Like skiing and ice-skating, the bobsleigh,luge and skeleton, or more generally, the bob-sleigh, can be traced back to utilitarian uses oflocomotion. The first sleighs were made byman prior to the invention of the wheel toenable the transport of heavy loads, and notonly in snowy regions. The Egyptians alsoused this procedure, without skates, to enablethe movement of stone blocks for the buildingof pyramids. In the Middle Ages the luge wasfrequently used recreationally. Nevertheless,at the end of the 19th century, the sports ofmachines began to really develop, thanksmainly to the existence of winter sportsresorts. The British were predominantly at theroot of this movement, and then the alpinecountries took over the continueddevelopment of these sports.

Introduction and use of sleighs

The first sleighs: a utilitarian vocationIn prehistoric times, apparently the firstScandinavian machines were developed froma hull of boat adapted to firm ground. The“pulken” of the Lapps, which are pulled by areindeer and outfitted with one single skatebear a striking resemblance to this device.Different types of sleighs were used through-out Europe, but it seemed difficult to place theexact origins. In 800 AD, the sagas mentionedthe use of luges by the Vikings in the area ofOslo. In Western Europe and particularly inthe Vosges mountains, the “schlittes” (fromthe German “schlitten”, or sleigh) with twoskates were used by the loggers to transportwood or hay on hilly regions, in winter as wellas in summer. As an aside, this type of sleighis still used today, particularly in the region ofMadeira.

The Luge: a new type of amusementThe luge did not always have a strictly utili-tarian vocation. In the Middle Ages, it wascommonly used as for fun. The city archivesall continually mention strict regulation intheir use, particularly in the form of tourna-ments. A figurine of bone representing atoboggan (undoubtedly a toy for children) wasfound in the 16th century. Numerous textsand stories tell of the pleasures of sledding inNorway (1480) and in Central Europe (HansSachs in 1520), particularly in the OreMountains (Conrad Schwartz in 1552). In theNetherlands, the luge was used on ice and

pushed by a skater. The sleighs (or troikas)were also very popular in Europe around1600. Harnessed to an animal (horse or rein-deer), they were high-class luxury objects,replete with many decorations and most com-monly reserved for the wealthy classes.

The use of the luge for amusement continuedinto modern times, particularly in large cities.It was even found in the small artificial snowand ice hills, in St. Petersburg at the end ofthe 18th century and even in Berlin in the parkof the Bellevue Palace in 1844.In the beginnings the sport of luge was prac-ticed in a raised area of the plains and on hills,and then it quickly became popular in moun-tainous regions, mainly in the areas of theGermanic peoples (Eastern Alps, Bohemia,Saxony,…). Eventually, the luge would becomea fixture in those regions and develop into atype of bobsleigh event.In North America, the wheel was unknownbefore the European conquest. The Indiansand the Eskimos used a sleigh called "odoba-gan" (or "otobanask") year-round which rest-ed on one single very large skate, mainly forutilitarian purposes but also for sport. Adaptedby the European colonists, it gave birth to thetoboggan, a sporty type of North American

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A sledder at the beginning of the XXth Century

luge. In the second part of the 10th century,this practice became very popular among thepopulation, particularly in Canada, andnumerous artificial toboggan runs were con-structed. The Montreal Toboggan Club wascreated in 1870, and competitions wereorganised in the nearby foothills. The pisteswere first laid out in fresh snow, and thensprayed with water that would freezeovernight. This practice would also catch on inthe USA, and such a piste was constructedsometime later in New Jersey by the CountryEssex Toboggan Club.

The beginnings of bobsleigh sports

The first steps: a sport initiated by the Britishin the winter sports resortsAs with the development of the winter sportsresorts in the second half of the 19th century,the British were the first to develop the bob-sleigh sports. Around 1850, the luge was usedin Switzerland for transport and for children’samusement, but not yet as a sport. Thetourists (predominantly British) were comingto the winter resorts in increasing numbers fortheir health (sun, pure air and the revitalizingnature of the mountains). Certain touriststhus practiced sports activities, including the

luge, which they borrowed from the villagersfor their own amusement. Little by little, thepistes became marked by luge tracks, in par-ticular on snowy roads, and a few competi-tions were organized. John AdingtonSysmonds, a British who had been sent toDavos by his doctor for health reasons, tookgreat pleasure in this activity. In 1883 hefounded the Davos Toboggan Club and in thesame year organised the first internationalluge competition. This event took place on a3.2km run between Davos and the village ofKlosters and included 21 competitors fromseven different nations (Germany, Australia,the USA, Great Britain, the Netherlands,Sweden and Switzerland). Following the suc-cess of this first competition, the “SysmondsCup” was created in 1885 (as well as the“Freeman’s Trophy” sometime later forwomen).Due to the success and popularity of thesecompetitions, in particular with the wintersports enthusiasts, St. Moritz, the main winterresort to rival Davos, would react and developbobsleigh events in its own fashion. Duringthe winter of 1884/1885, a group of Britishundertook the construction of an artificial pisteknown as the Cresta Run. The ice was naturaland renewed each year (the installation is still

Bobsleigh, luge and skeleton: From alpine traditions to specialist strategies

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Chamonix

Saint-Moritz

DavosSuisse

FRANCE

allemagne

empire

austro-hongrois

italie

luge piste

bobsleigh piste

bobsleigh and luge piste

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The major bobsleigh and luge pistes at the beginning of the XXth Century

in operation today). The first competition washeld in 1885 and the St.Moritz TobogganingClub was founded two years later. That sameyear (1887), an important event took placethat would significantly affect the future ofthis piste, in particular the overall practice ofbobsleigh sports.

Bobsleigh and Skeleton: A North AmericanTraditionIndeed, the toboggan, of Amerindian origins,was introduced in Switzerland by andAmerican, L.P. Child. This type of luge was adirect outcrop of the skeleton: skates of steel,which added weight and increased speed,replaced the skates of wood: the skeleton waspracticed more and more on ice whereas theluge became more appropriate on snow. Thetoboggan would very quickly find its way tothe two main Swiss ski resorts and demon-strate its superiority over the local luge. AtDavos, the “Sysmonds Cup” would be won asearly as 1888 (and the subsequent two years)by a competitor equipped with this new“machine”. In order to prevent such domina-tion, the two types of luge are separated, anew cup having been created especially forthe skeleton, the “Sysmons Shield” (and the“Ladies Bowl” for women). At St. Moritz, Mr.Cornish had the idea to descend the piste ofthe Cresta Run headfirst in the “GrandNational” competition of 1887. Despite the dif-ficulties that he encountered, his techniquewas adopted and became the standard from1890 onwards (there had been no preciserules, each competitor could go down theruns, regardless of technique or equipmentused): the Cresta Skeleton was born. Thisevent differentiated itself only slightly fromthe skeleton, with the use of a type of rake atthe end of the boots in order to slow down and

to steer. It was practiced uniquely on the pisteof the Cresta Run (it’s the kind of skeletonwhich was on the programme of the 1928 and1948 Winter Olympics at St.Moritz). Womenpracticed this sport right from the onset. Onewoman, Ursula Wheble, even went on to winthe women’s competition nine times, the firstthree in seated position and the six othershead-first (in 1911, she completed the run in61 seconds, the first-place male competitorcompleted the run in 59.6 seconds that sameyear).The bobsleigh would arrive at the same periodin time, having been imported by Americantourist Mr. Stephen Withney in Davos duringthe winter of 1888/1889.This type of sleighhad already existed for a long time in theUnited States (it was mentioned in 1839 atAlbany, capital of New York State); it had beenused for goods transport, in particular wood.It was made up of two toboggans (or twoskeletons) held together with bars. The firstbrake system consisted of a gardener’s rakeand the steering was done with cords.Innovations would soon afford this deviceincreased popularity. A steel model was intro-duced in 1889. In 1903, Mr. Roessinger, fromLeysin added a steering wheel and a new foot-controlled braking system which would helpguide the bobsleigh. Numerous other inven-tors would take their turn improving the func-tionality of the bobsleigh over the years,resulting in a sort of “Formula One” on ice.

The development of the bobsleigh

Alpine Resorts preferred locationsAt the turn of the 19th century, the bobsleighwas enjoying a certain level of success, as

Bobsleigh, luge and skeleton: From alpine traditions to specialist strategies

3

The Cresta Run at Saint-Moritz in 1928(CIO, Collections du Musée Olympique)

Competitors taking part in a skeleton competition-at the Cresta Run in 1928(CIO, Collections du Musée Olympique)

much in terms of the practice as of the event:it first became popular in Switzerland and thenmoved out to the neighboring countries. At St.Moritz, there were certain British tourists whowere looking for a piste on which to practicethe bobsleigh. They were welcomed into theTobogganing Club in 1895, but soon the con-flicts exploded over the use of the Cresta Run,where the skeleton competitions seemed to bemore popular. The bobsledders founded theSt. Moritz Bobsled Club in 1897, the first bob-sleigh club in the world. In order to tackle theabsence of their own piste, they decided toconstruct another one, with funds from dona-tions of different members. The piste wasinaugurated in 1904 (The Olympic Bob Run);it would be the first artificial bobsleigh pistewith natural ice (it still accommodates majorbobsleigh competitions today). Other artificialpistes would be constructed in turn at Davos(the “Schatzalp” in 1913) and at Chamonix,proving furthermore the popularity of theseresorts.

A wealthy clientele drawn into bobsleighBefore World War One, these sports, in partic-ular the bobsleigh, would become very fash-ionable among the well-of clientele in the lux-urious winter resorts. Very numerous compe-titions were organised, with rewards in sever-al prize categories. The luge would be devel-oped, but with an aspect of fun and amuse-ment. The bobsleigh would be monopolized bythe “sportsmen” who were on the lookout forgreater thrills and fame. The good driverswere courted and the races were particularlyfavored by the high society. Each country hadits own cup: The Coupe de France, theManchester Cup, the Cup of Emperor WilliamII,… the aristocrats were especially fond of thesport, which had become within a few shortyears a synonym for daring and courage, andreserved for the elite.

A significant female presenceWomen have been very well admitted to thissport. In the creation of the first bobsleighclub at St. Moritz, the British organisers, witha certain notion of female emancipation inmind, stipulated in their regulations that eachteam would have a minimum of two women(out of a total of 5 members per team). Fouryears later, this ruling would be taken down toa minimum of one female member per team.This ruling would be effective internationallyuntil the 1920s. Nevertheless, there were

bobsleigh teams that were exclusively mascu-line, but also some that were exclusively fem-inine. The presence of women in the competi-tions benefited primarily the well-being of therepresentatives form the alpine countries, inparticular their economic interests (it’s impor-tant to remember that the British andAmerican clientele were the most valued dur-ing that period).

From hobby to competition

The first competitionsThe bobsleigh was not the only sport to bedeveloped, even if it appeared to be the mostcharismatic at that period. In 1913, TheInternational Union of Luge Sports was found-ed in Dresden by Germany, Austria andSwitzerland. From the following year onward,it would organise the first EuropeanChampionships at Reichenberg, in the king-dom of Bohemia (today Liberec, in the northof the Czech Republic), with nearly 80 com-petitors. Also in 1914, the first EuropeanSkeleton Championships would be held inDavos. However, Germany would be home tothe most popular competitions, in particularthe Ore Mountains would prove to be thehome of the national championships from1912 onward and then continuing after thewar until 1938. World War One would put the development ofall sports to a standstill. Following the conflict,the development and institutionalizing of thesports would pick up again. The FIBT(International Bobsleigh and TobogganingFederation) is created in Milan, Italy, in 1923.The next year, the bobsleigh would be inte-grated into the programme of the Winter

Bobsleigh, luge and skeleton: From alpine traditions to specialist strategies

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GER

1 13 34 AUTSUI

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of organisations

NOC having organised atleast one competition

The locations of senior and junior bobsleigh, lugeand skeleton World Championships between 1930and 2001

Olympic Games in Chamonix. The first WorldChampionships would be held in 1930 inCaux/ Montreux in Switzerland. In luge, thethree founding countries would regroup and in1927 create an International Foundation forSled Sports, and would later be joined byPoland (where one of the first pistes had beenconstructed, at Krynica). The secondEuropean Championships would be held in1928 at Schreiberhau in Germany (todaySzklarska Poreba in Poland), with a first-timeever female contingent. In 1935, the lugewould become part of the FIBT, which wouldthen form a special six-country section (thefour above mentioned countries plus Norwayand Czechoslovakia).

The progressive exclusion of womenThe years between the two World Wars (1918-1939) would see a strong decline in the num-ber of women participating in all bobsleighsports except the luge. During the 1930’s, theAmerican Athletic Union (AAU) required thatall bobsleigh teams be composed of two menand two women. Many women have great suc-cess as sleigh drivers. But in 1938, KatherineDewey would win the AAU national champi-onship much to the dismay of that organiza-tion, which decided to prohibit women fromparticipating the following summer. Womenhad already been prohibited from the OlympicWinter Games and the World Championshipssince the FIBT had decided to exclude themprior to the first Games in Chamonix in 1924.It would not be until 1995 that the FBITorganised the first Women’s World BobsleighChampionships.The Bobsleigh was not the first sport of itskind to exclude female participants. Women

were first excluded from the Cresta Run in St.Moritz in 1925. Then, they would be prohibit-ed from practicing four years later followingheated debates at the centre of the toboggan-ing. One of the reasons cited for the interdic-tion was that the sheer descent down a pistecould lead to breast cancer! Women are stillnot permitted at the Cresta Run, whichremains a discipline reserved entirely for men.

The recent development: different trajec-tories

The Second World War was to signify the ori-gin of a major decline in luge and skeleton,the latter of which had practically disappeared(except for the cresta skeleton at St. Moritz).Indeed, the two countries (Germany andAustria), where the practice of these disci-plines was the most widespread, emergedparticularly hurt by this conflict.

The competitive luge: a sport that becameOlympicUnder the influence of Austria and in particu-lar that of Bert Isatitsch (president of theAustrian Federation and the luge Departmentof the FIBT), the luge would once againbecome popular in Central Europe. Starting in1952, the luge would fight to gain autonomyfrom the ever powerful bobsleigh. The inclu-sion of Canada and of the United States inluge events would contribute to this independ-ence. In 1954, the luge on artificial pisteswould earn the designation of Olympic Sportfollowing the session of the IOC in Athens, andwould replace the skeleton. The first WorldChampionships would then be organised in1955 in Holmenkollen (Oslo), with 8 nationsparticipating. Two years later, theInternational Luge Federation (FIL) would befounded in Davos, with delegates from 14countries, with Bert Isatitsch as president.Finally, in 1959, during the IOC session inMunich the luge would become part of the pro-gramme of the 1964 Winter Olympics inInnsbruck.This sport has had the distinction of beingpracticed by only a few nations. Three coun-tries represent three-quarters of the Worldand European Championship finalists:Germany, Austria, and Italy. Germany is by farthe strongest in this respect, obtaining 45% ofthe prizes with the inclusion of the RFA, theRDA and the GER. While the mere fact of thestrong luge tradition in this country helps to

Bobsleigh, luge and skeleton: From alpine traditions to specialist strategies

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from 1914 to 1935from 1951 to 1969from 1970 to 1989from 1990 to 2001

Dates during which the countries first participatedin the European and World Championships of lugeon artificial pistes between 1914 and 2001

account for a large part of Germany’s domina-tion in the sport, other reasons actually con-tribute to the success. Indeed, during theperiod of the divided Germany, the two NOCswere in the midst of a fierce Olympic medalrivalry with each other, and the luge was a fit-ting battleground. Extremely strong invest-ments were made on each side of the BerlinWall to achieve the Olympic medal goals. Italy’s presence compared to that of the twoGermanic forerunners in this sport may haveappeared insignificant. In fact, about half ofthe Italian participants were Northerners,mainly from South Tyrol, a region whereGerman was still spoken and where the major-ity of the family names were of Germanic ori-gin. This part of Italy had been Austrian before1919 and the population had remained veryclose to its traditions, particularly that of theluge.Generally speaking, the other countries hadweak results in the events, but certain amongthem would put in an effort to reverse thattendency. The sport had been largely under-developed for a long time in the United States.The first US Olympic Luge Team consisted ofAmerican soldiers who had been stationed inGermany and who had picked up the sport asa recreational activity. With the advent of the1980 Winter Games at Lake Placid, the meanswere established to develop the sport. TheUnited States Luge Association was founded in1978. With aide from sponsors, the budgetgrew from $ 48,000 in 1982 to $ 1.8 million in1994, thereby enabling the funding of a teamof 50 athletes and four levels.

Natural Luge: a regional sport There exists another discipline but it does notbelong to the Olympics: The “Natural” Luge.This represents the unique fact of being total-ly dominated by two countries, Austria andItaly, who manage to account for 95% of thefinalists at the major competitions. These twocountries are also home to most of the natu-ral pistes. What can be thought of a sport thatis so monopolized? The absence of Germany inthe prizes may appear troublesome, especial-ly given that country’s dominance in the sport.And what should be thought of the RDA, sucha strong force in the other type of luge (onartificial terrain), and who had never senteven the slightest athlete to participate in theWorld Championships? It would seem that herabsence in the Olympic programme had acrippling effect on the country.

The revival of the skeletonAfter having practically been wiped out as asporting event, the skeleton was reborn inBavaria in 1967. The “Bavarian Skeleton Club”(BSC) would be founded in Munich in 1969.That same year, the first artificial piste wasopened in Königssee in Germany, originally forthe luge, and then later for the bobsleigh andthe skeleton. The BSC would organise nation-al and international competitions in order topopularize the sport. The 1974 construction ofthe artificial piste in Igls (Austria) for the 1976Winter Games in Innsbruck underscored thisdevelopment. A skeleton race to open thepiste consisted of 55 German and Austrianathletes. The Swiss also invested in the sport,with the creation of a club in Zurich in 1976.Skeleton events began being held at the bob-sleigh piste in St. Moritz in 1977. The

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less than 10%from 15% to 47,5%from 50% to 75%more than 95%

rate of participationnumber of finalists

The participants and finalists in the European andWorld Championship of natural luge from 1970 to2002

0 50 100 150 200 250 300UKRJPNFRAFINESTITA

UKRSVKLIE

CANSUI

ROMLAT

SWERUSNORUSA

URS*TCH*

POLRFA*GERITA

RDA*AUT

source : FIL

MedalsFinalists (rank 4 to 6)

NOC

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*former NOCs

The finalists and médalists of the European andWorld Championship of luge on artificial pistesfrom 1914 to 2001

European Championships (the previous onesdated back to 1914) took place in Igls in 1981,and the World Championships one year laterat St. Moritz. The World Cup began in the1986/87 season, and was not solely dominat-ed by Europe as far as organization was con-cerned (Calgary in 1988 and Nagano in 1999).The will to integrate into the Olympics wasstrong, and in order to achieve this goal, thediscipline had to exist in 25 countries and onthree continents. The Europeans were never-theless the largest group to participate in theevents at the World Cup, in particular thethree original bobsleigh countries (Germany,Austria and Switzerland), and then GreatBritain and Italy. The North Americans veryquickly became interested in the sport, aswere the Japanese, especially the women. Therelative youth of the skeleton (all the more sodue to the recent interest) undoubtedly per-mitted seeing certain prospects of success. Itseemed indeed easier to rise to a high level inthis sport than in the sports where the com-petition was very strong and had a long histo-

ry. The same countries shared the top places,but this time the spread between them andthe others much greater. Austria (only themen), Germany, Canada and Switzerland hadthe strongest results. Surprisingly, Italy, whohad a very strong participation, did not man-age to win a single medal. Could this mean aninvestment in the future, particularly for the2006 Winter Olympics in Turin?

Rare and Expensive Infrastructures

Before the Winter Olympics in Innsbruck in1976, the pistes set up for the practice of bob-sleigh, luge and skeleton, although artificial,were not refrigerated. This situation posedquite a number of organisational problems,not least the fact that some competitions hadto be postponed, or even cancelled (the 4-man bob event at the World Championships inAlpe d’Huez in 1967 had to be cancelledbecause of a thaw). Artificial refrigeration ofthe piste makes it possible to combat theweather conditions, at least partially.However, one of the main obstacles to thedevelopment of these sports is the prohibitivecost of such infrastructures. An artificial pisteis not only excessively expensive to construct,but also to maintain, and poses the problem ofhow it will be used.The piste constructed for the Nagano Gamescost 9.3 billion Yen (approximately 81 millionEuro), and its maintenance costs are an esti-mated 290 million Yen (2.5 million Euro).However, in Japan, there are only 150 athletesinvolved in these sports, and their use of thepiste only brings in a couple of million Yen peryear. Therefore Japan has undertaken theorganisation of several major internationalcompetitions in order to make the maximumuse of their piste. Nonetheless, it is very diffi-cult to make infrastructures such as these pay,and to perpetuate their use, particularly out-side of Europe, home to the large majority ofathletes in these sports.

In conclusion, bobsleigh, luge and skeletonoccupy a very particular place in winter sports.They are very specialised sports, requiringexpensive infrastructures, and yet, they aremarked by the participation of a number ofvery small countries, in particular islands. Thevery specific nature of these sports no doubtmakes it easier to attain a high level whileremaining far from the elite ; for example, abobsleigh team can be constituted of athletes

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NOCs with at least one participant

men's participation

women's participation

former NOCwhich participated participants

Participation in the skeleton World Cup frombetween 1988 and 2002

source : FIBT

1 37 68

TCHRFA

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NOCs participants

NOCs finalists

medalsFormer NOCswith finalists

Finalists and medalists in the skeleton World Cupfrom between 1988 and 2002

from other disciplines such as athletics,whereas this cannot be done in any other ice-or snow-based sport. The World Push Championships organised inMonaco since 1994 have been characterisedfor some time by the continuing success ofsmaller countries, most notably Jamaica,which has won 4 titles (2 men’s and 2women’s titles). This just goes to show thatthey already have significant talent, and moreregular training on the ice would without adoubt make them considerably more compet-itive. The amount of time spent training on theice seems to be a determinant factor, asshown by the excellent results achieved by theFrench bobsleigh team after the constructionof the bobsleigh run at La Plagne. There again,however, there are financial problems ; notonly the cost of the infrastructures, but alsofor the equipment, and the cost of trainingtime on the piste. When one examines the finalists of bobsleigh,luge and skeleton World Cup events since thelast Olympics in Nagano in 1998, one can eas-ily see that there is a clear disparity betweenthe different countries that practise thesesports. The majority of the best performancesare given by countries who specialise stronglyin one particular discipline. Germany and theUnited States are the only countries to begood all-round performers. The Germans have

benefited from the reunification of their coun-try, and also from their long years of experi-ence, while the Americans have really thrownthemselves into it in preparation for the SaltLake City Games. The other countries of theelite all have two strong disciplines, with theexception of Italy, which distinguishes itself inluge only. Apart from a few mediocre countriesspecialising in one (France and Japan) or twodisciplines (Lithuania, Great Britain, Russia),the rest of the countries taking part in thesecompetitions are virtually not in the running atall. In order to further the development of bob-sleigh, luge and skeleton, two main phasesare necessary. Firstly, aid must be given tocountries with limited financial means in orderto allow them to train correctly using the prop-er infrastructures, which, it must be noted,are not growing in number with any remark-able speed. Secondly, the number of events atthe Winter Olympics must be increased, areflection of the growing interest of manycountries. This is the direction that the FILwishes to take, by adding to the programmeof the Turin Games for 2006 a luge event on anatural run, as well as a team luge event onthe artificial track (consisting of one man, onewoman, and a double). A 4-woman bobsleighevent could also be added to the programme.

Bobsleigh, luge and skeleton: From alpine traditions to specialist strategies

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Lake PlacidPark City

Calgary

La Plagne

Lillehammer

Nagano

Sigulda (LAT)

KönigseeAltenberg

Oberhof

Saint-Moritz

Imst

Hammarstrand

Winterberg

Cortina d'Ampezzo

Igls

12

12

source : FIBT, FIL

natural luge piste

artificial piste

refrigerated artificial piste

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The major bobsleigh and luge pistes in the world in 2002

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1 60 132

source : FIBT, FIL ; Results are taken from Worldcup Championships from 1998 to 2002

bobsleighskeletonluge

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522

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affiliation with the FIBTaffiliation with the FILaffiliation with the FIBT and with the FIL

NOCs affililiated with IF of bobsleigh sports: a more complete internationalisation for the FIBT, but still fairly limited

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NOCs with participants

number of participants

NOCs participating in international bobsleigh events : a fairly large spectrum

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source : FIBT, FIL. Results are taken from Worldcup Championships from 1998 to 2002

number of finalists

NOCs' finalists: few medalists and over specialisations

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strong developmentweak developmentno development

very strong development

A very large variation in the levels of development

Bobsleigh, luge and skeleton in 2002