GHG-Calc and Energy-Calc – Tools for Self-audit of Domestic Greenhouse Gas Emissions

and Energy consumption

DRAFT

© Ben. J. Rose, June 2005

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CONTENTS Page

1. INTRODUCTION 4 Australian domestic greenhouse gas emissions 4

2. The Calculators Using the Delphi version of GHG-Calc Energy-Calc Other calculators available on the WDREG website Home Heating Calculator

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3. How the Calculators work 10

4. Discussion 125. Conclusions 12

APPENDICESA1 Estimation of embodied energy and emission factors

Manufactured goods Food Residential buildings

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A2 Calculation of energy and emissions algorithms

Transport Private vehicles Aircraft Ocean liners Public transport – bus and train Bicycle

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A2.2 Electricity And Other Fuels Used By The Household

Electricity Electricity -‘green power’ renewable (biomass/hydro/wind power) Home Heating Fuels

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A2.3 Food, Groceries And Water 25

A2.4 Waste 26

A2.5 Housing and possessions 27

REFERENCES

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Page

Table 1.1 Potential emission reductions by changing consumer habits 7Fig. 2.1 GHG-Calc (2004 version written in Delphi) 9Fig. 2.2 Home Heating Calc, 11Table 3.1 Summary of Energy and Emission factors used in GHG-Calc and Energy-Calc

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Table A1.1 Estimation of embodied energy and emissions for automobile production and servicing in Australia (Source: Government of Canada (1991) in Fergus, D; chap. 3)

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Table A1.2 Embodied energy and emissions for production manufacture, transport

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Table A1.3 Summary of embodied energy and emissions from 14 typical houses in Adelaide

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Table A2.1 Fuel and embodied energy and emissions of various transport modes

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Table A2.2 Guide for efficient travel by motor vehicle 19Table A2.3 Summary of energy and emission intensities of transport modes used in GHG-Calc

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Table A2.4 Emission factors for electricity purchased/used/delivered per kWh 23Table A2.5 Global Warming Potential (GWP) for 8 categories of foods 25Table A2.6 Methane yield from selected landfilled solid waste components 26Table A2.7 Embodied energy of waste materials in MSW 27Table A2.8 Embodied energy and emissions per square metre of floor area, free standing residential house (Derived from figures for a ‘standard 94 m2 house’.

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Table A2.9 Annual embodied energy and emissions attributable to possessions (other than car and house)

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Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge the invaluable contribution made by Steve Grabham, who programmed the current Delphi calculator from the original Excel version.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Burning of fossil fuels to supply the energy and produce the goods used in today’s Western economies is increasing the greenhouse gases in our atmosphere at a rate greater than the capacity of the oceans and forest to absorb them. The resulting global warming is the greatest threat in human history to the world’s environment and the biological systems that support human life. Its effects – increasing incidence of extreme weather, rising sea levels, melting of ice-caps, coral bleaching and extinction of climate sensitive species – are already being observed.

Oil depletion is the other major threat faced by modern civilisation heavily dependent on this commodity for transport and industry. With the ‘oil rollover’ currently occurring as production fails to meet demand, prices have risen and will continue to do so. No renewable fuels will ever be as cheap as fossil fuels, which can be simply extracted from the ground. The days of cheap fossil fuels will soon be over.

Overcoming these two issues will be a huge challenge. However it is achievable because they are phenomena that are caused directly by the inefficient and excessive consumption habits of Western developed nations. Over half of the energy use and pollution is caused either directly or indirectly domestic households (i.e. us) and there are many ways we can change or lifestyles to become more energy efficient and less polluting.

This paper describes a greenhouse gas emissions calculator (GHG-Calc) and an energy calculator (Energy-Calc) for use by individuals and businesses to conduct their own energy and emissions audits easily and quickly. GHG-Calc is available for the public to use, on the Warren Districts Renewable Energy Group website www.wdreg.org.au. Other energy-related calculators and information, such the ‘Be Energy Wise’ booklets and brochures, can also be found on the website. These resources are intended to help people minimize their greenhouse gas emissions and maximise their utilization of ‘clean’ energy, products and services.

1.1 Australian domestic greenhouse gas emissions

In Australia, greenhouse gas emissions from all sources amount to 28 tonnes per person per year. The sustainable level of GHG emissions has been estimated at 3.5 tonnes per head of world population (Lenzen, 1997). “In the previous years, global greenhouse gas emissions totalled about 42 Gigatonnes of CO2 equivalent (Gt CO2-e; 1 Gt = 109 t) per year, while the global population was almost 6 billion, both figures rising steadily. Applying the concept of international equity in greenhouse gas emissions on a per capita basis means that a sustainable situation is reached if everyone on the planet caused an amount of emissions of not more than 50% of the present world average, given the results of climate models mentioned at the end of the first section. Hence, apportioning the same amount of pollution to everybody on the planet and at the same time reducing emissions by 50% leaves about 3.5 t CO2-e emissions per year and per capita to be released.” Recent statements by senior scientists, including the Australian Governments Chief Scientist, support the proposition that emissions must be reduced by 50% or more. Australian Bureau of Statistic figures show that about 56% of Australia’s energy related greenhouse gases were emitted in the production and consumption of goods and services, for the purpose of household final consumption. A further 23% of energy related emissions were generated in the production of goods and services for export. Other final use categories (general government final consumption and gross fixed capital formation) were responsible for the remaining emissions (AusStats, 2002).

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GHG-Calc clearly shows where saving can be made. Table 1 shows the results of budgets using typical energy and consumption figures. The results show that a typical household of three generates about 40–45 tonnes CO2e of GHG emissions – about 14 tonnes per person:

Direct energy use – electricity and fuels – in the home and for transport Indirect energy/emissions from the consumption of food and goods by the household.

That is about 50% of the 28 tonne average total emissions, which is in accordance with the ABS figure, given that GHG-Calc does not include emissions from services.

Household energy consumption varies greatly. For example, a Swedish study of 6 households (Carlsson-Kanyama et al) showed that energy consumption varied from 80 to 691 GJ, with the Swedish average being 263 GJ. Australians can have a direct influence – through their energy, consumption, and transport and waste disposal decisions – on about 50% of the nation’s GHG emissions. A GHG-Calc audit using energy efficiency measures in the home and for transport (Table 1) shows that emissions reductions of more than 50% are easily achievable for the average Australian household. If all Australian households adopted such energy efficiency measures this may result in a reduction of 25% or more in Australia’s emissions. No new technology would be required and no loss of quality of life need be incurred to achieve these results.

Table 1.1 Potential emission reductions by changing consumer habits – as estimated using GHG-Calc (family of three) (Rose, B., 2004) Item Emissions

– typical Aust. Family

Consumer change Emissions –Energy Wise household

Emissions savings, tonnes

1. Overseas holiday – air travel, 20,000 passenger km

10 Holiday in home State; travel by car or bus.

2 8

2. Car travel, 20,000 km in large car

9 Change to a light car, Reduce driver-only car mileage by using bus/train more, sharing transport

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3. Electricity and domestic fuels

7 Purchase 50% ‘Natural Power’.Reduce from 5000 units to 2,500 by converting all heating appliances to gas or solar. Low volume shower-head, energy efficient appliances eg. One smaller fridge, reduce air conditioner.

3 4

4. Food and water 7 Eat less processed/ imported/ packaged foods, red meats and dairy and more local fresh produce.

4 3

5. Waste 4 Buy less packaged and disposable products. Recycle and compost

2 2

6. Housing and possessions

5 Buy less new things that you don’t use often – hire or borrow instead. Live in a smaller house, occupied to capacity

3 2

Total, typical 42 tonnesTotal, aware 18 tonnesSAVINGS 24 tonnes CO2e ( 8 tonnes per person)

If we are serious about global warming and energy resource depletion issues, we need to change many of our consumer habits, focussing first on the big emissions items. For example:

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Holidaying locally instead of taking a trip to Europe or the US will save over 14 tonnes of emissions

Having only one small car and minimizing driver-only commuting car can save 5 or more tonnes CO2e of emissions per year.

Changing our diet to minimise containerised food/drinks, meat and dairy products can save up to 3 tonnes of emissions year.

Changing to compact fluorescent light bulbs can save about 0.4 tonnes.

All such actions are worthwhile, but GHG-Calc quantifies the emissions impacts, giving a realistic picture as to which changes will have the most impact.We don’t have to go without holidays and cars altogether, but by carefully considering how we travel and what goods we consume, we can reduce emissions by 50% and suffer no loss of quality of life.

2. The Calculators

GHG-Calc is a ‘stand alone’ calculator that can be downloaded from the Internet site www.wdreg.org.au and used without any supporting software. The current version is written in the Delphi program and can be downloaded from the WDREG website. It is designed to run simple audits and budgets of greenhouse gas emissions for households and small businesses, from the direct consumption of fuel, electricity, food and goods but not services. GHG-Calc is not intended to provide the accurate, detailed audit outputs that may be required, for example by corporations or industry. However it is useful for the purpose of domestic energy and emissions budgeting, or for ‘first cut’ estimates preliminary to more detailed audits. The accuracy is sufficient to give a good indication of where emissions reductions could be achieved, but is dependent on:

Accuracy of the consumption data entered by the user Error ranges of the energy input algorithms (see Sections 3-9) Error ranges of the emission factor algorithms (Table 2.1).

The design of GHG-Calc will be periodically improved and updated. Emissions factors will change as electricity generation technology becomes more efficient and the energy sources shift from predominantly coal to gas and ‘renewables’. More accurate embodied emissions data will become available as the life cycle analysis (LCA) databases currently under development are published. It is hoped that in 10 years time, GHG-Calc will give more accurate results and that improved technology will be reflected in lower emissions.

A new, more convenient version is planned, which will integrate GHG-Calc and Energy-Calc in the one web-based calculator. It will be written in Java Script or similar program that can be used directly from the website. Both energy and emissions results will be obtainable at the click of the mouse for any or all of the six categories of energy/goods consumption. Users will only have to fill in their data once to see both energy and emissions results.

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Fig. 2.1 GHG-Calc (2004 version written in Delphi) showing figures for a typical Australian family of three.

Using the Delphi version of GHG-Calc

First and foremost, GHG-Calc is designed to be simple and user-friendly. Moving the cursor/arrow over the data entry boxes shows an explanation or examples of what data is required. A help file is attached, giving additional user information and relevant background facts and figures. To use GHG-Calc, the household’s consumption and waste figures are simply entered into the highlighted boxes. Only numerical data can be entered; other (such as text) will result in an error display. Emissions for sections/categories are given down the right-hand side, with the total for the household at the bottom. There are three main methods used to enter data:1. Click on arrows to the right of the larger boxes and select from the pull-down menu the option that most closely fits your situation. 2. Click on the smaller boxes and enter (numerical) data. Enter numbers only, with numerical precision no greater than to one decimal place.3. Click a radio button to choose either Yes or No (mutually exclusive).

GHG-Calc has been designed so that the figures required are easily obtained or estimated. For example, units of electricity per energy bill, annual vehicle mileage and vehicle fuel consumption per km can be obtained directly from bills and logbooks.

For food consumption the user enters kilograms of foods and groceries consumed per week (from their weekly grocery orders) of foods in 8 food categories. Holding the cursor arrow on each food category shows examples of food items, making the process of data entry quite ‘user friendly’. GHG-Calc sums the emissions in each category, multiplies by 52 (weeks/year) and divides by 1000 to give tonnes of emissions per year.

For waste, the user enters: The estimated total weekly volume of waste deposited in the landfill and recycling bins (in

litres)

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Marks the relevant boxes for the waste streams that the household recycles.GHG-Calc assumes that:

8 L of waste pushed down into the bins by hand equals 1 kg. All of the wastes indicated are separated from landfill and recycled. Recycling includes remanufacturing, composting and incineration. Composting produces no net GHG emissions.

GHG-Calc estimates the total emissions and deducts a small percentage for each of the waste streams recycled (Table 8.3).

For housing, the area and type of construction are all that is needed. Future versions of the Calculators will have separate sections for housing and contents (other goods), as possessions can account for more annual embodied emissions than the housing

Users can gain most benefit by first running their current energy use and consumption figures, to indicate their main emissions sources and where savings could be made. Other budgets can then be run, compared and considered, to arrive at a desired optimum ‘emissions budget’. Many budget scenarios can be entered quickly, saved and printed.

Energy-Calc

Energy Calc is currently in MS Excel format and can be found on the WDREG website under ‘Cool Tools’. The layout is similar to GHG-Calc, with the same 6 sections. Output is energy used in gigajoules (GJ) (see Figure 2.2 below).

The next version is planned to be integrated with GHG-Calc in a user-friendly web-based calculator.

Other calculators

There are three other calculators, for more detailed analyses:

Home Heating Calc – A small calculator focussing on home heating options (see below; available on the WDREG website).

Goods Energy and Emissions Calculator (not yet published) Food Energy and Emissions Calculator (not yet published)

These are simple Excel spreadsheets. Users enter their figures into the blue coloured cells.

Home Heating Calculator

The Home Heating Energy Calculator is an additional tool, which gives emissions and costs of home heating. It can be downloaded from www.wdreg.org.au by clicking ‘Cool Tools’. Its purpose is to help homeowners choose the most efficient heating appliance and energy source. Users can enter in their actual heating energy consumption or their heat energy requirements and Home Heating Calculator shows the GHG emissions and costs for the options.

The greenhouse gas emissions from home heating vary greatly depending on the energy source and heating appliance. Figure 2.2 below shows the home heating calculator screen illustrating the cost and emissions from producing the same amount of heating energy from various types of heaters. The large variation in both emissions and costs between heaters and energy sources is highlighted. For example, delivering 7,000 MJ of heat energy – enough for 60 sq metres for one winter – with a natural gas portable heater costs $145 and emits 0.59 tonne CO2e. To deliver the same amount of heat with an electric radiant plate heater costs $291 and emits 2.54 tonnes CO2e.

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Four times more GHG emissions are produced from electric radiant panel heaters than from natural gas heaters (Fig 2.2). Electric heat pumps (reverse cycle air conditioners) are up to 3 times more efficient than electric element heaters. It is interesting to note that due to the superior efficiency of the heat pump a reasonable emissions figure of 0.83 and low cost of $95 is obtained. These are really the only electric heating technology that is competitive with natural gas and wood in terms of GHG emissions. GHG emissions are still higher than gas heating when coal powered electricity is used. However, for gas- fired power generation emissions would be similar. If electricity is generated from bio- fuels or wind energy, heat pumps become the ‘cleanest’ heating option, after passive solar design and solar heating.

Figure 2.2 Home Heating Calc, showing energy used to supply about 7,000 MJ of heat energy (sufficient to heat a typical 60 sq metre living space for one year in WA), using different heaters

Sources: Appliance efficiency figures – Sustainable Energy Development Office WA, 2002. Energy costs – Western Power and Alinta Gas. Fuel energy contents – www.natural-gas.com.au, 2002.

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3. How the Calculators work

Fuel, electricity and goods consumption data entered by the user are converted to megajoules (MJ) of energy and multiplied by greenhouse gas emissions factors for the particular energy sources.

Both calculators have the format in the Excel versions and use the same input data, which simplifies the process for the user. The results windows show:

global warming potential (GWP) expressed in tonnes of CO2 equivalents emitted by the household or business per year (GHG-Calc)

energy use per year expressed in gigajoules (Energy-Calc)For six main categories of household energy use/ consumption. Details of how energy and emissions are estimated for the 6 categories can be found in the corresponding sections:

1. Transport – air and overseas 2. Transport – private car and public (bus/train) 3. Electricity and other fuels used by the household 4. Food and water 5. Waste 6. Housing and possessions

Emissions categories 1-3 are about 80% from direct energy use, but include embodied emissions from the manufacture and maintenance of vehicles and aircraft, and infrastructure associated with public transport (roads are not included). Emissions categories 4-6 are indirect or embodied emissions – CO2 from fossil fuels combusted and other emissions such as methane – from production processes. Emissions from services, such as retail trade, health care and education are not included. In a GHG-Calc audit for a ‘typical Australian household’ direct energy use accounts for about 40 - 50% of domestic emissions. Embodied (indirect) emissions from food, goods, private vehicles, residential housing, possessions and waste comprise the remainder of domestic emissions This is similar to an analysis of energy use in 6 Swedish households (Carlsson-Kanyama et al, 2000) which showed direct versus indirect energy used be householders to be in the range 48:52 to 32:68. GHG-Calc will give results closer to 50:50 because services are not included.

To calculate emissions from direct energy used in the home and for transport, GHG-Calc uses current fuel energy content and full cycle greenhouse gas emission factors from the Australian Greenhouse Office. For public transport, it uses per passenger emissions intensities, estimated for assumed passenger loads and including embodied emissions. If the electricity, fuel consumption and travel mileage figures entered by the user are accurate, the direct emissions calculated should be accurate to within about 5% for electricity and fuel consumption and about 35% for public transport.

GHG-Calc estimates embodied emissions using emission factors (kg CO2e/MJ) for particular categories of goods, house construction or food. The quantity of goods used or consumed (entered by the user) is multiplied by the embodied emissions factor to give their embodied emissions for that category of goods. There is much greater uncertainty in the results than for direct emissions from fuel and electricity use. This is due to variation in production processes, uncertainty in quantities entered by the user and uncertainty in the embodied emissions factors. Accuracy of the embodied emissions estimates from GHG-Calc is likely to be within about 35%.

Up to 42 emission factors are used in GHG-Calc (see Table 3.1 below). The fuel and electricity factors are taken directly from Australian Greenhouse Office Factors and Methods Workbook,

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2003. The embodied emissions factors are derived as outlined in the Appendix 1. Energy input data from over 20 references have been used to derive the embodied emission factors.

Table 3.1.Summary of Energy and Emission factors used in GHG-Calc and Energy-Calc

GHG-Calc Section

ITEM Energy Units Emissions Units Ref*

1. Transport – air and overseas (flights 75% full)

Short haul flight (fuel) 2 MJ/passenger km 0.46 kg CO2e/passenger km 2,3Short haul flight (fuel + embodied) 3.7 MJ/passenger km 0.73 kg CO2e/passenger km 2,3Long haul flight (fuel) 1.5 MJ/passenger km 0.35 kg CO2e/passenger km 2,3Long haul flight (fuel + embodied) 2.1 MJ/passenger km 0.45 kg CO2e/passenger km 2,3Ocean liner (fuel) 3.96 MJ/passenger km 0.31 kg CO2e/passenger km 2,3Ocean liner (fuel + embodied) 4.76 MJ/passenger km 0.44 kg CO2e/passenger km 2,3

2. Transport – private car and public bus/train

Bus 30 passengers (fuel + embodied) 0.62 MJ/passenger km 0.06 kg CO2e/ passenger km 2Train120 passengers (fuel + embodied) 0.42 MJ/passenger km 0.04 kg CO2e/ passenger km 2Bicycle (food energy) 0.2 MJ/passenger km 0.02 kg CO2e/ passenger km 2Taxi travel 2 passengers (fuel + emb.) 2.68 MJ/passenger km 0.26 kg CO2e/ passenger km 2Private vehicle − petrol 34.2 MJ/L 2.8 kg CO2e/LPrivate vehicle – LPG 25.7 MJ/L 1.8 kg CO2e/L 1Private vehicle – diesel 36.8 MJ/L 3.0 kg CO2e/L 1Motor vehicle embodied/year 15 yr 7573 MJ/tonne/year 1200 kg CO2e/ tonne/year 2

3. Electricity and other fuels used by the household

Electricity to home – NSW/ACT 10.8 MJ/kWh 1.054 kg CO2e/ kWh 1Electricity to home – Victoria 10.8 MJ/kWh 1.392 kg CO2e/ kWh 1Electricity to home– WA/Qld 10.8 MJ/kWh 1.055 kg CO2e/ kWh 1Electricity to home– SA 10.8 MJ/kWh 0.960 kg CO2e/ kWh 1Electricity to home– NT 10.8 MJ/kWh 0.742 kg CO2e/ kWh 1Electricity to home– Tas. 0.2 MJ/kWh 0.006 kg CO2e/ kWh 1Electricity to home –renewable 0.7 MJ/kWh 0.11 kg CO2e/ kWh 4Natural gas to home 3.6 MJ/kWh 0.25 kg CO2e/ kWh 1LPG 49.6 MJ/kg 3.4 kg CO2e/ kg 1Fuel oil/kerosene 37 MJ/L 2.86 kg CO2e/ L 1Wood 16.2 MJ/kg 0.55 kg CO2e/ kg 1,2Brown coal briquettes 22.1 MJ/kg 2.56 kg CO2e/ kg 1Food category L1 6.5 MJ/L 0.6 kg CO2e/ L 2Food category L2 15.5 MJ/kg 1.5 kg CO2e/ kg 2Food category M1 10 MJ/kg 3 kg CO2e/ kg 2Food category M2 25.5 MJ/kg 2.4 kg CO2e/ kg 2Food category MH1 37 MJ/kg 3.5 kg CO2e/ kg 2Food category MH2 25 MJ/kg 5.4 kg CO2e/ kg 2Food category H1 67 MJ/kg 12.8 kg CO2e/ kg 2Food category H2 82.5 MJ/kg 7.8 kg CO2e/ kg 2Water – (fuel) 7.8 MJ/kL 2.4 kg CO2e/ kL 2Water (embodied/year) 687 MJ/yr 109 kg CO2e/ yr 2

5. Waste(embodied & methane)

MSW –embodied 15.45 MJ/kg 2.45 kg CO2e/ kg 2MSW – landfill methane N/a MJ/kg 0.24 kg CO2e/ kg 2MSW – total embodied N/a MJ/kg 2.7 kg CO2e/ kg 2

6. Housing and possessions(embodied)

Housing – wood 39 MJ/sq m/year 3.6 kg CO2e/ sq m/year 2Housing – fibro 57 MJ/sq m/year 5.2 kg CO2e/ sq m/year 2Housing – concrete block 67 MJ/sq m/year 6.3 kg CO2e/ sq m/year 2Housing – brick veneer 98 MJ/sq m/year 9 kg CO2e/ sq m/year 2Housing – brick/tile 99 MJ/sq m/year 9.1 kg CO2e/ sq m/year 2Possessions – low 7900 MJ/household/year 1200 kg CO2e/ year 2Possessions – medium 14600 MJ/household/year 2200 kg CO2e/ year 2Possessions – high 24100 MJ/household/year 3600 kg CO2e/ year 2Boats, caravans; metal/plastic items 122 MJ/kg/year 0.6 kg CO2e/ kg/year 2

Embodied emissionfactors

Manufactured goods (Aust.) N/a – 0.158 kg CO2e/ MJ 2Motor vehicle (Aust.) N/a – 0.158 kg CO2e/ MJ 2Foods N/a – 0.095 kg CO2e/ MJ 2Building materials N/a – 0.092 kg CO2e/ MJ 2

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* References: 1. AGO, 2003. Factors and Methods Workbook. 2. Rose, 2004. GHG-Calc – A Simple Tool for Self-audit of Domestic Greenhouse Gas Emissions3. Lenzen, 1999.4. Dey and Lenzen, 2000.

4. Discussion

To develop GHG-Calc into a more accurate tool, sections 6-8, which relate mainly to embodied energy, could be researched and expanded further, for example:

More accurate life cycle analyses of energy inputs for manufactured goods under categories including automotive, white goods, electronic goods, furniture and textiles.

More comprehensive set of embodied emissions factors, in addition to the three used in this version. Embodied energy research needs to be specific to Australia, as there are large international differences in production systems.

Verification/ adjustment the emission factor for air travel, which is a major ‘emission intensive’ energy consumption category. GWP of jet aircraft emissions is uncertain, being 2- 4 times CO2e emissions (IPCC, 1999)

Inclusion of energy and emissions (EE) intensity data per dollar for services such as retail, education, health and insurance. Services could be covered in a separate calculator. This would enable services to be considered separately from products and would be more transparent and useful method than LCA of accounting for their environmental impacts. For example prospective car buyers could compare EE data for the products - makes and models – they are considering then ask the automotive retailers who deal in the products to provide their EE per dollar.

Addition of embodied energy of infrastructure to the emission factors for road transport (roads/bridges/traffic control) and electricity provision (power station, power lines, house wiring). Some authors, for example Wackernagel, have attempted to quantify and include roads in an ‘energy multiplier’ for road travel.

To develop a tool for more detailed auditing, all sections could be expanded with more options and links to other more detailed calculators. Calculators similar to the Home Heating Calculator could easily be programmed for vehicles, embodied energy and household appliances, and linked to GHG-Calc for more detailed and accurate analysis. This would be beyond the scope of a simple, user-friendly tool for households.

Services are not included in GHG-Calc because an energy source or physical product is not being directly consumed. However, services such as health and education do carry with them GHG emissions, depending on the energy intensity of the activities of the companies and individuals delivering them. Consumers may like to consider the energy intensity of services purchased when choosing providers. It is hoped that providers would be undertaking their own energy audits to decrease their energy and emissions intensity.

Services could be covered in a separate calculator. For example, emissions from hiring a contractor for furniture removal or earthmoving could be estimated from the machinery fuel consumption per day, number of days it was used, adding an embodied emissions factor and entering the litres of fuel directly into the ‘litres of fuel used in a year’ column. For example, earthmoving machinery hired for 3 days in a year uses 50 litres of fuel per day:Total including embodied fuel use= 3*50*1.5 = 225 L of diesel. Convert this to fuel energy and emissions; add embodied emissions of machinery depreciation.

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5. Conclusions

If it is widely promoted and extended, GHG-Calc has the potential to:1. Raise consumer awareness by providing a simple tool to show emissions (GWP) from

consumption of energy, transport services, goods and food.2. Help households, Government and industry achieve greater energy efficiency and reduce

environmental impacts.3. Stimulate consumer demand for product environmental impact information. The ultimate aim

is an environmental impact labelling system, applied to all goods, showing energy input and emissions affecting the environment such greenhouse gas emissions (GWP), toxics and nutrients. This, combined with an ‘energy efficiency star rating’, as is currently used for Australian vehicles and appliances, would enable consumers to make meaningful choices between competing products and brands on the basis of environmental impacts.

4. Stimulate industry and Government to make efforts towards cleaner, more efficient production. The variation in energy use and emissions between different sources of particular products illustrates the potential for more efficient, cleaner production even using currently available technology.

5. Contribute to the development of a national standard set of energy and emissions calculators for households, industry and government.

Both calculators are quite accurate in estimating direct use of energy and fuels. However the estimates for embodied energy have much greater uncertainty and serve mainly as comparative indications.

Accurate estimates of embodied energy would be achievable if environmental impact labelling were to be introduced. An ISO-standard system of EE auditing and labelling for use by all producers and service providers is needed. It would include standard procedures and process boundaries for conducting energy and emissions analysis of products. Steps towards this are being taken, for example by the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, the Institute for Environmental Lifecycle Assessment in the US and in Australia by institutions such as RMIT and Curtain University’s WA Sustainable Industries Group.

The promotion of Calculators such as those described here, combined with LCA labeling are essential steps towards the public education that must occur to bring about the lifestyle changes necessary to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

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Appendix 1

Estimation of embodied energy and emission factors for manufactured goods, food and residential buildings

For the purposes of this paper and GHG-Calc: Embodied energy is defined as the energy used in the production, manufacturing,

packaging and transport of foods, consumer goods and vehicles. In Australia, over 95% of this energy comes from fossil fuels.

Embodied emissions are defined as the sum of the greenhouse gases emitted in the combustion of fossil fuels in all aspects of production, including electricity, upstream fuel emissions and machinery depreciation, together with other GHG emissions such as methane and nitrous oxides that may be emitted as a result of production processes.

Embodied energy and emissions from the provision of services are not included in current versions of GHG-Calc, with the exception of maintenance of cars and houses. Examples of services not included in GHG-Calc are:

Trade (retail and wholesale). Disposal, which generally accounts for less than 5% of energy and emissions from the life

cycle of most products and the figure may be positive or negative depending on the degree and nature of recycling/ re-use.

Transport infrastructure such as roads, parking lots, bridges and traffic control. Electricity supply infrastructure such as power stations and powerlines. Insurance, finance, health and education.

Whilst all services incur significant embodied energy and emissions and are ‘consumed’, for example by road users, electricity consumers and students, they are considered to be ‘secondary sources’ and beyond the scope of GHG-Calc, which only deals primary ‘process’ inputs. For example, emissions intensity of retailing will vary widely depending on the direct process inputs, such as the salesman’s car mileage and heating and cooling of office premises, used by different retailing operations selling the same product.

Energy Analysis Program (EAP) data (Wilting et al) includes retail/wholesale trade and waste disposal/ recycling. Where EAP-derived figures were used in GHG-Calc, 20% was deducted to exclude trade and disposal. Other data sources use Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), which is a detailed analysis of all life cycle stages including energy use/emissions during the product life (consumption stage). Where LCA data was used, for example for grain products (Narayanaswamy et al, 2003), care has been taken to exclude the trade, consumption and disposal stages.

It must be stressed that the GHG-Calc embodied emissions estimates are only indicative. For example, embodied energy of building material can vary between sources by up to about 35% (Pullen, 1996) and this also applies to the food and goods categories.

A single, estimated emission factor for each of the goods categories is applied to convert energy to emissions and this introduces further uncertainty to GHG-Calc estimates. Three embodied emission factors used in GHG-Calc: 1. Manufactured goods (estimated for automobile manufacture and servicing) 2. Food (estimated for bread and beer production).3. Residential building.

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Manufactured goods

An emissions factor for Australian automobile manufacture was estimated as described below and used in GHG-Calc for all manufactured goods:

1. Listed mass of materials in an average motor vehicle (Table 3.1) 2. Calculated embodied energy of raw materials (data from Alcorn, 1997)3. Added fabrication/ engineering/ assembly energy − estimated from McLean and Lave, 1998 – figure for production/manufacturing, minus the materials energy.4. Added energy for servicing over lifetime (McLean and Lave, 1998; from ILA website)5. Estimated emissions – Author's 'guesstimates' of energy sources for each process. Emission factors for fuels and Australian grid electricity (AGO Factors and Methods Workbook, 2000).

Table A1.1 Estimation of embodied energy and emissions for automobile production and servicing in Australia (Source: Government of Canada (1991) in Fergus, D., 1991)

Material % Total Vehicle Weight

Weight (kg)

Embodied energy material

MJ/kg (from Alcorn, 1996)

Energy from raw material

in car

% of energy in

car

Assumed energy source

Emission factor kg/MJ

Embodied Emissions(

kg CO2e

Steel 0.6 785.5 35.0 27492.5 17.3%coal 0.11 3106.7Iron 0.1 208.6 20.0 4172.0 2.6%coal 0.11 471.4Aluminium 0.1 70.7

191.0 13503.7 8.5%electricity 90% coal 10% 0.29 3889.1

Plastics 0.1 102.095.0 9690.0 6.1%

CNG 50:oil 50% 0.07 678.3

Synthetic rubber  0.0 61.1110.0 6721.0 4.2%oil 0.08 537.7

Fluids/lubricants 0.1 81.650.0 4080.0 2.6%oil 0.08 326.4

Copper 0.0 22.597.6 2196.0 1.4%

electricity 90% coal 10% 0.29 636.8

Glass 0.0 38.615.9 613.7 0.4%

gas 50%, coal 50% 0.09 55.2

Zinc 0.0 9.152.1 474.1 0.3%

electricity 50%, gas 50% 0.19 90.1

Other Materials 0.0 47.550.0 2375.0 1.5%

electricity 50%, gas 50% 0.19 451.3

Total Vehicle Weight 1.0 1 427.7           Total energy raw materials   71318.1    0.448    Est. fabrication/ engineering/ assembly     45700.0 28.7%

electricity 80% gas 20% 0.26 11882.0

Est. capital goods and transport     2700.0 1.7%diesel 0.08 210.6Service (Mclean and Lave)     39300.0 24.7%oil 0.07 2751.0Energy to manufacture and service car

 (equals McLean and Lave figure *) 159018.1 100.0%    

Embodied emissions             25086.5

Energy per tonne to manufacture and service car = 113600 MJ/tonne weight of car Emissions per tonne for Australian auto - manufacture and service = 17.5 tonnes CO2e/ tonne

weight of car

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Emission factor for automobile manufactured and serviced in Australia (also used in GHG-Calc for all manufactured goods) = 0.158 gCO2e/MJ

* Note:The figure of 159,000 MJ is from McLean and Lave (1998) on the Institute of Lifecycle Analysis (ILA) website - 119,755 MJ for the manufacture and 39,321 for the servicing of a Ford Taurus car (assumed to weigh 1.4 tonnes) over its lifetime. Note that trade (retail / wholesale/ insurance), residual goods and waste disposal are not included. However this does correlate with the figure of 243,546 MJ for full LCA, (Carlsson-Kanyama, A; Carlsson, R., 2000.) with 35% deducted for trade and residual goods.

Food

Embodied energy and emissions factors (Table 3.2) were derived from a published LCA analysis of Western Australian grain products (Narayanaswamy, V., Altham, J., Van Berkel, R. and McGregor, M. (Curtain University and GRDC). ‘Environmental Assessment Case Studies for Western Australian Grain Products’). This study was a full LCA analysis including retail and consumption. The breakdown of the figures between the different stages was shown and retail/consumption was deducted from the full LCA figures.

Table A1.2 Embodied energy and emissions for production manufacture, transport of foods

Bread Beer Cooking oilEnergy MJ/ kg or L 18 11.17 41.2Emissions (GWP)kgCO2e/ kg or L

1.51 1.2 5.72

Embodied emissions factor kg/MJ

.083 .107 .139

The embodied emissions factors for bread (0.083) and beer (0.107) are consistent with 90- 95% of the energy being sourced from diesel (0.08) and about 5-10 % from Australian grid electricity (0.0308). The embodied emissions factor for cooking oils is higher as about 3 kg of seed is needed for 1L of oil and presumably there would be high nitrogen inputs and NOx emissions from the soil. It is likely to be atypical of most foods so it was not used to estimate the food emissions factor. The average of the emissions factors for bread and beers was used:

Emissions factor for food in GHG-Calc = 0.095 kgCO2e/ kg.

The production emissions from 8 food classes were calculated separately by multiplying the input energies by the emission factor for food. (Section 7, Food and Water).

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Residential buildings

An average embodied emission factor for Australian residential buildings was estimated from data derived from Pullen 1996. An emissions factor for each house was derived by dividing emissions (tonnes CO2e) by energy (GJ).

Table A1.3 Summary of embodied energy and emissions from 14 typical houses in Adelaide (Derived from Pullen, SF, 1996. 'Data Quality of Embodied Energy Methods'. ‘Embodied energy - the current state of play'. Conf. Proc)

House No.

Embodied energy and maintenance, GJ

Embodied emissions GWP (kgCO2e)

Embodied Energy per yr, 80 yrs life (GJ)

Embodied emissions- GWP (kgCO2e/yr) 80 yr life.

EE factor (kgCO2e/MJ)

1 1362 150 17.03 1.88 0.1102 1348 124 16.85 1.55 0.0923 1091 100 13.64 1.25 0.0924 2280 198 28.50 2.48 0.0875 1722 167 21.53 2.09 0.0976 2290 219 28.63 2.74 0.0967 1354 124 16.93 1.55 0.0928 1351 126 16.89 1.58 0.0939 1258 112 15.73 1.40 0.08910 1807 156 22.59 1.95 0.08611 1368 125 17.10 1.56 0.09112 2249 206 28.11 2.58 0.09213 1461 129 18.26 1.61 0.08814 1452 123 18.15 1.54 0.085

Average Embodied Emissions Factor for residential buildings 0.092

Pullen’s figures are for the construction of the basic house shell only, excluding site costs and fittings such as plumbing, wiring, floor coverings, and curtains.

The embodied emission factors derived varied by less than 10% and the average was taken as the estimated embodied emissions factor for housing used by GHG-Calc:

Emissions factor residential building = 0.092 kg/MJ

This figure reflects the fact that most energy inputs are directly from the burning of coal (emission factors of 0.095 – 0.112 kg/MJ), petroleum products (0.078) and natural gas (0.064) with electricity inputs (0.308) being minor.

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Appendix 2

Calculation of energy and emissions algorithms

A2.1 TRANSPORT

Transport energy and emissions are made up of:

Direct or fuel - from the combustion of fossil fuels.

Embodied - from fossil fuel energy used to manufacture and maintain the transport vehicle (Section 3).

For surface modes of powered transport, embodied energy is generally 16 – 20% of total energy used and embodied emissions, 25-35% of total emissions.

Embodied emissions are a higher percentage than embodied energy, reflecting the fact that the emissions factor for manufacturing, where the energy is predominantly sourced from coal and coal-fired electricity, is almost double that for oil-based fuels.

Table A2.1 Fuel and embodied energy and emissions of various transport modes

Transport mode Total emissions (kg CO2e per passenger km)

Percent embodied emissions

Percent embodied energy

References

Train, 120 passenger 0.04 35% 20% Trains and the Environment, 2002

Bus, 30 passengers, 1.5 million km

0.06 34% 20%Fergus, D., 1991. In Geocities website, 2002

TransPerth bus drivers, pers.comm.

Bicycle, 13 kg (life of 15 years, 7,500 km)

0.06 66% N/A Vale et. Al, 2001

Taxi, 2 passengers 0.26 27% 16% Fergus, D., 1991. In Geocities website, 2002

Car, 6 cyl. driver only (assuming life of 15 years, 250,000 km)

0.43 27% 16%Institiute of Life Cycle Analysis, 1998.

Fergus, D., 1991. In Geocities website, 2002

Ocean liner, economy class

0.45 30% 17% SS Canberra.

Long haul jet aircraft, 0.45 22% 29%Lenzen, 1999.

18

75% capacity IPCC, 1999.

Short haul jet aircraft, 75% capacity

0.73 37% 47%Lenzen, 1999.

IPCC, 1999.

19

Private vehicles

GHG-Calc has choices for several category of vehicles − cars, four wheel drives and motorcycles. Energy and emissions are calculated per vehicle owned and operated by the household, not per passenger km as for public transport modes.

Calculations were as follows:

1. Vehicle Fuel energy – The nominated fuel consumption (L/100km) was divided by 100 to give km/L, then multiplies by the km travelled to give L of fuel per year. This figure can then be multiplied by the fuel energy content (Table 5.1) to give annual fuel energy consumed.

2. Fuel emissions were estimated by multiplying the litres of fuel used by an emission factor for the fuel. (Table 5.1, last column under ‘Full cycle fuel emission factor’). It divides by 1000 to give GHG emissions (tonnes CO2e).

3. GHG-Calc calculates the embodied emissions of the vehicle, on an annual basis (assuming a default lifetime of 15 years), rather than a ‘per kilometre’ because the distance travelled by vehicles in their lifetimes varies widely:3. GHG-Calc calculates the embodied emissions of the vehicle, on an annual basis (assuming a default lifetime of 15 years), rather than a ‘per kilometre’ because the distance travelled by vehicles in their lifetimes varies widely: Institute of Lifecycle Analysis (ILA) give figures of 119,755 MJ for the manufacture and 39,321 for the servicing of a Ford Taurus car (assumed to weigh 1.4 tonnes) over its lifetime (note that retail / insurance, recycling and disposal are not included)

= 119755+393121= 159,076 (rounded to 159,000) MJ.

Converting to MJ/tonne:

Embodied energy of vehicles = 1.0/1.4 * 159,000 = 113,600 MJ / tonne vehicle weight

The emission factor used for embodied energy (158 gCO2e/ MJ, see Section 3) is much higher than the fuel energy emission factor (84.6 gCO2e/ MJ): Embodied emissions = 113,600 * 0.158 = 17949 kg = 17.95 tonnes

Dividing by the expected life of the vehicle (default is 15 years):

Annual embodied emissions for manufacture and servicing of motor vehicles = 1.2 tonnes CO2e / tonne vehicle weight / year

GHG-Calc then multiplies the weight of the vehicle in tonnes by 1.2 to give the annual embodied emissions from manufacture and servicing. 4. The embodied emissions are added to the fuel emissions to give total annual emissions for the particular vehicle

Utilisation efficiency, i.e. load carried, is the largest factor is determining energy and emissions intensity of travel. To keep the per passenger fuel consumption to a minimum, vehicles should be loaded to their design capacity. This is seldom the case for cars in Australia and the US, with

20

average occupancy of less than 1.5 passengers with most cars having 5 seats. A useful ‘rule of thumb’ for vehicle efficiency is a maximum 0.25 tonnes of vehicle weight for every passenger. Table A2.2 Guide for efficient travel by motor vehicleVehicle Weight

(tonne)No. of

passengersFuel

consumption, L / 100 km

Per passenger fuel consumption, L /

100 km

Per passengerfuel emissions (kg

CO2e/100 km)Bus 9 36 40 1.1 3.9

Moped bicycle <25cc .03 1 1.2 1.2 5.5Light car .9 4 6 1.5 4.3Large car 1.7 6 12 2.0 5.8

Motor cycle < 250cc 0.15 1 3.5 3.5 10.1

Aircraft

Aircraft emissions are exceptional in that most of the global warming potential is caused by emissions other than CO2. Nitrous oxides (NOx), water vapor contrails and soot from the jet exhausts are involved in complex chemical and physical phenomena in the upper troposphere and stratosphere. ‘Over the period from 1992 to 2050, the overall radiative forcing (GWP) by aircraft – excluding that from changes in cirrus clouds – for all scenarios in this report is a factor of 2 to 4 larger than the forcing by aircraft carbon dioxide alone.’ (IPCC, 1999). GHG-Calc assumes the fuel emission factor for jet aircraft is three times the figure for aviation turbine fuel.

Emissions intensity (kg CO2e/ passenger km) for short-haul and long-haul aircraft flights were estimated as follows:

1. The fuel energy of jet aircraft was derived from a table of energy per passenger km for various flights (Climate Partners website, 2002). By trial and error, ‘best fit’ energy intensities were selected. It was found that energy intensity rises sharply for trips of less than 2000 km return (legs of less than 1000 km):

Fuel energy intensity, long haul flights >2500 km legs =1.5 MJ/passenger km

Fuel energy intensity, short haul flights 500-2500 km legs =

Trips with less than 500 km legs had even higher energy intensity but were not included in GHG-Calc.

The figure for long-haul flights was verified by information from the Boeing website (www.boeing.com):A Boeing 747-400 aircraft uses about 12L per km and carries 300 passengers at 75% capacity = 1200/300 = 4L/100 passenger km=36.8*4/100Fuel energy intensity, long haul flight, Boeing 747 = 1.5 MJ per 100 km.

2. Fuel energy is multiplied by a fuel emissions factor for aircraft. GHG-Calc assumes the fuel emission factor for jet aircraft is three times the figure for aviation turbine fuel:Fuel emission factor for jet aircraft = 232 g CO2/ MJ.

Multiplying fuel energy by fuel emissions factor: Fuel emissions intensity of jet aircraft, long-haul flight = .232*1.5

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= 0.35 kg CO2e/passenger km Fuel emissions intensity of jet aircraft, short-haul flight = .232*2

= 0.46 kg CO2e/passenger km

3. Embodied energy for aircraft travel was derived from energy intensity estimates (Lenzen, 1999):

Embodied energy for long haul air = 0.41 (1.5) = 0.6 MJ/ passenger km Embodied energy for short-haul air = 0.87 (2.0) = 1.7 MJ/ passenger km

4. Embodied emissions were estimated using the emission factor of 0.158 kg/MJ for Australian motor vehicles and other manufactured goods):

Embodied emissions for international/ long haul air = 0.6 * 0.158 = 0.10 kg CO2e/ passenger km.

Embodied emissions for domestic/ short haul air = 1.7 * 0.158 = 0.27 kg CO2e/ passenger km

5. Summing fuel emissions: Total emissions for long-haul aircraft = 0.35 + 0.10 = 0.45 kg/

passenger km Total emissions for short haul aircraft = 0.46 + 0.27 = 0.73 kg/

passenger km

Ocean liners

Although freight transport by ship is the most fuel efficient of any mode, passenger travel by ocean liner is inefficient because:

o A large gross tonnage of ship per passenger is used – from 21 tonnes per passenger for budget liners to 53 tonnes per passenger for luxury liners such as the QM2. Even the QM2, at 150,000 gross tonnes, carries only 2800 passengers – a people mass less than 280 tonnes. A similar cargo ship would carry over 75,000 tonnes of cargo.

o Liners have fast cruising speeds of 22- 29 Knots compared to 14- 18 knots for cargo ships. This requires at least 40% more energy to move the same tonnage.

o Every passenger requires about 0.4 crew members – passengers and crew must be fed and entertained over long voyages of a few to several weeks.

1. Fuel energy consumption was derived from fuel consumption figures for the SS Canberra, (www.sscanberra.com/stats3.htm), a 1970’s liner powered by oil-fired steam turbines, which would be budget class by today’s standards with a capacity of 2100 passengers. Comparable modern liners with diesel engines may be up to 20% more fuel efficient but carry less passengers.

2. For the embodied energy of the ocean liner - GHG-Calc adds 20%. This is a conservative estimate that assumes the high vessel mass would be compensated by the fact that the distance travelled by a ship over its lifetime would be about 20 times that of a motor vehicle.

3. Emissions were estimated using the emissions factors for bunker fuel (fuel emissions) and manufactured goods (embodied emissions).

Note: Luxury liners can have twice this figure as they have up to twice as much mass and twice the number of crew per passenger. Emissions intensity factor for luxury ocean liners in GHG-Calc was as for short-haul jets = 0.73 kg CO2e/ passenger km

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Public transport – bus and train

GHG-Calc uses emissions intensity factors (kg CO2e/ passenger km), calculated in 3 steps:

1. Fuel energy per km was calculated, assuming fuel consumption of 2.5L/km (bus), 1L/km (train) and 8 km/L (taxi). Fuel emission factors were applied to give fuel emissions per km.

2. Embodied energy per km − embodied energy required to manufacture and maintain the vehicle / number of km traveled over lifetime of vehicle − was estimated (Fergus, D; 1991; ILA, 1998). Embodied emissions per km were derived by applying the embodied emission factor for manufactured goods (see Appendix 1).

3. Emissions intensity in kg CO2e/ passenger km was estimated by summing fuel emissions/km and embodied emissions/km and dividing by the assumed passenger loads − bus 30 passengers, diesel train 120 passengers and taxi 2 passengers.

Number of passengers carried has the greatest impact on energy intensity and the assumed loads (about 50% of the load limits) are considered by the Author to be typical for the city of Perth.

Bicycle

Bicycles are powered by energy from food consumed by the rider and this does have a fossil fuel emission factor (see Section 3.). A bike requires about 75 watts of power to maintain a leisurely pace of 16 km per hour. = 75 watt hours to travel 16 km (Vale, 2000). The food energy required to deliver this energy was estimated, given that the human body is about 24% efficient at producing working energy. Embodied energy of the food was estimated using an energy multiplier of 3, i.e. on average, food takes about 3 times as much energy to produce as it contains (see Food and Water section).

Emissions were estimated by applying the embodied emissions factor for food, 0.095 (see Appendix 1). Embodied emissions of the bicycle are not added as they are included in Section 5 of GHG-Calc under ‘Housing and possessions’.

Table A2.3 Summary of energy and emission intensities of transport modes used in GHG-Calc

Transport mode Energy Intensity (MJ/ passenger km)

Emissions intensity kg CO2e / passenger km

Jet aircraft (long haul) 1.5 .45Jet aircraft (short haul) 2.0 .73Ocean liner (budget class) 4.8 0.45Taxi (2 passengers) 2.7 0.26Bus (diesel, metro 30 passengers)

0.6 0.06

Train (coal fired electric or diesel, 120 passengers)

0.4 0.04

Bicycle 0.2 0.02

A2.2 ELECTRICITY AND OTHER FUELS USED BY THE HOUSEHOLD

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Electricity

Less than a third of the fuel energy used to generate electricity is delivered to the home (CSIRO, 2004), because:

Power stations convert fuel to energy at only about 30 - 40% efficiency and There are further energy losses in transmission lines

Energy input for electricity generation (MJ) = (electricity delivered in kWh/ 3.6) + heat and friction losses at the power station + transmission losses.

GHG-Calc has boxes for the user to enter their estimated electricity consumption in KW hrs, which are simply converted to MJ, multiplying by a factor of 3.6.

The State of residence and percentage of ‘Green Power’ purchased are also entered. These have a have a significant influence on the emission factor of the electricity used.

The Australian Greenhouse Office has calculated emission factors for each State in Australia, taking into account the efficiency of the power stations and energy sources used (Table A2.4). Over all, electricity supplied in Australia is about 80% sourced from coal, with some states using significant amounts of natural gas and Tasmania having mainly hydropower. Electricity generation in Victoria (mainly brown coal) has an emission factor more than double that of the Northern Territory (>90 % natural gas)

GHG-Calc estimates emissions by converting the kWh of electricity consumption entered by the user (from their electricity bills) by an emission factor, from Table 6.1 below

Table A2.4 Emission factors for electricity purchased/used/delivered per kWh

Locality Full fuel cycle emissions factors, kg

CO2-e/kWhEmission factor expressed as kg

CO2e/MJ

   NSW, ACT1.012 0.281

   VIC1.444 0.401

   QLD1.079 0.299

   SA1.186 0.329

   WA1.114 0.308

   TAS0.002 0.0006

   NT0.654 0.182

Source: George Wilkenfield and Associates November 2002. Greenhouse Gas Factors for Electricity, Australia. From: Australian Greenhouse Office, 2003. Factors and Methods Workbook

24

Note: The EF for WA of 1.11 kg/ kWh, (= 308 g/MJ) was used for vehicle, appliance and food/ waste production in GHG-Calc.

Electricity -‘green power’ / renewable (biomass/hydro/wind power)

EnergyThe Net Energy Requirement (NER) of electricity generation is defined as kWhrs of non-renewable energy required to generate 1 kWhr of electricity. Energy-Calc uses (derived from Dey and Lenzen, 2000) :

For coal fired power 3.0 kWhr / kWhr = 10.8 MJ / kWhr. This reflects the fact that our electricity grid is only about 33% efficient in converting fossil fuel energy to electricity delivered to the home (CSIRO,2004)

For renewable energy (based on photovoltaic power with no back-up), an estimate of 0.2 kWhr / kWhr = 0.7 MJ / kWhr .

Energy-Cal converts kWhr of electricity entered by the user to NER, based on the percentage of renewable energy purchased.

Emissions

Total emission factors for power generation, including embodied energy of the plant are known as Greenhouse gas costs (GGCs). Emission factors Australian grid power average about 1.2 kg CO2e/kWhr (AGO, 2000), depending on the State power grid (See Table A2.4).

CO2 emissions from electricity generation using biomass gasifier technology, including fossil fuel use in transportation, but excluding embodied emissions of the plant, have been estimated to be 24 g/kWh compared with 815 g/kWh for coal (Bhattacharya, S, 2001; Asian figures). = 24/3.6 = 6.67 g/MJ = 0.007 kg CO2/kWh

GGCs (in kg/kWh) of 0.034 − 0.125 for wind, 0.05 − 0.15 for photovoltaic and 0.018 − 0.026 for hydro electricity are cited (Dey and Lenzen, 2000). AGO cites a GGC of 0.002 kg/kWh for hydropower in Tasmania but embodied emissions are likely to be an underestimated in this figure and the capacity for new generation from hydro in Australia is limited. Most new RE is likely to be from wind, biomass or solar sources.

Note: The GGC of nuclear fission energy is cited as 0.015 kg/kWh (Meier and Kulcinski, 2000), but nuclear power is not considered an acceptable, renewable option to fossil fuel power generation and is not included in the Calculators.

On the basis of the figures for wind and biomass: Emission factor estimate for all ‘renewable electricity’ = 0.1 kg/kWh = 0.03 kg/MJ

For the ‘% electricity’ options, GHG-Calc estimates the portion of ‘green power’ at 0.1 kg/kWh. In all cases the emissions from ‘renewable electricity’ are small compared to fossil fuel-sourced electricity.

Home Heating Fuels

Emission factors for the main residential heating fuels are listed in Table 3.1 (AGO, 2003)

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Natural gas

GHG-Calc multiplies the units (kWh) entered by 0.25 (Table 3.1)

LPG

GHG-Calc multiplies the emissions figure – 3.4 kgCO2e/ kg (Table 3.1) – by 45 to give emissions per 45 kg cylinder of LPG. It then multiplies this figure by the user’s number of cylinders used per year to give annual emissions from LPG.

Oil/ kerosene

GHG-Calc multiplies the litres used by 2.86 (Table3.1).

Wood

The energy content of wood is estimated at 16.2 MJ/kg (AGO, Factors and Methods Workbook, 2003)

Although CO2 emissions from wood are not counted as they are from a renewable source, the GHG emissions from wood heaters – methane, carbon monoxide and nitrous oxides are significant. They can vary by more than 100 % depending on wood dryness, billet size, heater design and heater operation . For this reason, reference sources cite widely different emissions.

The emissions estimate for wood heating used in GHG-Calc, derived from data on total US wood and gas consumption and emission figures (Houck, Tiegs et al, 1998) = 0.55 kg CO2e/ kg fuel= 0.034 kgCO2e /MJ. This figure is similar to those for ASA-rated heaters in Australia.

A2.3 FOODS, GROCERIES AND WATER

Full tables of energy inputs for foodstuffs could not be found in the literature, so the Author has compiled a table of estimated energy inputs from several sources − primary production (Pimentel, 1980, Narayanaswamy et al, 2003); food processing and manufacture (Carlsson- Kanyama and Faist, 2000; Narayanaswamy et al, 2003). There were three transport energy estimates − Australia intrastate and interstate and imported. Food containers/packages were weighed and the embodied energy of the containers estimated. These inputs were summed to give an estimate, by process energy analysis, of energy inputs for the primary production, manufacture, packaging and transport of foods. The Australian Food and Grocery Council Environmental Report 2003 estimates retailing adds an average of about 0.3 kg CO2e per kg of food, but GHG-Calc does not include emissions from retail of wholesale trade. The main non-food groceries such as soaps, shampoos, detergents, nappies and toilet paper are included in the food section. The figures were checked against full life cycle energy figures for Swedish foods (Carlsson-Kanyama, Carlsson et al, 2002)

To estimate GHG emissions from the energy inputs of various categories of foods, the emission factor of 0.095 g CO2e /MJ (see Appendix 1) was used for all foods. Emissions were thus estimated by multiplying the energy input in MJ by 0.095.

Methane emissions were added for red meats and dairy products (ICF Consulting, 1999):

26

Mature dairy cows = 249 lbs =110 kg CH4/ head/ year = 2.2 tonne CO2e/ head per year. Annual production of 320 kg milk solids/ year (NZ MAF) = 2200/320 = 6.8 kg CO2e/kg MS.

Yearling system steers/ heifers = 1.01 tonne CO2e/ head per year

The total GHG emissions for food types were cross- referenced by figures from SE England (Taking Stock…, 2004).

27

Table A2.5 Global Warming Potential (GWP) for 8 categories of foods, used in the GHG-Calculator. (Rose, 2004, unpublished)Food class Energy

inputs – range (MJ/kg)

Emissions range, (kg CO2 /kg food)

Methane emissions (kg CO2e / kg meat) *

Average energy input (MJ/kg) (a)

Average emissions (kg CO2

/kg food)

L1- Fresh/minimally processed. Fresh fruit/veg, grains, flour, fresh bread, rolled oats

3 - 10 0.3 – 1.0 0 6.5 0.6

L2 - Pasta, biscuits, rice, muesli, pulses, canned/bottled cool/juice drinks, cakes, frozen/ special breads, pet food biscuits.

11 – 20 1.0 – 1.9 0 15.5 1.5

M1 - Processed containerised foods. Canned/bottled/frozen fruit/veg, dried fruits/nuts, sugar, beer, breakfast cereals, potato chips, tea/herbs, toilet paper, eggs, pastries.

21 - 30 2.0 – 2.9 0 25.5 2.4

M2 Dairy – Milks 7 - 13 2.7 – 3.2 2 10.0 3.0

MH1 - Chicken meat, chocolates, wine, jam, honey, potato chips, cooking oil, margarine, canned pet food, takeaway / restaurant meals.

30 - 44 2.9 – 4.2 0 37.0 3.5

MH2 - Dairy - yoghurts/ ice-cream/custards. 20 - 30 4.9 – 5.9 3 25.0 5.4H1 - Soup powders, coffee, spirits; pork, fish, detergents, shampoo, soaps, light bulbs, disposable nappies.

45 - 120 4.3 – 11.4 0 82.5 7.8

H2 - Red meats (beef, lamb), dairy - cheese/butter/cream/milk powders.

44 - 90 10.6 – 15.0 6.4 67.0 12.8

Water

1. The energy factors used in the water section of GHG-Calc were: Operating energy, domestic reticulated water = 7.8 MJ/ kL. Fixed embodied energy of the water system = 687 MJ per year per household.

(Pullen, 1999)2. The average emissions factor for electricity generated in Australia − 0.308 kg/ MJ − was used to convert energy to emissions. 3. The fixed embodied emissions of pipes and storage to supply one household were calculated by multiplying embodied energy by the embodied emission factor for manufactured goods.

A2.4 WASTE

By weight, WA’s Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) was about 934,000 tonnes per year, (32% of total waste). Of this, 800,000 tonnes went to landfill and 134,000 tonnes was recycled (Wastenet, 2001). Building/construction waste was about 1.5m tonnes (52% of total waste) and commercial/industrial waste was about 450,000 tonnes (16%).

MSW – domestic, local council, commercial and food waste – amounts to about 680 kg per capita per year and is composed of:

80% Organic – garden 30%, food 26%, paper/cardboard 24%. 20% metals, plastic and glass plus some inert waste. (12 % is potentially recyclables)

GHG-Calc only deals with MSW and does not include construction and industrial waste. The 30 % green/garden waste is also excluded, as it is normally collected separately and composted or burned, making negligible net contribution to GHG emissions. This leaves an average MSW per person from bin collections of 474 kg per year; 9 kg/week

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GHG-Calc’s estimation of energy and emissions for waste carries a high level of uncertainty, due mainly to the assumptions that 8L of waste = 1 kg and that the waste composition is the average for MSW. To achieve more accuracy, the waste streams would have to be weighed each week for several weeks, a task that few householders would be willing to undertake. Entering total volume of waste in the bins was considered to be the only user- friendly way to treat waste quantities. Users need to be aware of the uncertainty and use the results as estimates only.1. The embodied energy of municipal solid waste (MSW) was calculated by taking the sum of (embodied energy of manufactured waste streams) times percentage by weight of waste stream. Estimated average embodied energy of MSW = 15.45 MJ/kgEstimated average embodied emissions from all MSW waste streams = 2.45 kg CO2e/ kg MSW2. Methane emissions for the organic waste streams were added. From the table below, methane emission from paper/cardboard was taken as 0.4 tonnes CO2e/tonne and food scraps 0.37. Adding the embodied energy emissions and methane emissions give an estimated embodied emissions factor of MSW = 2.7 kg CO2e/ kg MSW.

Table A2.6 Methane yield from selected landfilled solid waste components (US Environmental Protection Agency, 1998)Material Selected methane yield - tonnes CO2e / wet tonneNewspaper; coated paper 0.285 – 0.323Office paper 1.328Corrugated boxes 0.591Food scraps 0.369Grass, leaves, branches 0.183 - 0.235

Table A2.7 Embodied energy of waste materials in MSW(Adapted from EPA of NSW, 1997; Alcorn, 1998; Waste Net, 2002; Victoria University Wellington, 2002; Grant et al, 2001.)

Waste material Embodied energy (EE) of material (MJ/ kg) - range cited in literature

EE figure used for calculator (MJ/ kg)

Estimated embodied energy, MJ / tonne MSW

Methane kg CO2e

/ tonne MSW

Comments- best practice disposal(in order of preference)

Paper, newsprint and cardboard

36 - 51 (virgin)28- 34 (recycled) 30

7800 144 Recycle, burn or compost to prevent methane generation

Food (mainly veg scraps)

0 0 780 96 Aerobic composting to prevent Me generation

Garden and wood (Excluded from MSW figure)

1 300 60 Compost Burn

Plastic 40- 65 (PVC)75-103 (HDPE)81 (PET)

84 (Average common types)

4200 0 Recycle

Glass (Mostly recycled)

30 (virgin)10 (recycled)

20 800 0 Recycle. Recycled glass has 43% of the embodied energy of virgin glass

Steel and other metals

7-18 (steel recycled)32-40 (steel)206 (Al virgin)14-27(Al recycled)

50 (estimated average, metals in waste stream) *

1500 0 Recycle to save up to about 60% of the embodied energy

0 N/a 1 70 Landfill300 N/A 15450** 240**** Steel = 30; aluminium = 191; brass = 62. ** 30% recycled 70% virgin

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Emission savings from waste recycling

In 98% of Perth’s waste collections and some regional centres, glass, plastics, metals and paper/cardboard wastes are collected in a separate bin and recycled. Recycled materials generally contain much less embodied energy than virgin materials. For steel the figure is about 30%, paper 60% and aluminium 10%. However, actual energy and GHG saving for recycling is much less than these figures indicate because a lo of energy is used in the collection, sorting, cleaning and pulverizing of the waste before it can be used as recycled feedstock. Actual emission savings are about 3% for the food waste, 4% for paper and 3% for glass/ plastic/ metal waste streams – a total of about 10% savings in total. (Derived from Table 7.2 above and from RMIT, Grant et al, 2001 ‘Life Cycle Assessment of Paper and Packaging waste management scenarios in Victoria’). This energy saving is still significant and recycling has the added benefits of large reductions in aquatic, toxic and nutrient pollution and volume of landfill.

A2.5 HOUSING AND POSSESSIONS

Housing

Embodied GHG emissions of housing are significant and are included in GHG-Calc under House and Possessions. However the figure is generally only about 1/8 – ¼ of the emissions from operational energy used for space and water heating, air conditioning and lighting over the lifetime of the house. (Pullen, 1996). GHG-Calc shows embodied emissions from Australian homes to be in the range 0.5 – 3 tonnes CO2e/ year.

Embodied energy per cubic metre of floor space for different types of construction, from various sources, are shown in Table A2.8 below (note that the references with lower figures are for the house shell materials only). The GHG-Calc estimates are based on average energy/ square metre for each type of construction, inclusive of construction, site works, plumbing etc (Glover, 2001). Emissions per square metre (column 8), were estimated by applying the embodied emissions factor for residential buildings of 0.092 MJ/sq m (see section 3.3)

GHG-Calc only provides an indicative comparison between the construction types and an estimate of emissions, accurate to about 35%. In reality there are variations due to efficiency of materials manufacturing processes and due to the energy sources used by the manufacturer. Another source of error is the use of a single emissions factor for residential buildings (section 3), when in fact this will vary depending on the construction materials used. The actual lifetime will also have a large effect on the emissions estimates. In reality, houses may last from about 30 to over 100 years, but are likely to have major renovation before 60 years, so a nominal life of 60 years was used.

Table A2.8 Embodied energy and emissions per square metre of floor area, free standing residential house (Derived from figures for a ‘standard 94 m2 house’)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Construction type Baird

and Chang (NZ, 1983)

Alcorn (NZ, 1996)

(House shell only)

(Buchanan, A. and

Honey, B, 1993, in Glover, 2001)

Glover, 2001(House plus plumbing/

electric, construction and

site works)

Estimate used in

GHG-CalcMJ/m2

Embodied Energy per sq m (MJ/m2)*

annualised over 60 years

Annual Embodied emissions/ sq m =

energy/ sq m * .092(kgCO2e/ m2/year) used in GHG-Calc

Timber frame, floor & cladding, concrete tile roof.

1500 700 2287 2469 2350 39 3.6

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Lowest energy construction typeTimber or steel frame, concrete floor, fibro- cement clad, steel roof

2300 1100 3400 57 5.2

Concrete block, steel roof concrete floor.

2700 1600 3957 4213 4100 67 6.3

Steel or timber frame, steel roof, brick veneer clad, concrete floor

3200 1400 5530 5885 5880 98 9.0

Double brick, tiled roof concrete floor

5914 (est. from Glover’s figures)

5910 99 9.1

Possessions

Embodied emissions of possessions were calculated by: Taking full life cycle embodied energy figures from Carlsson- Kanyama et al, 2001 and

Rose, 2004, rounded to nearest 100 MJ. Subtracting 20% for trade and disposal where the figures were for full life cycle. Dividing by an expected life – from 5 years for computers to 30 years for boats and

caravans. Multiplying by the emission factor for manufactured goods of 0.158 kg/MJ and dividing by

1000 to give tonnes of emissions per year

Annual consumption of goods was estimated for low, average and high households (Fig 8.3, shaded columns). The totals were used as ‘embodied energy and emissions of possessions’ low, average and high options in GHG-Calc. These figures are generally higher than the EE of the house itself, as the items are more emissions intensive and have much shorter lives.

Table A2.9 Annual embodied energy and emissions attributable to possessions (other than car and house)

Household consumption Embodied energy MJ / year

Embodied emissions tonnes CO2e/ year

LOW – Minimal furnishings and only small sized basic appliances, basic clothing

7900 1.2

AVERAGE – Furnishing for medium sized house; with 3 occupants. Standard appliances and furnishings; one of each appliance, including computer; average wardrobe

14600 2.2

HIGH – Furnishings for large house, 5 occupants; more than one large appliance in 3 cases e.g. fridge/freezer, TV, dishwasher or >100 kg of books, lounge suite; 2 computers, large wardrobe of expensive clothes

24100 3.6

The user then enters the estimated weight of large goods such as boats, trailers and caravans owned by the household. GHG-Calc sums the embodied energy of possessions and shows a figure in the right hand column. Possessions that are older than the indicated life can be omitted.

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For the reasons stated under ‘Housing’ above, the certainty of GHG-Energy-Calc output can only be expected to be in the range of about 35 -40%.

Table A2.10 Estimated embodied energy and emissions of goods, annualized over an assumed lifetime

EMBODIED ENERGY AND EMISSIONS OF GOODS

I TEM RefNUMBER OF I TEMS

Annual Embodied Energy MJ peritem

Annual EMBODIEDEMISSIONS kgCO2e per item

default life (years)

Bicycle 1 1 133 21 15Fridge; freezer; 1 1 280 44 20Washing machine 1 1 347 55 15Dish washer; clothes drier; air conditioner1 1 267 42 15Toaster, iron, camera, small appliance 1 1 27 4 15TV (15" or smaller); video camera 1 1 240 38 15VCR; sound system, microwave 1 1 133 21 15Computer system - CPU + screen+ printer + keyboard 3 1 1733 274 6Stove 1 1 160 25 30Sewing machine or large power tool 1 1 120 19 20Bed plus mattress 1 1 240 38 20J acket 1 1 88 14 10Trouser 1 1 64 10 5Sweater 1 1 80 13 5Shirt, blouse, hat 1 1 48 8 5Underwear (10 pieces) 1 1 80 13 4Sets of bedding (doona+blanket) 1 1 80 13 10Sheets set (2 sheets + pillow case) 1 1 50 8 8Lawnmower/ edger (petrol) 1 1 132 21 20

KG WEIGHT

Boat, trailer, caravan (per kg) 4 300 1220 193 30Sporting equipment (kg) 1 6 528 83 10Wood furniture (kg) 1 100 133 21 30Metal furniture (kg) 4 100 400 63 30Metal/ plastic small items, tools (kg) 1 1 12 2 10Electronic appliances (kg) 1 30 480 76 15Books (kg) 1 50 280 44 20

SQ. METRES

Vinyl/ lino floor covering (sq m) 1 50 200 32 20Carpet - synthetic light- med weight types (sq m)5 50 200 32 20High quality wool carpet (squ m) 1 50 500 79 30

References for Table A2.10

1.Carlsson-Kanyama, A; Carlsson, R. (Environmental Strategies Research Group/FOI Stockholm, Sweden). Moll, H and Kok, R. (IVEM University of Groningen The Netherlands). Household Metabolism in the Five Cities. Swedish National Report-Stockholm. 2. Rose, 2004. GHG-Calc, a Tool for Self-audit of Domestic Greenhouse Gas Emissions 3. Atlantic Consulting and IPU, 1998. LCA Study (version 1.2) EU Ecolabels for Personal Computers 4. Institute of Lifecycle Analysis, 1998. Automobiles: Manufacture vs. Use. http://www.ilea.org/lcas/macleanlave1998.html 5. Alcorn, A., 1998. in ATLA News, issue 7 no 4, Nov 1998. http://www.converge.org.nz/atla/new-11-98-p4.html. Embodied Energy in NZ Materials

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Notes for table A2.10:

1/ When estimating embodied emissions, possessions that are older than the indicated life and still in use can be omitted2/ Embodied energy and emissions are estimates for the production, manufacture, packaging and transport of the goods. Retail and wholesale trade, insurance, and disposal are not included3/ Embodied emissions factor of 0.158 kg CO2e / kg goods (Rose, 2004) was applied for all goods.4/ 20% was deducted from the energy figures from Carlsson-Kanyama et al to exclude retailing.5/ Expected lifetimes of goods categories were Author's estimates.6/ Metal/plastic manufactured items generally have from 130 - 240 MJ/kg embodied energy   

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