceae Cyphostemma

adenocaule

(A.rich.)willd

Drummond

Ekimara Lianar RT -Add 4L water

to pounded

1kg of fresh

roots & let

mixture stand

for few

minutes before

straining

Drench 2L to

adult cattle,

1L to calves

& 100ml

adult humans

Caesalpinioide

ae

Cassia

occidentalis L.

Omutanjooka shrub R -Pound a

handful of

roots (200g),

add 1liter of

water, boil to

remain 1/2 liter

Drench 1/2L

once to adult

animal,

100ml to

young ones

Caesalpinioide

ae Cassia

obtusifolia L Omwitanjoka shrub R -Pound a

handful of

roots (200g),

add 1liter of

water, boil to

remain 1/2 liter

Drench 1/2L

once to adult

animal,

100ml to

young ones

Verbenaceae Clerodendrum

rotundifolium

Oliv.

ekisekaseke Shrub L -Pound ½ kg

of leaves add

1liter of water,

stir and sieve

Drench

750ml to

adult cattle

about &

500mls pig

and small

ruminants Solanacae Nicotiana

tabacum L. Taaba herb L -Boil 5 leaves

in 1L of water

and cool or

pound a leaf to

make paste

Drench about

300mls or

squeeze drops

of juice into

the eye Cucurbitaceae Lagenaria

sphaerica Omutanga lianar L -Pound ½ kg

of mature

leaves, add 1L

of water stir

and filter

Drench about

700ml to

adult and

300mls to

calves Lamiaceae Tetradenia

riparia Hochst)

Codd

Kyewamala shrub L -Pound about

½ kg of fresh

leaves add 3l

of water and

filter

Drench 1L to

adult animal;

½ L to young

animals

Solanaceae Physalis

peruviana L Entuntunu shrub L -Pound 2

handful (300g)

add 1.5 L of

water

Drench 1lter

to adult

animals and

½ L to young

animals Cucurbitaceae

Momordica

foetida Schuma

ch

Ebbombo

lianar L -Pound ½ kg

of fresh leaves

add 3L water

and filter

Drench 1.5l

to adult cattle

Labiatae Coleus

latifolius Andr obushohera herb L -Pound (200g)

a handful of

leaves and add

1liter of water

Drench all to

adult animal

Caesalpinioide

ae

Senna

didymotrya

Fresen

Omucuura

shrub R -Pound a

handful

(0.3kg) of

roots, boil in 1

liter of water

to reduce to

half liter

extract

Drench a ¼L

of extract to

yearlings &

150ml small

ruminants

asparagaceae

Asparagus

tuberosum Obushebasheshe

/Kadaari shrub L, R -Pound leaves

add few drops

of clean water

or crush 1kg of

roots add 2L of

water

-Put drops in

the eyes or

drench ½ to

1L

Euphorbiaceae Flueggea

virosa (wild)

Voigt/

Securinega.

Virosa

Lukandwa shrub R -Pound 1kg of

roots add 2l

water and boil

Drench 1liter

to adult cattle

Eurphorbiacea

e Sapium

ellipticum

(Hochst)

Omusasa tree L -About

3kg/half a

“debe” tin,

mix with

fodder

Given as

forage

Cannabaceae

Acanthaceae

Lamiaceae

Cannabis

sativa L

Justicia

betonica L

Tetradenia

riparia Hochst)

Codd

Enzayi/enjaga

Nnalongo

Kyewamala

Herb

Herb

shrub

L

L

L

-Mix C.

sativa (100g)+

J.

betonica (100g

) + T.

riparia(150g)

and boil in 2L

of water

Drench ¼ to

½ L of extract

to calves and

small

ruminants

and adult

cattle

respectively

Cucurbitaceae Curcubito

maxima Ensujju Lianar S -Pound 100g

of dried seeds

and mix with

feeds

Administer

together with

feeds

Euphorbiaceae Jatropha

curcas L. Kiroowa shrub L -To ½ kg of

leaves add 1

liter of water

boil to remain

with ½ liter

Drench ½ l

once

Simaroubacea Harrisonia

abyssinica

Oliv.

Ndalike or Kalarike tree R -Boil pounded

1kg bark in 2L

of water

Drench

250mls

Bignoniaceae Kigelia

africana Omuusa tree SB -Boil stem bark

in 1L of water Drench ½

liter to calves

Malvaceae Sida

rhombifolia Akeyeeyo shrub R -Pound & boil

200g of fresh

roots in 1L of

water

Drench ½-1 L

to calves &

adult cattle

respectively Moringaceae Moringa

oleifera Lam. Moringa shrub L -Leaves mixed

with fodder Administer as

feeds Poaceae Sporobolus

pyramidalis Kasibante grass R -Pound clean

roots, add few

drops of water

and little salt

Squeeze 5

drops in the

cattle eye

Euphorbiaceae Ricinus

communis L. Ensogasoga shrub S -pound seeds

into paste 3 seeds to

calve and 9

seeds to adult

animal Acanthaceae Brillantaisia

owariensis P.

Beauv.

Ekirarankuuba shrub L -collect five

leaves boil

them in 1 liter

of water

administer ½

L early in the

morning

Acanthaceae

Lamiaceae

Justicia exigua

+Ocimum

basilicum

Kayayana and

kakubansiri herb

shrub L

L -A handful

of Justicia

exigualeaves +

a handful

ofOcimum

basilicum leav

es + 1L of boil

slightly

Drench ¼ L

to young

animals and

½ liter to

adult

Nc NC Olugero lianar

? SB;

L

-Chop about

2.5kg of stem

and leaves, add

2.5 liters of

water and boil

briefly

Drench 2liters

a day to

cattle, 300ml

to pigs or

chop the stem

and give it as

feed Rutaceae Vepris nobilus

(Del.) mziray

(Teclea

nobilis)

Enzzo tree L -Pound about

200g of leaves,

add ½ water

and strain

Drench ½ L

to adult cattle

Acanthaceae Justicia exigua Kayayana herb L -To about

0.2kg, add ½ L

water and

slightly boil

Drench 150-

300mls

Ebenaceae Euclea latidens

Sapt. Omutsikizi shrub R -Pound about

0.5kg of roots,

add 1L of

water and boil

Drench 100-

300ml to

before

feeding Asphodelaceae Aloe sp Akagagi /Rukaka shrub L -10 leaves

boiled in 5L of

water

Drench 2.5L

to adult cattle

Key: R=root; L, leaves; F=fruit; WAP=whole aerial plant, RT=root tuber, S=seeds, SP=sap, SB=stem bark;

G=grass; NC= Not collected for identification

The herdsmen and women (54% and 41%) respectively were most responsible for health

monitoring and herd disease management though women seemed more knowledgeable on herbal

medicine than their counterpart men. Though few young people were knowledgeable about herbal

medicine, some were very knowledgeable and knew their growing habitats. It was observed that

people above 40 years old were more knowledgeable and appreciating herbal medicine than young

people. However, irrespective of age and gender, all members staying with the herbalists were

knowledgeable about herbal medicine. The study established that overdosing with herbal medicine

occurred and it mostly manifested as severe diarrhea/or vomiting (humans), shivering and

weakened joints.

Perception on efficacy and risks of medicinal plants

Majority (54%) of the participants believed some plants were very efficacious and they might be

better than conventional drugs on market. A relatively high (44%) number of the

respondents were unsure of potential risks. They thought herbal drugs were always beneficial, safe

and natural. However, they quickly acknowledged that effectiveness varied depending on the

plants used. According to community ranking the top five most effective plants and less toxic

effects of the 37 anthelmintic plants were V.amydgalina (13.9%), Z. chalybeum (12.3%), E.

heterophylla (10.6%), R.tridentate (5.8%) and Secamone africana (5.3%)

Sources, Preparation and administration of herbal medicine

The majority (70.3%) of these plants were shrubs and trees, harvested mainly (78.2%) from the

wild populations while 21.2% were cultivated around homesteads or selflessly protected in

gardens. Remedies from these plants were prepared mainly as decoctions and infusions and

administered in a variety of ways. The frequent methods of medicine preparations were by

pounding fresh plant material and adding fresh cold water or in combination with boiling (81.1%),

given as feed additive (16.2%) and as eye drop 2.7%. Oral drenching was the major (91.9%) route

of administration. Topical application is used in form of eye drop and smoke fumigation is also

used when treating thelezia parasites in cattle. Water was the solvent of choice in all preparations.

Whenever roots were used they were boiled before they were administered.

The study also established that the same plants used for helminthes control were also used to treat

other diseases and conditions of man and livestock. Some of the commonly used plants with

multiple use included Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl., Vernonia amygdalina Del., Tetradenia

riparia (Bernth) E.A., Carica papaya L., Curcubita maxima, Hoslundia opposita Vahl, Molinga

olifera, Jatropha curcao L., Cannabis sativa L., and Nicotiana tobacum L. For

instance, Z.chalybeum was reportedly used to treat malaria, odontitis, toothache, measles, cough,

sore throat and constipation. V.amygdalina was used to treat bloat in goats and cattle in addition to

being used for treating malaria, as ant-foaming agent in gaseous stomachs, nutriceutical values and

maintenance of early weaned and/or orphaned calves, kids and children. Although some of these

plants have medicinal values, they were also reportedly used as food and/or vegetables. Example

of such plants used included Curcubita maxima and Carica papaya. The leaves and sap from C.

papaya were reportedly used to tender and soften women’s hands and also for steam bathing newly

born babies to protect against skin diseases of the young like heat rushes. The leaves of papaya

were also used as soap in times of scarcity. The leaves from Tetradenia riparia and Cannabis

sativa were used to treat irritating cough in both humans and livestock. The community

acknowledged using Jatropha curcas and H. opposita to treat both open and closed wounds in

addition to H. opposita being very important in postpartum healing of uterus in women. N.

tobaccum was used for psychotic benefits in those accustomed individuals while old women in

communities chew the leaves and administer drops of its juice to children to treat worms, stimulate

appetite and/or induce vomiting when necessary.

Challenges in using traditional knowledge and herbal medicine in livestock disease

management

Despite the value of indigenous technical knowledge in livestock disease management, there

were a number of challenges faced by the practitioners (Figure 4). Other threats had been

identified as deforestation (56%), changing land use (24%), termite invasion (7%),

overgrazing (5%), medicine trafficking and poor harvesting (6%) and persistent drought (2%).

All these affect the availability of the medicinal plants in the area.

The community noted that some important medicinal plants had disappeared or reduced from

their environment while some exotic species had been introduced. Some of the plants that had

disappeared or reduced included; Vernonia amygdalina, Kigelia africana, Phytolacca

dodecandra, “Kafunkura”, “Essanguura”, “Entookenkuru”, “Omukabara”, “Omutiima

gw’ensi”, “Ntungaani”, “Omuyonza” and “Akabombo”. This was supported by researcher’s

failure to collect most of these plants’ specimen from the area for identification during our

field exploration. The participants attributed the cause of disappearance to poor harvesting,

changing land use, deforestation, overgrazing, and poverty, lack of land furrowing and

destruction of wetlands.

Traditional Knowledge transfer and its threats

It was established that transfer of traditional technical knowledge (ITK) had been majorly from

elders or parents (93.7%) to the young trusted children or persons, and learning from friends by

passive and/or active observatory participation (6.3%). The threats to indigenous knowledge

sustainability were identified as adoption of western medicine (30%), lack of interests by young

generation (28.2%), secrecy by experts (10.8%), immigration & mixing culture (10.2%), lack of

promoting policy (7%) and others (8.8%).

Discussion

The study established that that relatively few women turned up for the focus group discussion

though they were the majority of the key informants. This was probably attributed to the long

distances to the meeting places and the several domestic roles women play. Pastoral women have

been marginalized and given limited opportunity to participate and benefit from public decision-

making events. In addition, in majority pastoral communities, women are not freely allowed to

participate in public debates and this discourages them from turning up to such gatherings. This

finding agrees with the observation by (Mussa 2004). The high percent of women knowledgeable

in disease diagnosis, ethnopharmacology and herding practices was attributed to their direct

contact and processing of livestock products and their role in animal husbandry and care. Such

specialized technical knowledge is tied to the division of labour in the society. This was in

agreement to the observations by Antonio and Ahmed (2010).

Women usually owned small ruminants, poultry and pigs and are culturally responsible for milking

animals, processing the milk and generally looking after family stock (ADF 2002; Antonio and

Ahmed 2010). Women and children were less secretive in sharing knowledge. It was also noted

that the people staying with herbalists all know the medicine and this was attributed to the fact

that they were the ones in charge of harvesting or collecting them. This had given them hard

earned experience in disease diagnosis and management since they were always limited in

resources and extension support in most societies. In addition, women and children were more

close to the elderly who were more knowledgeable and willing to share their knowledge to them

than the suspecting youthful men. Safilios-Rothschild (1983) observed that the role of women

in livestock production was well documented in sub-Saharan Africa. Antonio and Ahmed (2010)

noted that although women’s roles were primarily traditional animal care such as nurturers and

healers, the men controlled the use of conventional drugs. This probably explains their traditional

knowledge strengths compared to men.

The high level of household (65%) deriving their livelihoods from livestock and livestock related

enterprises and supplemented by cereals and root crops was attributed to the climatic conditions of

the area. The livestock species kept in the study compared well with what was reported by ADF

(2002). The livestock production systems were shaped by prevailing biophysical and socio-

cultural environments. The selection of enterprises and management system proceeded cumulative

years of experience that developed from active observation by the society (UBOS 2009; Benson

and Mugarura 2010). The low rainfall and recurrent droughts cannot sustain or support other crops

in the area. Steinfeld et al (2006) made observation that livestock was more sustainable in drylands

than crops andwithout external inputs they were traditionally in sustainable equilibrium with

environments.

Disease prevalence and Ethno-diagnosis

A multitude of diseases and conditions reported in the area may be attributed to type of climate,

production system and government privatization of veterinary extension services especially on

diseases that used to be controlled by government through routine vaccination. Increased costs and

limited extension services lead to “self medication” leading to drug abuse and possibly disease

resistance (Koma 2000). Further, the habitat plays a great role in the existence of some diseases

like trypanosomosis due to their harboring of the disease vector- tsetse flies (Magona et al 2008).

The communities were able to correctly diagnose majority of livestock disease sighting the same

clinical signs that had also been highlight in a number of scientific documents such as Blood et al

(1994). The communities’ ability to diagnose diseases was achieved through experience though

sometimes was by trial and error on past cases. Mis-diagnosis was also possible leading to poor

management of the disease.

Medicinal plants used in livestock helminthes control

A relatively high number of the population in the study area still use medicinal plants in livestock

healthcare and was always given as first line of action before veterinary consultation took place.

Koma (2000), Dahlberg and Trygger (2009), Lagu and Kayanja (2010) reported that illiteracy,

drug costs and inaccessibility of anthelmintics and other extension services contributed to reasons

for reliance on indigenous medicine. The present study reported 37 medicinal plant species used by

the people in the cattle corridor in Uganda. The study findings revealed the existence of rich

biodiversity in the cattle corridor and a wealth of traditional knowledge existing in the community.

Knowledge of medicinal plants among communities in Nakasongola, was still preserved and it was

conveyed to young generation through apprenticeship which agreed with observations by Kokwaro

(1993). Younger people learnt from elders through consultation, observation and

discussion. However, the low percent of people solely using herbal medicine probably directed

to traditional knowledge replacement by increasing modern veterinary medicine extension,

livelihood changes and environment degradation as was also reported by Shen et al (2010). The

global food security and food sovereignty for communities across the world bases on biodiversity

which provides ecosystem services. Sustainable exploitation of these services requires the

knowledge of traditional communities without which meeting future demands could be

impracticable (MEA 2005).

Nakasongola community was rich in knowledge of medicinal plant biodiversity evidenced by the

many plants used as anthelmintics. The several plants reportedly anthlemintics are also used to

treat other conditions. For instance, Vernonia amygdalina Del has been reportedly used in

pregnancy, fevers and malaria treatment (Nalule 2000; Tabuti et al 2003; Kamatenesi-Mugisha et

al 2006). Huffman and Seif (1989) reported that chimpanzees use V.amygdalina to relieve

themselves of stomach pain. The relatively high proportion of people using medicinal plants

(Figure 3) probably indicated the immense trust and significance of the bio-diversity to the

community attested after long experience. Although, the use of medicinal plants to treat diseases

in livestock was generally low (13%), the community acknowledged a fall back to herbal medicine

following scientific research done and the associated nutriceutical advantages and the global

mobilization and increasing market.

Kabatabazi (2010) stated that, “the loss of indigenous knowledge systems could be one of the

greatest tragedies of our age.” The decline could be attributed to a number of issues including; high

adoption of conventional drugs, difficulty in tracing the needed plants, lack of knowledgeable

people and information concealment, and lack of documented information on the use of medicinal

plants, selfishness and request for payment in return of knowledge sharing. Mussa (2004) observed

that invasion of western systems and involvement of pastoralists in administrative domain; weaken

the traditional system, in some instances totally replaced by modern systems.

Some of the plants used by the Nakasongola community have also been reportedly used in other

Ugandan communities. Nalule (2000) documented a total of 73 plants used for treating 19

livestock diseases of which 11 plants are used for helminthes control. Bizimana (1994)

documented 54 plants used in helminthes control in Iteso. Katunguka-Rwakishaya et al (2004)

documented 22 plants used to treat livestock helminthes. Wasswa and Deogratious (2006) reported

21 plants used as anthelmintics in ethnoveterinary practice, ten of which were also reported in this

study. Other studies on plants used as anthelmintics in the region giving interesting reading include

but not limited to Mbaria (1998), Gakuya (2001), Lagu and Kayanja (2010). A survey carried out

in Asian countries by different authorities listed 223 useful plants of which 23 were used as

anthelmintics against intestinal helminths (Hammond et al 1997). Waterman et al 2010 reported 17

plant species used for treatment of intestinal infections in Sub-Saharan Africa of which 12 plant

species they confirmed their anthelmintic activity. However, Iwu, (1993), cautioned that variations

in the treatment of diseases and use of medicinal plants existed among different tribes even among

herbalists in the same locality.

The prevalence of the same knowledge by different communities probably indicates the

importance of the plant involved. Furthermore, the cultural mixing that had occurred over time

with consequent sharing of traditional knowledge may explain the widespread knowledge. Yet it

was also possible that cultural infiltration of a specific culture by outside cultures weakened the

indigenous knowledge. Similar observations were made by Kabatabazi (2010).

The widely used plant parts in the preparation of remedies are the leaves, roots, whole plant, stem

bark & fruits parts in that order. The popularity of these parts especially the roots, stem barks and

whole plant had negative consequence from both ecological point of view and from survival of the

medicinal plant species (Nalule 2000; Mesfin et al 2005). The present study findings indicated

leaves and roots were most used. A plant whose roots were most used is more susceptible to

extinction than that whose leaves and fruits are used unless proper conservation and sustainable

measures are considered.

Preparations, dosage and administration of medicinal plants

The communities in the study area used medicinal plants to cure human and livestock diseases and

revealed different methods of preparation and modes of application. They had developed several

methods of application or administration of medicinal plants depending on the particular disease to

be treated. Iwu (1993) reported the methods are dictated by the nature of the illness and the plant

part used. Some of the routes of administration of anthelmintic as practiced by the community

include oral drenching, as feed and ocular application as in Thelezia infestation. He further

acknowledges the drug is usually drunk for internal conditions or applied topically for external

infections. The same methods were well documented in Blood et al 1994 and have also been

reportedly used by other communities (Grades et al 2008).

In some cases fresh plants are harvested, finely chopped and mixed with feed, e.g. Carica

papaya young fruits and Vernonia amydgalina. Most of the preparations in the study area were

drawn from a single plant or mixture of more than one plant. Mixing plants may enhance

effectiveness through synergism(Kaufman et al 1999). However, lack of dose and dosage

standardization was noted in the study area and this agreed with findings of the studies by

Katunguka-Rwakishaya et al (2004) and Mesfin et al (2005).

Community usage, perceptions on benefits and risks of using herbal medicine

The majority of respondents had used herbal medicines, either for human and/or livestock

disease management. Usage stands at 65% for those who use bothherbal and conventional drugs

and 13% for those who solely use herbal medicine and the rest use conventional drugs.

Broadly speaking, women and the most economic disadvantaged class are the majority users of

herbal medicine.

Despite a high number of respondents in different focus group discussion acknowledging using

herbal medicine, a relatively high (44%) number of the respondentswere unsure of potential risks

in using herbal medicine as they believe it is always beneficial, safe, and natural than harmless.

Similar perceptions were reported by a study conducted by Ipsos-MORI (2008). However,

majority (56%) of herbalists acknowledged that misuse of some herbs can lead to severe toxicity

which majorly manifest as vomiting, diarrhea, joint weakness and convulsions especially in human

beings. Muscle tremors, shivering and diarrhea were also common in livestock following excessive

administration of some herbal medicine. Reports on adverse reactions to herbal medicines are well

documented in the study by Dunne (2009).

Constraints and challenges of using herbal medicine

The study established that some herbal medicine is good but a wide range of dosage exists. This

makes its standardization is a challenge. Medicinal plants possess pharmacological properties and

therefore possible therapeutic effects (Singh and Bhandari 2000). However, some drawbacks to

traditional medicine have been reported among others including; incorrect diagnosis, imprecise

dosage, low hygiene standards, the secrecy of some healing methods and the absence of written

records about the patients. Sujon et al 2008 reports that major problems associated with the use of

herbal medicine relates to lack of scientific evaluation. Cultural infiltration has also been

identified as a threat to indigenous knowledge as it leads to the erosion of human intellectual

capital. This concurs with observation made by Kabatabazi (2010) who noted that the movement

of people is leading to loss of farming communities, languages and indigenous cultures.

Majority of respondents (65%) also revealed that most times it is not possible to diagnosis the

disease and also pinpoint out the herb responsible for the biological effect since most times they

use more than one herb in a single condition. Though participants in the study were able to identify

large Nematodes and trematodes types by their location on/in the body such as liver ducts, eyes

and intestines or rumen or feaces, they are not keen to identify the cestodes according to clinical

signs and location.

Toxicity cases were also acknowledged to occur especially with failure to follow instructions. For

instance they reported use of Cassia occidentalis and Cassia didimotrya and

Cyphostemma adenocaule to cause severe diarrhea and/or vomiting. Some studies have also

reported death resulting from administration of C. occidentalis (Martin et al 1981). In addition, the

use of multiple preparations in a single disease with no specific target makes it difficult to single

out the role and contribution of each medicinal plant species hence generalizing the medicinal

value. Inconsistency in the use of plants in terms of quantity, and combinations with other plants

could overshadow ant-parasitic value of a single plant. It is difficult to isolate the plant responsible

for treating due to mixing of many plants. Similar observations were made by Athanasiadou et al

(2007) who also suggested that prior to incorporating medicinal plants in parasite control scientific

community should provide evidence on medicinal value and address the inconsistence issues. This

has led young generation not embracing use of medicinal plants due to lack of knowledge on basis

of action. The lack of policy on intellectual property rights discourage people with knowledge

from revealing the knowledge while at the same time the national governments have not promoted

use of indigenous knowledge. WIPO (2002) held similar views that a multiplicity of measures are

needed some of them intellectual property (IP) related to protect, preserve and promote traditional

knowledge.

Implications of ethnopharmacological practices for livestock-based livelihoods

Traditional knowledge is much more than simply the knowledge of certain plants or animals as it

linked to the spiritual world, ecosystems and to the biological diversity within and without

territories and societies. Many countries rely on medicinal plants for the health and well being of

its population (UNESCO (1996). World Health Organizations reports that 70-80% of the world's

population rely on herbal medicine. Socioeconomic factors such as low education levels and lack

of access to conventional healthcare have been cited as important reasons for reliance on

indigenous medicine (Dahlberg and Trygger 2009). The plant metabolite products are responsible

for pharmacological effects of medicinal plants as was reported by (Dunne 2009). It is also

reported that 25-40% of all pharmaceutical prescription drugs contain plant derived ingredients at

least in United States (Wikipedia 2010). These provide a high opportunity for people with

indigenous knowledge in medicinal plants. However, pharmaceutical industries have always taken

advantage of unsuspecting populations of their resources and knowledge with no financial gain.

Medicinal market demand has led to an increased pressure on the natural resources impacting on

medicinal plants sustainability. Habitat loss and over harvesting are generally the most serious

threats to medicinal plant biodiversity (Hamilton 2003). These threaten communities whose

livelihoods are livestock-based yet faced with a multitude of economic and environmental stresses.

However, natural products market developing is likely to stimulate a conservation initiative in a

cause–effect manner yet benefiting the local populations and avoiding rural communities’

exploitation. Sheldon and Michael (1998) made similar observations.

Quality and standardization of ethnopharmacological practices is as important as preservation and

conservation of indigenous knowledge. Standardization of medicinal plants’ utilization in

livestock management is urgently needed not only to improve efficacy and promote conservation

but also safeguard animals and animal products’ consumers. Currently, natural habitats of many

valuable plants are being lost to other land uses or being degraded as a result of population

pressure. This subjects the livestock-based livelihoods to bouts of diseases’ attacks and low

productivity threatening food security and other livelihood needs.

Women are the poorest of the poor because of their narrow resource base yet are the keepers of

traditional knowledge and cultural practices includingethnoveterinary practices due to their

closeness to livestock. Development of sustainable natural products based on their knowledge

would not only avail them income and improve livestock productivity, but also improve their

participation in research for development and provide them opportunity for source of income in a

partnership venture to improve their welfare.

More ethnopharmacological practices assessment are needed at varying levels, including

individual, community, projects and institutional levels and should include analysis of

institutional capacity; biological effectiveness; social effectiveness; feasibility and intellectual

property rights. Any assessment system must be sensitive to issues of national sovereignty and the

rights of local and indigenous peoples, and is only likely to be effective if it has the support and

involvement of local and indigenous peoples. The strategies and measures should be adopted in the

future, such as community-based validation of ethno-veterinary medicine, broad network building

and knowledge sharing.

Conclusions and recommendation

• The study has indicated that, Nakasongola communities are rich in traditional knowledge

on medicinal plants diversity and have used them to treat livestock helminthosis and other

ailments though dosage standardization and knowledge on causes of diseases is inadequate.

Hence, plants have become the most revered and treasured friends of the community

although their conservation is seriously threatened to local extinction. Perhaps limited

profound knowledge on plant species used to treat livestock helminthes explains the

persistent helminthes prevalence in free ranging stocks despite the existence of

ethnopharmacological practices and traditional veterinary knowledge in the region.

• The persistent use of plants by pastoralists in treating livestock helminthes is indicative that

some of the herbs are potent, which may guide the discovery of new affordable, culturally

acceptable anthelmintics. Loss of medicinal plants and the associated knowledge will

hamper the existing healthcare system in the area. For traditional medicine as alternative to

conventional medicine, studies to validate community claims on efficacy and determine

dosage of the plants are urgently needed. Scientific studies are urgently needed to

determine efficacy, appropriate dosage and toxicity in order to address the high helminthes

prevalence and resistance causing persistent low productivity of livestock in drylands.

Scientific explorations that provide evidence–based information will guide in setting up

sustainable livestock extension services and biodiversity conservation policies. Helminthes

incidences are projected to increase in the face of climate change. This therefore, calls for

rethinking sustainable livestock helminthes management probably one based on locally

available resources.

• Partnership approaches between researchers/institutions, extension workers, industry, local

communities and NGOs - should be promoted as a means of developing and promoting

safety use of anthelmintic plants for sustainable livestock production and improved

livelihoods in drylands of Uganda.

•

Acknowledgements

The study was funded by the Regional Universities Forum (RUFORUM), Association of African

Universities (AAU), and Makerere University. The authors are sincerely thankful to the sponsors

of this project. An appreciation is also extended to research assistants and the Nakasongola agro-

pastoral community who provided their traditional knowledge during the survey.

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Received 12 October 2010; Accepted 5 January 2011; Published 1 February 2011