A Situational Analysis of

in the Mesoamerican Reef System

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Table of Contents ExecutiveSummary........................................................................................................................1

ScopeandMethodologyoftheSituationalAnalysis......................................................................2

ImportanceofMangroves..............................................................................................................3

StatusandTrendsofWorld’sMangroves......................................................................................4

MangrovesintheMesoamericanReefSystem..........................................................................5

Mexico....................................................................................................................................6

Belize......................................................................................................................................7

Guatemala..............................................................................................................................8

Honduras................................................................................................................................9

EconomicValuationofMangroves..............................................................................................10

ImplementinganEconomicValuation.....................................................................................11

StakeholderEngagement.....................................................................................................13

BenefitsofValuation............................................................................................................13

DealingwithUncertainty......................................................................................................13

EconomicContributionofMangroves.....................................................................................15

CoastalProtection................................................................................................................15

Fisheries................................................................................................................................15

Tourism.................................................................................................................................16

SoilAccretion........................................................................................................................16

NutrientandSedimentFiltering...........................................................................................16

CarbonSequestration...........................................................................................................17

ConservationChallengesandOpportunitiesFacingtheMAR-LProgram....................................17

Appendix:2015MARLeadershipProgramVisionStatement......................................................20

References....................................................................................................................................21

RichWilsonofSeatoneConsultingandLaurettaBurkeandL.JasmineLambertoftheWorldResourcesInstitutepreparedthissituationalanalysisreport.

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Executive Summary Mangrovesareagloballyrareyethighlythreatenedforestecosystem,coveringapproximately152,000km2oftheworld’ssurface(Spaldingetal.,2010).Atotalof73mangrovespeciesandhybridsaredispersedacross123countriesandterritoriesaroundtheglobe.Sustainablelong-termmanagementoftheworld’smangrovesiscriticaltomaintainhealthyecosystemfunction,promotelocaleconomicdevelopmentandensurethesafetyandsecurityofnearbypopulationsandassociatedcoastalinfrastructure.Avastamountofliteratureexistsonmangroveecology,ecosystemservicevalues,andmostrecently,quantifiedeconomicandcarbon-based(bluecarbon)values.Mangrovessupportandmaintainviablefisheries,sequestercarbon,providesubsistenceprovisionstolocalinhabitants,filternutrientsandsediment,enablethrivingtourismandprotectcoastlinesfromwavesandstormsamongmanyothervalues(Mukherjeeetal.,2014).Studiesalsodemonstratethatthelossofmangrovesinrecentdecadeshasbeensevere.Recentresearchsuggeststhat25%oftheworld’soriginalmangrovecoverisgone(Spaldingetal.,2010).Theprimaryandemergenthuman-causeddriversofmangrovedestructioninclude:

• Coastaldevelopment(e.g.roads,ports,urbangrowthandtourismaccommodations)• Agricultureandaquaculture• Pollutionandenvironmentaldegradation• Localexploitation(e.g.woodforcookingorbuilding)• Risingseasduetoclimatechange

Manyactivitiesthatdamagecoastalenvironmentswheremangrovesthrive—aquaculture,dredgingandpoorlyplanneddevelopment,dischargeofpollutionandsewage—aredrivenbyshort-termeconomicgainversusconsiderationofthelong-termimpactstopeopleandnature.Economicvaluationhelpsquantifytheecosystemservicevaluesthatmangrovesprovidepeople.Calculatingsuchvaluesisincreasinglyrecognizedasanintegralcomponentofnaturalresourcesmanagement,economicdevelopmentandland-useplanning(VoQuocetal.,2012).AlongtheMesoamericanReefSystem,alterationofcoastallandscapesistheleadinghumancauseofmangrovedeforestation.Climatechange,risingseasandapotentialincreaseinthefrequencyofextremeweathereventspresentsanemergingandperhapsevengreaterlong-termthreat.Althougheachcountryfrontingthereefhastakenstepsinrecentyearstoimproveprotectionofitscoastalenvironment,thelegalframeworksaffordingspecificprotectionsformangrovesgenerallyremainout-of-date,poorlyenforcedorunderdeveloped.TheMesoamericanReefLeadershipProgram(MAR-L)ispresentedwithauniqueandtimelyopportunitytoincreaseawarenessofthevalueofmangrovesacrosstheMesoamericanReefSystem,strengthenconservationeffortsandpromotesustainablelong-termmanagementoftheseimportantcoastalecosystems.SuccessfultrainingofthenewestcohortofMAR-LFellowswillbuildindividualandinstitutionalcompetency,fostercollaborationatmultiplescales,andachieveconservationimpactsthatextendandevolvewellbeyondthe2015programcycle.

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Scope and Methodology of the Situational Analysis InFebruary2015,SeatoneConsulting(Seatone)andtheWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI)submittedandreceivedsupportfromFondoMexicanoparalaConservacióndeNaturalezaforajointproposaltoassisttheMAR-LProgramindevelopmentandexecutionofits2015programcycle.Programstaffrequestedaliteraturereviewandsituationalanalysisthatdescribesthestatusandtrendsofmangroveecosystemsintheregion,identifiescurrentandemergingconservationchallengesandopportunities,andincludeskeyconsiderationsthatguideMAR-LtrainingsandFelloweffortstodevelopandleadlocalstudiesandconservationinitiatives.TheliteraturereviewfocusedprimarilyonmangroveecosystemsalongthecoastalzoneoftheMesoamericanReefSystem(Mexico,Belize,GuatemalaandHonduras).Thatsaid,statisticsonmangrovecoverandlossweregenerallymoreavailableatanationallevelforeachcountryversusinformationspecifictotheCaribbeancoast.Moreover,additionalresourceswerereviewedinordertounderstandanddescribemangrovesalongtheMesoamericanReefSystemwithinaglobalcontext.Intotal,SeatoneandWRIanalyzedanddistilledinformationfrom>100documentsthatshedlightonthefollowingtopics:

• Generalandregionalspecificdescriptionofmangroveecosystems• Documentationofecosystemservicesandlinkswithnearbyecosystems• Economicvaluationliteraturereviewsandmethods• Nationalandlocalmangroveecosysteminventoriesandfieldstudies• Threatstomangroveecosystems(global,regionalandlocal)• Hurricaneandanthropogenicimpacts• Monitoringandmappingofmangroveecosystems• Assessmentofbluecarbonstocks• Mangroverestorationprogramsandtechniques

Fourprimaryquestionsguidedtheresearchandsubsequentdataanalysis.Inaddition,Seatoneconsultednearly20regionallybasedmangroveexpertsandconservationpractitionerstohelpinformtheresearchprocessandvalidatefindings.Guidingquestionsincludedthefollowing:

1. Whatisthehistoricalandcurrentstatusandtrendsofmangroveecosystems,globallyandalongthecoastalzoneoftheMesoamericanReefSystem?

2. Whattypeofvaluationstudieshavebeenconductedtodateonmangroveecosystems,globallyandwithintheMesoamericanReefSystem?

3. Whatcanbesaidaboutthegoods,servicesandeconomiccontributionofmangroveecosystems?

4. WhatarethecurrentandemergentconservationchallengesandopportunitiesfacingMAR-LProgramFellowsinterestedinmangroveprotectionacrosstheMesoamericanReefSystem?

Finally,thisreportacknowledgescertainlimitationsofthemethodologyusedtoconducttheliteraturereviewandpreparethesituationalanalysis.

• Apparentinformationgaps.Thedesktopnatureofthestudy,supportedbycontactwithlocalexpertsandconservationpractitioners,revealedamuchhigher

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numberofresourcesforMexicoandBelizeversusGuatemalaandHonduras.Assuch,agreaterlevelofanalysisisprovidedinthesetwocountryprofiles.

• Spanishlanguagelimitations.NeitherSeatonenorWRIconsultantsarefullyfluentinSpanish.ColleaguesintheregionwereconsultedattimestohelpinterpretSpanishlanguagedocuments.TheauthorsacknowledgebiasbasedonreviewingandreferencingagreaternumberofEnglishlanguagematerial.

Importance of Mangroves Likeatanglednetcloakingthecoastalongtropicalandsubtropicalzones,mangrovesareagloballyrareyethighlythreatenedforestecosystem.Recentestimatessuggestthatmangroveecosystemscoverapproximately152,000km2oftheworld’ssurface(Spaldingetal.,2010).Oftenassociatedwiththebeautyandbiodiversityofthetropics,mangrovesprovideawiderangeofecosystemservicesandpossesssignificanteconomicvalueforpeople.Sustainablelong-termmanagementofmangrovesiscriticaltomaintainhealthyecosystemfunction,promoteeconomicdevelopmentandensurethesafetyandsecurityofnearbypopulationsandassociatedcoastalinfrastructure,particularlyinplacesliketheMesoamericanReefSystem.Atotalof73mangrovespeciesandassociatedhybridsaredispersedacross123countriesandterritoriesaroundtheglobe.Mangroves1aretreesorlargeshrubsthatareparticularlyadeptatsurvivingharshenvironmentalconditions.Theirevolutionhasforgeduniquesurvivalfeaturesinthefaceofhighsalinity,anaerobicandwaterloggedsoils,andachallengingenvironmentforseeddispersalandpropagation.Moreover,mangrovesareahavenforbiodiversityandsciencecontinuestoshowcriticalinterdependencieswithnearbyecosystemssuchasseagrassbedsandcoralreefs(Mumbyetal.,2004;Nagelkerkenetal.,2008;Harmetal.,2008).Themostexpansivemangrovescommonlyoccuratthemouthsofrivers,suchaslargedeltasorsmallerestuaries.Mangrovescanalsobefoundinbays,lagoonsandalongtheopencoastline,especiallyinareaswiththerightcombinationofsedimentsandlowwaveenergy(Spaldingetal.,2010;UNEP,2014).Mangrovesprovidenumerousecosystemservicesthatcontributetohumanwellbeing(Spaldingetal.,2010;Veghetal.,2014;UNEP,2014).Aroundtheglobemangrovessupportandmaintainviablefisheries,sequestercarbon,provideprovisionstolocalinhabitants,filternutrientsandsediment,enabletourismandprotectcoastlinesfromwavesandstormsamongmanyothervalues(Mukherjeeetal.,2014).Theeconomicvaluesderivedfromtheseservicesfallintotwocategories:directusevalueandindirectusevalue.Directusevaluereferstoconsumptiveactivitieslikefishingorwoodharvesting,ornon-consumptiveactivitieslikekayakingorbirdwatching,whichinvolveadirectinteractionwiththeecosystem.Indirectusevaluereferstotheservicestheecosystemprovides,suchasstormprotectionorwaterfiltration.Generally,directhumanusesofmangrovesalongtheMesoamericanReefSystemincludefishcaptureformarket-saleandpersonalconsumption,timberharvestingandfuelwoodcollection,

1Unlessotherwisespecifiedasaparticularspeciesorsetofspecies,theterms“mangroves”and“mangroveecosystems”areusedinterchangeablythroughoutthispaper.

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tourismandrecreation,education,research,andaestheticandculturalenjoyment.Specifichumanusesandvaluesmaydifferacrossthefourcountries.Furthermore,servicesassociatedwithanygivenmangroveecosystemwillvarybasedonlocation,conditionofthemangroves,andspecificusebygovernment,businessinterestsorlocalcommunities.Status and Trends of World’s Mangroves Mangrovesarewellstudiedtheworldover.Avastamountofliteratureexistsonmangroveecology,ecosystemservicevalues,andmostrecently,quantifiedeconomicandcarbon-based(bluecarbon)values.Studiesalsoshowthatthelossofmangrovesaroundtheworldinrecentdecadeshasbeensevere.AccordingtotheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO),approximately35,600km2(3,560hectares)ofmangroveswereclearedorotherwisedestroyedbetween1980and2005.Arecentcomprehensivecompilationofresearchsuggeststhat25%oftheworld’soriginalmangrovecoverisnowgone(Spaldingetal.,2010).Anthropogenic(human-caused)driversofmangrovedestructionareoftentheresultoflanduseactivitiesneardensepopulationcentersalongthecoastalzone.Mangrovesarealsosusceptibletodegradationandimpairedecosystemfunctioncausedbyextremeweathereventssuchashurricanesandtropicalstorms(Cahoonetal.,2003;ZaldivarJiménezetal.,2004;VanselowK.A.etal.,2007).Globally,theprimaryandemergentanthropogenicthreatstomangrovesinclude:

• Coastaldevelopment(e.g.roads,ports,urbangrowthandtourismaccommodations)• Agricultureandaquaculture• Pollutionandenvironmentaldegradation• Localexploitation(e.g.woodforcookingorbuilding)• Risingseasduetoclimatechange

Thecontinuedlossofmangrovesaroundtheworldthreatenscountlessspeciesthatdependontheseecosystemsandmaynegativelyimpactupto100millionpeoplelivinginthecoastalzone(UNEP,2014).Althoughgloballossesdecreasedwhencomparingthe1980s(≈1.04%peryear)tothe2000–2005timeperiod(≈0.66%peryear),mangrovesarestilldestroyedatarate3–5timesfasterthananyotherforesttype(Spaldingetal.,2010).Recognizingtheseverityofthesituationnecessitatesthoughtfulconsiderationofthemosteffectivegovernanceapproaches,resourcemanagementstrategiesandhumanbehaviorthatwillstemthetideofmangrovedestructionaroundtheglobe.Thegoodnewsisthatmanytoolsandtechniquesnowexisttoquantifythevalueofmangroves,aswellasmap,monitor,and,whereneeded,restoretheseuniqueandvaluableecosystems.Somecountries,includingalongtheMesoamericanReefSystem,haveestablishedpolicies,regulationsandresourcemanagementstrategiesthatstrengthenmangroveprotection.Thistrendbodesespeciallywellgiventhatlargeswathsofmangrovesarefoundwithinprotectedareasandinternationallyrecognizedsites(e.g.Ramsar,UNESCOWorldHeritage)aroundtheworld.Inthelongrun,protectingmangrovesbeforetheyaredegradedandneedrestoringmayrequirelessinvestmentandtherebyreapgreatereconomicandecosystemservicebenefitsforpeopleandnature(UNEP,2014).

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MangrovesintheMesoamericanReefSystemFromthenortherntipofMexico’sYucatánPeninsula,southalongtheeasternedgeofBelizeandGuatemala,tothenorthernportionofHonduras—anareacollectivelyknownastheMesoamericanReefSystem—mangrovesarepredominantalongthecoastalzone,upriversandaroundlagoons,andscatteredacrosstheregion’smanyoffshoreislands.AwiderangeoffiguresexistsformangrovecoverandlossforthelargerCentralAmericaregion,whichincludestheMesoamericanReefSystem.Table1includesestimatesofCentralAmericanmangrovecoverbasedonpublications,mapsandsatelliteimagesusedtopreparethe2010WorldAtlasofMangroves.Conversely,a2010FAOGlobalForestResourcesAssessmentestimatesthatmangrovecoverinCentralAmericadeclinedfrom≈4,810km2(481,000hectares)to≈4,430km2(443,000hectares)between1990–2010(FAO,2010).Eachcountryprofilebelowdescribes,amongotherthings,recentmappingandmonitoringeffortsthathave,particularlyinMexicoandBelize,significantlyimprovedunderstandingofthestatusandtrendsofmangrovesacrossCentralAmericagenerally,andtheMesoamericanReefSystemspecifically.Table1.EstimatesofmangrovecoverinCentralAmerica

Country Landarea(km2) Totalforestarea(km2)

Mangrovearea(km2)

Numberofnativespecies

Mexico 1,908,690 642,380 7,700.57 5

Belize 22,800 16,530 957.53 5

Guatemala 108,430 39,380 177.27 6

Honduras 111,890 46,480 628.00 5

Adaptedfromthe2010WorldAtlasofMangroves.Table2.MangrovespeciesofCentralAmerica(*MangrovesfoundintheMesoamericanReefSystem)

Species Mexico Belize Guatemala Honduras

Acrostichumaureum ✓ ✓

Avicenniabicolor Pacificonly

Avicenniagerminans* ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Conocarpuserectus* ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Lagunculariaracemosa* ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Rhizophoramangle* ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Rhizophoraxharrisonii ✓ ✓

Adaptedfromthe2010WorldAtlasofMangroves.

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MexicoMexicohasthegreatestextentofmangrovesofanycountryintheWiderCaribbean,includingitsCentralAmericanneighbors.Infact,Mexicoisrankedfourthintotalmangrovecoverworldwide,followingonlyIndonesia,AustraliaandBrazil.Mangrovescover≈7,700km2(≈770,000hectares)acrossthecountry,or5.4%oftheworld’stotalcoverage(Spaldingetal.,2010;Valderramaetal.,2014).Thatsaid,severalscientistspointoutthatpastuseofdifferentmethodologiestoassesstotalnationalcovermakesitdifficulttoestablishaprecisefigure(Ruiz-Lunaetal.,2008;Valderramaetal.,2014).Inthesoutheast,mangrovesoccuronallsidesoftheYucatánPeninsula,manyfoundinsidetheboundariesofnationalparksandRamsarorUNESCOWorldHeritagesites.TotalcoverinstatesforthisregionofMexicois≈4,237km2(≈423,000hectares),with22%occurringinCampeche,16.9%inQuintanaRooand12.9%intheYucatán(Calderon-Alguileraetal.,2012).DirectalterationofthelandscapeforhumandevelopmentisaprimarydriverofmangrovelossinMexico.Moreover,insomeareaspollutionorchangesinhydrologyhavecausedsuchextensivedegradationthatrestorationopportunitiesmaynowbelimited(Valderramaetal.,2014;ZaldivarJiménezetal.,2010).OnthePacificsideofthecountry,large-scalehumanimpactsarecommonly,thoughnotexclusively,attributabletolandconversionforshrimpfarms,saltproductionorsomeotherformofagricultureoranimalhusbandry.LookingtotheeastsideoftheYucatánPeninsula,developmentoftourism-relatedinfrastructureinCancunandfurthersouthhasledtomassivelossofmangroves(Spaldingetal.,2010).ShrimpfarmingimpactsarepresentbuttoalesserdegreethaninPacificstates.Atthesametime,scientistsarebeginningtounderstandhowmangrovesfilterpollutantsandreducenegativeenvironmentalimpactsgeneratedfromthesefarms(ZaldivarJiménezetal.,2012).TheYucatánPeninsula,anditsextensivemangroves,isalsoregularlysusceptibletolarge-scalehurricaneandtropicalstormimpacts.Moreover,researchsuggeststheseextremeweathereventsmayincreaseinscaleandfrequencyasglobaltemperaturescontinuetorise(Benderetal.,2010).StudiesintheYucatánPeninsulaaredistinguishingbetweentheeffectsofhumanversusnaturalimpactsonmangroves.Researchisrevealingthemostimportantagentsofdisturbanceandtheinfluencehurricaneshaveonmangrovestructure,productivityandresilience(Caulderon-Aguileraetal.,2012;Adameetal.,2012).ItisalsoimportanttonotethatarelativelynewstudyhasquantifiedbluecarbonvaluesacrossninesitesintheSianKa’anBiosphereReserve,furtherdemonstratingthevaluethathealthy,intactmangroveshaveinawarmingworld(Adameetal.,2013).Mexicanresearchersandconservationpractitionershavelongrecognizedtheecologicalandsocio-economicimportanceofmangroves.In2005theNationalCommissionfortheKnowledgeandUseofBiodiversity(CONABIO)establishedaNationalMangroveCommitteetopromotethesustainableuse,conservationandrestorationofmangrovesacrossthecountry.CONABIOestimatesa10%lossofnationalmangrovecoverfrom1970–2005(Valderramaetal.,2014;CONABIOwebsite2).IntheYucatánPeninsula,mangroveswerelostatanannualrateof1.8%

2http://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/ecosistemas/manglares2013/manglares.html.

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from1976–2000,thoughrecentresearchsuggestssomerecoveryhasoccurred,dueinparttorestorationefforts(CONAFOR,2010;Valderramaetal.,2014).Researcherscalculatedthenational-levellossestimatebyevaluatingrecordsfromthreedistincttimeperiods—1970to1980,2005and2010—andarecurrentlyworkingona2015estimate. Onepositivetrendisthat≈43%oftotalmangrovecoveracrossMexicoisfoundwithin32federallyprotectedareas(Spaldingetal.,2010).AlongtheeasternedgeoftheYucatánPeninsula,mangrovesoccurinwellknownprotectedareasnearCancunandPuertoMorelos;offshoreontheislandsofIslaContoy,IslaMujeres,CozumelandthecoralatollBancoChinchorro;andintheSianKa’anWorldHeritageSiteandBiosphereReserve.Inaddition,leadingmangroveresearchersarenowutilizingconsistentmonitoringandmappingtechniquesatanationallevel—theMonitoringSystemofMexicanMangroves—tofurtherrefinemangrovecoverandlossestimates,informresourcemanagementandcatalyzeongoingrestorationwork.ScientistsintheYucatánPeninsulahavedevelopedarobustmethodologyformangroverestorationandeffortsareunderwayatseveralsites.Restorationprograms,onestudynotes,shouldfocusonappropriatesiteidentification,characterizationofenvironmentalconditionsanddevelopmentofclearprogramobjectives(ZaldiverJiménezetal.,2010).BelizeInternationallyrecognizedas“MotherNature’sBestKeptSecret,”Belizeisrenownedforitslushrainforests,ancientMayanruins,beautifulmangrovesandbeaches,andcloseproximitytothelargestcoralreefsysteminthewesternhemisphere.SituatedbetweenMexicotothenorthandGuatemalatotheeastandsouth,Belizeishometoapproximately350,000peopleandboastsarichculturaldiversity.In1996,thebarrierreeffrontingBelize,includingmangrovesfoundthroughoutthearea,wasinscribedasaUNESCOWorldHeritageSiteforitsOutstandingUniversalValues(UNESCO,1996).Morerecently,aWRIstudyshowedthatmangrovesalonecontributeUSD$74–$209millionannuallytotheBelizeeconomy(Cooperetal.,2008).Today,muchofBelize’sendowednaturalandculturalwealthisset-asideinanextensivenetworkofterrestrialandmarineprotectedareas.MangrovesoccurinmostcoastalareasofBelize,includinguprivers,alongbaysandlagoons,andstrewnacrossnumerousoffshorecaysandcoralatolls.In1998,AndrewZisman,adoctoralstudentfromtheUniversityofEdinburgh,completedanational-levelmappingstudyanddeterminedthatmangrovescovered≈785.11km2(≈78,511hectares)atthattime(Zisman,1998).In2008,theHealthyReefsInitiative(HRI)collaboratedwiththeWaterCenterfortheHumidTropicsinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(CATHALAC)toupdatethe1998data.Subsequently,CATHALACandtheWorldWildlifeFund(WWF)usedsatelliteimageryandlocalfieldworktoassesscoverageovera30-yeartimeperiod.Thisstudydeterminedthat≈15.6km2(1,566hectares),onlyabout2%oftotalmangrovecoverinBelize,waslostfrom1980–2010(Cherringtonetal.,2010).TheEnvironmentalResearchInstituteofBelizevalidatedthe2010mappingeffortandfoundthattheresultswere90.7%accurateoverall(Cho-RickettsandCherrington,2011).

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MuchoftheBelize’smangrovecoverremainsintactandhealthy.Significantmangroveloss—primarilytheresultofdevelopmentoragriculture—hasoccurredaroundBelizeCityanditsnearbycays,CorozalandthenorthernBelizedistrict,andthepopulartourismdestinationofAmbergrisCaye(BelizeCZMAI,2013).Inthesouth,shrimpfarminghascontributedtodegradationandlossofmangrovesinseveralcoastalareas.Morerecently,mangrovesaroundPlacencialagoonandseveraloffshoreislandshavebeencleared,sometimesillegally,tomakewayforlocaldevelopmentprojects(Mckeeetal.,2009;Spaldingetal.,2010).LiketheYucatánPeninsula,thecoastalregionsofBelize,especiallyitsoffshoreislands,alsofrequentlyexperiencehurricaneimpacts.Onestudydemonstratedthatintactmangroveecosystemshelpprotectcoastalareasduringextremesuchweatherevents(GranekandRuttenberg,2007).Anotherstudyrevealedtheregrowthpotentialofmangrovesfollowinghurricanesandtropicalstorms(Piouetal.,2006).In2009,UNESCOlistedthebarrierreefenvironmentasaWorldHeritageSiteinDanger,partlyduetosaleofpubliclandsonsmallmangroveislands(UNESCO,2009).Thelistingcatalyzedconservationleaderstoreviseandstrengthenthecountry’soutdatedmangrovelegislation,howevernewregulationshaveyettobeapprovedandsignedintolaw.Inearly2015,theBelizegovernmentnegotiateda“DesiredStateofConservation”withUNESCOthat,ifachieved,willsecuretheremovalofthe“SiteinDanger”listing.Theagreementsetsoutindicatorsandmethodsofverificationtomeasureprogresstowardsthedesiredstate.Establishmentofkeylegalinstruments—includingtheIntegratedCoastalZoneManagementPlan,theLivingAquaticResourcesBillandthenewmangroveregulations—iscriticalforachievingthegoalsoftheagreement(UNESCO,2015).NewmanagementplanswillalsobedevelopedfortheGlover’sReefandSouthWaterCayeMarineReserves,thelatterofwhichhasbeenahotspotformangroveloss.ConservationleadersrecognizetheeconomicandecologicalbenefitsprovidedbyBelize’smangroves.Moreover,theprivatesectorvaluesnature-basedtourismasaprimaryeconomicdriverandsourceofjobs.Today,resourcemanagementauthoritiesandconservationgroupsmonitormangrovesthroughoutthecountry,especiallyinprotectedareasandsitesrecentlydegradedbypoorlyplanneddevelopment.Severalmangroverestorationeffortshavetakenplaceindifferentlocationsalthoughnodatabaseexiststhatcomprehensivelydocumentspastandpresentprojects.TheBelizeCoastalZoneManagementInstituteandAuthority,initsStateoftheBelizeCoastalZone2003-2013report,includesrecommendationsforstrengtheningthemanagement,researchandmonitoringofmangrovesacrossBelize.Inaddition,theDepartmentofForestryrecentlyteamedupwithDukeUniversityresearcherstomeasurebluecarbonvaluesatTurneffeatoll,thefirststudyofitskindinBelize.GuatemalaTheCaribbeancoastlineofGuatemalastretchesapproximately150kmalongtheGulfofHonduras.Thecoastalenvironmentandnearbywatersarehometorainforests,mangroves,seagrassbedsandsomelimitedcoralreefs.ThemostextensivemangrovesarefoundinGraciosaBayandnearthemouthsofthreemajorrivers—theDulce,TemashandSarstun.MangrovesalsoreachfurtherinlandnearElGolfeteandLakeIzabal,principallyduetosaltwaterintrusion

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intheseareas(Spaldingetal.,2010).Guatemalafirstenactedmangroveprotectionsunderthe1998ForestryAct.Afewyearslater,ajointpartnershipofgovernmentandnon-governmentalorganizationsbeganmappingandmonitoringthecountry’sforests,includingmangroves(Hernándezetal.,2012).LargeareasofmangroveonboththePacificandCaribbeancoastsofGuatemalahavebeenclearedtomakewayforagricultureandaquaculture,notablyshrimpfarms.OnthePacificside,bananaplantationshavecausedpollution,eutrophicationoflagoons,andinsomecases,degradationofnearbymangrovesduetochangesinhydrologyandsedimentation(Spaldingetal.,2010).LookingtowardstheCaribbean,pollutionfromriversdrainingintotheGulfofHondurasisincreasinglyimpactingcoastalmarineecosystems.Conversionofcoastallandtoagricultureorcattlefarminghasalsoresultedinlossofmangrovecoverandcontributestosedimentationanderosion.Moreover,anincreaseintheuseofpesticidesandfertilizersontheselandshasfouledmanycoastalwaterswheremangrovesarefound(Krameretal.,2015).AvailablestatisticsonmangrovecoverandlossinGuatemalavarywidelyandmayrequirevalidationtodetermineaccuracy.A2005FAOstudyestimatesthat≈11km2(1,100hectares)ofmangroveswerelostbetween1980and2005,representingnearly10%ofthecountry’stotalmangrovecover(FAO,2005).ArecentUNEPpublicationsuggestsbothGuatemalaandHondurashavelostupto40%oftheirhistoricalmangrovecover(UNEP,2014).Themostrecentin-countryassessmentofGuatemala’smangroves,facilitatedbytheMinistryofEnvironmentandNaturalResourcesandCATHALAC,statesthatmangrovesstillcover≈188km2(18,800hectares)oflandacrossthecountry.Today,nearly90%ofmangrovesontheCaribbeancoastlinearefoundwithinestablishednationalprotectedareas(Hernándezetal.,2012).Moreover,theSarstun-TemashNationalParkandPuntadeManabiqueNaturalReserve,hometoextensivemangroveforests,arealsointernationallyrecognizedRamsarsites.HondurasMangrovesarefoundthroughouttheCaribbeancoastlineofnorthernHonduras,alongtheMoskitiacoastintheeastandsurroundingtheGulfofFonsecainthesouthwest.TheBayIslands—Guanaja,Roatan,UtilaandCayosCochinos—alsohavesubstantialmangrovecoverage,mostnotablyonthesouthernshoreofeachisland(Spaldingetal.,2010).SimilartoGuatemala,availablestatisticsfornationallevelmangrovecoverandlossvarywidely.Accordingtothe2005FAOreport,from1965–2001mangrovecoverinHondurasdeclinedfrom≈2,978km2(297,800hectares)to≈530km2(54,300hectares).Asnotedabove,arecentpublicationsuggestsHondurashaslostapproximately40%ofitstotalmangrovecover(UNEP,2014).TheNationalInstituteofConservationandForestryDevelopment,ProtectedAreasandWildlife(ICF)estimatesthat,asof2014,52%onthenation’sremainingmangrovesoccurintheGulfofFonseca,33%inMoskitia,12%inColon-Cortesand3%intheBayIslands(ICF,2014).ShrimpfarminghasbeenaleadingcauseofmangrovelossinHonduras.ThisisespeciallytrueintheGulfofFonseca,whereshrimpfarmoperationsexpandedfrom≈5.8km2(5,800hectares)in1985tomorethan≈16km2(16,000hectares)bytheyear2000(Spaldingetal,2010).Onestudyusedsatelliteimagerytodocumentthelossofapproximately11.9%ofmangrovecoverinthe

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gulfasaresultofconvertinglandtootheruses,especiallyshrimpfarms(Chenetal.,2013).Thissamestudysuggeststhat≈1.2km2(1,200hectares)peryearmaybelostbytheyear2020.Throughoutthecountry,fuelwoodcollectionremainsacommonpracticenearcoastalcommunities.InpopulartourismdestinationsliketheBayIslands,mangrovelossisoftentheresultoflandclearancefordevelopmentofhotels,roadsandothertouristfacilities.Likeitsneighborstothenorth,Hondurasalsofrequentlyexperienceshurricanes,which,insomecases,haveresultedindevastatingimpactsfortheregion’smangroves.In1998hurricaneMitchdestroyed97%ofmangrovesontheislandofGuanajaintheBayIslands(Spaldingetal.,2010).Fieldstudiesinsubsequentyearsshowthatlossofsedimentandpeat,asaresultofwidespreaddestruction,hasinhibitedmangroverecoveryacrosstheisland(Cahoonetal.,2003;Vanselowetal.,2007).OnthePacificside,massiverainfallassociatedwithhurricaneMitchcausedwidespreaddamagetoshrimpfarmsandinturnledtonutrientloadingandreleaseofpollutantsthroughouttheGulfofFonseca.Resultingimpactstomangrovesandassociatedfisheriesfueledsocialconflictbetweenlocalfishermenandshrimpfarmers(Spaldingetal.,2010).ThelargestlossofmangrovesinHonduras,upto24km2(24,000hectares),hasoccurredintheGulfofFonseca(ICF,2014).OneupshotofthedamagewroughtbyhurricaneMitch,anditseffectsonlocalpeople,wasthecreationofavastsetofprotectedareassurroundingtheGulfofFonseca,muchofwhichisalsonowadesignatedRamsarsite(Spaldingetal.,2010).AlongtheCaribbeancoast,themostrecentin-countrystudyestimatesthat≈3.3km2(3,300hectares)ofmangroveshavebeenlostintheregion,primarilyasaresultofaportdevelopmentprojectintheAlvaradoLagooninPuertoCortes(ICF,2014).ManyofthesemangrovesalongtheCaribbeancoastandintheBayIslandsarenowfoundinnationalparksandrefuges,severalofwhicharealsoRamsarsites.In2013theentireislandofUtilawasformallydesignatedasaRamsarsite,becomingthelatestareaofmangrovesinnorthernHondurastoreceiveinternationalrecognition. Likeitsnorthernneighbors,researchershavebegunassessingbluecarbonvaluesofmangrovesatselectsitesinHonduras.Onestudy,awaitingpublication,sampledmangrovesat24sitesacross3coastalzonesinHonduras,includingtheGulfofFonseca,TelaonCaribbeancoast,andthreeofthebayislands.Extensivefieldsamplingwasconductedtoassesscomposition,structure,biomassandbothaboveandbelowgroundcarbonstockvalues.Additionalfieldmeasurementslookedathowroostingbirdsaffectnutrientdynamicsinmangroveecosystems.3Economic Valuation of Mangroves Economicvaluationisatoolthathelpsquantifybothmonetaryandnon-monetarybenefits(ecosystemservices)thatmangrovesprovidepeople.Manyactivitiesthatcommonlydamagecoastalenvironmentswheremangrovesthrive—aquaculture,dredgingandpoorlyplanneddevelopment,dischargeofpollutionandsewage—aredrivenbyshort-termeconomicgain

3PersonalcommunicationwithDr.RupeshBhomia,CenterforInternationalForestryResearchandDepartmentofFisheriesandWildlife,OregonStateUniversity(USA).

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versusconsiderationofthebroader,long-termimpactstopeopleandnature.Economicvaluationshowsincreasingpotentialtoinformland-useplanning,coastalzonemanagementandsustainabledevelopmentpractices(VoQuocetal.,2012).ApplyingeconomicvaluationtomangroveecosystemsalongtheMesoamericanReefSystem,andsharingtheresultswithdecision-makers,resourcemanagersandthewiderpublic,willhelp:

• Improveunderstandingofecosystemserviceandeconomicvaluesmangrovesprovide• Encourageinvestmentinlong-termsustainablemanagement• Providedecisionsupporttoolsandinformationtoguidemanagement• Establishappropriatefeestoenteroruseaprotectedarea• Setappropriatevaluesfordamagecompensation• Supportlongtermsocio-economicstabilityandbiodiversityconservation

ImplementinganEconomicValuationMethodologiesforconductingeconomicvaluationrangefromsophisticatedandcomplextostraightforwardandrelativelynon-technical.Limitedhumanresourcesingovernmentdepartmentsandnongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs)oftenmeansthatevenwhenin-housestaffpossesstheskillstoconducteconomicvaluation,theneededcapacitytosupportsucheffortsmaynotbeavailable.Furthermore,someeconomicvaluationmethodologiesrequirecomplexecologicalandeconomicmodelingmethodsandtools,whichmanygovernmentdepartmentsandorganizationsinMesoamericanReefSystemcountriesdonotpossess.Attimes,hiringanoutsideconsultantorpartneringwitharesearchinstituteoruniversitymaybenecessary.Insomecases,anon-specialist,suchasaMAR-LFellow,canlearnfromormanageconsultantsandexperts,andtherebyparticipatefullyinthedesignandimplementationofaneconomicvaluation.Ananalysisandavaluationofecosystemserviceslieattheheartofanyeconomicvaluation.However,foranyeconomicvaluationtoachievepolicyinfluenceitisadvantageous,ifnotcriticallyimportant,toconsiderthefollowingstepsearlyintheprocess:

• Identifytherelevantpolicyquestion• Considerthecontext• Reviewpreviousvaluationstudies• Identifyandengagestakeholders• Identifydecision-makersandothertargetaudiences• Draftacommunicationsstrategy

Theguidebook,CoastalCapital:EcosystemValuationforDecisionMakingintheCaribbean,providesaroadmapforhowtoconductaneconomicvaluationandinfluencepolicydecisions(Waiteetal.,2014).Table3includesanoverviewofthethreemainphases—scoping,analysis,andoutreach—withalistofkeystepsassociatedwitheachphase.

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Table3.KeyStepsforInfluentialEconomicValuationPhase Steps

1. Scoping 1.1. Identifythepolicyquestiontobeaddressedbyecosystemvaluation(i.e.,theintendeduseofthestudy)

1.2. Considerthecontextofthestudyareatodetermineifeconomicvaluationistherightapproach- Threatstocoastalresourcehealth- Economicdependenceoncoastalresources- Localchampions- Governance

1.3. Conductaliteraturereviewofpreviousrelevantcoastalvaluationstudies1.4. Identifyandengagestakeholderswhoareinterestedinthepolicyquestion,

clarifyobjectivesofthestudy,andclarifyhoweachwillbeengaged- Primarystakeholders(e.g.,fishers,farmers,localtourismbusinesses,local

civilsocietygroups)- Secondarystakeholders(e.g.,nationalandlocalgovernmentofficials,

resourcemanagers)- Externalstakeholders(e.g.,NGOs,developers,tourists,externalinvestors,

universities,media)1.5. Identifydecisionmakersandothertargetaudiences(usuallyamongthe

stakeholdergroupsidentifiedabove)andbegindevelopingacommunicationsstrategy

2. Analysis 2.1. Developscenariosofpossiblefuturesthroughaparticipatoryprocess(e.g.,throughDriver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response[DPSIR]frameworkorcriticaluncertaintyapproach)

2.2. Analyzethechangesinecosystemservicesunderthescenarios(e.g.,throughmodeling,expertopinion,orinformationtransfer)

2.3. Choosemethodstovalueormonetizethechangesinhumanwell-being—ensuringthemethodsareappropriatetothepolicyquestion

2.4. Collectandanalyzebiophysicalandsocioeconomicdata(e.g.,primarysurveydata,secondarydata)

2.5. Accountforriskanduncertaintyinvaluationresults2.6. Developandapplydecisionsupporttools(e.g.,cost-benefitanalysis,cost-

effectivenessanalysis,multi-criteriaanalysis)2.7. Reportvaluationresultsclearlyandtransparently,inawaythatisusefulto

stakeholdersandothervaluationpractitioners3. Outreach 3.1. Developsynthesisproductsderivedfromthevaluationresultsfordecision

makers,usingmetricsandproductsthatarerelevanttothetargetaudience3.2. Communicatevaluationresultstodecisionmakers—ideallythroughan

interactiveanditerativeprocess—throughavarietyofchannels(e.g.,publicandprivatemeetings,traditionalandsocialmedia)

3.3. Sharethestudyandresultswiththewidercoastalvaluationcommunity3.4. Monitorandassesstheimpactoftheeconomicvaluationstudy

AdaptedfromWaite,R.,etal.,2014.CoastalCapital:EcosystemValuationforDecisionMakingintheCaribbean.Washington,DC:WorldResourcesInstitute.Availableat:wri.org/coastal-capital.

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StakeholderEngagementConvenersofeconomicvaluationstudiesshouldconsultlocalstakeholdersinordertoidentifytherelevantpolicyquestionandconservationchallenge,andthendevelopappropriatestudyobjectives.Effectivestakeholderengagementcapitalizesonthepublic’sdesiretoinfluencepolicyand,inthecaseofmangroves,resourcemanagementdecisionsthatmayaffectthem.Involvingstakeholdersinboththedesignandimplementationofastudyhelpsfosterbuy-in,promotesunderstanding,utilizeslocalknowledgeandreducespotentialoppositiontousesofvaluationresults.Whendonewell,stakeholderengagementhelpsaddresschallengingnaturalresourcemanagementissuesinawaythatisconstructive,informedbyabroadbaseoflocalknowledge,andallowsmanagersandthepublictosignificantlyinfluenceeachother’sthinking.BenefitsofValuationEconomicvaluationbenefitsabroadrangeofpeople,governmentsandinstitutions.Atalocalornationallevel,valuationresultscandirectlyinfluencepublicpolicy,resourcemanagementstrategies,conservationinvestmentandeconomicdevelopmentplanning.Economicvaluationhelpscomparethecostsandbenefitsofdifferentfuturescenarios—scenariosthatcouldbepossibleoptionsfordevelopment,ornaturalresourcemanagement,suchastheestablishmentorexpansionofaterrestrialormarineprotectedarea.Economicvaluationcanalsohelpdecisionmakersunderstandhowtoenforceregulationsinacosteffectivemanner,howtomaximizepublicbenefitsderivedfromaparticularecosystem,andhowtomitigatetherisksofecosystemdegradation.Inestablishingamonetaryvalue—evena“rough”estimate—ofecosystemservices,economicvaluationhelpsfacilitaterational,broadlyinclusiveandfar-sighteddecision-making(Waiteetal.,2014).DealingwithUncertaintyValuationofecosystemservicesinvolvesaseriesofassumptionsbecauseitcombinesaninterpretationofthestatusandproductivityofanecosystem,estimatesofhumanuseofresources,andthefinancialvalueofecosystemuse.Forexample,inestimatingthevalueofmangrovesforfisheries,assumptionsabouttheproductivityoffishinthemangrove(inkilogram/hectare/year)couldbecombinedwithestimatesoffishingeffort(e.g.howmanypeoplefish,usingwhatgear,achievingwhatkilogram/hectare/yearlandings),andthemarketpriceofthegivenspeciesoffish.Inasimilarexampleforshorelineprotection,theestimatemightcombineassumptionsaboutthefrequencyofstormeventsofagivensize(occurrenceperyear);wavereductionprovidedbymangroves(infeetormeters);degreeofpropertydamageresultingfromfloodingtoacertainheight(%ofvalue);andvalueofthepropertydamagedandcostofdisplacementand/orlossofuse.Thereistypicallysomeuncertaintyassociatedwitheachcomponent,andwhencombined,theassumptionsresultinacompounduncertainty.Uncertaintycanbereducedthroughspecificmeasurementofcharacteristicswithinastudysite(e.g.fisheriesproductivity),however,thesekindsofmeasurementscanbeexpensiveandtimeconsuming.Valuationisoftenimplementedby“transferring”valueestimates(oratleastfunctionalrelationships)usingthebestavailableinformationaboutsiteswithsimilarcharacteristics.However,sitesvaryconsiderablyfromplacetoplace,sothisapproachhassome

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shortcomings.Inaddition,valuationestimatesvaryduetothefluctuatingcircumstancesofthevariablesincluded.Thismayinclude,forexample,changesinthemarketpriceofagoodproduced,suchasfisheries.Anothervariablelikelytochangeovertimeisthepriceofcarbonandtheecosystemservicevalueassociatedwithcarbonsequestration.Uncertaintiesalwaysexistwhenconductingeconomicevaluationofecosystemservicesandshouldbeclearlystatedintechnicalsummaries.CommunicatingResultsEconomicvaluationiscomplex,anditcanbechallengingtocommunicateresultsinawaythatachievesthegoalofinfluencingpolicyoutcomes.Itisimportanttoidentifyandclearlycommunicatethekeymessagesoftheresults,alongwithsomeexplanationoftheunderlyingassumptionsofthevaluation.Itisalsonecessarytokeepthetargetaudienceinmind—suchasdecisionmakersonewantstoinfluence,orawiderstakeholdergroup—andconsidertheprofessionalbackground,interestsandleveloftechnicalunderstandingtherecipientsofinformationmightpossess.Forexample,productsthatdemonstrateeconomicvaluationresultstoaresourcemanagerorprotectedareaenforcementofficershouldbecraftedinawaythatlinkstheresultsdirectlytotopicsofinterest(e.g.regulatoryobligations)oftherecipients.Attimes,practitionersmayneedtosimplifyvaluationresultstomakethemaccessibletoabroader,non-technicalaudience,whilestillensuringthatimportantnuancesoftheanalysisarenotlost.Inaddition,enablingstakeholderstojointlyexaminetheresultsatanearlystagecanhelpinformdevelopmentoffinalrecommendationsthatarebroadlyacceptabletoawiderangeofgroups.Similarly,involvingdecisionmakersintheproductionandinterpretationofvaluationresultsisaparticularlyeffectivewayofencouragingtheuseofthoseresultsindecision-making.Ultimately,resultsproducedincollaborationwithpartners,stakeholdersandlocal“champions”withindecision-makingbodies,tendtoachievethegreatestinfluenceandmostlastingoutcomes.Avenuesforcommunicatinganddisseminatingresultsandrecommendationsmayinclude:

• Traditionalmedia• Socialmedia(e.g.,Facebook,Twitter)• Launchevents,stakeholderworkshopsorotherpublicmeetings• Partnernetworks• Targetedprivatemeetings• Relevantconferencesandevents• Informationcampaigns—advertisements/socialmarketing• Touristeducation(e.g.,theimportanceofmangroves)

Whencommunicatingresults,practitionersshouldalsokeepinmind:

• Desiredactionstheaudiencecantake• Methodsformaintainingcredibilityandcommunicatingqualityresearch• Benefitsofworkingwithpartners,influentialstakeholders,andlocal“champions”

wheneverpossible

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EconomicContributionofMangrovesThereisagrowingbodyofliteratureontheecosystemservicevaluesderivedfrommangroves.Studieswiththistypeoffocusincreasedaround2000thendeclinedslightlyinsubsequentyears.MostrecentstudieshaveoccurredinAsia,perhapsduetothedrasticlossofmangrovesinthatpartoftheworld.AlthoughtheAmericas(includingCentralAmerica)arehometo30%oftheworld’smangroves,arecentliteraturereviewfoundthatonly19%ofmangrovevaluationstudieshavebeencompletedinthisregion(Veghetal.,2014).MangrovesprovideseveralimportantecosystemserviceandeconomicvaluesalongtheentireMesoamericanReefSystem,including,butnotlimitedto,thefollowing:CoastalProtectionMangroveshelpprotectcoastalcommunitiesandassociatedinfrastructureagainstdamageassociatedwithstormevents,suchasroutinewaves,stormwaves,andhurricaneortropicalstormsurges.Mangrovesmitigatewaveenergy(andassociatedwaveheight),therebyreducingbotherosionandflooding.Waveheightreductionassociatedwithmangrovesvariesdependingonthebiophysicalcharacteristicsofanarea.Elementssuchasmangroveforestwidthanddensity,waterdepth,andoceanfloorconfigurationinfluencetheextenttowhichmangroverootsareabletoexertdragforceonincomingwavesandtherebydecreasewaveheight.Variousspecificbenefitshavebeendocumentedindifferentareasoftheworld:

• InVietnammangroveforestsreducewaveheights5–7.25timesmorethanonbeachsurfacelackingsuchvegetation(Quarteletal.,2007).

• IntheGulfCoastofSouthFlorida,waveheightisreducedatarateof40–50cmper1kmofmangroveforestalongtheshorelineand20cmper1kmonislandsdispersedthroughoutopenwaters(Zhang,2012).

• Generally,mangrovesreducetheheightofwindandswellwavesoverrelativelyshortdistances:waveheightcanbereducedbybetween13%and66%over100metersofmangroves(Spaldingetal.,2014).

Incalculatingthecoastalprotectionvaluesofmangroves,practitionersofeconomicvaluationshouldconsiderbothroutinewavesandsevereimpactsassociatedwithhurricanesandtropicalstorms.Ofnote,thevalueofamangroveforestassociatedwithstormprotectionwillvarydependingonthetypeofinfrastructureandeconomicactivitiestakingplaceinnearbyareas.FisheriesMangrovesarecriticallyimportantfisheryhabitat,andgenerallyyieldhighquantitiesoffish,crabs,shrimpandmollusks.Mangrovesincreasefishproductionratesandnumerousspeciesrelyonmangrovehabitatforpartoftheirlifecycle(Mumbyetal.,2004;FaunceandSerafy,2006;CronaandRonnback,2007).InBelizemangrovescontributeanestimatedUSD$3–4millionperyearbysupportinghealthyfisheries(Cooperetal.,2009).However,thefactthatmanyfishcaughtnearmangrovesarekeptforlocalconsumption,versussoldonanopenmarket,makesitdifficulttodetermineprecisevaluesofmanymangrovefisheries.Insuchinstances,obtaininginformationdirectlyfromlocalpopulationsiscriticalforproducingrelativelypreciseresults.Directusevalueisthemostwidelyusedmethodtoaccountforthe

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economicvalueoffisheriesasanecosystemservice(VoQuocetal.,2013;Waiteetal.,2014;Huxhametal.,2015).TourismRecreationalactivitiesinandaroundmangrovesareconsideredservicesprovidedbythesecoastalecosystems.Ecotourismisanimportanteconomicdriverinmanyplacesoftheworld,includingalongtheMesoamericanReefSystem,andmangrovesareoftenseenasthelinkbetweentheterrestrialandmarineecosystemsthatattractenvironmentallyconscioustourists(UNEP,2011).Methodsforaccessingtherecreation-relatedvalueofmangrovescanbeachievedthroughseveralmeans.Mostoftendirectusevalueandopportunitycostsofvisitorsforagiventouristlocationisusedtoestimatethisvalue.Contingentvaluationisanalternativemethodwhendataisunavailableorotherwisehardtocomeby.ArecentdirectusevaluestudyinBelize—estimatinggrossrevenuesandtaxesfrommarinerecreation,aswellasrevenuesfromaccommodationandothertouristspendingondaysspentusingmangroveecosystems—determinedthatUSD$60–78millionintourismrevenueisdirectlylinkedtothepresenceofhealthymangroves(WRI,2008).AnotherstudyutilizedvaluesfrompreviouslypublishedsourcestodeterminethatmangrovesinKenyahaveameanvalueofUSD$41/hectare/peryear(Huxhametal.,2015).SoilAccretionThecomplexrootsystemsofmangroveforestshelptoslowwaterflow,whichallowssedimenttosettleandaccreteratherthanerode(McIvoretal.,2013).Thisenablesincreasingsoilvolumeasmangrovescaptureriverineorcoastalsedimentsthatpassthrough,aswellasaddorganicmatterviaroots,leavesandwoodymaterial(Spaldingetal.,2014).Mangroverootgrowthalsopushesthesoilupward,creatinghighersoillevels.Studiesdemonstratemangrovesoilsgrowingupto10millimetersperyearinsitesfromAustraliatoBelize.Thismayindicatethatmangrovescouldhelpcoastalcommunities“keepup”withsealevelrisecausedbyglobalclimatechange(Kraussetal.,2013;Spaldingetal.,2014).ProvisionsManycommunitiesalongtheMesoamericanReefSystemdependonmangrovestosupporttheirlivelihoodsintheformofeithertimberharvestingorfuelwoodcollection.Forsuchdirectprovisioningservices,monetaryvaluescanbeestimatedbymultiplyingthevolumeperyearextractedbytherelevantmarketprice,takenassale(fortraders)orpurchase(forconsumers)andsubtractingharvest/productioncostswherepossible(Huxametal.,2015).Thistypeofdataisbestgatheredthroughsurveysanddirectlyspeakingwithmembersofthecommunitythatarereliantonmangrovewood.NutrientandSedimentFilteringMangrovesfiltersedimentandpollutantsfromcoastalrunoff,generatingcleanwaterthatisfavoredbynearbycoralreefs.However,theseregulatingecosystemserviceshaveyettomakeitintotheeconomicvaluationliterature(seethefisheriessectionaboveformoreinformationontheeconomicvalueoffisheriessupportedbythesefilteringservices).

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CarbonSequestrationBluecarbonisatermusedtodescribethecarbonsequesteringcapacityofocean-basedecosystemssuchasseabedgrasses,saltmarshesandmangroveforests.Mangrovessequesteradisproportionatelylargeamountofcarbonwhencomparedtootherforesttypes.Mangrovessequestercarboninthreeways:1)aboveground,bynewgrowthofbranchesandtrunks;2)below-ground,throughthegrowthofnewroots;and3)inandonthesediment,throughroots,primaryproductionandtrappingofsedimentsandorganicmaterialfromoutsidetheforest(Huxhametal.,2015).StudiesinBelizedocumentmangroveswithcarbonrichdepositsmorethan10metersthickandover6,000yearsold(Mckeeetal.,2007;Mcleodetal.,2011).ItislikelythatequallyrichcarbondepositsexistinothercoastallocationsacrosstheMesoamericanReefSystem.Onerecentstudyestimatedavoidedannualemissionsbasedonratesofcarbonlossof4.85tonsofcarbonperhectate-1year-1fromsedimentfollowingmangroveforestremoval(Lang’atetal.,2014;Huxhametal.,2015).ThestudythenappliedarateofUSD$10peronetonofcarbontothestudysites,basedonthecurrentmarketvaluefromthevoluntarycarbonmarket.Whilevariationsexistbetweensites,thestudyshowedanaverageofUSD$251perhectareofmangroveforestinavoidedemissions.Becauseabovegroundcarbonisnotnecessarilyreleasedwhenmangrovetreesarecutdown,itwasnotcalculatedintothecostestimateofavoidedemissionsinthisparticularcasestudy.Unlesswoodisburnedonsite,limitingtheavoidedemissionscosttotheamountofcarbonstoredintherootsandbelowgroundisconsideredbestpracticeforsuchmangroveevaluation(Huxham,etal.,2015).Conservation Challenges & Opportunities Facing the MAR-L Program AlterationofcoastallandscapesremainstheleadinghumancauseofmangrovedeforestationanddegradationacrosstheMesoamericanReefSystem.Climatechange—withassociatedimpactslikerisingseas,changesincoastaldynamicsandsedimentation,andapotentialincreaseinthefrequencyofextremeweatherevents—presentsanemergingandperhapsevengreaterlong-termthreat.Althougheachcountryintheregionhastovaryingdegreestakenstepsinrecentyearstoimproveprotectionofitscoastalenvironment,thelegalframeworksaffordingspecificprotectionsformangrovesgenerallyremainout-of-date,poorlyenforcedorunderdeveloped.Eventheregion’snumerousprotectedareas—perhapsthebesthopeforthesurvivaloflargeswathsofintact,functioningmangroveecosystems—arestrugglingtosecureadequatefinancing,meetmanagementgoalsandgainwidespreadtrustandsupportofbothpolicymakersandsurroundingcommunities.Inthefaceofthesechallenges,theMAR-LProgramispresentedwithauniqueandtimelyopportunitytoincreaseawarenessofthevalueofmangroves,strengthenconservationeffortsandpromotesustainablelong-termmanagementoftheseimportantcoastalecosystems.Thefollowingkeyconsiderationsshouldinformtheprogram’strainingseriesandhelpselectedFellowsdesignandimplementprojectsthatachievefar-reachingpublicpolicyandconservationoutcomes.

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• EnsureFellowprojectsaredesignedwithinthecontextofexistingmangroveresearchandconservationefforts.AsFellowsbegindesigninglocallyledprojects,itiscriticallyimportanttoconsiderexistingresearchandconservationeffortsalreadyfocusedonmangrovesor,moregenerally,coastalecosystems.Anearlyassessmentofrelevantagencies,organizationsandinitiativeswillprovideinsightonhowaprojectfitsintothecurrentconservationlandscape.Fellowsmayalsoidentifysupportingpartners,availableresources,andwaystobuildontheachievementsofothersdoingsimilarwork.

• Identifyandsecuremangroveexpertsasguestlecturers.Relatedtotheabove,

eachworkshopinthetrainingserieswillintegrateguestlecturerswhopossessexpertknowledgeandexperiencerelatedtomangroves.Localexpertsprovideusefulinformationthatimprovesunderstandingofkeyissues,informsdevelopmentofprojectconcepts,andensuresprojectgoalsandassociatedactionsarerealistic,achievableandwarranted.Moreover,localexpertsoftensharelessonslearnedthatwillhelpFellowsavoidcommonpitfallsthattendtolimitshortandlong-termprojectsuccess.

• ProvidetrainingoneconomicvaluationandintroduceFellowstoarangeof

progressiveconservationstrategiesandtools.WRI’sguidebook,CoastalCapital:EcosystemValuationforDecision-MakingintheCaribbean,willbeutilizedtotrainFellowsonthescoping,analysisandoutreachphasesofaneconomicvaluationeffort.Somemaythenleadvaluationstudiesanduseresultstoinfluencepolicy,resourcemanagementandconservationinvestmentdecisions.FellowswillalsoreceiveintroductorytrainingintheOpenStandardsforthePracticeofConservation,andprogressiveconservationconceptssuchasBlueCarbon,PaymentforEcosystemServicesandClimateChangeAdaptation.

• Providetrainingonfacilitativeleadership,stakeholderengagementand

methodsforbuildingcollaborativeconservationcapacity.Fellowworkisgroundedincommunity.Assuch,Fellowsmustpossessknowledgeandskillsinstakeholderengagement.Thebenefitsofstakeholderengagementarewellfounded:increasedtransparencyandaccountability,betterdecision-making,enhancedsocialequityandjustice,improvedpublic/privatesectorrelationshipsandcreationofdurablesolutionstocomplexenvironmentalchallenges.ItisimportantthatFellowscarefullyassess,understandandadapttothesocialandpoliticallandscapewithinwhichtheirprojectsaredesignedandembedded.

• Exploreandimproveunderstandingofthelegalframeworksthatsupport

mangroveprotectionandconservationintheregion.Inadditiontoreceivingtrainingonvariousconservationstrategiesandtools,andmethodsofstakeholderengagement,itisequallyimportantthatFellowspossessinsightfulunderstandingofthegovernanceframeworksandinstitutionalarrangementswithinwhichtheyliveandwork.Fellowsmaygaininsightongovernancefrom

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localexperts,lecturesduringtheMAR-Ltrainingseries,orself-ledresearchintheirmunicipality,stateorcountryoforigin.

• BuildFellowknowledge,skillsandabilitiesthroughmentoringopportunities.

Mentoring,orwhatissometimesreferredtoasprofessionalcoaching,haslongbeenrecognizedasaneffectivemeanstoimproveindividualandorganizationalperformance.Inmentoringprograms,mentorsdemonstrate,explainandmodelwhileprotégésobserve,question,exploreandapplynewskills.FellowprojectdesignandimplementationmaybenefitfrommentoringagreementsestablishedwithMAR-Lprogramconsultants,stafforevenotherFellows.

TheMAR-Lprogramisrenownedforrecruiting,trainingandcatalyzingtalentedyoungleaderstobecomeconservationchangeagents.ThemostrecentcohortofFellows—whichincludesscientists,resourcemanagers,communityleadersandtourismspecialistsamongothers—iswellpositionedtobuildonthemanyexistingeffortstomap,monitorandenhancemangroveprotectionsthroughouttheMesoamericanReefSystem.NeartermsuccesswillrevealthemosteffectivewaysthatFellowprojectsmaycontributetomangroveconservationandvaluationacrosstheregion.Overthelong-termthenetworkofMAR-LFellows,bothpastandpresent,willgenerateindividualandinstitutionalcompetency,fostercollaborationatmultiplescales,andachieveconservationimpactsthatextendandevolvewellbeyondthe2015programcycle.

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Appendix: 2015 MAR Leadership Program Vision Statement WeunderstandandappreciatethemanyecosystemservicevaluesthatmangrovesprovidetocoastalcommunitiesalongtheMesoamericanReefEcosystem,andhowthesevaluesenrichhumanwell-being.Weareconcernedthatalackofawarenessaboutmangrovescontributestopreventablethreats,unsustainabledevelopmentactivitiesandalackofcommitmentatalllevels—fromindividualstocommunitiestogovernments—tosustainablymanagethesecriticallyimportantcoastalecosystems.Weconsciouslychoosetoeducateandempowerourselvesasconservationprofessionalsinordertoactasagentsofchange,creatinganewrealitywherein:

Ø Localcommunitiesareaware,empoweredandengagedinmangroveconservation;

Ø Collaborationamongdecision-makers,theprivatesector,conservationorganizationsandcommunitiesenhancesmangroveprotectionsandcatalyzesrestorationandreforestationwork;

Ø Successfulmangroveconservationinitiativesarereplicatedacrosstheregion;

Ø Restoredandreforestedareasflourishandtherebyincreaseecosystemservicevalues;and

Ø Futuregenerationspossessgreaterknowledge,appreciationandcommitmenttopreserveandprotectmangroves.

Workingtogether,weenvisionaregionwithextensivemangrovecoverandassociatedecosystemservices,strongandeffectivelyenforcedlegalframeworksandpublicpolicies,andprosperouscommunitieswhichbenefitfromhealthymangrovesandnearbyseagrassbedsandcoralreefs.Weexpecttherealizationofthisvisionwillfosterconservationactionandenhanceprotectionsforatleast40,000hectares(approximately20%ofcurrentcoverageintheregion)inthenextfiveyears,andwillsettheregiononapathtowardszerodeforestationwithin10years.

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